1 Introduction 1.

1 Books 2

1.1 Books

1P3 Dynamics Favourites are

• Meriam and Kraige Engineering Mechanics Volume 2 Dynamics 5th edi-

8 lectures Hilary 2012
Tutorial sheets 1P3H/J
Course page
Mark Cannon
mark.cannon@eng.ox.ac.uk
www.eng.ox.ac.uk/∼conmrc/dyn
tion, SI version, Wiley, 2003.
• Meriam Dynamics 2nd edition, SI version, Wiley, 1975.
Other possibilities are

• Hibbeler Engineering Mechanics - Dynamics SI edition, Prentice Hall,

1997.
• Bedford and Fowler Engineering Mechanics - Dynamics SI edition, Addison-
1 Introduction
Wesley, 1996.

A vital aspect of engineering design is the calculation of forces, and hence • Soutas-Little and Inman Engineering Mechanics - Dynamics SI edition,
material stresses. In many cases, for example bridges and buildings, the laws Prentice Hall, 1999.
of statics may be sufficient to calculate these forces. In more mechanically • Shames Engineering Mechanics.
oriented design, the forces due to the motion of components of machines or • Goodman and Warner Dynamics.
structures may become far more significant. To calculate these forces, we
• Housner and Hudson Dynamics.
need to understand the laws of dynamics.
• Greenwood Principles of Dynamics.
In this course we consider kinematics, which is about space and move-
ment, and ways of describing the motion of a particle or a body. We also • Pytel and Kiusalaas Engineering Mechanics - Dynamics second edition,
consider dynamics, which is about the forces and moments that must be Brooks-Cole, 1999 (imperial units).
applied to the particle or body in order to cause motion.

Fundamental to this course is Newton’s second law. In fact, it is not too 1.2 Syllabus
much of an exaggeration to say that Newton’s second law is about the only
thing you need to know to succeed in dynamics – you just have to know it The Course Handbook gives the following expanded syllabus:
well!
Plane kinematics of particles: rectilinear and curvilinear motion in rectan-
gular, normal-tangential, and polar coordinates; relative motion (translating,
not rotating, axes).

Plane kinematics of rigid bodies: translation, rotation, and general plane

motion; relative motion; rotation about a fixed axis.
3 Introduction
Dynamics of particles: Newton’s second law; work, energy, power; im-
pulse and momentum (linear and angular); conservation of energy and mo-
mentum (linear and angular); impact; central-force motion.
Dynamics of rigid bodies: equations of motion for translation and fixed-
axis rotation; moment of inertia; work and energy; impulse and momentum
(linear and angular). Simple variable mass problems (i.e. rockets).
Lectures
There are eight lectures. We begin by looking at force and momentum as
applied to particles, then go on to consider work, power and energy. Next
we consider circular motion of a particle, and also gravity, both of which are
applied to the analysis of satellite orbits. Finally we extend the work on parti-
cles to the case of rigid bodies under the action of steady or impulsive forces
and torques.
Example Sheets
There are two example sheets: 1P3H concentrates on the dynamics of par-
ticles, and 1P3J covers the dynamics of rigid bodies.
1.3 Learning Outcomes
After attending the lectures and doing the accompanying example sheets in
tutorials, you should be able to:
• understand and use the definitions of velocity and acceleration
• analyse straight-line motion of a particle with variable acceleration
• use Newton’s second law to analyse planar motion of a particle under
the action of a steady or impulsive force
• understand the principle of conservation of momentum and its applica-
tion to particles
1.3 Learning Outcomes 4
• analyse elastic and inelastic collisions between particles
• understand the concepts of work, energy, and power
• use the principle of conservation of energy to analyse the motion of par-
ticles
• describe planar motion of a particle in rectangular, normal-tangential,
and polar coordinates
• understand the concepts of moment and moment of momentum
• analyse the motion of a particle orbiting under the action of a central
force
• calculate the moment of inertia of a planar rigid body from first principles
or from standard cases
• find the instantaneous centre of rotation of a rigid body
• express general planar rigid body motion as the combination of rotation
and translation
• determine the motion of a planar rigid body using the principles of con-
servation of angular momentum and conservation of energy, where ap-
propriate
• analyse the translation and rotation of a planar rigid body under the ac-
tion of a steady or impulsive force or moment.
Lecture Notes
These lecture notes (and also the lecture slides) are provided as handouts
in lectures. Both the notes and slides are available on weblearn and on the
course web page: http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/∼conmrc/dyn.
The lecture notes draw on material prepared in the past for this and re-
lated courses by previous lecturers, particularly Dr Colin Wood, Dr Peter
McFadden and Dr Yiannis Ventikos. Their contributions are gratefully ac-
knowledged.
Please send any comments or corrections to mark.cannon@eng.ox.ac.uk
5 CONTENTS CONTENTS 6

Contents 5.2 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.3 Moment of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

1 Introduction 1
6 Gravity and Satellite Orbits 58
1.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.2 Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
6.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.3 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
6.3 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2 Force and Momentum 7 6.4 Moment of Momentum and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1 Force and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6.5 Calculations Without Full Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2 Impulse and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6.6 Full Analysis of Satellite Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7 Rigid Bodies 72
2.4 Problems involving Continuous Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.1 Moment of Momentum of a Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3 Work and Energy 22 7.2 Moments of Momentum and Inertia of a Rigid Body . . . . . . . 74

3.1 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 7.3 Kinetic Energy of Body Rotating about Fixed Axis . . . . . . . . 77

3.2 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 7.4 Inertia Properties for Thin Flat Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

3.3 Reconciliation with Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 7.5 Further Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3.4 Examples of Work and Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . 31 7.6 Combined rotation and translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

3.5 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8 Examples II 87
3.6 Forces and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4 Examples I 39 8.2 Examples Using Moment of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4.1 Problems Requiring Full Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . 39 8.3 Examples Using Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4.2 Problems Using Energy and/or Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5 Circular and General Curvilinear Motion 49

5.1 Normal-tangential Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

7 Force and Momentum 2.1 Force and Motion 8

2 Force and Momentum time. If the acceleration a is constant, this gives the familiar formulae:
1
V (t) = V0 + at x(t) = x0 + V0 t + at 2 .
2.1 Force and Motion 2
The expression for acceleration in (2.1) could also be written another way:
2.1.1 Particles and Rigid Bodies d ẋ
a = ẍ =
dt
In dynamics, the term particle is used to describe any body which we decide dx d ẋ d ẋ dV
= = ẋ =V (2.2)
to treat as a discrete mass concentrated at a point. We do this when we wish dt dx dx dx
to consider the linear movement or translation of the body, but not its rota- which can be integrated as follows:
tion. Typical applications would be the analysis of the motion of a spacecraft dV d �v2 �
V = =a
orbiting the earth, or the trajectory of a golf ball after it has been struck. Later dx dx � 2
x
in this course, for problems where rotation matters as well as translation, we 1 2 1 2
V − V0 = a(x) dx ,
2 2 x0
shall consider rigid bodies with a defined mass distribution.
and hence allows V to be determined if a is known as a function of x. If the
acceleration a is constant, then clearly this gives
2.1.2 Motion in a Straight Line with Variable Acceleration 1 2 1 2
V − V0 = a(x − x0 )
2 2
P P which is the same as the familiar equation V 2 = V02 + 2as.

0 x !x
2.1.3 Newton’s Second Law
Figure 1: Particle moving in a straight line
For a particle, Newton’s second law can be written as
The average velocity of a particle moving a distance ∆x in time ∆t is
force = rate of change of momentum
defined Vav = ∆x/∆t. As ∆t gets smaller, this quantity tends to the instan-
taneous velocity: V = lim∆t→0 ∆x/∆t. The instantaneous velocity V (and where
similarly acceleration a) are therefore momentum = mass × velocity
Expressing this in algebraic form, we write the vector equation
dx dV
V = = ẋ a= = ẍ (2.1)
dt dt d dV dm
F= mV = m +V (2.3)
dt dt dt
The above equations can be integrated to give We will see many examples where the mass is invariant in which case dm/dt =
� t � t 0 and the familiar, simple form of Newton’s second law emerges
V (t) = V0 + a(t) dt x(t) = x0 + V (t) dt
0 0 dV
F=m or F = ma (2.4)
which allows V and x to be determined when a is known as a function of dt
9 Force and Momentum 2.1 Force and Motion 10

or in words 2.1.5 Velocity and Speed

force = mass × acceleration
We will also see some examples, such as rockets, where the mass changes,
and so the full form of Newton’s second law must be used.
Note that these are vector statements. Force, velocity and momentum
are all vector quantities that have both magnitude and direction. When we
are only concerned with forces and motion in one direction, we can use the
corresponding scalar forms given by
It is a useful convention to use the term velocity when referring to a vector
which has both speed and direction. The term speed then refers to the mag-
nitude only and is a scalar . In these notes, vectors will be represented in
bold upright font, and scalars in italic font e.g. V is velocity and V is speed.
Unfortunately, we do not have words in English to distinguish between vector
and scalar acceleration so we will have to deduce this from the context.

2.1.6 Example – Motion in a Straight Line

d dV dm
F = mV = m +V (2.5)
dt dt dt Problem: A boat of mass 1500 kg is launched from a trolley on a sloping
ramp. The trolley is allowed to run down the ramp at 1 m s−1 until the boat is
and
just afloat. The trolley then stops and the boat continues to move at 1 m s−1 .
dV
F =m or F = ma (2.6) Once afloat, a crew member of mass 70 kg stops the boat by pulling steadily
dt
on a rope with a force equal to 30 % of his own weight, as shown in figure 2.
How long will the boat take to stop, and what length of rope must be allowed
to slip?
2.1.4 Force Mass and Weight
1 ms force
!1

If we drop an object, it accelerates downwards at g = 9.81 m s , assuming

−2

that we are at or near the earth’s surface. If we do not drop the object, we
must exert an upward force on it to oppose the downward force of gravity.
This force is the weight of the object and it is the weight that causes the
acceleration if it is dropped. Figure 2: Launching a boat

weight = mass × gravitational acceleration Solution: We are interested here in motion and forces in one direction only for
a mass-invariant system, so we can use the scalar form of Newton’s second
In the SI system the unit of force is the Newton. It is defined so that unit law, F = ma, as given in equation 2.6. Substituting the values above gives
force causes unit acceleration when it acts upon unit mass i.e. 1 Newton
−70 × 9.81 × 0.3 = 1500 × a
acting on 1 kg produces 1 m s−2 acceleration. Using these units, the weight
of a 1 kg mass at or near the earth’s surface must be 9.81 Newtons. Thus from which we can find the acceleration
dV
weight (Newtons) = mass (kg) × 9.81 (m s−2 ) a= = −0.137 m s−2
dt
11 Force and Momentum 2.2 Impulse and Momentum 12

By separating the variables Solution: Consider the free body diagram in figure 3. The only forces acting
dV are the weight force mg downwards and the aerodynamic drag D upwards.
dt =
a �
Using Newton’s second law F = ma we get
and integrating we get the time to stop the boat
1 dV
V2 − V1 0−1 mg − CD ρV 2 A = m (2.7)
t= = = 7.28 s 2 dt
a −0.137
Terminal velocity Vt occurs when dV /dt = 0 in equation 2.7 so
To find the distance we write
2mg 2 × 75 × 9.81
dV dV dx dV Vt2 = =
a= = =V ρACD 1.007 × 0.8 × 1.2
dt dx dt dx
which gives
We then separate the variables
Vt = 39.01 m s−1
V dV = a dx To calculate the variation of velocity V with distance, we re-write equation 2.7
recalling that a = V dV /dx:
and integrate � �
1 2 dV ρACD 2mg
(V − V12 ) = a (x2 − x1 ) V = − V2
2 2 dx 2m ρACD
Hence the distance to stop the boat is
Recognising the terms which correspond to Vt2 , we can write
2 2
1 0 −1 � �
s = x2 − x1 = = 3.64 m dV g
2 −0.137 V = 2 Vt2 − V 2
dx Vt
Separating the variables and integrating between limits of V = 0 at x = 0 and
2.1.7 Example – Terminal Velocity in Free Fall
V = 0.9Vt at x = −s (i.e. after falling a distance s) gives
� � 2 �
Problem: A free-fall parachutist has a mass m = 75 kg, and a frontal area V 2 0.9Vt V Vt2 Vt − (0.9Vt )2
−s − 0 = t dV = ln
A = 0.8 m2 . If the air density at 2000 m is ρ = 1.007 kg m−3 (HLT page 68) and g 0 V2 − V2 2g Vt2 − 0
� t �
the aerodynamic drag is given by D = 12 CD ρV 2 A where the drag coefficient 1
=⇒ s = 77.58 ln = 128.8 m
1 − 0.81
is CD = 1.2, find the terminal speed Vt . How far will the parachutist fall before
reaching 90 % of this terminal speed?
2.2 Impulse and Momentum
D
In the above example, the force acting on the body was constant and we
knew its value. In some instances, the force will vary with time during the
interaction with the body, and we may not always know in what way it varies,
nor its magnitude at any time. This is particularly true during impacts and
mg collisions. To deal with these problems, we use the concept of impulse, the
integral of the force on the body over the duration of the interaction, and
Figure 3: Parachutist in free fall relate it to the change in the momentum of the body.
13 Force and Momentum 2.2 Impulse and Momentum 14

Given that 2.2.2 Example – Impulse with Constant Force

dV
F=m
dt
for a body of mass m, then In the example in section 2.1.6, the time required to stop the boat could have
� been found by considering impulse and momentum instead of the equation
2
F dt = m (V2 − V1 ) of motion. In this case the force F is constant, so the form of the calculation
1 would then have been
The integral of force is called the impulse, and the product mV is called the � 2 � 2
momentum. The verbal equivalent of this equation is F dt = F dt = F (t2 − t1 ) = m (V2 − V1 )
1 1

impulse = change of momentum giving

The convenience of this form is that it requires no details of the time-variation V2 − V1 0−1
t = t2 − t1 = m = 1500 × = 7.28 s
of the force. An impulse can describe an impact involving a very large force F −70 × 9.81 × 0.3
with a very short duration, as illustrated in figure 4. The shaded area under
the graph gives the magnitude of the impulse. 2.2.3 Example – Impulse and Momentum as Vectors
force
Problem: A cannon of mass M is free to roll without friction on horizontal
impulse = area under force-time graph
ground. An explosive charge projects a ball of mass m at speed v relative to
the barrel, which is inclined upward at angle θ as shown in figure 5(a). At the
instant after the ball leaves the muzzle find (a) the backward recoil speed u
time
0 of the gun (b) the absolute velocity components of the ball (c) the magnitude
Figure 4: Impulse = area under force-time graph and direction of any external impulse acting on the system.
v

(a) (b) u
2.2.1 Example – Impulse with Unknown Force Variation
v

Problem: During a game of cricket, the batsman is accidentally struck by a !

v sin!
cricket ball of mass 0.15 kg travelling at 40 m s . The ball is stopped by the
−1 u
impact. Can you estimate the force exerted by the ball?
!
Solution: The duration of the impact is not known, nor do we know the vari- v cos ! " u
ation of force during that brief instant, but the impulse is m∆V = 0.15 × 40
= 6.0 kg m s−1 . The shorter the time, the greater the force and the greater the Figure 5: Components of velocity of cannon ball
pain. The wicket keeper, catching a similar ball, will flex his arms to increase
the duration of the impact. The impulse on his hands is still the same, but by Solution: Instead of using vector algebra, here we shall try using scalar equa-
increasing its duration he reduces the magnitude of the force. tions in the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) directions. The relative velocity and
15 Force and Momentum 2.3 Collisions 16

absolute velocity components for the ball and the recoil speed of the gun, (a) (b)
x
shown in figure 5(b), are related by x
d !x
vx = v cos θ − u (2.8)
vy = v sin θ (2.9)
G t
(a) Considering the cannon and the ball together as a system, the horizontal
momentum is zero before and afterwards because there is no external im- Figure 6: Rowing on a sliding seat
pulse on the system. The equal and opposite impulses between the cannon
and the ball are internal to the system, not external. external impulse. Hence the velocity of the combined mass centre of boat
plus crew, shown at G in figure 6(a), is unchanged. Relative to this point, the
0 = m (v cos θ − u) − Mu boat moves forward ∆x at a speed ∆x/∆t and the crew moves back d − ∆x
giving at a speed (d − ∆x)/∆t. The changes in the momentum of the crew and the
mv cos θ boat must be equal and opposite, hence
u=
M +m
∆x d − ∆x
M =m
(b) Substituting for u in equation 2.8 gives ∆t ∆t
mv cos θ M That is, the boat surges forward between strokes as illustrated in figure 6(b)
vx = v cos θ − = v cos θ
M +m M +m by an amount
while from equation 2.9 md
∆x =
M +m
vy = v sin θ

(c) The external impulse can only come from the ground and the ground 2.3 Collisions
reaction can only be vertical because we are told the cannon can roll freely.
The impulse Qy is equal to the change of upward momentum of the entire 2.3.1 Coefficient of Restitution
system, in this case of the ball alone, given by
before v vn2after vt2
t1
Qy = mv sin θ

2.2.4 Example – Rowing on a Sliding Seat
Problem: Between strokes, the crew of a boat slide a distance d towards
the stern of the boat. If the crew mass is m and the boat mass is M, what
happens to the boat?
Solution: Assume that the crew slides distance d at a constant speed during
a time ∆t. Between strokes, the oars are out of the water, so there is no
vn1
frictionless surface
Figure 7: Coefficient of restitution
When a particle rebounds from a fixed frictionless surface as illustrated in
figure 7, the velocity component parallel to the surface is unchanged. The
direction of the normal component is reversed and the speed may also be
17 Force and Momentum 2.3 Collisions 18

reduced by a factor e, called the coefficient of restitution. Hence the initial before vB1 after vB2
and final components of velocity tangential (t) and normal (n) to the surface A A
uB1 u B2
are related by uA1 uA2
B B
vA1 vA2
vt 2 = vt1
vn2 = e vn1 Figure 9: Oblique impact between two particles

What are the limiting values of e? A collision is said to be perfectly elastic Normal to the line of centres, there is no friction, so there is no impulse on
if e = 1 and the collision is inelastic if e = 0. After an inelastic collision, the either particle.
two bodies remain attached. vA 2 = vA1 and vB 2 = vB1

Parallel to the line of centres, the impulse QAB by A on B to the right is

2.3.2 Example – Impulse during Frictionless Rebound from a Wall equal to the increase in momentum of B to the right.

v QAB = mB (uB 2 − uB1 ) (2.10)

wall v
v eu Similarly the impulse QBA by B on A to the right is equal to the increase in
Q
u momentum of A to the right.

before at impact after QBA = mA (uA 2 − uA1 ) (2.11)

Figure 8: Frictionless rebound from a wall
Taking the two particles together, there is no external impulse. Hence

In figure 8, the impulse Q on the particle, to the right, equals the increase 0 = QAB + QBA (2.12)
in the momentum of the particle, to the right.
Substituting equations 2.10 and 2.11 into equation 2.12 gives
Q = meu − (−mu) = mu(1 + e)
0 = mA (uA 2 − uA1 ) + mB (uB 2 − uB1 )
The impulse on the wall by the particle is also Q, but it is to the left. Notice
that v is unchanged. or
mA uA1 + mB uB1 = mA uA 2 + mB uB 2 (2.13)

2.3.3 Example – Oblique Impact between Two Particles
When the collision is between two moving bodies, as illustrated in figure 9,
the coefficient of restitution applies to components of the relative motion nor-
mal to the surfaces at the point and instant of impact. For simplicity we regard
particles as spheres so that the surface-normal is the line of centres. We as-
sume no friction in this example.
This confirms that the total momentum (both particles) is unchanged by the
impact. We might have written this down as obvious. In addition, the relative
velocity is reversed and reduced by the coefficient of restitution.
(uA 2 − uB 2 ) = −e (uA1 − uB1 ) (2.14)
Equations 2.13 and 2.14 are sufficient to determine uA 2 and uB 2 if uA1 and
uB1 are known.
19 Force and Momentum 2.4 Problems involving Continuous Flow 20

2.4 Problems involving Continuous Flow for which the indefinite integral is

v = −V ln (M − ṁt) + C
So far, we have considered momentum and impact problems only for discrete
bodies. We now consider open systems involving continuous flows of mass. If v = 0 when t = 0, then
� �
M
v = V ln
M − ṁt
2.4.1 Example – Conservation of Momentum for a Rocket

Problem: A rocket of initial loaded mass M expels combustion products as a 2.4.2 Extension of Momentum Theorem to Open System Flow
steady propulsive jet at a rate ṁ as shown in figure 10. The jet speed is V
relative to the rocket. Find the speed v of the rocket as a function of time t. In the example in section 2.4.1 we developed and used the momentum flux
before after theorem
v " __
dv dt
force = rate of flux of momentum
.
v m dt v !V . . dt
M ! mt ! m dt
.
M ! mt
We must now reconcile this with the formal statement of the momentum the-
Figure 10: Rocket
orem from section 2.2 which was
� 2
Solution: Consider an infinitesimal time interval dt, during which a mass ṁ dt F dt = mV2 − mV1
1
is expelled. There is no external force (this rocket is either in space or flying
horizontally!) so the total momentum of the system, consisting of rocket plus
expelled mass, is conserved. system
� � V1 V2
dv
(M − ṁt)v = (M − ṁt − ṁ dt) v + dt + ṁ dt (v − V )
dt
Figure 11: Open system flow
Simplifying yields
dv If we consider the special case of steady flow as shown in figure 11, where
(M − ṁt − ṁ dt) = ṁV
dt the velocity of the flow at any point does not change with time, then V1 and
or in the limit dt → 0
dv V2 are constants. If we differentiate with respect to t, we get
(M − ṁt) = ṁV (2.15)
dt F = ṁ (V2 − V1 )
Note this is in the form
That is, the applied force equals the mass flow rate multiplied by the change
current mass × acceleration = thrust of jet in the velocity.
where
thrust of jet = mass flow rate × ejection speed
2.4.3 Thrust of a Jet Engine
Now separate the variables in equation 2.15 to get
dt We now apply this to a jet engine where the steady mass flow rate is ṁ and
dv = ṁ V there is flux of momentum both in and out of the system as shown in figure
M − ṁt
21 Force and Momentum 22

combustor 3 Work and Energy

intake exhaust
3.1 Work
V Vj

compressor turbine 3.1.1 Definition

Figure 12: Thrust of a jet engine

12. The thrust F is related to the intake velocity V and the exhaust velocity
Vj by
F = ṁVj − ṁV = ṁ (Vj − V )
Note that we have calculated here the thrust, acting to the right, on the air
to change its velocity from V to Vj . The corresponding reaction of the air is
a thrust on the engine, of equal magnitude but opposite direction, to the left,
propelling the engine forward.
A qualitative definition of work sometimes used in thermodynamics is “work
is that which is equivalent to the raising of a weight”. You have probably
used the quantitative definition that the work is the magnitude of the force
multiplied by the distance moved in the direction of the force. A more specific
definition describes work as the scalar product, or dot product, of the force
vector F and a displacement vector s, as shown in figure 13, which describes
the movement of the point of action of the force.
s

Figure 13: Force and displacement vectors

In practice, the magnitude and direction of the force may change as it

moves. To cope with this situation, we consider only a small movement ds
during which the force F remains constant. The work is then

dW = F · ds

If we write the components of F and ds in Cartesian co-ordinates, we get

   
Fx dx
   
F = Fy  ds = dy 
Fz dz

By the scalar multiplication rule (HLT page 17) this becomes

F · ds = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz

You can see that the work done is the sum of the components of the force
multiplied by the distance each of those components has moved. This is a
23 Work and Energy 3.1 Work 24

differential statement for infinitesimal movements. Before work can be eval- For a small displacement ds, the relevant vectors are
uated as an integral, we need to know how F varies with s. (Recall that a    
0 dx
moment is also force × distance but is a vector product.)  
F= 0 
 
ds = dy 
mg dz
By the scalar multiplication rule (HLT page 17)
3.1.2 Example – Carrying a Weight Horizontally
dW = F · ds = 0 + 0 + mg dz
� 2
The force F required to support a body in equilibrium against gravity is ver- W = mg dz = mg(z2 − z1 )
1
tically upwards and has magnitude equal to the weight mg. However, if the
Hence the work done is represented by the area under a graph of the force
movement s is horizontal as in figure 14, then the scalar product is zero so
against the z co-ordinate as in figure 16.
no work is done.
F F area = work done

s F = mg

mg

Figure 14: Carrying a weight horizontally: W = F · s = 0 z1 z2

Figure 16: Work done carrying a weight with a change in height

3.1.3 Example – Carrying a Weight with a Change in Height 3.1.4 Example – Work against Friction

Problem: A man drags a mass m steadily along the ground using a rope over
If a mass m is carried slowly and in equilibrium from location (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to
his shoulder and inclined at an angle α from the horizontal as shown in figure
(x2 , y2 , z2 ) as shown in figure 15, then work is done against gravity.
17. If the coefficient of friction between the object and the ground is µ, find
the work required to move the object a distance s.
z
Solution: This work generates heat at the contact surface. It may raise the
F 2
internal energy of the body or the ground but for the purposes of mechanics
1
it is a loss.
mg
Vertical equilibrium
y
N + F sin α = mg
x
Horizontal equilibrium
Figure 15: Carrying a weight with a change in height F cos α = µN
25 Work and Energy 3.1 Work 26

s F F F = k (x1 ! x0 )
mg
"
area = work done
m
!N
x0 x1
N
Figure 18: Force-extension graph for a spring
Figure 17: Dragging a mass
3.1.6 Work in Rotating a Shaft
Work
W = Fs cos α Simple Illustration

Eliminating the rope tension F and the ground reaction N gives

Consider the simple case in which the force F acting on the rigid arm OA in
µmgs
W = figure 19 is perpendicular to OA. The force moves as arm OA rotates through
1 + µ tan α
an angle dθ. The moment M of F about the origin O is

3.1.5 Example – Work in Extending a Spring M = RF

A spring of stiffness k is extended from its original length x0 to a final length which is anti-clockwise, or parallel to the shaft out of the page. For infinitesi-
x1 . The spring force F at a length x is given by mal dθ, the distance moved by A is

F = k (x − x0 ) ds = R dθ
The work dW done to extend the spring by an infinitesimal amount dx is which is parallel to F . Work is defined as
dW = F dx
dW = F ds
and so the work done to extend the spring will be the integral of dW given by
� hence
W = F dx dW = RF dθ = M dθ

Thus
� 1
1 F
W = k(x − x0 ) dx = k (x1 − x0 )2
0 2
1
= k(x1 − x0 )(x1 − x0 ) R A
2
1 !
= × final tension × extension 0
2
This work can be represented graphically by the shaded area under the force- Figure 19: Work rotating a shaft
extension curve in figure 18.
27 Work and Energy 3.2 Energy 28

General Proof in Vector Notation described as conservative meaning that mechanical energy is conserved.
Remember too that energy can be dissipated in collisions which are not per-
Now consider the more general case of an arm OA, of fixed length R, which fectly elastic.
undergoes a small angular displacement dθ about the origin O. A force F is
applied to the arm at A. The moment about O is
3.2.1 Kinetic Energy
M=R×F
Kinetic energy T is energy stored by virtue of the velocity of a system. It is
See section 3.6 for an explanation if necessary. The displacement of A is
defined by
ds = dθθ × R 1 1
T = × mass × speed2 = mV 2
2 2
The work done by F is
for a particle of mass m moving with velocity V. Here we note that
dW = F · ds = F · (dθθ × R)
V2 = V · V
It may be shown that for any three vectors a, b and c

a · (b × c) = b · (c × a)
Proof that Work = Change of Kinetic Energy
hence
m
F · (dθθ × R) = dθθ · (R × F) = dθθ · M
Thus
r
dW = M dθ F

which in words is
0
work = moment × rotation
Figure 20: Force acting on a particle
When discussing the rotation of machine shafts, the term torque (related to
torsion or twisting) is often used instead of moment. Consider a variable vector force F acting on a particle of mass m at a
variable vector position r as shown in figure 20. Newton’s second law states
3.2 Energy that
F = m r̈
Energy may be stored in a mechanical system. It is stored by doing work The work W done by F on m moving from position 1 to position 2 is given by
on the system and may be recovered causing the system to do work on the � 2 � 2
surroundings. In the terminology of mechanics, losses dissipate mechanical W = F · dr = m r̈ · dr
1 1
energy and either raise the temperature of the system (conversion to internal
energy) or generate heat output, as mentioned in section 3.4. These losses But
dr
are invariably due to friction. If there are no frictional losses, the system is dr = dt = ṙ dt
dt
29 Work and Energy 3.2 Energy 30

so that � Potential Energy of a Raised Weight

2
W =m r̈ · ṙ dt
1 A mass m is raised from height z1 to height z2 . The gravitational acceleration
Spot that g is constant. In section 3.1.3 we calculated the work done as
1 dṙ2 � 2
ṙ · r̈ = W = F dz = mg (z2 − z1 )
2 dt
1
so � 2 hence
1 dṙ2 1
W = m dt = m (ṙ22 − ṙ21 ) U2 − U1 = mg (z2 − z1 )
2 1 dt 2
hence
W = T2 − T1 Potential (or Strain) Energy in a Stretched Spring

A spring of stiffness k and unstretched length L0 is stretched to length L1 .

3.2.2 Example – Launching a Boat The work in the example in section 3.1.5 on stretching a spring was
1
In the example in section 2.1.6 on launching the boat, the distance to stop W = k (L1 − L0 )2
2
could have been found by equating the loss in kinetic energy of the boat to
and as there is no stored energy when the spring is unstretched, U0 = 0
the work done by the boat in pulling away the arresting rope. Then
giving
1 1
Fs = m (V12 − V22 ) U1 = k (L1 − L0 )2
2 2

That is
1 3.2.4 Example – Gravitational Potential Energy
70 × 9.81 × 0.3 × s = × 1500 × (12 − 02 )
2
giving Problem: At the surface of the earth (radius R) the acceleration due to gravity
s = 3.64 m is g. Elsewhere it is inversely proportional to the square of the radius r from
the centre of the earth, so that the weight of a body of mass m at radius r is
which agrees with the previous result.
mg(R/r )2 . Find the potential energy U at radius r if U = 0 when r = ∞.

Solution:
3.2.3 Potential Energy � � �2
R
U(r ) = mg dr
r
Potential energy U is energy stored by virtue of the position or shape of �
1
a system. In a conservative system, where mechanical energy is not lost = mgR 2 dr
r2
through friction, this energy may be recovered as work, done by the system mgR 2
=− +C
on the surroundings. The increase in potential energy equals the work done r
on the system to change its shape or position. When r = ∞, then U = 0 so C = 0.
31 Work and Energy 3.4 Examples of Work and Energy Conservation 32

3.3 Reconciliation with Thermodynamics • A flywheel on an internal combustion engine returns energy as work, to
compress the next charge of gas.
3.3.1 Work Heat and Energy in Thermodynamics
• When consumer demand is low, unwanted electrical power is used to
pump water up to a high level reservoir. The water is returned through
For a fixed quantity of matter (that is, a closed system), the first law of ther-
turbines to provide additional power when demand is high.
modynamics can be written as
• Driving a nail with a hammer. Stored kinetic energy in the hammer pro-
heat input − work output = increase in (internal energy + mechanical energy)
vides momentum for a large impulse. Energy is lost in the impact. The
although we usually assume the mechanical energy term to be small for a nail and the wood become hot and there is acoustic energy (noise).
closed system. Heat is transferred to or from a system, but is not a property
• In vibration, kinetic energy and potential energy are repeatedly exchanged.
of the system. Similarly work is done by one system on another, but it is not
• A moving car is stopped by the brakes. Kinetic energy is lost. The brakes
a property of the system. In contrast, internal energy is a property and it is
become hot.
increased whenever there is a net input of work and/or heat.

3.3.2 Modification for Dynamics 3.4.1 Example – Mass on a Slope

In mechanics we do not consider problems involving heat input. If friction in Problem: A mass m slides down a frictionless surface of slope θ as shown in
a mechanical process causes heat output, or increases the internal energy, figure 21. Find the speed V after the mass has descended through a vertical
this is regarded as a loss of mechanical energy. If we reverse the direc- distance h.
tion convention for heat and work transfer, we may rearrange the first law of z m s
thermodynamics into the form
V
work input = increase in mechanical energy + losses N
!
losses = heat output + increase in internal energy mg

Figure 21: Mass sliding down a slope

3.4 Examples of Work and Energy Conservation
Solution: First, let’s try a solution using equations of motion. Newton’s sec-
The practical importance of being able to store energy is that we can do work ond law gives
when we feel like it and use the stored energy when we need it. Here are dV
mg sin θ = ma = mV
some situations where this is important. ds
where
dz
• Bending a longbow or crossbow, compressing the spring on an air gun, ds = −
sin θ
stretching the elastic on a catapult, or raising the weight on a trebuchet.
Eliminate ds, and separate variables V and z to give
Each stores potential (or strain) energy by laborious work, in order to
release it rapidly as kinetic energy to launch a projectile. −g dz = V dV
33 Work and Energy 3.5 Power 34

Integrate from z = 0 to z = −h to give Comment: Notice that if m � M the solution approaches sin θ = d/D and the
2
V = 2gh rider is at the same height at the end of the pedal stroke as at the beginning.
The work is done only as the rider steps up a distance d on to the next pedal.
Alternatively, we can get a simpler solution using energy. Since there are
no losses, the sum of the kinetic and the potential energy remains constant. Question: Why ride a bicycle up a hill when you could walk up the steps?
Hence
1
mV 2 = mgh
2 3.5 Power
and so as before
V 2 = 2gh
Power is the rate of doing work. Note that power, like work, is a scalar .
The units are Joules second−1 = Watts. For linear motion the work dW done
3.4.2 Example – Riding a Bicycle up a Hill moving a force F a distance ds is

Problem: A cyclist of mass M rides a bicycle of mass m up a hill. The gearing dW = F · ds

is such that the machine moves a distance D along the road while the pedals
hence the rate of doing work is
rotate 180o . The diameter of the pedal crank is d and the cyclist rests his
full weight on the down-going pedal throughout the rotation from the highest dW ds
=F·
to the lowest position. Find the steepest slope that he can climb at a steady dt dt
speed. or
D P =F·V
d
or in words
power = force · velocity
!
For a rotating shaft, the work dW done turning a torque M an angle dθθ is
Figure 22: Riding a bicycle up a hill
dW = M · dθθ
Solution: During one downward stroke of the pedal, the total energy remains
and so the rate of doing work is
constant. Also the speed is steady, so there is no variation in kinetic energy.
Thus the potential energy of rider plus bicycle does not change as the pedal dW dθθ
=M· = M·ω
rotates from top to bottom. The mass M of the rider falls by d − D sin θ as the dt dt
mass m of the bicycle moves D sin θ upwards, as seen in figure 22. Hence or
Mg(d − D sin θ) = mgD sin θ P = M·ω
giving or in words
Md
sin θ = power = torque · angular velocity
(M + m)D
35 Work and Energy 3.6 Forces and Moments 36

3.5.1 Example – Acceleration of a Car Time taken

V50 − V30 22.35 − 13.41
t= = = 4.03 s
a 2.216
Problem: The engine of a car develops 100 bhp (brake horsepower) at 5000
rpm (revolutions per minute) and the power varies in direct proportion with the
3.6 Forces and Moments
speed. The engine drives the road wheels through a gearbox which reduces
the angular velocity by a factor of 7. The road wheels have radius 0.3 m.
3.6.1 Simple Examples
If there are no losses due to friction or air resistance, find the time required
for the car to accelerate from 30 mph to 50 mph. Check that the engine can
A force F at right angles to a moment arm R as shown in figure 23(a), pro-
do this without exceeding 5000 rpm. (This example is designed to illustrate
duces a moment M where
numerical working in non-standard but frequently occurring units.)
M = RF
Solution: See HLT page 3 for the conversion factors 1 bhp = 746 W, 1 mile If the force F is not at right angles to R, but is inclined at an angle α as shown
= 5280 ft, 1 ft = 0.3048 m. First determine the road thrust F from the given in 23(b), then the moment is reduced and becomes
data. Maximum engine speed
M = RF cos α
5000 × 2π
ωmax = = 523.60 rad s−1
60 This moment is right-handed about an axis facing out of the paper. It may
Power at engine speed ω be regarded as a vector M with the magnitude shown and with a direction
ω defined by the right-handed axis direction defined above.
P = 100 × 746 × = 142.48 ω W
523.60 (a) (b)
Engine torque M F M ! F
P R R
Me = = 142.48 N m
ω
Wheel torque
Figure 23: Simple forces and moments
Mw = 142.48 × 7 = 997.33 N m
Road thrust
Mw 997.33 A moment about the axis of spin of a shaft is often called a torque. The
F = = = 3324.43 N
rw 0.3 word is associated with torsion.
Acceleration
F 3324.43
a= = = 2.216 m s−2
m 1500 3.6.2 Right-Hand Axes Sign Convention
Road speed
30 × 5280 × 0.3048 Stretch the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand in perpendicular
V30 = 30 mph = = 13.41 m s−1
3600 directions as shown in figure 24. We can remember the axis orientation as
V50 = 50 mph = 22.35 m s−1
axis 1 (or x) = first finger
Engine speed at 50 mph axis 2 (or y ) = second finger
22.35 60
ω50 = ×7× = 4980.4 rpm < 5000 rpm hence okay axis 3 (or z) = thumb
0.3 2π
37 Work and Energy 3.6 Forces and Moments 38
z operation so that
+ve     
Mx 0 −Rz Ry Fx
thumb +ve     
y  M y  =  Rz 0 −Rx  Fy 
second finger Mz −Ry Rx 0 Fz

The right-hand side is now recognised (HLT page 19) as the matrix represen-
first finger
tation of a vector cross product, so we may use the vector product notation
+ve to define a moment by
x
M=R×F
Figure 24: Right-hand axes sign convention

Positive angular directions are clockwise facing away from the origin. There-
fore positive rotations about any axis always encounter the other pair of axes
in ascending sequence x y , y z, z x.

3.6.3 General Vector Definition

z Fz
Fy
Mz
Fx
y
My
Rz
Rx
0
Ry
Mx
x
Figure 25: General vector definition

By inspection of figure 25, the moment components about the origin are
   
Mx −Rz Fy + Ry Fz
   
My  =  Rz Fx − Rx Fz 
Mz −Ry Fx + Rx Fy

The right-hand side may be replaced by an equivalent matrix multiplication

39 Examples I 4.1 Problems Requiring Full Equations of Motion 40
�
4 Examples I The values of α and V0 / gd can be found for any given value of h/d (figure
27). ) *

4.1 Problems Requiring Full Equations of Motion 43,*5*&

!

4.1.1 Example – Two-dimensional motion with constant acceleration 43,*5*"6(

(

Problem: A ball is thrown from point A to land at point B, a horizontal distance

2 *3*+.,1%3&
'
43,*5*"
d m and vertical distance h from A, as shown in figure 26. Find suitable
values of initial speed V0 and angle α (ignore air-resistance). #

"
y
&
V0
%

! x "*
A !!" !#" " #" !" $"
!**+,-./--01
h
�
B Figure 27: V0 / gd versus α for several values of h/d

d Note from the graph that, for some values of V0 and d, there are two
Figure 26: Ball throwing problem solutions for α, a high and a low value. In this case for the initial velocity and
target position, there are two trajectories available (figure 28).
Solution: The ball can be treated as a particle, which, in the fixed (x, y)
coordinate system, has position r = xi+yj. Differentiating r twice with respect
to time gives the acceleration vector: a = ẍi + ÿj. But the only acceleration is
due to gravity, so ẍ = 0, ÿ = −g. Therefore, integrating (twice) with respect
A
to time, we get
x = V0 cos αt y = V0 sin αt − gt 2
B
Eliminating t from the above pair of equations leads to
� x �2
y = x tan α − 12 g Figure 28: Two solutions to the ball throwing problem
V0 cos α
We find trajectories passing through B by setting x = d, y = −h:
gd 2
−h = d tan α −
V02 cos2 α 4.1.2 Example – Rocket Sled with Friction and Air Drag
Using trigonometry this can be expressed
h gd 2 Problem: A rocket-driven ground vehicle has an initial mass of 500 kg of
+ tan α − 12 (1 + tan2 α) 2 = 0
d V0 which 80 % is fuel. The motor produces 5 kg s−1 of propellant at a velocity
41 Examples I 4.2 Problems Using Energy and/or Momentum 42

410 m s−1 . Resistance to motion is 50 + 0.05V 2 N. Calculate the variation of

200
velocity V during the burn.

Solution: We can adapt equation 2.15 from section 2.4.1 to get the equation 150

velocity (m/s)
of motion
dV
ṁVj − (F + kV 2 ) = (M − ṁt) 100
dt
Separating the variables V and t, we find
50
dV dt
= (4.1)
ṁVj − (F + kV 2 ) M − ṁt
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
The solution is most convenient if we recognise that the terminal velocity Vt time (s)
is that velocity at which the resistance equals the rocket thrust, so
Figure 29: Rocket sled
ṁVj = F + kVt2

giving 4.2 Problems Using Energy and/or Momentum

ṁVj − F
Vt2 = (4.2)
k
4.2.1 Example – Bungee Jump
Also define t0 to be the total burn time if M were entirely fuel, given by
M
t0 = (4.3) The Clifton suspension bridge spans the river Avon in Bristol at a height of
ṁ
Substituting equations 4.2 and 4.3 into equation 4.1 and integrating both 75 m above water-level. It is a favourite spot for suicides and the location at
sides then leads to � � which the bungee jump was (re-)invented by the Oxford Dangerous Sports
ṁ dV dt Club on April 1, 1979. (In fact the idea is much older: traditional “land diving”
2
=
k Vt − V 2 t0 − t
has taken place on Pentecost Island, Vanuatu, for centuries and was filmed
Both integrals are listed in HLT. Making use of these results, we write
� � by the BBC in 1950.)
ṁ Vt + V
ln = − ln(t0 − t) + C Problem: A person of mass 75 kg plans a jump in which an elastic cord tied
2kVt Vt − V
If V = 0 when t = 0, then C = ln(t0 ). Thus finally to the bridge will check her fall exactly at water level. Three types of elastic
� �−2kVt /ṁ cord are available (a) stiffness 1200 N per unit strain and maximum strain 2.0
Vt + V t (b) stiffness 2000 N per unit strain and maximum strain 1.2 (c) stiffness 3000
R= = 1−
Vt − V t0
N per unit strain and maximum strain 1.0. Which cord should she choose and
and what length should she buy? (Ignore air resistance. Unit strain is extension
R−1
V = Vt equal to unstretched length.)
R+1
Numerical values are ṁ = 5 kg s−1 , M = 500 kg, Vj = 410 m s−1 , F = 50 Solution: If the stiffness per unit strain is K N, then a force of K N will stretch
�
N, k = 0.05 N s2 m−2 , t0 = 500/5 = 100 s, Vt = (5 × 410 − 500)/0.05 = 200 a length L m of cord by a further L m. To stretch a cord of length L m by
m s−1 , 2kVt /m = 2 × 0.05 × 200/5 = 4. The actual burn time = 80 % × t0 = 80 only 1 m requires K /L N. Hence the stiffness k N m−1 of the whole cord is
s. Figure 29 shows the variation of V with t. k = K /L.
43 Examples I 4.2 Problems Using Energy and/or Momentum 44

At the jump level there is no kinetic energy, and at river level, the kinetic or river as in figure 30. If the water collected is a fraction λ of the initial mass
energy is zero also. All of the gravitational potential energy is exchanged for m of the aircraft, find the loss of flying speed assuming that the engine thrust
strain energy in the cord. Hence remains in equilibrium with the aerodynamic drag.
1K
(H − L)2 = mgH V1
2 L
which can be rearranged to give m
� �2 � �� �
H mg H
−2 1+ +1=0
L K L
Figure 30: Aircraft water scoop
and we can use the larger root of this quadratic to get
�
� � � �2
H mg mg Solution: This is a collision with no rebound (e = 0), and the water collected
= 1+ + 1+ −1
L K K has no initial velocity. Thus
The strain e will be the change in length over the original length e = (H −L)/L.
mV1 + λm × 0 = m(1 + λ)V2
Table 1 shows that cord a (26 m) would be acceptable. Cord c (38 m) is
borderline. Cord b would break! so that the ratio of final to initial speed is
Table 1: Bungee jumping V2 1
=
V1 1 + λ
quantity cord a cord b cord c units
m 75 75 75 kg 4.2.3 Example – Pile Driver
g 9.81 9.81 9.81 m s −2

K 1200 2000 3000 N Problem: A pile driver drops a mass of 800 kg from a height of 2 m to strike
H 75 75 75 m the top of a 2400 kg pile. After impact, the mass rebounds to a height of
1 + mg/K 1.613 1.368 1.245 0.1 m as shown in figure 31. Find the downward velocity of the pile after
H/L 2.88 2.30 1.99 the impact, the dissipation of energy in noise and heat, and the coefficient of
L 26.1 32.6 37.7 m restitution.
e 1.88 1.30 0.99 Solution: The potential energy of the striker on release equals the kinetic
emax 2 1.2 1.0 energy of the striker just before impact so
result PASS FAIL PASS
1
800 × 9.81 × 2 = × 800 × v12
2
⇒ v1 = 6.264 m s−1
4.2.2 Example – Aircraft Water Scoop The kinetic energy of the striker just after impact equals the potential energy
at the maximum rebound height hence
Problem: An aircraft used for fire-fighting is equipped with a scoop so that
1
the pilot can fill a water tank by flying low and extending the scoop into a lake 800 × 9.81 × 0.1 = × 800 × v22
2
45 Examples I 4.2 Problems Using Energy and/or Momentum 46

800 kg B
before release at rebound
2m z
0.1 m A
h
pile
C
Figure 32: Ball bouncing downstairs

Figure 31: Pile driver at zB = 2h we get

1 1
m (v22 + u 2 ) + mgh = mu 2 + 2mgh
⇒ v2 = 1.401 m s−1 (upwards) 2 2
so
Downward momentum is conserved during the impact giving
v22 = 2gh (4.5)
800 × 6.264 + 2400 × 0 = 800 × (−1.401) + 2400 × vp Similarly, between points C at z = 0 and B
1 1
⇒ vp = 2.555 m s−1 m (v12 + u 2 ) = mu 2 + 2mgh
2 2
Hence the loss of energy during impact is v12 = 4gh (4.6)
1 1 1 From equation 4.5 divided by equation 4.6
E1 − E2 = × 800 × 6.2642 − ( × 800 × 1.4012 + × 2400 × 2.5552 ) = 7078 J
2 2 2 � �2
v2
and the coefficient of restitution is = 0.5
� � v1
� final relative velocity � 2.555 − (−1.401)
e=� � �= = 0.632 hence by equation 4.4 we get
initial relative velocity � 6.264
e = 0.707

4.2.4 Example – Ball on Stairs

4.2.5 Example – Filling a freight wagon with gravel
Problem: A ball bounces down a uniform flight of stairs, rising after each
bounce to the level of the previous stair as illustrated in figure 32. Find the Problem: Gravel pours from a stationary container at a rate of R kg s−1 into
coefficient of restitution. a wagon initially rolling at speed v0 m s−1 , as shown in figure 33. The initial
Solution: At each bounce, the vertical component changes from v1 down- mass of the wagon is m0 kg and its length is L m.
wards to v2 upwards where Find the total mass of gravel loaded into the wagon if no horizontal force is
v2 = ev1 (4.4) applied to it, and find the change in kinetic energy while the wagon is loaded.

If the step height is h and the constant horizontal velocity component is u, Solution: The total mass of the wagon and its load increases as the gravel
then by conservation of energy between point A at height zA = h and point B is loaded. But if no horizontal forces apply (note that this means that friction
47 Examples I 4.2 Problems Using Energy and/or Momentum 48

Integrating v (t) gives

� T � L � T
dx m0 v0
dt = 1 dx = dt
0 dt 0 0 m0 + Rt
m0 v0 � �T m v � m + RT �
0 0 0
=⇒ L = ln(m0 + Rt) = ln
R 0 R m0
m0 � LR/m0 v0 �
=⇒ T = e −1
R
The gravel stops being loaded when x(t) = L, so
Figure 33: Loading moving freight wagon with gravel
mass of gravel loaded = RT = m0 (eLR/m0 v0 − 1).
must be ignored), then the horizontal momentum of the wagon plus loaded
gravel remains constant. Therefore the wagon must gradually slow down. Change in kinetic energy:
First consider how the wagon’s speed v changes with time t. The horizon- ∆KE = 12 m(T )v 2 (T ) − 12 m0 v02
tal momentum is constant, so initial momentum = momentum at time t: � m �
0
= 12 m0 v02 −1
m0 + RT
m0 v0 = m(t)v (t) = − 21 m0 v02 (1 − e
− mLRv
0 0 )

but the total mass of wagon plus load after time t is m(t) = m0 + Rt, so Thus the kinetic energy lost is
− mLRv
m0 v0 Losses = −∆KE = 12 m0 v02 (1 − e 0 0 )
v (t) =
m0 + Rt
(N.B. Work = ∆KE + Losses, and Work = 0 because no horizontal forces act).
which decreases with t as expected (see figure 34). What happens to this lost energy?

Figure 34: Velocity of wagon v (t) during loading

Let x(t) be the wagon’s displacement after time t so that v (t) = dx/dt.
Then the time interval during which gravel flows into the wagon can be found
from the time taken for the wagon to travel distance L (the wagon’s length).