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Basics of Screw Theory

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DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4201-7_1

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Chapter 1
Basics of Screw Theory

1.1 Introduction

Screw theory is a powerful mathematical tool for the analysis of spatial mechanisms.
A screw consists of two three-dimensional vectors. A screw can be used to denote
the position and orientation of a spatial vector, the linear velocity and angular
velocity of a rigid body, or a force and a couple, respectively. Therefore, the concept
of a screw is convenient in kinematics and dynamics, while the transformation
between the screw-based method and vector and matrix methods is straightforward.
When applied in mechanism analysis, screw theory has the advantages of clear
geometrical concepts, explicit physical meaning, simple expression and convenient
algebraic calculation. It is worth noting that the preliminary requirements for screw
theory are only linear algebra and basic dynamics in undergraduate level. Thus,
screw theory has been widely applied and researchers have used screw theory to
make great contribution to many frontier problems in mechanism theory.
Screw theory was established in the nineteenth century. First, Chasles (1830)
proposed the concept of twist motion of a rigid body, which was further developed
by Poinsot (1848). Then Pl€ ucker gave his research and proposed his screw expres-
sion [1]. Then, in his classic book Screw theory (1875), Ball discussed the kinematics
and dynamics of a rigid body under complex constraints using screw theory [2]. In the
last 60 years, many researchers, such as Dimentberg [3], Yang and Freudenstein [4],
Waldron [5], Roth [6], Hunt [7], Phillips [8], Duffy [9] and Angeles [10] etc, have
made important contributions to screw theory.
This chapter first addresses the expression of a straight line and its Pl€ucker line
coordinates in three-dimensional space. The line vector and screw as well as their
characteristics and the screw algebra are introduced. In the last part, this chapter

Z. Huang et al., Theory of Parallel Mechanisms, Mechanisms and Machine Science 6, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4201-7_1, # Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
2 1 Basics of Screw Theory

also introduces the expression for the instantaneous motion of a rigid body and the
statics of the body using screw theory.1

1.2 Equation of a Line

Two distinct points Aðx1 ; y1 ; z1 Þ and Bðx2 ; y2 ; z2 Þ determine a line, as shown in

Fig. 1.1. The vector S denoting the direction of the line can be expressed as

S ¼ ðx2  x1 Þi þ ðy2  y1 Þj þ ðz2  z1 Þk; (1.1)

where i, j, and k are unit vectors corresponding to each coordinate axis.

If we let

x2  x1 ¼ L
y2  y1 ¼ M
z2  z1 ¼ N; ð1:2Þ

then substituting Eq. (1.2) into Eq. (1.1), we have

S ¼ Li þ Mj þ Nk; (1.3)

where L, M, and N are direction ratios.

The distance between the two points is given by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
jSj ¼ L2 þ M 2 þ N 2 : (1.4)

Let

l ¼ L=jSj
m ¼ M=jSj
n ¼ N=jSj; ð1:5Þ

where l, m and n are direction cosines of the line. Then Eq. (1.4) reduces to

l2 þ m2 þ n2 ¼ 1: (1.6)

1
The content of screw theory in this book is based on the teaching material presented by Dr. Duffy
at Florida University in 1982. At that time, the first author of this book listened attentively to the
lectures and was deeply inspired by the course content. The author wishes to express here once
again his acknowledgments to Dr. Duffy.
1.2 Equation of a Line 3

Fig. 1.1 Pl€ucker Coordinates Z

of a line B
S
A

r2
r

r1
O Y

Note that a line can be determined by its direction and a point on it. We can
write the vector equation of the line as

ðr  r 1 Þ  S ¼ 0: (1.7)

Equation (1.7) can also be expressed as

r  S ¼ S0 ; (1.8)

where

S0 ¼ r 1  S (1.9)

is the moment of the line about the origin O.

The vectors ðS; S0 Þ are called the Pl€
ucker coordinates of the line and satisfy the
orthogonality condition

S  S0 ¼ 0: (1.10)

Note that ðS; S0 Þ is homogeneous, since multiplying both sides of Eq. (1.8) by a
scalar l yields the same line.
Expanding Eq. (1.9) leads to
 
 i j k 

S0 ¼  x1 y1 z1 : (1.11)
L M N

Equation (1.11) can be expressed in the form

S0 ¼ Pi þ Qj þ Rk; (1.12)

where

P ¼ y1 N  z1 M
R ¼ x1 M  y1 L: (1.13)
4 1 Basics of Screw Theory

Fig. 1.2 Distance between Z N

the line and origin
S
R
L
M

P O
Q
P Y
X

Expanding Eq. (1.8) and considering Eq. (1.12), we have

yN  zM  P ¼ 0
zL  xN  Q ¼ 0
xM  yL  R ¼ 0: ð1:14Þ

From Eqs. (1.3), (1.12) and (1.10), the orthogonality condition can be written as

LP þ MQ þ NR ¼ 0: (1.15)

The six Pl€ucker coordinates of the line ðL; M; N; P; Q; RÞ are illustrated in

Fig. 1.2.
ðL; M; NÞ consists of the direction ratios of the line and ðP; Q; RÞ are the x, y and z
components of the moment of the line about the origin. The coordinates ðS; S0 Þ are
related by Eqs. (1.6) and (1.11). Therefore only four of the six scalars ðL; M; N; P;
Q; RÞ are independent, and there are 14 lines in space.
The distance of the line from the origin is determined by the length of a vector P
from O and perpendicular to the line. From Eq. (1.8), we have P  S ¼ S0 , and
therefore

S  ðP  SÞ ¼ S  S0 :

Expanding the left side of the above equation, we have

S  ðP  SÞ ¼ ðS  SÞP  ðS  PÞS ¼ ðS  SÞP;

and so solving equation for P gives

S  S0
P¼ : (1.16)
SS
1.3 Mutual Moment of Two Lines 5

This can be expressed in the form

jSjjS0 j jS0 j
P¼ e¼ e; (1.17)
jSjjSj jSj

where e is a unit vector perpendicular to S  S0 . Therefore

jS0 j
jPj ¼ : (1.18)
jSj

When S0 ¼ 0, the line passes through the origin and the Pl€ucker line coordinates
are ðS; 0Þ or ðl m n; 0 0 0Þ. When S ¼ 0, the line lies in a plane at infinity
and the Pl€ucker coordinates are ð0; S0 Þ or ð0 0 0; l m nÞ.

1.3 Mutual Moment of Two Lines

The vector equations of two skew lines separated by a perpendicular distance of a12
and a twist angle of a12 (see Fig. 1.3) are given by

r 1  S1 ¼ S01 (1.19)

r 2  S2 ¼ S02 : (1.20)

The projection of the moment vector a12 a12  S2 on the line S1 is given by a12
a12  S2  S1 and is called the moment of S2 about the line S1. This scalar quantity is
usually called the mutual moment of the two lines and can also be obtained by
projecting the moment vector  a12 a12  S1 on the line S2 , namely,

Mm ¼ a12 a12  S2  S1 ¼ a12 a21  S1  S2 : (1.21)

Z
S1
a12 S2
a12 B
a12
A
r2
r1
O Y
Fig. 1.3 Mutual moment
of two lines X
6 1 Basics of Screw Theory

Expanding the scalar triple product and considering r 2  r 1 ¼ a12 a12 , we have

ðr 2  r 1 Þ  S2  S1 ¼ r 2  S2  S1 þ r 1  S1  S2 : (1.22)

Substituting Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20) into Eq. (1.22) yields

Mm ¼ S1  S02 þ S2  S01 : (1.23)

Since both S1 and S2 are unit vectors, S1  S1 ¼ S2  S2 ¼ 1, and so

S2  S1 ¼ a12 sin a12 : (1.24)

The mutual moment of the two lines is then given by

M m ¼ ðr 2  r 1 Þ  S2  S1 ¼ a12 sin a12 : (1.25)

From this expression, it is clear that the mutual moment of two lines is
independent of the coordinate-frame.
Alternatively, Eq. (1.23) can be written as

M m ¼ l1 p2 þ m1 q2 þ n1 r2 þ p1 l2 þ q1 m2 þ r1 n2 : (1.26)

If the lines are parallel or intersect at infinity, we have a12 ¼ 0 and their mutual
moment is zero. If the two lines intersect, which means the perpendicular distance
between the two lines is zero, we have a12 ¼ 0 . Therefore, when two lines are
coplanar, the mutual moment of the two lines is always zero:

S1  S02 þ S2  S01 ¼ 0: (1.27)

1.4 Line Vectors and Screws

1.4.1 The Line Vector

This section will introduce two important concepts. One is the line vector and the
other is the screw. Recall that in Sect. 1.2 we established the equation of a line:

r  S ¼ S0 : (1.28)

The dual vector ðS; S0 Þ, which denotes a straight line in space, is also called a
line vector. When jSj ¼ 1 , S is a unit vector and ðS; S0 Þ is a unit line vector.
However, S0 is in general not a unit vector. The two vectors S and S0 are orthogonal,
1.4 Line Vectors and Screws 7

rA
A

rB
AB

Fig. 1.4 Line moment is not origin-dependent

Z Skew
Parallel to coordinate axis
Parallel to coordinate plane
( a b c ;d e0 )
( a b c; de f ) ( a b 0;d e f )
( a b 0;d e 0 )
( a b c ;0 0 0 )
( 1 0 0 ;0 1 0 ) ( 1 0 0 ; 0a b )
Y
( 1 0 0 ; 000 )
( a b 0 ; 0 0c )
X

Fig. 1.5 Various forms of line vector

so that S  S0 ¼ 0. The unit line vectors ðS; S0 Þ stand in one-to-one correspondence

with the 14 lines in space.
The vector S is not origin-dependent. The vector S0, which remains constant as S
is being moved along the line, is the moment of S about the origin O. Clearly, S0 is
origin-dependent, and if the origin is shifted from point O to point A, then the
moment of S about A can be written as (Fig. 1.4)

SA ¼ r A  S ¼ ðAB þ r B Þ  S: (1.29)

Substituting SB ¼ r B  S into Eq. (1.29), we have

SA ¼ SB þ AB  S: (1.30)

When the line vectors are in different positions in space, the Pl€ucker coordinates
are different. In particular, when the line vector is located in certain special positions
with respect to the coordinate system, many of the components are zero, as shown in
Fig. 1.5. This is convenient for screw analysis.
8 1 Basics of Screw Theory

1.4.2 The Screw

When the two vectors of a dual vector do not satisfy the orthogonality condition
S  S0 6¼ 0,2 which is the more general case, the dual vector is called a screw and is
denoted by

$ ¼ ðS; S0 Þ; S  S0 6¼ 0: (1.31)

When jSj ¼ 1, $ is a unit screw.

The vector S of a screw is also not origin-dependent. The vector S0 is
origin-dependent and if the origin is shifted from point O to point A, the moment
of S about A can be obtained as

SA ¼ S0 þ AO  S: (1.32)

Multiplying both sides of this equation by S, we have

S  SA ¼ S  S0 : (1.33)

Equation (1.33) shows that S  S0 is not origin-dependent. If S 6¼ 0, we can obtain

the origin-independent variable

S  S0 lp þ mq þ nr
h¼ ¼ 2 ; (1.34)
SS l þ m2 þ n2

which is called the pitch of a screw. The line vector is a special screw with a zero
pitch. A screw with an infinite pitch is called a couple and is denoted by (0; S).
The number of the unit screws in 3D space is 15, and the number of screws
in 3D space is 16.
A line vector corresponds to a straight line in space, and a screw also has its axis
line. To determine the axis line that the screw lies on, S0 is decomposed into two
parts, which are parallel and perpendicular to S, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.6:

ðS; S0 Þ ¼ ðS; S0  hS þ hSÞ: (1.35)

Obviously, S0  hS is normal to S, and S0  hS ¼ S0. The equation of the axis of

the screw is given by

r  S ¼ S0  hS: (1.36)

2
For the convenience of readers, to distinguish between line vector and screw, the dual component
of screw is expressed as S0.
1.4 Line Vectors and Screws 9

Fig. 1.6 Axis of a screw

S0
S

hS

S 0 − hS

ucker coordinates of the line are ðS; S0  hSÞ. From Eq. (1.25), a screw
The Pl€
can be expressed as

$ ¼ ðS; S0 Þ ¼ ðS; S0  hSÞ þ ð0; hSÞ; (1.37)

or

$ ¼ ðS; S0 Þ ¼ ðS; r  S þ hSÞ ¼ ðS; S0 þ hSÞ ¼ ðS; S0 Þ þ ð0; hSÞ: (1.38)

This indicates that a line vector and a couple can combine to form a screw,
or that any screw with non-zero finite pitch can be considered the summation of a
line vector and a couple. There are four factors that determine a screw: position and
direction of the axis, and the magnitude and pitch of the screw.

Screw: ðS; S0 Þ : S 6¼ 0; S  S0 6¼ 0; 1 6¼ h 6¼ 0
Line vector: ðS; S0 Þ : S 6¼ 0; S  S0 ¼ 0; h¼0
Couple: ð0; SÞ : S 6¼ 0; h ¼ 1

Example 1.1. ðl m n; hl hm hnÞ is a screw with pitch h and passing through

the origin.
Example 1.2. ð1 0 0; 1 0 0Þ is a screw with pitch h ¼ 1 and passing through the
origin, since

h ¼ ðS  S0 Þ=ðS  SÞ ¼ 1;
r  S ¼ S0  hS ¼ 0:

pffiffiffi
Example 1.3. ð1 1 1; 1 1 1Þ= 3 is also a unit screw with pitch h ¼ 1 that passes
through the origin and points in the direction ð1 1 1Þ.
Example 1.4. Identify $ ¼ ðS; S0 Þ ¼ ð1 1 0; 1 0 0Þ and determine its axis.
Solution. The pitch of the screw is h ¼ ðS  S0 Þ=ðS  SÞ ¼ 1=2. Considering that
S0 ¼ S0 þ hS ¼ r  S þ hS, the equation of the axis is r  S ¼ S0  hS.
10 1 Basics of Screw Theory

Thus we have

r  S ¼ ð 1=2  1=2 0ÞT :

1.5 Screw Algebra

Screws obey the following algebraic operations [11], and these operations have
special meanings.

1.5.1 Screw Sum

   
The sum of two screws $1 ¼ S1 ; S01 , and $2 ¼ S2 ; S02 is defined as follows
 
$1 þ $2 ¼ S1 þ S2 ; S01 þ S02 (1.39)

Equation (1.39) shows that the sum of two screws is still a screw.
Theorem 1.1. The sum of two line vectors is a line vector only if their axes are
coplanar and the sum of their first vectors is non-zero, namely S1 þ S2 6¼ 0.
Proof. If $1 and $2 are two line vectors, then S1  S01 ¼ 0 and S2  S02 ¼ 0. If the
two line vectors are coplanar, then their mutual moment is equal to zero. That is,
S01  S2 þ S02  S1 ¼ 0. Therefore, we obtain

ðS1 þ S2 Þ  ðS01 þ S02 Þ ¼ 0: (1.40)

Equation (1.40) shows that the sum of two line vectors is still a line vector and its
pitch is zero.
Theorem 1.2. If two line vectors intersect, their sum is a line vector passing the
intersection point.
Proof. Since the sum of two line vectors is still a line vector, it can be expressed as

r  ðS1 þ S2 Þ ¼ S01 þ S02 : (1.41)

If r1 denotes the position vector of the intersection point, r1 lies on both of the
lines and satisfies the equations of both lines:

r 1  S1 ¼ S01 ; r 1  S2 ¼ S02 : (1.42)

Thus we have

r 1  ðS1 þ S2 Þ ¼ S01 þ S02 : (1.43)

1.6 Instantaneous Kinematics of a Rigid Body 11

Equation (1.43) shows that the point r1 lies on the line determined by the sum of
the two line vectors.
Note that when two lines are not coplanar, the sum of the two line vectors is a
screw with non-zero pitch instead of a line vector. Further, the sum of a line vector
and a couple is not a line vector.
Theorem 1.3. The sum of two couples, if not zero, is another couple.

1.5.2 Product of a Scalar and a Screw

The product of a scalar l and a screw $ is defined by

l$ ¼ ðlS; lS0 Þ: (1.44)

1.5.3 Reciprocal Product

   
The reciprocal product of two screws, say $1 ¼ S1 ; S01 , $2 ¼ S2 ; S02 , is defined by

$1  $2 ¼ S1  S02 þ S2  S01 (1.45)

where the symbol ○ denotes the reciprocal product of two screws.

When the origin of the coordinate system shifts from point O to point A, the two
screws $1 and $2 become
   
1 ¼ S1 ; S1 ¼ S1 ; S1 þ AO  S1 ;
$A A 0
   
2 ¼ S2 ; S2 ¼ S2 ; S2 þ AO  S2 :
$A A 0
(1.46)

The reciprocal product of the two new screws is

 0   0 
1  $2 ¼ S1  S2 þ AO  S2 þ S2  S1 þ AO  S1 ¼ $1  $2 :
$A A
(1.47)

This result indicates that the reciprocal product of two screws is not origin-
dependent.
The reciprocal product of two screws represents the work produced by a wrench
acting on a rigid body undergoing an infinitesimal twist.

1.6 Instantaneous Kinematics of a Rigid Body

The most general motion in three-dimensional space is screw motion, which means
simultaneous translational and rotational motion. Pure translation and pure rotation
are special cases of screw motion. In this section, we will discuss pure rotation,
12 1 Basics of Screw Theory

Fig. 1.7 Instantaneous Z

rotation of a body
2

v0 1 w
S
$
r
O
X

translation, and screw motion, including how to determine the Pl€ucker coordinates,
pitch, and the equation of axis.

1.6.1 Instantaneous Rotation

In Fig. 1.7, the rigid body labeled by 2 is rotating about another rigid body labeled
by 1. The axis of rotation is S. Such a rotation can be described by the angular
velocity line vector

o$ ¼ oðS; S0 Þ ¼ ðoS; oS0 Þ; (1.48)

where o is the amplitude of the rotation and S is the unit vector in the direction of the
line.
The equation of the axis of rotation is given by

r  S ¼ S0 : (1.49)

The second component of Eq. (1.48) is

oS0 ¼ or  S ¼ r  v ¼ v0 ; (1.50)

which is the velocity of a point coincident with the origin, or the tangent velocity of
the point coincident with the origin. Equation (1.48) can also be rewritten as
follows:

o$ ¼ ðv; v0 Þ: (1.51)

Therefore, the dual vectors denoting the rotation of a rigid body include the
angular velocity, v, and the linear velocity, v0 , of the point coincident with the
origin. The Pl€ucker coordinates of a rotating rigid body are oðS; S0 Þ or ðv; v0 Þ.
When the rotational axis passes through the origin, the Pl€ucker coordinates of the
rotational axis are o$ ¼ ðv; 0Þ or ðv; 0Þ.
1.6 Instantaneous Kinematics of a Rigid Body 13

Fig. 1.8 Twist motion

wi Si
of a body

vi = hi w i Si

vi

0 0
w i S i = vi
O

ri×wi

1.6.2 Instantaneous Translation

An instantaneous translation of one rigid body relative to another one can be

conveniently modeled by connecting the two bodies by a prismatic or sliding pair
(as illustrated in Fig. 1.7). The translational velocity n can be expressed as a scalar
multiple of the instantaneous linear displacement n and a unit vector S parallel to the
direction of motion. The vector S is for convenience drawn through the center line
of the joint. However, all points in the moving body have the same linear velocity
v ¼ vS, and a self-parallel displacement of the vector S does not affect the motion.
The same motion is obtained when the joint is reconnected parallel to its original
attachment and the body is given the same instantaneous translational displacement
v. For this reason, S is called a free vector and the motion can be quantified by taking
a scalar multiple of the free vector vð0; SÞ or ð0; nÞ. Some readers may prefer to
consider instantaneous translation to be an instantaneous rotation about an axis that
is orthogonal to S and that lies in the plane at infinity. The Pl€ucker coordinates of
this axis are ð0; SÞ, and the instantaneous rotation about this axis can be expressed as
the scalar multiple vð0; SÞ.

1.6.3 Instantaneous Screw Motion

When the motion of one body 2 relative to another includes rotation about the axis
S1 and translation in the direction S1 , the situation is more complex, as shown in
Fig. 1.8. The body rotates about the axis S1 , with the instantaneous wrench o1 ðS1
; S01 Þ, where ðS1 ; S01 Þ is unit screw. The body also translates with screw v2 ð0; S1 Þ
along the axis S1 at the same time. The absolute motion of the body is the sum of the
two parts.
14 1 Basics of Screw Theory

That is,

oi $i ¼ ðo1 S1 ; o1 S01 Þ þ ð0; v1 S1 Þ ¼ ðo1 S1 ; o1 S01 þ ho1 S1 Þ

 
¼ o1 S1 ; S01 ; (1.52)

or
 
oi $i ¼ o1 S1 ; S01 ¼ ðv1 ; v0 Þ; (1.53)

where v1 is the angular velocity of the body and v0 is the velocity of a point in the
body coincident with the origin. Note that the directions of v0 and v1 are different in
general, unless the axis of the screw passes the origin. The pitch is

S1  S01 v1  v0
h¼ ¼ : (1.54)
S1  S1 v1  v1

1.7 Statics of a Rigid Body

1.7.1 A Force Acting on a Body

Analogous to instantaneous rotation, unit line vectors can be used to express the
action of a force on a body, as shown in Fig. 1.9. A force f can be expressed as a
scalar multiple f S of the unit vector S bound to the line. The moment of the force C0
about a reference point O can be expressed as a scalar multiple f S0 of the moment
vector S0 ¼ r  S. The action of the force upon the body can thus be elegantly
expressed as a scalar multiple f $ of the unit line vector

f
r

Fig. 1.9 Force acting X

on a body Y
1.7 Statics of a Rigid Body 15

Fig. 1.10 A couple acting Z f1

on a body
S

r1
r2
O
f2

f $ ¼ ðf ; f S0 Þ ¼ ðf ; C0 Þ; (1.55)

where $ is unit line vector, S  S ¼ 1 and S  S0 ¼ 0. The line vector can be used to
express the magnitude, direction and the acting line in space.
The Pl€ucker coordinates of the force line vector are f ðS; S0 Þ, ðf S; f S0 Þ or ðf ; C0 Þ,
where C0 is the moment of force f about the origin, that is, C0 ¼ f S0 ¼ f r  S0 .
When the force f passes through the origin, the moment vanishes (C0 ¼ 0), and the
ucker coordinates of the force are ðf ; 0Þ.
Pl€

1.7.2 A Couple Acting on a Body

Figure 1.10 illustrates a rigid body subjected to two equal and opposite forces f 1
and f 2 . These two forces constitute a couple, the moment of which is given by

C ¼ ðr 2  r 1 Þ  f 2 ¼ ðr 1  r 2 Þ  f 1 (1.56)

The vector C is clearly normal to the plane containing the forces, and C can
thus be expressed as a scalar multiple CS of any unit vector normal to the plane.
The vector S is therefore a free vector and the couple vector C can be given a self-
parallel displacement without altering the statics of the body.
The couple C can thus be expressed as a scalar multiple C(0; SÞ of the free vector
ð0; SÞ. Alternatively, the couple can be considered a force acting upon the body
along a line that is orthogonal to S and that lies in the plane at infinity. The Pl€ucker
coordinates of this line are ð0; SÞ, and the force acting upon the body can be
expressed as the scalar multiple C(0; SÞ.

1.7.3 A Twist Acting on a Body

A general system
 of forces
 and couples acting upon a rigid body can be reduced to a
single force f1 Si ; S0i and a single couple C(0; SÞ. This force couple combination
 16 1 Basics of Screw Theory

was called a dyname by Pl€ ucker and Hunt. The above mentioned force screw f1
   
Si ; S0i can be expressed as the sum of a force f1 Si ; S0i and a couple C(0; SÞ with
the same direction as the force. When the origin is located on the axis S1, this force
screw can be expressed as

 
f1 S1 ; S01 ¼ ðf 1 ; C0 Þ: (1.57)

When the origin does not lie on the axis S1 , the force screw is

 
f1 S1 ; S01 ¼ ðf 1 ; C0 Þ; (1.58)

where C0 is the moment about the origin.

References

1. Pl€ucker J (1865) On a new geometry of space. Philos Trans 155:725–791

2. Ball RA (1900) Treatise on the theory of screws. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp 1–30
3. Dimentberg FM (1950) Determination of the motion of spatial mechanisms. Akad Nauk,
Moscow (Russian)
4. Yang AT, Freudenstein F (1964) Application of dual-number quaternion algebra to the
analysis of spatial mechanisms. Trans ASME 86E:300–308 (J Appl Mech 31)
5. Waldron KJ (1966) The constraint analysis of mechanisms. J Mech 1:101–114
6. Roth B (1967) On the screw axes and other special lines associated of a rigid body. J Eng Ind
89:102–109
7. Hunt KH (1978) Kinematic geometry of mechanisms. Oxford University Press, Oxford
8. Phillips J (1990) Freedom in machinery. Cambridge University Press, Sydney, pp 147–168
9. Duffy J (1982). The screw theory and its application. Class note of University of Florida,
Gainesville
10. Angeles J (1994) On twist and wrench generators and annihilators. In: Seabra Pereira MFO,
Ambrosio JAC (eds) Computer-aided analysis of rigid and flexible mechanical system. Kluwer
Academic, Dordrecht
11. Brand L (1947) Vector and tensor analysis. Wiley, New York, pp 51–83

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