The Illustrated Guide To Hot and Cold Water Services

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
BSRIA would like to thank the following organisations who kindly
provided photographs, diagrams and information:
Abode Home Products Ltd.

Albion Valves (UK) Ltd.
Altecnic Ltd.
Aqualeak Detection Ltd.
Aquality Ltd.
Ariston Thermo
Comdronic Ltd.
Crane Fluid Systems
Drinking Water Inspectorate
Elster Metering Ltd.
Flexim Instruments UK Ltd.
General Electric
Grohe Ltd.
Hamworthy Heating Ltd.
Honeywell
KGN Pillinger
Micronics Ltd.
Pegler Yorkshire
Reliance Water Controls Ltd.
Saniflo
Solar Century
Stuart Turner Ltd.
Triton Showers
Uponor Ltd.
Water Label Company Ltd.
Wilo UK
BSRIA acknowledges with thanks AJB Hightech Ltd. and AO Smith, who
provided financial support to this publication by placing an advert.
The guidance given in this publication is correct to the best of BSRIA’s knowledge.
However BSRIA cannot guarantee that it is free of errors. Material in this publication does
not constitute any warranty, endorsement or guarantee by BSRIA. Risk associated with
the use of material from this publication is assumed entirely by the user.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including
photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher.
© BSRIA November 2014 ISBN 978-0-86022-736-6 Printed by Lavenham Press
THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
PREFACE
Ready access to a supply of clean water is essential to our daily activity
whether at home or in the workplace. We rely on water for drinking,
cooking, washing and the removal of sewage. If the supply of water fails
then normal life quickly becomes difficult or impossible.
This guide explains the principles and technology used in hot and cold
water services, also known as domestic water services, in all types of
buildings. There is also a brief section on drainage as this is not covered by
other BSRIA guides. This guide does not consider water in heating and
cooling systems or cooling towers for which reference should be made to
The Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Services.
For construction clients, this guide provides a simple insight into the main
system options discussed during the briefing process and can consequently
assist dialogue with the design team. It can also help clients to identify and
raise technical questions which they feel are relevant to their organisation’s
specific needs. For construction professionals, the guide provides a quick
reference to hot and cold water services systems and can assist their working
knowledge of the subject.
BSRIA has also published three companion guides: BG 31/2012 The

Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Building Services which covers heating,
ventilation, air conditioning and controls, BG 32/2014 The Illustrated Guide
to Electrical Building Services which covers systems such as power distribution,
on-site generation, lighting and fire alarms, and BG 1/2008 The Illustrated
Guide to Renewable Technologies which covers systems such as photovoltaics,
heat pumps and biomass boilers.
Two guides have also been published which provide more detail on
mechanical systems: BG 2/2009 The Illustrated Guide to Ventilation and
BG 1/2010 The Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Cooling.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
CONTENTS Page
OVERVIEW 1
Safe water 1
Prevention of leakage and waste 2
COLD WATER SERVICES 3

Metering and sub-metering 3
Cold water storage 5
Prevention of backflow 7
Booster systems 9
Water softening 10
Point of use filtration 12
On-line disinfection 12
HOT WATER SERVICES 13

Indirect water heating 13
Combination boilers 15
Direct gas-fired water heaters 15
Electric water heating 16
Heat pump water heaters 16
Solar hot water 17
Pumped circulation and balancing 18
BATHROOM AND KITCHEN FITTINGS 19

Water efficiency 19
Bath, basin and sink fittings 20
Electric showers 21
Washing machine and dishwasher connections 21
Drinking fountains 21
Outdoor taps 21
DRAINAGE 22
Gravity drainage 23
Pumped drainage 24
Rainwater harvesting 24
Greywater reuse 25
INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING 26

Pipe materials and jointing for water services 26
Pipe sizing 29
Support and insulation of pipework 30
Labelling 31
Valves 32
Leak detection systems 36
Pre-commission cleaning 36

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
CONTENTS Page
Commissioning 37
Handover documentation 37
Maintenance and maintainability/access 38
Monitoring for water quality 38
Corrosion 39
Erosion 42
Noise and vibration 42
Prevention of bursting and joint failure 43
LEGISLATION 46
GLOSSARY 52

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
SAFE WATER
Building users have a right to expect that tap water is safe to drink and
delivered without hazard. There are significant health and safety issues that
need to be considered when designing, installing and maintaining hot and
cold water services in buildings.
Water quality
Water supplied by a water undertaker must meet certain quality standards
that ensure it is fit for human consumption (see Water Industry Act on
page 46). This water is legally termed “wholesome water”. If, however,
the water becomes contaminated during its passage through the building
it may no longer be fit for human consumption and it may carry other
hazards such as legionella bacteria. The inhalation of legionella bacteria
from water system can cause Legionnaires’ Disease which is a potentially
fatal pneumonia. The emphasis of legislation and good maintenance
practice is therefore on the prevention of such contamination.
Prevention of backflow
Backflow from an end use or process could contaminate the water supply
with pathogenic bacteria or other hazardous substances. This is a key
concern of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (see page 48).
Scalding
Water above 43°C carries a scalding risk. The hotter the water, the shorter
the contact time required to cause scalding. Building Regulations require
that, for new dwellings or those formed by a material change of use, the
discharge temperature for bath taps should be limited by a thermostatic
mixing valve (TMV) to 48°C (see bath, basin and sink fittings on page
20 and Building Regulations part G on page 50). Kitchen taps can still
supply water at full temperature which may be over 60°C. Older bathroom
installations still result in scalding incidents.Young children and the elderly
are particularly at risk of scalding as they may not react quickly enough to
avoid injury when coming into contact with unexpectedly hot water.
Cross connection of water services

Accidental cross connection of hot and cold water and other piped services
is rare but the risk may be increasing with the proliferation of piped
services associated with solar energy, heat pumps and reclaimed water.
These are often inadequately labelled - more information on labelling can
be found on page 31.
Lead pipe
Lead pipe can still be present in the water supply connections of some
old buildings, even where the visible pipework and fittings appear to be
modern. The local water company can analyse water samples for lead to
detect the presence of hidden lead pipe.
THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES 1

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
PREVENTION OF LEAKAGE Measures to mitigate the consequences

of leakage:
AND WASTE
The cost of repairing damage due to catastrophic leakage of water services ¾ Avoid running pipes through water sensitive
in buildings runs into tens of millions of pounds every year. Most of these areas of the building
incidents are avoidable through good design, installation, maintenance and ¾ Provide accessible isolation valves that are
housekeeping. It is equally important that measures are in place to mitigate clearly labelled and regularly checked
the consequences of leakage. ¾ Provide bunds and barriers to reduce the
spread of leakage
Even where leakage does not result in damage to the building, the waste of
¾ Deploy leak detection technologies to
water due to leakage from poorly maintained systems or faulty pipework is
provide early warning of problems
both unsustainable and contrary to regulations.
The water efficiency of water fittings is also of concern. The Building The following should be checked
Regulations require that new dwellings should comply with a water regularly for signs of leakage:
efficiency target of 125 litres per person per day calculated using the
¾ Overflows
Government’s Water Efficiency Calculator. It should be noted that this is
not a design tool and real consumption may be significantly different. More ¾ Warning pipes
information on water efficiency can be found on page 19. ¾ Tundishes
¾ Toilet cisterns
Mains water service to appliances

Property boundary
and cold water storage tank
Non return valve

- to prevent backflow
Drain tap
Service pit, Stopcock or isolation valve in
Typically with shut accessible position, for example
25/32 mm off valve below a sink as close as possible
MDPE pipe and meter to the point of entry
Earth tag with warning ‘do not

disconnect’ label
750 mm (min) to
1350 mm (max)
Pipe laid in duct with or

without insulation. Sealed at
Ferrule either end to prevent entry of
fluids, vermin and insects
Water
main
Communication pipe Supply pipe
Service pipe
Domestic water supply arrangement
For the majority of consumers, clean water arrives via hidden underground
mains and service pipes that are rarely given a thought unless they spring
a leak. Everything after the shut off valve (external stopcock), including
any necessary repairs, is the responsibility of the property owner. It is
important to know the pipe route and locations of the external and
internal valves so that the water can quickly be shut off in case of a major
leak. These valves should also be checked annually to ensure they can be
operated.
2 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Directive 2004/22/EC of the European Parliament METERING AND SUB-METERING

and of the Council of 31 March 2004 on
measuring instruments Government policy is that all mains water supply should eventually be
COLD WATER
metered. Charging consumers according to what they actually use rather
SERVICES
BS EN ISO 4064-1:2014 Water meters for
cold potable water and hot water. Metrological
than a fixed annual fee should encourage water conservation and the
and technical requirements (replaced BS EN efficient utilisation of a finite resource.
14154-1:2005+A2:2011 Water meters. General
requirements) Meters for houses and other small buildings are usually fitted at the
boundary of the property, adjacent to the main stop valve. Newer meters
may also be fitted with radio frequency communication devices for remote
reading by the utility.
Larger meters for public and commercial buildings may be located in a

meter cabinet or plant room.
Meters used for water consumption billing should conform to the

Measuring Instruments Directive and BS EN ISO 4064-1 (or BS EN
14154-1 Class D) (see box).
Water meter access in a street
Pictures courtesy of Electromagnetic flow meter

Elster Metering Ltd.
Small water meter for a house or

apartment
Large water meter for a commercial or

public building

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
In commercial or public buildings it may be useful to measure and

monitor overall water consumption at the main meter and individual water Issues to be considered when installing
water sub-meters:
consumption of specific activities or processes. Less accurate but lower-
COLD WATER
cost meters for sub-metering cold water supplies on 15 mm or 20 mm ¾ The meter should be CE marked and
SERVICES
nominal bore branches (BS EN 14154-1 Class B or C) are readily available certified as suitable for use in potable water
from specialist distributors for less than £50. systems.
¾ The pressure rating of the meter must
Where high accuracy and a large dynamic range are required (better than exceed the anticipated water pressure in the
Class D), an electromagnetic flow meter may be appropriate. These are system.
much more expensive than mechanical meters for small pipe diameters but ¾ Water meters only achieve their claimed
the absence of moving parts and flow restriction means there are extremely accuracy over a specific range of flow rate.
reliable. Above or below this range the accuracy will
deteriorate. The meter may not respond at all
Temporary metering for commissioning and investigation purposes, to very low flow rates. This can be a problem
particularly on hot water return loops, can be accomplished with portable when trying to detect out of hours leakage
ultrasonic meters. These battery powered non-invasive meters, usually with from a system using a meter. Class D meters
provide a larger dynamic range than Class C
logging facilities, can be attached to any straight length of pipe and are
meters.
available for short term hire.
¾ Cold water meters are not usually suitable
There are also ultrasonic flow meters that can be used as a retrofitted for sub-metering hot water due to
temperature limitations of the construction
permanent metering solution. These avoid the disruption and expense of
and/or mechanism. An appropriately rated
cutting into pipes.
hot water meter should be used for this.
Several water companies have on-line benchmarking tools for their ¾ Meters must be installed in an orientation
customers but all buildings are different. Trends and identifying unusual permitted by the manufacturer. Otherwise,
air may get trapped in the meter, which is a
consumption events may be more important than comparing absolute
common cause of error.
metrics such as litres per day per person with other consumers. Weekly
meter readings may be sufficient to identify unexplained consumption but ¾ The meter should be preceded by a strainer
hourly meter readings (collected by a building management system) may and the meter and strainer should be fitted
be able to detect leaking valves. between isolation valves. Accuracy may be
degraded if the meter is not fitted with at
least the recommended straight length of
pipe upstream and downstream.
Portable ultrasonic flow meter ¾ The meter should be specified with a pulse
output feature (usually a volt free contact)
for connection to a BMS or other recording
system. The resolution of this output should
be selected for the application. One pulse per
litre is common for small meters but higher
or lower resolutions are possible.
Picture courtesy of Flexim

Instruments UK Ltd.
Picture courtesy
of Micronics Ltd.
Permanent ultrasonic flow meter

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
COLD WATER STORAGE

The UK is unusual in Europe for persisting with cold water
COLD WATER
storage cisterns in housing as a consumer choice. Cold
SERVICES
water storage is not required for houses or apartments with
combination boilers or mains pressure hot water cylinders.
Cold water storage is still common for high rise apartment
blocks and for commercial and public buildings where
temporary loss of the mains water supply would cause
disruption.
The advantage of storage is that the short term availability

of water becomes independent of pressure fluctuations or
temporary interruptions in the mains supply. The disadvantage
Large sectional cold water storage tank is that the pressure available at the outlets is limited by the
height of the cistern above the outlet, though this can be
increased with a shower pump.
In a typical two-storey house with cold water storage, the difference

in height between the water level in a cistern in the loft and a shower
head in an upstairs bathroom may be less than a metre. In pressure
terms this is less than 0.1 bar (10 kPa). See Indirect water heating on
page 13.
Cold water is normally stored in high density polyethylene (HDPE)

or glass reinforced plastic (GRP) cisterns. Ideally the quality of water
provided from the cistern should be no worse than the quality of mains
water i.e. the water remains as Category 1 (see Water Supply (Water
Fittings) Regulations on page 48). To achieve this:
1. The cistern must be fitted with a lid and vent screens to exclude
insects
Inside a cold water storage tank. The tank has a 2. The inlet valve should be protected from backflow by means of an
rubber lining. Over time there has been a gradual air gap
build-up of biofilm and small amounts of debris from
the incoming water supply network. 3. The cistern and connecting pipework must be insulated against
heat gain or freezing damage
Small cisterns may be provided with a “Byelaw 30” kit which includes
the fittings necessary to comply with the regulations for the first point.
This terminology derives from the requirements of the old Water
Byelaws. In Scotland it would be a “Byelaw 60” kit.
It is permitted under Water Regulations for the hot water system vent
Close boarding pipe to terminate through the lid of the cold water storage cistern
but this should be avoided where possible and the vent located over a
separate tundish and drain pipe. The risk is that a system fault could
result in discharge of hot water into the cistern which might go
unnoticed. This could result in increased bacteria growth due to the
Timber bearings
raised temperature and in extreme cases could cause a poorly supported
supporting cistern plastic cistern to become unstable.
The cold water cistern must always be fully supported over its base and
Support for a plastic cold water storage tank the underlying structure must be capable of carrying the load. A typical
cold water storage cistern for a house could contain around 120 litres
of water and therefore weigh 120 kg when full. A cold water storage
cistern for a large commercial building may weigh several tonnes when
full.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Storing more water than needed is counterproductive, as stagnation

can lead to deterioration of water quality. The rule of thumb is that *BS 8554:2015 Sampling and monitoring of hot and
the volume of stored water should not represent more than 24 hours cold water services in buildings
COLD WATER
consumption. Different recommendations apply to hospitals and other

SERVICES
critical environments.
To avoid stagnation zones, the entry and exit of

water should be on opposite sides of the cistern.
Where water is stored in multiple cisterns these
should be connected in series rather than in
parallel.
Provides
access for
It is not necessary to disinfect cisterns on inspection 500 mm
an annual basis unless indicated by adverse minimum
water quality or a legionella risk assessment. 350 mm Provides access
Minimum to float valve
Dip-sampling water directly from the cistern
should generally be avoided as there is a risk of
introducing contamination. It is preferable to
sample water from the nearest downstream outlet.
Where it is essential to dip-sample the cistern then
the methodology of BS 8554* should be used.
Typical unobstructed space for a cold water storage tank
Screened air inlet corrosion resistant Sleeve for

mesh (0.65 mm max opening) vent pipe
Securely fixed access cover Straight or dipped
Servicing valve entry to warning pipe
Screen (0.65 mm max
opening) to prevent ingress
of insects etc. Allowance
must be made in sizing the
screen area to ensure that
the screen will pass the
same amount of water as
the warning and/or
overflow pipe.
Warning / overflow pipe
Insulation against frost
Insulation to be provided on
underside where required
Servicing valve
Principal details of a cold water storage tank

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
PREVENTION OF BACKFLOW
A major concern of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations is the
COLD WATER
prevention of backflow. For example, water should flow from the tap into
SERVICES
Spillover
Air gap
level the basin but not from the basin back into the tap.
The guarantee that this does not happen is the vertical gap between the tap
Basin outlet and the highest level that the water could possibly reach in the basin
i.e. the spillover level (see diagram to the left). If the tap outlet were below
the edge of the basin then it could potentially become submerged and
might allow backflow or back-siphonage to occur.
Type AUK2 air gap
The same principle is applied to cisterns

for WCs and cold water storage, as shown
in the diagram to the left. However, in this
case the air gap is between the inlet valve
Inlet
valve and centre of the overflow (type AF air gap)
or warning pipe (type AG air gap). The air
gap (between the lower edge of the valve
discharge and centre of the overflow or
warning pipe) should be at least 20 mm
or twice the diameter of the input pipe,
Air gap
whichever is greater.
A warning pipe is intended to provide

Warning pipe or warning of a leaking inlet valve and is
circular overflow
Float routed to a visible discharge point, often
Water level
through an external wall. A warning pipe
can become obstructed and is therefore
deemed to provide a lower level of backflow
and back-siphonage protection (Level 3)
than an unrestricted overflow (Level 4).
Diagram of cistern showing air gap
There are numerous other variations on the air gap providing different
levels of protection for different circumstances and these are explained
in the Water Regulations Guide (see Water Supply (Water Fittings)
Regulations on page 48).

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
For a pressurised supply where it is not possible to provide

an air gap there are mechanical backflow prevention
devices that can be used. An example is the double check
COLD WATER
valve (also known as a double non-return valve) used with

SERVICES
outdoor taps to prevent backflow from a garden hose.

Double check valves are also used with the filling loops for Boiler
sealed heating systems (see diagram to the right).
Single check valves (non-return valves) are used on hot and

Double check
cold water supplies to mixing valves to prevent water from
valve
the hot system entering the cold system or vice versa and
as part of duplex pumping sets to prevent reverse flow.
Illustrations of single and double check valves can be found

on page 33. Isolation Isolation
valve Flexible filling valve
loop
The operation and application of mechanical backflow
prevention devices is explained in the Water Regulations
Guide. Heating flow Mains water
& return supply
Overall, the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
recognise 10 types of air gap and 14 types of mechanical Sealed heating system boiler filling loop
backflow prevention device. Each is classed in terms of
effectiveness for the prevention of backflow and back-
siphonage. Tables explain the appropriate selection of backflow
prevention in terms of the fluid categories against which the
protection should apply.
An additional requirement of the Water Supply (Water Fittings)

Regulations is that where backflow prevention for Fluid Category 4
is provided by verifiable reduced pressure zone (RPZ) valves, these
valves must be fitted and inspected on an annual basis by a competent
person. This type of backflow preventer is illustrated to the right.
Reduced Pressure Zone (RPZ) valve

Picture courtesy of Altecnic Ltd.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
BOOSTER SYSTEMS
If the mains pressure is too low for water to reach the highest
COLD WATER
water outlet in a building, or a high pressure is needed for an
SERVICES
appliance or process, a booster system can be fitted. Generally
the booster pump will be part of a packaged system and fed
from a break tank so that it is not possible to depressurise the
water main.
The booster pump can either pump water to cold water storage
cisterns at the top of the building or directly to outlets. In order
to avoid the pump starting whenever there is a small draw-off of
water, the booster package includes a hydraulic accumulator.
If the water storage is provided at the top of a tall building then

the natural pressure at the ground floor may excess the pressure
Booster pump set. Picture courtesy of KGN Pillinger rating of connected equipment or appliances. In this case a
pressure reducing valve may be needed on each of the lower
floors to provide a consistent pressure irrespective of height and
demand.
COMPRESSED
GAS
DECOMPRESSED
GAS
Rubber
diaphragm
Pressure reducing valve.

Picture courtesy of Honeywell
WATER
WATER
Pump on – water forced into Pump off – water forced out on

vessel and compresses gas demand by gas pressure
Hydraulic accumulator

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
WATER SOFTENING Equivalence of hardness results

Mains water contains varying amounts of dissolved 100 mg/l CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) = 40 mg/l Ca (calcium) = 7°Clark
COLD WATER
calcium and magnesium salts depending on the source

SERVICES
of the water. These salts can precipitate out of solution 200 mg/l CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) = 80 mg/l Ca (calcium) = 14°Clark
as scale when the water is heated in a kettle or other
water heater. They also react with soaps and detergents
to form scum.
The total amount of calcium and magnesium in the water is known as

the hardness. Rainwater is initially soft but as soon as it hits the ground
it begins to dissolve minerals from the soil and rock. If the water passes
through limestone formations then it becomes saturated with calcium and
very hard.
The diagram to the right shows a

hardness map for England & Wales Map showing the rate of hardness in mg/l as
calcium Carbonate in England and Wales
based on water company data.
Water in Scotland is generally soft
to moderately soft. This is only a
guide - hardness can vary locally Key
depending of the source of supply
No information
and can also vary through the year.
Soft: 0-50
Where water softening is proposed,
the hardness of the mains water Moderately Soft: 51-100
should be always measured on Slightly Hard: 101-150
site. Test kits are available for this Moderately Hard: 151-200
purpose or samples can be sent for Hard: 201-300

laboratory analysis. Very Hard: Over 300
No Public Supply
Softening may be considered at
any level of hardness depending on
the application, but for household
use it is generally only considered
above 150 milligrams per litre
calcium carbonate (written as
150 mg/l CaCO3).
Confusion is often caused by

hardness results being quoted in
different units. Where results are
quoted as “ppm hardness” or “ppm
total hardness” this usually refers to
CaCO3 and is effectively the same
as mg/l CaCO3.
Hardness map. Map courtesy of the Drinking Water Inspectorate

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Base exchanger softening

Typical applications of base exchange Base exchange water softeners work by replacing the calcium in the water
water softeners: with sodium. Sodium salts are soluble and do not generate scum or scale.
COLD WATER
¾
SERVICES
Laundries – Reduces scaling of heating
The ion exchange resin in the softener becomes exhausted after a few days
elements in washing machines and reduces
detergent consumption
operation and has to be regenerated. This is done automatically by passing
a saturated salt solution through the resin bed. The excess salt solution is
¾ Hotels – Reduces surface scaling on bathroom then flushed to waste.
fittings and clogging of shower heads
It is important that the water softener controller is correctly set up to
minimise the consumption of salt. If the resin is regenerated too frequently
or before the resin bed is exhausted then salt will be wasted. Most softeners
now trigger the regeneration cycle according
to the incoming water hardness (periodically
Bypass valve
measured by the maintenance company) and
Mains
Supply volume of water that has been processed
Isolation IV Isolation IV (measured by an internal water meter).
valve valve Duplex water softeners have two resin
Softened
water cylinders so that one can be regenerated
while the other is in use.
Programmer and
control head
Users should also be aware that the water
coming out of the resin bed is fully soft.
Fully soft water is not needed for most
applications so the soft water can be blended
with unsoftened mains water to the required
maximum hardness. This will reduce
the cost of operation and environmental
consequences of the salt discharge. Some
Resin Cylinder
Resin Cylinder
controllers incorporate a blending valve but

where this is not present the blending can be
achieved outside the softener.
Drain
Brine tank Softened water should not be used for
drinking or culinary purposes as the
taste may be impaired and long term
consumption of softened water with
increased sodium content is undesirable for
health reasons. Also, softeners can become
a source of bacterial contamination if not
Diagram of softening process properly maintained.
Ideally, softened water should not be used to flush toilets as this is

unnecessary and wasteful. However, it is not always feasible to split the cold
water services.
Membrane softening
Membrane softening is a form of reverse osmosis (RO). Water molecules
flow through the membrane under an imposed pressure but calcium ions
are rejected to waste.Various forms of membrane softening are used for the
supply of water to processes or applications that need a supply of soft water
but where an increased sodium content may be undesirable.
Water softener
© BSRIA BG 33/2014
POINT OF USE Air gap tap
FILTRATION
COLD WATER
Point of use filtration is intended to enhance Water quality

SERVICES
monitor
water quality by acting as a barrier to bacteria
and removing undesirable contaminants Drain clamp
that may influence taste. A combination of
Polishing
activated carbon, ceramic and membrane filter
filter cartridges are used depending on the Manifold
application. These are fitted immediately
prior to the outlet, usually under the sink.
The filters are disposable and must be Drain
regularly replaced as a dirty filter can result
Storage Inlet
in the water quality at the outlet being worse tank
than that at the supply.
Feed water
valve
There are also special filters that fit on Post filter Pre-filter
the end of outlets to provide additional RO Membrane
protection against water bacteria such as
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These are used in
Point of use filtration
hospitals and other situations requiring sterile water.
ON-LINE DISINFECTION
The water supplied by the water undertaker must be wholesome and fit for human consumption without further treatment.
However, this does not mean that the water is sterile. It is possible for bacteria that are present in very low numbers in the mains
water to multiply within building water systems. In principle this can be avoided by good design, control of water temperatures
and maintenance so that supplementary disinfection measures should not be required. Where it is not possible to do so, as may
be the case in some older buildings, then supplementary disinfection may be considered. Bacteria of particular concern are
legionellae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. There are a number of methods available for supplementary disinfection. The table
below summarises the more common methods.
On-line disinfection processes

Chlorine dioxide Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is created from the reaction of hazardous precursor chemicals that must be stored
on site. It is usually dosed into the cold water distribution system as it is less soluble in hot water. The risk of
pipework corrosion may be increased immediately downstream of the injection point.
At low concentration (<0.5 ppm), ClO2 is effective against legionella and other bacteria. However, there are
limits on the permissible level of total oxidants. These may include unreacted precursor chemicals and reaction
byproducts.
Copper / silver Copper and silver ions are created by electrolysis using copper / silver alloy electrodes and injected into the hot
ionisation or cold water distribution systems. This method is effective against legionella but it is difficult to control the active
silver concentration within the acceptable range in hard water. The use of silver as a disinfectant has run into
problems with European requirements for drinking water quality. For more information, refer to the Drinking
Water Inspectorate website (dwi.defra.gov.uk).
Ultraviolet light Hot or cold water is passed through a high intensity ultraviolet cell. There are no chemical risks with this method,
and it is widely used as a precautionary measure to reduce the levels of general bacteria in incoming water
supplies (mains or borehole) and for point of use disinfection for critical applications. Ultraviolet disinfection is
effective against all bacteria at the point of exposure but not persistent. Some manufacturers claim a downstream
beneficial effect on microbiological water quality.
Ozone Ozone (O3) is formed by an ozone generator that exposes oxygen to a high voltage electric field. Ozone is a
highly effective oxidising biocide with limited persistence and quickly reverts to oxygen without formation of
harmful by-products. Care is needed in the choice of the materials near the injection point as trace levels of ozone
will react with a wide range of materials including rubber that may be present in water fitting seals. Ozone is
widely used for water treatment at the utility scale. Small units are readily available for industrial process use but
it is not clear how cost-effective they might be for building applications compared to other possible disinfection
methods.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
*BS 1566-1:2002+A1:2011 Copper indirect cylinders INDIRECT WATER HEATING

for domestic purposes. Open vented copper cylinders.
Requirements and test methods
Indirect water heating is where heat is produced in a heating boiler
but then transferred to the hot water service via a heat exchanger. The
heat exchanger can be a hot water cylinder with a coil or a plate heat
exchanger.
A hot water cylinder may be vented to atmosphere, in which case the

pressure is dependent on the height of the cold water cistern above the
cylinder, or unvented.
HOT WATER
Vented copper cylinders are manufactured in accordance with BS 1566-1*.
SERVICES
There are three pressure grades:
Most hot water cylinders are Grade 2 or Grade 3.

Grade Maximum head of water
Grade 1 10 metres (1 bar)
Grade 2 15 metres (1.5 bar)
Grade 3 25 metres (2.5 bar)
Cylinder with integral cistern
In vented systems, the vent must remain open at

all times - draining a cylinder with a closed vent
could collapse the cylinder.
Open
vent pipe Inlet float New cylinders for single houses and small
valve commercial applications are pre-insulated with a
solid foam layer to comply with maximum heat
Water level Mains cold loss requirements (see Building Regulations Part
water supply L on page 51).
Cistern
Warning pipe
(to outside)
In some situations it is convenient to combine
the functions of the cistern and vented storage
cylinder. Prior to the availability of mains fed
unvented cylinders these combination cylinders
were common for apartments and other
System
Open vent Cold water locations where installing a separate high level
boiler pipe feed cistern would be impractical.
vented hot
water cylinder
Diverting
valve Coil
Pump
Bath
Radiator circuit Other outlets
Open vented hot water system

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Unvented cylinders are not actually “mains pressure” as they are sometimes
described. The internal pressure is usually limited to 3 bar (equal to
approximately 30 metres head of water) with a pressure reducing valve. To Hot water
accommodate the higher operating pressure than unvented cylinders, the Temperature probe
material of construction is usually stainless steel.
The principal components of an unvented cylinder are rather simple

though manufacturers often include space heating controls and valves to Test lever
the basic package.
Unvented cylinders are normally provided as a Discharge port

certified package complete with the pressure
HOT WATER
SERVICES
reducing valve, pressure / temperature relief valve Temperature / pressure relief valve.
and expansion vessel. They must only be installed Picture courtesy of Reliance Water Controls Ltd.
in accordance with Building Regulations (see
Building Regulations Part G on page 50) and
maintained by a competent person. Hot water
to taps
Insulation
Incorrect installation of an unvented storage cylinder layer
could result in catastrophic failure and injury.
Cold water
The purpose of a temperature/pressure relief valve feed
Inlet pressure regulator
(T/P valve) is to limit the temperature and pressure Immersion
Balanced cold
of the water in the cylinder. This prevents the risk supply to taps element
Temperature &
of explosion or injury in the event of failure of pressure relief valve
thermostats or other controls that limit the heat Expansion Return
input. The valve will suddenly release water from vessel to boiler
the cylinder if the temperature rises above 90-95°C Coil Tundish
or the pressure rises above a safe pressure defined
by the cylinder manufacturer, usually at least 4
Thermostat
bar. The discharge pipe must be routed to a safe
discharge location (see Building Regulations Part Discharge
G on page 50). If a T/P valve needs to be replaced, to outside
the replacement must be approved by the cylinder Flow from
boiler
manufacturer and fitted by a competent person.
Drain
point
Unvented hot water cylinder package

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
COMBINATION BOILERS
The most common form of combination boiler (shortened to combi-
boiler) consists of a conventional boiler with an integral plate heat
exchanger connected to the cold water supply. When there is a demand
for hot water, the primary heating flow is diverted through the plate heat
exchanger to heat the incoming cold water. The outlet of the plate heat
exchanger is connected directly to the points of use such as the sink, basin
and bath.
A condensing system boiler has three or four piped connections plus a
HOT WATER
condensate drain. The combi-version of the same boiler will have an
SERVICES
extra two pipe connections, for cold water in and hot water out. The
boiler manufacturer will generally provide a back plate to pre-configure
the pipework before mounting the boiler itself. This can be difficult when
retrofitting a boiler into a small space.
Condensing A system or combi boiler that is designed to condense some

boiler of the water from the flue gases thereby recovering some of
the latent heat and increasing the thermal efficiency.
Combi-boiler installation
System boiler A boiler that is connected to heat emitters such as radiators
and/or an indirect hot water cylinder or calorifier
Combi-boiler A boiler that incorporates hot water production within the
casing of the boiler
As in the case of unvented water cylinders, the combi-boiler is fitted with

an inlet pressure reducing valve, hot water expansion vessel and various
safety devices to prevent scalding.
Other combination boilers use a different design where the hot water is
stored in secondary containment surrounding the boiler heat exchanger.
This is known as a tank-in-tank system.
DIRECT GAS-FIRED WATER HEATERS

Direct gas fired water heaters consist of a gas burner firing into a heat
exchanger that is connected to the mains water supply. The heaters can be
instantaneous or incorporate water storage.
Single point instantaneous gas water heaters (geysers) in kitchens and

bathrooms were very popular up to the middle of the 20th century but
were gradually supplanted by central heating systems. Multi-point gas fired
water heaters are still available for situations that do not need the space
Picture courtesy of Hamworthy Heating Ltd.
heating function of a combi-boiler.
Commercial gas fired storage water heater.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
ELECTRIC WATER HEATING
Picture courtesy of Ariston Thermo

Single point electric water heaters (sink heaters) are available with or
without storage and widely used in commercial building applications as an
alternative to hot water distribution.
A new development is the “boiling water tap”. This provides near boiling
water suitable for human consumption including for coffee and tea making
and is an energy efficient alternative to boiling the kettle. The actual water
heating function is not in the tap but in a highly insulated water heating
unit installed underneath the sink.
HOT WATER
SERVICES
Electric water heating is more carbon-intensive than gas fired water heating
but point of use devices can be advantageous in low use applications if
they reduce the losses associated with hot water storage and long runs of
pipework from central plant.
Single point open outlet

electric storage water heater
Boiling water tap
HEAT PUMP WATER HEATERS

Air and ground source heat pumps are increasingly being installed as an
alternative to boilers. The heat pump water heater is a product designed
specifically for hot water production. It consists of a hot water cylinder
integrated with a small air to water heat pump. The air used as the heat
source is either taken from the immediate surroundings or ducted from
outside.
Ambient air source heat pump water heater

with integral storage.
Picture courtesy of General Electric

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
SOLAR HOT WATER

Solar thermal panels absorb heat from the sun to produce
hot water. There are two basic types of panels:
¾ Flat plate collectors consist of a high emissivity
surface that absorbs solar radiation and transfers it
to the water in the collector
¾ Evacuated tube collectors generally use heat
pipe technology to transfer heat from an absorber
in an evacuated tube to water in a header.
HOT WATER
SERVICES
Both types of collector work with both direct and diffuse
solar radiation but maximum benefit is achieved when the
Flat plate solar collectors mounted on a flat roof
Picture courtesy of Solar Century collector faces south and is tilted towards the sun.
Although direct hot water solar systems are used in Mediterranean

countries, the majority of systems fitted in the UK are indirect. This
means that the heat transfer fluid can contain antifreeze solution
and the system does not need to be drained in the winter. Heat is
transferred to the hot water service via a plate heat exchanger, hot
water calorifier or supplementary coil in the hot water cylinder.
Evacuated tube solar collector
Additional information on solar hot water can be

found in BSRIA Guide BG 1/2008 The Illustrated
Guide to Renewable Technologies.
Solar hot water schematic

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
PUMPED CIRCULATION AND

BALANCING
Where the distance from the hot water generator or storage to the outlet is
more than a few metres, the time taken for hot water to arrive at the outlet
can potentially result in significant wastage. The delay is a combination of
the transit time and the initial loss of heat to the cold pipe.
In order to allow for rapid availability of hot water,

Hot water outlets
systems with long pipe runs are normally installed as
recirculation loops where the hot water is continuously
HOT WATER
SERVICES
pumped around the building. The temperature drop 60ºC

around the loop should not be more than 5°C. This
means that fully hot water is always available within a Recirculation loop
few seconds of turning on the tap. 55ºC
The temperature drop around the loop is controlled Domestic hot

by the pipework insulation and the flow rate. The Boiler water storage
connections cylinder
pipework serving outlets is sized according to the
expected simultaneous demand for hot water (see pipe
sizing on page 29). The recirculation pipework is sized
only on the required flow rate to achieve temperature
loss around the circuit and is usually smaller in Cold water
supply
diameter.
Principle of hot water recirculation loop
In copper pipe systems the velocity should not exceed 1 m/s in the
recirculation pipework otherwise there is a serious risk of turbulent erosion
and pipe failure.
Problems arise in complex systems with multiple loops where the flows
are not balanced. In some hospital systems where the hot water loops
are taken to almost every outlet there may be hundreds of loops. If no
balancing valves are provided then loops with a lower resistance will receive
disproportionately high flow and this can result in local erosion even if the
overall return flow to the cylinder is correct.
Balancing of hot water loops can be done using temperature measurements

at a point prior to where the return loop re-joins the distribution but actual
flow measurement is preferable to establish that there is no erosion risk. If
no metering stations are available in the distribution network then flows
can be measured using portable
If Loop A is low resistance at least one balancing valve is needed to
ultrasonic flow metering (see ensure that loops B and C receive adequate flow without Hot water outlets
metering and sub-metering on excessive velocity in A.
page 3).
60ºC
Recirculation loops have always
been installed in large commercial Loop A
55ºC
and public buildings with
centralised hot water supply but
Hot water
are now increasingly common in outlets
larger private houses. However, a Boiler Domestic hot water
connections storage cylinder
point of use water heater could be
preferable to a long recirculation
loop serving a low usage outlet. Hot water Loop B
outlets
Cold water
supply Loop C
Balancing of hot water loops

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Major product categories with water WATER EFFICIENCY

efficiency labels:
Building Regulations Part G requires an estimation of the water use of
¾ Baths new housing (see page 50). This is based on the use of the domestic water
¾ Basin taps calculation model published by the Department for Communities and
¾ Sink taps Local Government (CLG).
¾ Shower controls
An on-line implementation of the domestic water efficiency calculator (by
¾ Shower handsets
the Bathroom Manufacturers Association) can be found at
¾ Electric showers www.thewatercalculator.org.uk. This also allows for verification of code
¾ WC suites levels for water consumption according to the Code for Sustainable
¾ WC cisterns Homes. The underlying product data for the water calculator from a
¾ Replacement WC flushing devices wide range of manufacturers can be found at www.europeanwaterlabel.eu.
¾ Urinal controllers Products are also given an efficiency label. The database can be searched by
¾ Supply line flow controllers product type, performance and manufacturer.
¾ Grey water recycling units
Enhanced Capital Allowances
The Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECA) scheme provides tax benefits for
companies investing in water saving technology from an approved list of
products known as the Water Technology List. Note that the investment
FITTINGS
cost considered for the enhanced capital allowance may include the
installation cost of the product. More information can be found at
www.hmrc.gov.uk/capital-allowances/fya/water.htm.
Product categories eligible for Enhanced Capital Allowances
Cleaning in place equipment Water management equipment for

Efficient showers mechanical seals
Efficient taps Meters and monitoring equipment
Dual flush push button
Efficient toilets Rainwater harvesting equipment
Efficient washing machines Small scale slurry and sludge
dewatering equipment
Flow controllers
Vehicle wash water reclaim units
Greywater recovery and reuse
equipment Water efficient industrial cleaning
equipment
Leakage detection equipment

!
!

Efficiency label for WCs.
Picture courtesy of The Water Label Company Ltd.
© BSRIA BG 33/2014
BATH, BASIN AND SINK FITTINGS

Taps and mixers
Traditional taps use rubber seals or “tap washers”. The washer gradually
wears and hardens and must eventually be replaced as a maintenance task.
Thermostatic mixing valves

Single lever
A thermostatic mixing valve (TMV) blends hot and cold water, limiting mixing tap
the temperature of water coming out of the tap to a safe level to prevent
scalding. It is not recommended to install a single TMV to supply a
complete hot water circuit as this would increase the risk of colonisation
of that circuit by legionella bacteria. See scalding on page 1 and Building
Regulations Part G on page 50.
HOT COLD
FITTINGS
Basin
Temperature
limited hot
water
Double ended shower pump for hot
and cold water
Picture courtesy of Stuart Turner Ltd.
TMV
Hot supply Cold supply
Thermostatic mixing valve connections
Shower mixers
Shower mixers work off system pressure and incorporate a manually
operated valve to switch between the tap outlet and shower head.
Shower mixers may be combined with an under-bath pump to increase

delivery pressure. Where thermostatic mixing valves (TMVs) are used, the
shower pump should be fitted before the TMV. Double ended shower
pumps pressurise both the hot and cold water. Bath mixer tap with shower diverter
Thermostatic mixing valve (TMV) Thermostatic bath mixer Hand held spray for kitchen sink
Picture courtesy of Altecnic Ltd. Picture courtesy of Grohe Ltd. Picture courtesy of Abode Home Products Ltd.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
ELECTRIC SHOWERS
Basic electric showers incorporate a heating element but rely on the cold
water supply pressure. Power showers include an integral pump for use
with low water supply pressures.
WASHING MACHINE AND

DISHWASHER CONNECTIONS
Washing machines and dishwashers may be hot or cold fill. Appliances
should only be connected to purpose designed isolating valves via
approved hoses.
Washing machine
supply hoses
FITTINGS
Drainage
hose
Electric shower with integral pump
Picture courtesy of Triton Showers
Cold water
supply
Hot water
supply
Isolation valves Washing machine

connections
DRINKING FOUNTAINS
Traditional drinking fountains are fed directly from the mains or potable
water storage. For indoor locations these have largely been displaced by
bottled water or packaged units incorporating filtration and refrigeration.
These units must be properly maintained including cleaning on a daily
basis and periodic replacement of filters.
Refrigerated drinking fountain
Although the intent of packaged units is to improve the aesthetic quality of
the water, this can be compromised by installing the unit as the sole outlet
at the end of a long pipe run that may be subject to low flows and heat
gains.
OUTDOOR TAPS
Outdoor taps should be provided with isolation valves to allow for
maintenance. Any outdoor pipework should be insulated.
Outdoor taps fed with reclaimed water must be clearly marked as such (see
Outdoor tap Rainwater on page 24).

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
DRAINAGE
In the context of this guide, drainage is the transport of wastewater within
the building from the point where it arises to the sewer.
The four elements of the drainage system are usually:

1. A connection to the bathroom fitting or appliance
2. A trap to prevent sewer gases entering the building
3. Horizontal drainage
4. Vented soil stack
Traps Water
Traps containing a water seal are essential to prevent toxic gases from seal
depth
the sewer system entering the building through the appliance drain. The
minimum trap size and seal depth is detailed in Table 1 of Section 1 of
Approved Document H (see Building Regulations on page 50).
Traps are fitted to baths, basins, sinks and shower trays as a version of the
so-called “U-bend”. In most cases the trap will connect on to the waste Sink waste trap
fitting plughole with a standard thread (1¼ inch BSP for basins and
1½ inch BSP for baths and showers).
Traps for WCs are incorporated in the design of the

WC pan. The water seal is continuously maintained
in use but can disappear through evaporation if the appliance is not
used for several months, for example when a property is vacant.
DRAINAGE
Foul waste
connection
Pipe materials Water seal depth

Plastics have largely replaced the use of metal pipework for above
ground drainage in non-pressure applications. Ductile cast iron
systems conforming to BS EN 877* are still available from several
manufacturers for special applications. Cast iron is used where a
stronger material is required, particularly in high rise buildings and
locations that may be subject to impact damage or vandalism. It is Water seal in WC pan
also non-combustible and fire resistant.
A list of materials and relevant standards is contained in Approved *BS EN 877:1999+A1:2006 Cast iron pipes and fittings, their
joints and accessories for the evacuation of water from buildings.
Document H (see Building Regulations Part H on page 50).
Requirements, test methods and quality assurance.
These include cast iron, copper, galvanised steel and various plastics.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
GRAVITY DRAINAGE
1 Floor gully
6 6 6
2 Air admittance In a gravity drainage system all horizontal
2
4 4 4 valve pipes are laid to a slight fall in the direction
of the soil stack or sewer connection. If the
3 Stack
fall is too little then the pipe will not drain
4 Branch
discharge pipe efficiently. If the fall is too great and too
4 4 4 long then there is a possibility of the suction
5 Drain
created by the discharge removing the water
6 Stack vent
seal.
6 3 3 3
4 4 1 4
The optimum fall for different situations is
as recommended in Approved Document H
(see table below).
5 5 5
Primary ventilated system with air admittance valve
Common branch discharge pipes (unventilated)

Appliance Max. no. to be Max. length of Min. size of pipe Gradient limits
connected branch pipe (m) (mm) (mm fall per metre)
WC outlet > 80 mm 8 15 100 18[2] to 90
WC outlet < 80 mm 1 15 75[3] 18 to 90
[1]
Urinal - bowl 3 50
3[1]
DRAINAGE
Urinal - trough 65 18 to 90
[1]
Urinal - slab 3
Washbasin or bidet 3 1.7 30 18 to 22
1.1 30 18 to 44
0.7 30 18 to 87
3.0 40 18 to 44
4 4.0 50 18 to 44
[1]
Should be as short as possible to prevent deposition.
[2]
May be reduced to 9 mm on long drain runs where space is restricted, but only if more than one WC is connected.
[3]
Not recommended where disposal of sanitary towels may take place via the WC, as there is an increased risk of blockages.
[4]
Slab urinals longer than seven persons should have more than none outlet.
There are a variety of technical solutions for excessive suction discussed in

Approved Document H and BS EN 12056-2*. These include additional
ventilation pipes and air admittance valves.
Air admittance valves in multi-storey commercial buildings are often

located in cleaners’ store rooms adjacent to toilet facilities. Poorly
maintained or defective air admittance valves can result in unpleasant smells
and health risks.
*BS EN 12056-2:2000 Gravity drainage systems

Air admittance valve inside buildings. Sanitary pipework, layout and
at the top of a stack calculation.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
PUMPED DRAINAGE
In most cases drainage is achieved purely by gravity but it is increasingly
common for pumped drainage to be incorporated in refurbishment
projects to allow more flexibility in the location of toilets and showers, for
example in basements. Pumping to a higher level before discharge is also
used where there needs to be protection from downstream sewer surcharge
(sewer backflow).
Sewage pumping installations for use inside buildings should be designed

in accordance with BS EN 12056-4*.
Macerating sewage pump
Larger systems may use buried collection tanks with submersible
Picture courtesy of Saniflo
macerating pumps. For small houses and apartments there are several
specialist manufacturers that produce “behind the toilet” pumping units for
sewage and/or greywater. *BS EN 12056-4:2000 Gravity drainage systems
inside buildings. Wastewater lifting plants. Layout and
calculation
*BS 8515:2009+A1:2013 Rainwater harvesting
RAINWATER HARVESTING systems. Code of practice
Rainwater harvesting can reduce consumption of wholesome water
with consequent cost savings for metered consumers. There are also
upstream and downstream environmental benefits. Reduced fresh water Applications for direct use of rainwater
consumption means less stress on natural resources while the reduced
¾ Toilet flushing
discharge volume helps with sewage treatment.
¾ Vehicle washing
Rainwater originates from condensed water vapour and is relatively free ¾ External cleansing
of contaminants until it hits the ground or building surfaces. It can be ¾ Irrigation
DRAINAGE
collected, stored and used without disinfection for a variety of purposes ¾ Cooling towers
that do not require wholesome water or, with treatment, upgraded to
wholesome water quality.
Packaged rainwater systems for single houses through to large commercial

buildings are readily available. The package includes the filtration, storage
and pumps. This must be connected to dedicated rainwater collection
pipework and recycled water distribution pipework. Surplus rainwater is
discharged to the usual rainwater drainage and deficiencies in supply are
made up with mains water.
Collection tanks are located in cellars or underground to allow for gravity

drainage and avoid the need for tank insulation against solar gain. Tanks are
sized partly according to demand so that water is not stored for more than
a month. Further information on sizing is given in BS 8515*.
Rainwater pumping set
The available rainwater resource depends on the area of collection surface, Picture courtesy of Wilo UK
the amount of rainfall and a drainage coefficient. The drainage coefficient
accounts for the fact that roof surfaces will retain some water, particularly
when the rainfall is neither prolonged nor intense. For example, flat roofs Rainwater
with gravel will retain more water than a pitched slate or metal roof.
Drainage coefficients typically vary between 0.6 and 0.9.
The installation of rainwater systems is covered by BS 8515*. This includes

discussion of optimum sizing of rainwater systems.
Most systems to do not treat the collected rainwater (other than by coarse
filtration) or guarantee that it is wholesome. Any taps supplying rainwater
for outdoor uses such as irrigation and vehicle washing should be therefore
be clearly labelled as “not for drinking”. Not for drinking
Rainwater tap sign
© BSRIA BG 33/2014
GREYWATER REUSE
26% Toilet flushing
Outdoor use Greywater is wastewater from domestic baths, basins, showers
11%
and the rinse cycle of washing machines. Studies carried out
Dish washing
7% by water companies suggest that (on average) this equates to
Clothes washing
35% around 35% of water use in housing.
9% Personal washing
12% Miscellaneous Greywater reclamation can be attractive in housing as the
amount of treated greywater available is similar to that
required for toilet flushing, and is independent of weather
Data extracted from Greywater for domestic users: conditions. The principal applications for greywater reuse are
an information guide, Environment Agency 2010 toilet flushing and irrigation. Water savings of 20%-30% are
feasible.
Average water use in houses
Bathroom greywater is only mildly contaminated with
Mains water bacteria, dirt, soaps and detergents and can be recycled or
makeup 2 reused with minimal treatment. The systems do however
require regular maintenance including topping up of
disinfectant (where used) and cleaning of filters.
Greywater Secondary
sources: bath, reclaimed water Reclaimed Packaged systems include filtration, disinfection, storage
basin, rinse water storage tank water use
etc. and pumps. This must be connected to dedicated greywater
collection pipework and recycled water distribution
pipework. Surplus greywater is discharged to the sewer and
Dedicated
gravity Pumped deficiencies in supply are made up with mains water.
drainage supply
Reclaimed water is either pumped directly to the point of

Primary use or to a high level cistern for gravity distribution to WC
DRAINAGE
Coarse filtration reclaimed water
and disinfection cisterns and other uses.
storage tank
The installation of greywater systems is covered by BS 8525*.

This includes discussion of optimum sizing of greywater
systems. The packaged plant is generally located at or below
Diversion to sewer Drain down Mains water
to sewer makeup 1 ground level to allow for gravity drainage into the storage
tank.
Greywater system
Packaged greywater systems serving a single bathroom were
promoted recently, however at the time of writing there are
none on the market.
Further information and a list of suppliers can be obtained

from the UK Rainwater Harvesting Association
(www.ukrha.org).
*BS 8525-1:2010 Greywater systems. Code of

practice.
Packaged greywater system
Picture courtesy of Aquality ltd.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
PIPE MATERIALS AND JOINTING *BS EN 1057:2006+A1:2010 Copper and copper

alloys. Seamless, round copper tubes for water and gas
FOR WATER SERVICES in sanitary and heating applications
Copper *BS EN 10255:2004 Non-alloy steel tubes suitable for

Copper tube is considered as the traditional material for hot and cold welding and threading.Technical delivery conditions
water services, but it only became widely used for this with the advent of
standard sizes of light gauge tube and fittings in the 1930s. Previously, lead,
galvanised steel and cast iron were used.
Copper is resistant to corrosion in hot and cold water services through the
Copper tube to BS EN 1057* – Common
formation of a protective scale. Where that fails to form properly, the tube
sizes of half hard light gauge tube
may be subject to various forms of corrosion leading to perforation.
Size Outside Thickness
The standard for copper pipe for water services systems is BS EN 1057*. mm diameter mm
mm
Metric copper tube is specified by the outside diameter. The common sizes
for hot and cold water services are shown to the right. 10 10 0.6
15 15 0.7
Note that imperial sizes of copper tube that may be found in old buildings
(pre-1960) can be connected to modern metric pipe and fittings with 22 22 0.9
adapters. Attempting to use a metric pipe fitting directly with an imperial 28 28 0.9
pipe may not produce a reliable joint.
35 35 1.2
Galvanised steel 42 42 1.2

Galvanised steel was widely used for hot and cold water pipes prior to the 54 54 1.2
adoption of light gauge copper and is still used for large diameter cold
water pipes in industry.
Galvanising provides a sacrificial zinc layer on the surface of

Galvanised steel pipe dimensions to BS EN 10255* –
a steel tube, either by an electrolytic process or hot dipping
Common sizes of medium weight tube
the tube in molten zinc. Depending on the hardness of the
water, the zinc layer may last long enough for the water Nominal Nominal Outside Thickness
bore bore diameter mm
to form a scale that inhibits further corrosion. If the zinc
inches mm mm
layer does disappear then the underlying steel will start to
corrode resulting in discoloured water, particularly if the ½ 15 21.3 2.6
INSTALLATION
water is allowed to stagnate. ¾ 20 26.9 2.6
The standard for the dimensions of galvanised steel pipe for 1 25 33.7 3.2
cold water services is BS EN 10255*. 1¼ 32 42.4 3.2
Steel pipe, whether galvanised or not, is specified by 1½ 40 48.3 3.2

the nominal bore, which relates to the inside diameter. 2 50 60.3 3.6
Confusingly, the same steel pipes and fittings may be
2½ 65 76.1 3.6
referred to by both the metric nominal bore and the
imperial nominal bore as shown to the right, though 3 80 88.9 4
neither of these is the actual dimension.
Although hot dipped galvanised pipe (and galvanised tanks) work well for
cold water services, the protective effect is temperature dependent. Above
50°C the zinc no longer forms a sacrificial anode. Galvanised pipework is
therefore not recommended for hot water services.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Stainless steel
Thin wall stainless steel pipe - common sizes
Conventional stainless steel pipe is not generally used in hot and cold water
Inside Outside Thickness services on the grounds of cost. Thin wall stainless systems are however
diameter diameter mm
mm mm
competitive with copper and plastic.
10.0 12.0 1.0 Stainless steel has sometimes been adopted in areas such as Scotland where
13.0 15.0 1.0 soft acidic water would lead to rapid corrosion of copper pipe.
16.0 18.0 1.0
Stainless steel pipe is corrosion resistant as long as oxygen levels in
19.6 22.0 1.2 the water stay high, however it can suffer problems due to microbially
induced pitting corrosion if water is allowed to stagnate. Problems have
25.6 28.0 1.2
also occurred in outside pipes where rainwater has become trapped in
32.0 35.0 1.5 insulation materials in contact with the stainless steel and corrosion has
39.0 42.0 1.5 occurred.
51.0 54.0 1.5 Thin wall stainless steel pipe is joined by crimped fittings and adapters.
PVC-U and ABS

Both PVC-U and ABS pressure pipe (usually grey in colour) are used for
PVC-U pipe - common sizes
hot and cold water services. Both are suitable and widely used for large
Inside Thickness mm diameter cold water services pipework. They can also be used for hot
diameter mm
water (up to 60°C) but designers must be aware of the severe reduction in
PN10* PN16* allowable working pressure with temperature. Failure to take account of
25.0 - 1.9
this could result in catastrophic joint failure.
32.0 1.6 2.4 There are standards for the dimensions of PVC-U and ABS pipes but users
40.0 1.9 3.0 are recommended to avoid mixing products from different manufacturers
to avoid any incompatibilities.
50.0 2.4 3.7
63.0 3.0 4.7 Both PVC-U and ABS pressure pipe can be jointed (or connected to
adapters and flanges) using solvent weld fittings. Solvent welding involves
75.0 3.6 5.6
applying a volatile solvent adhesive to the contact surfaces of the pipe and
90.0 4.3 6.7 fitting causing the surface layers to soften and partially dissolve. When the
110.0 4.2 6.6 pipe and fitting are brought together the surfaces fuse and the joint hardens
as the solvent evaporates.
INSTALLATION
125.0 4.8 7.4
140.0 5.4 8.3 It is important to use the manufacturer’s recommended solvent adhesive for
the material – failure to do so can result in a weak joint or stress fracture.
160.0 6.2 9.5
*PN (pressure nominal) numbers give the Surfaces for solvent welding should be prepared exactly according to the
approximate pressure rating in bars. PN10 is pipe manufacturer’s instructions (not all should be abraded and some
generally used for cold water pipes, whereas PN16 require pre-treatment) and the solvent adhesive applied as directed. It is
is generally used for hot water pipes. absolutely essential that the joint is not stressed in any way before the
solvent has fully evaporated as this can result in premature failure. This may
take up to 24 hours.
Fusion welded plastic pipe

Butt fusion jointing process
Glass reinforced polypropylene and polyethylene plastic pipes are used in
¾ Cut pipe and prepare ends public water supply and also in buildings. The fusion jointing method is
¾ Mount pipe in fusion jig arguably quicker and more reliable than the solvent welding used with
PVC-U and ABS but requires special equipment and training.
¾ Fix heating plattens and/or insets
¾ Bring surfaces up to fusion temperature
Joints are made with butt welds or proprietary fittings and adapters.
¾ Remove heaters and force parts together in
jig This pipe is slightly flexible and it is essential that the pipe run is fully
supported in accordance with manufacturers’ recommendations. This is so
that any mechanical joints (for example flanged joints) are not stressed.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Flexible plastic
The common forms of flexible plastic
Flexible plastic pipe is increasingly used in domestic plumbing, particularly
pipe include:
in refurbishment projects where the flexibility to navigate around obstacles
and through confined spaces is invaluable. The use of plastic pipe also ¾ High density polyethylene (HDPE)
avoids hot work during installation. ¾ Polybutylene (PB)
¾ Multi-layer composite pipe (MLCP)
Joints are made with matching push fit connectors and adapters or
¾ Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)
matching compression fittings.
A few products can be jointed with conventional brass compression fittings

(intended for copper tube) and tube inserts. Compression fittings should
never be used on plastic pipe without tube inserts.
Jointing
Pipe Compression Solder Crimp Proprietary Threaded

material olive capillary with push fit and screwed
fitting or O-ring
brazed
BS EN 1057 9 9 9 9 8
Copper
BS EN 10255 Special 8 8 8 9
Galvanised fittings with
steel rubber seals
for repairs & MLCP press fit to BSP male pipe
fitting Picture courtesy of Uponor Ltd.
transition
Thin wall 8 8 9 8 8
stainless steel
Pipe Compression Fusion Proprietary Proprietary Solvent

material crimp push fit weld
INSTALLATION
PVC & ABS Special 8 8 8 9

fittings with
rubber seals
for repairs &
transition
PEX & PB 9 8 8 9 8
HDPE (fusion) 8 Butt or 8 8 8
socket
fusion
MLCP 9 No 9 9 8

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
BS 6700:2006+A1:2009 Design, installation, testing PIPE SIZING

and maintenance of services supplying water for
domestic use within buildings and their curtilages Pipes are sized so that sufficient pressure and flow is available at each outlet.
Specification (withdrawn standard)
In the case of a mains supply it must be recognised that the supply pressure
BS EN 806-3:2006 Specifications for installations will reduce as the flow rate increases. The system is therefore designed in
inside buildings conveying water for human
relation to the minimum supply pressure available at the maximum demand,
consumption. Pipe sizing. Simplified method
taking account of the diversity of end users and outlets.
CIBSE Guide B: Heating,Ventilating, Air Conditioning
and Refrigeration 2004 For individual small houses it is not usually necessary to carry out calculations
for pipe sizing. The main supply to bathrooms and baths uses 22 mm copper
or equivalent. Supplies to individual basins and WC cisterns use 15 mm
copper or equivalent.
For larger buildings, including apartment blocks, it is essential

Loading units - hot and cold water supply (BS 6700:2006)
to carry out proper design calculations based on the number
Type of appliance Loading units (LU) and type of outlets. Although this design task is implemented in
several software programmes it is still possible to do this by hand
WC flushing cistern 2 using the concept of loading units.
Wash basin ½ - DN 15 1.5 to 3
A loading unit is a theoretical quantity that reflects the amount
Bath tap ¾ - DN 20 10 of water likely to be used by a typical appliance. The sum of
loading units downstream of any point can be converted into
Bath tap 1 - DN 25 22
an equivalent probable flow rate by means of standard chart or
Shower 3 table. Assumptions for loading units and a chart or table can be
found in BS 6700, BS EN 806-3 and CIBSE Guide B (see box).
Sink tap ½ - DN 15 3
The process of estimating the flow using demand units is as
Sink tap ¾ - DN 20 5
follows:
Domestic clothes or dishwashing
3 1. Draw a tree structure representing the water supply
machines ½ - DN 15 network.
NOTE 1 WC cisterns with either single or dual flush control have
2. Calculate the sum of downstream demand units through
the same LU.
each branch in the system.
NOTE 2 The wash basin LU is for use where pillar taps are
installed. The larger LU is applicable to situations such as schools 3. Convert the sum of demand units into an equivalent flow.
INSTALLATION
and those offices where there is a peak period of use. Where
spray taps are installed, an equivalent continuous demand of 0.04
4. Add on any continuous flows.
l/s should be assumed.
NOTE 3 Urinal cistern demand is very low, and is normally
Once the flow is estimated for each branch then the potential
disregarded. pressure drop from source to outlet at the design flow rate can
be calculated for different pipe sizes. To simplify this calculation,
NOTE 4 Outlet fittings for industrial purposes or regarding high
peak demands, should be taken into account by adding 100% of standard fittings such as bends and tees can be evaluated as an
their flow rate to the simultaneous demand for other appliances equivalent length of straight pipe.
obtained by using LUs.
The available source pressure will depend on:
a. for tank fed systems, the storage height relative to the outlet
Example equivalent pipe lengths for copper pipe b. for mains fed systems, the mains pressure (at the total flow
rate) and height relative to the outlet
Pipe size Equivalent length (metres) The objective of the design calculation is to ensure that each outlet still
Elbow Tee Check valve receives sufficient pressure to operate effectively. If the pressure is too low
then the upstream pipe sizes can be increased.
15 0.5 0.6 2.5
22 0.8 1.0 4.3 When designing systems with plastic pipe, the manufacturer of the pipe
may suggest sizes that are equivalent in capacity to copper tube. However,
28 1.0 1.5 5.6 this choice is influenced by the number of fittings in the pipe run, which
35 1.4 2.0 6.0 may have a much smaller internal diameter than the pipe and thus provide
most of the overall flow resistance.
Source: Domestic Water Supply 2nd edition,
RH Garrett, Blackwell Publishing
© BSRIA BG 33/2014
SUPPORT AND INSULATION OF PIPEWORK

Support
The maximum pipe support spacing depends on the pipe diameter and
material. Recommendations are given in various pipe standards and by
manufacturers.
General pipework supports should allow lateral movement

Typical maximum horizontal pipe support spacing
during thermal expansion and contraction without abrasion.
Copper Plastic Stainless
Additional supports should be provided for horizontal (ABS & steel
pipework either side of heavy fittings such as flanges, valves PVC-U)
and water meters on larger pipes and for suspended pumps on at 20°C
all sizes. Size copper / NB / DN
15 mm / ½” / 15 mm 1.2 m 0.8 m 1.8 m

Insulation
Hot and cold water distribution pipework in buildings other 22 mm / ¾” / 20 mm 1.8 m 0.9 m 2.4 m
than dwellings is generally insulated up to the point of use. 28 mm / 1” / 25 mm 1.8 m 1.0 m 2.4 m
The practical reasons for this are: 35 mm / 1¼” / 32 mm 2.4 m 1.1 m 2.7 m
1. Energy conservation (hot water pipework) 42 mm / 1½” / 40 mm 2.4 m 1.2 m 3.0 m

2. Avoidance of temperature changes during distribution, 54 mm / 2” / 50 mm 2.7 m 1.3 m 3.0 m
for water quality and legionella control purposes
3. Avoidance of condensation (cold water pipework)
4. Avoidance of freezing where pipes pass through unheated
Heat loss limits for pipework associated with domestic hot
spaces or outside water systems
Part L of the Building Regulations requires that heat gains Pipe outside diameter (mm) Maximum heat loss (W/m)
and losses from pipes used for hot water services are limited.
8 7.06
Guidance for dwellings is provided in Table 5 of the Domestic
Building Services Compliance Guide and is summarised in 10 7.23
the table to the right (see Building Regulations Part L on
12 7.35
page 51). In summary, only the following pipes need to be
INSTALLATION
insulated: 15 7.89
¾ All pipes passing through unheated spaces or outside 22 9.12
¾ Hot water pipes in proximity to hot water storage 28 10.07
vessels
35 11.08
¾ Hot water circulation loops
42 12.19
This applies both to new housing and to existing systems 54 14.12
where the boiler or hot water storage is replaced.
Further guidance on converting heat loss limits to insulation
Insulation for hot water pipework, where it is required,
thickness for specific thermal conductivities is available in the
should be selected to provide the following maximum heat TIMSA publication HVAC guidance for achieving compliance with part
loss from an insulated horizontal pipe in still air based on L of the Building Regulations. This can be downloaded for free from
conditions of 60°C pipe temperature and 15°C ambient www.timsa.org.uk
temperature.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Common abbreviations for pipe labelling LABELLING

BCWS Boosted cold water service All pipes in buildings other than dwellings should be labelled to identify
CHW Chilled water (for cooling) the services and prevent accidental cross-connection.Valves should also be
CWDS Cold water down service (water
labelled and cross referenced to pipework schematics in the plant room.
from storage tank)
Pipes in single houses with basic central heating and hot water systems
CWS Cold water service
are not generally labelled and the same type of pipe may be used for
DWS Drinking water servive (if different services. Plumbers need to be especially careful to correctly
segregated) identify existing pipes before making new connections. Where there are
HTG Heating additional fluid services, such as solar collectors, heat pump ground loops
HWS Hot water service and reclaimed water, labelling is essential.
LTHW Low temperature hot water (for
heating)
The table below shows the basic colour scheme in accordance with BS
1710:1984 Specification for identification of pipelines and services.
MCW Mains cold water
Basic Colour Scheme in Accordance with BS 1710

Pipe Contents Basic ID Colour Colour Code ID Basic ID Colour
Drinking Green Auxiliary blue Green
Cooling (Primary) Green White White White Green
Boiler Feed Green Crimson White Crimson Green
Condensate Green Crimson Emerald Crimson Green
Chilled Green White Emerald White Green
Central Heating < 100ºC Green Blue Crimson Blue Green
Central Heating > 100ºC Green Crimson Blue Crimson Green
Cold Down Service Green White Blue White Green
Hot Water Supply Green White Crimson White Green
Hydraulic Power Green Salmon Pink Green
INSTALLATION
Sea, River, Untreated Green Green Green
Fire Extinguishing Green Red Green
Note that the banding is applied over the insulation. Text on the
label is extremely useful as few people will remember the colour
scheme other than green is for water, yellow for gas and brown for
oil. Abbreviations on pipe labels should be self-explanatory where
possible and may be followed by the “Flow” or “Return”. Direction
of flow arrows should also be included.
Banding on pipes

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
VALVES
In addition to valves integral to appliances, the following valves are found in
hot and cold water services:
Valve type Location or function Illustration
Stop valve Located at the boundary of the property to isolate the

(Shut off valve) water supply to the building and allow maintenance of the
water meter. An additional stop valve is located inside the
building where the mains water pipe enters the building
to shut off the water supply in an emergency or for
maintenance.
Picture courtesy of Pegler Yorkshire
Float valve Located in the cold water storage cistern to control the
water level. The float is a plastic ball attached to the end of
the brass lever.
Gate valve Used as an isolation valve. Largely superseded by quarter-

turn ball valves.
INSTALLATION
Picture courtesy of Crane Fluid Systems
Quarter turn ball Used as an isolation valve on pipework typically up to

valve 50 mm nominal bore. Located prior to maintainable fittings
and for isolating sections of the distribution system
Picture courtesy of Crane Fluid Systems

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Butterfly valve Used as an isolation valve on pipework over 50 mm

nominal bore.
Picture courtesy of Albion Valves (UK) Ltd.

Appliance isolation For attaching hoses between the water distribution
valve pipework and washing machines or dishwashers
Basin or bath Provided to allow the tap washer to be changed without

isolation valve draining the system. Operated with a flat blade screwdriver
INSTALLATION
Check valve Allows flow of water in one direction only. Located

(Non-return valve) downstream of cold and/or hot water risers in apartments
Double check valve Allows flow of water in one direction only. Located prior to
(double non-return outside taps or other hose connection points
valve)

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Reduced pressure Located downstream of the cold and/or hot water riser in
zone (RPZ) valve high rise apartments and in certain commercial applications
for backflow prevention. Each manufacturer has a different
design.
Thermostatic mixing Located under basins and baths to restrict the maximum
valve hot water temperature. See Bath, basin and sink fittings on
page 20.
Picture courtesy of Reliance Water Controls Ltd.
Flow regulating valve Installed to enable the balancing of pumped hot water loops
INSTALLATION
Picture courtesy of Albion Valves (UK) Ltd.
Pressure regulating Small PRVs are installed prior to an unvented water heater
valve (PRV) or combi boiler to reduce mains pressure to 3 bar.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Automatic air vent To release air and avoid air locks during filling of the system
Vacuum relief valve Installed in some unvented hot water systems to avoid
depressurisation of the system due to cooling
Temperature and Located next to the hot water storage or heater to prevent
pressure relief valve scalding in the event of system malfunction
INSTALLATION
Drain valve Installed to allow for draining sections of the distribution
system and storage vessels

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
LEAK DETECTION SYSTEMS

There are several types of leak detection system used in building services.
¾ Area sensors are based on a special cable that runs through the
area that may be affected by leakage and connect via an electronic
interface to a BMS or local alarm. Any water coming into contact
with the cable permeates through the sheath and completes
the circuit between two conductors, activating an alarm and/or
automatic isolation valve.
¾ Point sensors detect water that has leaked and collected on a flat
surface and connect via an electronic interface to a BMS or local
alarm. They work by sensing an optical reflection or an increase in
conductivity between two electrodes. Any water accumulating under
the sensor activates an alarm and/or automatic isolation valve. These
are used in bunds, valve chambers, at the base of risers and under Meter based volumetric leak detector
baths and shower trays. Picture courtesy of Aqualeak Detection Ltd.
¾ Meter-based volumetric leak detectors are based on the principle

that certain areas or services should not be using any water at night.
These monitor the water meter and can detect a burst pipe, joint
failure or a tap left running but may not be sensitive enough to
detect a minor leak due to a pinhole.
¾ Self-contained volumetric leak detectors operate as a “water fuse”.
They detect excessive flow rates and unexpected flow over time and
automatically shut off the water supply.
Self-contained volumetric leak detector

Picture courtesy of Aqualeak Detection Ltd.
PRE-COMMISSION CLEANING
The aim of the installer should be to install the system as cleanly as
possible:
INSTALLATION
¾ Pipe should be supplied capped and stored in a clean and dry

environment prior to installation. Fittings and valves should be
bagged.
¾ Pipe should be cut and otherwise prepared for installation
using appropriate tools and procedures recommended by the
manufacturer. Cut ends of copper tube should be deburred. Cut
ends of plastic pipe should be chamfered.
¾ Only approved jointing methods and materials should be used.
¾ Soldering flux should be used sparingly and the excess removed
from the pipe as soon as possible.
¾ Incomplete pipe sections and open fittings should be capped to
prevent dust ingress.
¾ Cisterns should be protected against dust ingress.
Although the system will be cleaned and disinfected before use, the
corrosion risk for metal pipe and components begins as soon as the
pipework is wetted.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
If the system is to be wet pressure tested then it should be comprehensively

*BS 8558:2011 Guide to the design, installation, flushed to remove any installation residues at the same time. On satisfactory
testing and maintenance of services supplying water
completion of the pressure test, the system should be disinfected and
for domestic use within buildings and their curtilages.
Complementary guidance to BS EN 806 flushed according to BS 8558*. Thereafter, all the system outlets will need
to be regularly discharged for the avoidance of stagnation. Depending on
the time elapsed since the original disinfection, the system may need to be
re-disinfected prior to occupancy.
HSG guidance document HSG 274 (see COSHH on page 51) suggests the
alternative approach of dry pressure testing to avoid wetting the system. In
this case the initial pressure test is carried out with low pressure air. Filling
and pressure testing the system with water together with flushing and
disinfection is left until a short time before occupancy. In this way, regular
flushing during the construction phase and the second disinfection can be
avoided.
COMMISSIONING
Commissioning is defined as the advancement of an installation from
the state of static completion to full working order to the specified
requirements.
Depending on the type and complexity of the building, commissioning

Measuring the flow rate at a kitchen tap may include:
using a flow measure cup
1. Verification of flow rates at outlets
2. Setting or checking of controls including:
a. Hot water heating appliance operation and schedule
b. Hot water storage temperature
c. Mixing valve output temperature
d. Hot water pump flow rate
e. Hot water system balancing valves
INSTALLATION
3. Verification of compliance with the temperature regime for the
control of legionella bacteria
4. Verification of on-line disinfection processes
5. Verification of water quality at outlets
6. Verification of operation of point of use appliances
HANDOVER DOCUMENTATION
On completion of building works, a variety of documentation is required
to be handed over the building owner. Handover documentation should
include:
1. As-installed system schematics
2. Evidence of compliance with Building Regulations
Measuring the flow rate at a balancing
valve using a digital nanometer 3. Design and operation description
Picture courtesy of Comdronic Ltd.
4. Operation and maintenance manual
5. Records of commissioning checks
6. Copies of disinfection certificate(s) and water quality analyses

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
MAINTENANCE AND
MAINTAINABILITY/ACCESS
Water services systems in some buildings, including most dwellings, require
very little maintenance other than replacement of the odd tap washer.
However, they should be subject to regular visual inspection to identify
problems before serious consequences result. The big problem with such
inspections is that while outlets are visible, the distribution pipework is
often not.
Regulations impose specific requirements on the accessibility of pipework

for the detection and repair of leakage for the prevention of waste (see
Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations on page 48). However, these do
not take account of the cost of consequential damage to the property. For
example, many pipes run over fixed ceilings. This is considered acceptable
in terms of the Regulations requirement for access as it is relatively easy to
hack a hole in the ceiling to repair the leak. It may be less acceptable to the
building owner.
Generally it is preferable to minimise the length of horizontal runs through

the building and avoid sensitive areas. This is partly why in multi-storey
commercial buildings, washing facilities are commonly located adjacent
to service risers, with most of the horizontal pipework running through
accessible areas at the top or bottom of the building. In other types of
building that require more general access to water, the pipes usually run
over false ceilings in corridors.
In all buildings, the addition of strategic isolation valves will help to

ensure that leaks from pipework can be quickly isolated to minimise
the consequential damage even if the precise location of the leak is not
immediately evident.
Recommendations for maintenance access are included in BSRIA

BG 55/2014 Safety in Building Services Design.
INSTALLATION
MONITORING FOR WATER QUALITY

Legionella Bacteria
Ideally, the quality of water issued from every tap should be at least as
good as the quality of water entering the building, but for various reasons
this might not be the case. In particular, the passage of water through BS 8580:2010 Water quality. Risk assessments for
pipework, tanks, water heaters and other water fittings has an influence Legionella control. Code of practice
on the microbiological quality of that water. This is because all systems
provide opportunities for the multiplication of microorganisms present CIBSE TM13 Minimising the Risk of Legionnaires'
Disease 2013
in the incoming water supply. Most of these microorganisms are harmless
but some can pose health risks to all or some of the building occupants BS 8558:2011 Guide to the design, installation, testing
if the numbers become excessive. These include legionella bacteria and and maintenance of services supplying water for
pseudomonas. domestic use within buildings and their curtilages.
Complementary guidance to BS EN 806
Good system design and operation will minimise the opportunities for BS 8554:2015 Code of practice for the sampling and
the multiplication of these microorganisms but it is important to carry out monitoring of hot and cold water services in buildings
a risk assessment and where there are concerns, either due to the state of Health Technical Memorandum 04-01: The control
the system or the vulnerability of the occupants, to undertake periodic of Legionella, hygiene, “safe” hot water, cold water and
monitoring of water quality. The publications listed in the box to the right drinking water systems: Part A: Design, installation and
provide guidance on what should be done at the commissioning stage testing
and during operation of the building. The risk of Legionnaires’ disease is
covered by the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations
(COSHH) – see page 51.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
In order for any electrochemical cell to CORROSION

operate, all of the following are required: Metallic corrosion
¾ Anodic area: where the oxidation of the metal Corrosion of a metal in water is essentially an electrochemical process
takes place, releasing metal ions into solution similar to that which occurs in a battery.
and generating electrons - this where the
primary corrosion damage occurs The driving force for the corrosion process is the energy released by the
¾ Cathodic area: where electrons are dissipated oxidation of the metal at the anode.
from the metal surface, usually by the
reduction of dissolved oxygen in the water to In general corrosion of a single material, anodic and cathodic areas are not
hydroxide ions fixed but evolve all over the surface of the material. In pitting corrosion of
¾ Electrolyte: water with dissolved salts a single material, the anodic reaction becomes fixed in a particular location
¾ Conducting circuit: provided by the underlying surrounded by cathodic sites. In the diagram below, M++ is the metal ion
metal released by the pitting process. Metal cations may react with the hydroxyl
ion formed at the cathode, ultimately to form an insoluble material, which
Factors which affect the rate of may hinder further corrosion, for example iron oxides in the case of steel
corrosion include: corrosion.
¾ dissolved oxygen The metal oxidation at the anode(s) must be balanced by the chemical
¾ temperature reduction taking place at the cathode(s) – in other words the rate of
¾ galvanic potential difference the anodic reaction(s) must equal the rate of the cathodic reaction(s). In
¾ pH instances where the anode is small and localised, the corrosion may be
¾ total dissolved solids locally intense resulting in pitting and eventual perforation.
¾ chlorides
Unlike closed heating and cooling systems, it is not usually possible to
¾ sulfates modify the chemistry of hot and cold water services or add inhibitors
¾ dissolved carbon dioxide to control the rate of corrosion. The avoidance of corrosion therefore
¾ bacteria depends on choosing appropriate pipework materials and avoiding design,
¾ flow velocity commissioning and operational issues that would increase the risk of
¾ surface condition corrosion.
¾ stress
AQUEOUS
ELECTROLYTE
INSTALLATION
Key points for avoiding corrosion in O2 2OH− M++
hot and cold water services
H2O
1. Materials: Specify pipe and fittings of
materials suitable for the supply water
CATHODE
quality. Some areas have soft acidic water
that may encourage corrosion of copper.
Some areas have water that increases the 2e¯ ANODE
risk of dezincification of brass. Conductive path
2. Stagnation: Avoid stagnation of the system METAL
by minimising the time between first fill
and normal use. Design the system to Basic mechanism of pitting corrosion
avoid dead legs and areas of low flow or stagnation in normal use. Avoid
excessively large storage cisterns with low turnover and dead zones.
3. Cleanliness: Maintain a high standard of cleanliness during system
installation. Avoid excessive use of flux and jointing compounds. Don’t
allow poor quality water to enter the distribution system at any stage.
Thoroughly flush and disinfect after first fill and again before use if there
is a significant delay. Maintain the cleanliness of storage cisterns and
outlets.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Copper
Causes of copper tube corrosion
Copper is resistant to atmospheric corrosion due to the
formation on a thin passivating oxide layer on its surface. In Situation Result
hot and cold water systems, however, the copper reacts with Failure to form uniform Cuprosolvency (blue water)
carbonate ions to form a copper carbonate scale. This is also carbonate scale in soft or and increased risk of erosion
passivating if it forms in a uniform manner. If it does not form in acidic water
a uniform manner then the risk of corrosion is greatly increased. Dirty pipework Under-deposit corrosion
leading to pitting and pinholing
Copper cylinders are usually replaced for reasons of scale build up Stagnation and biofilm Microbially influenced
or as part of building refurbishment but there are two corrosion corrosion (MIC) with pitting
mechanisms that can cause premature failure (see table below). leading to pinholing
Poorly controlled chlorination Pitting leading to pinholing
A useful guide to copper corrosion is available at or failure to flush effectively
www.fwr.org/copper.pdf
Excessive use of flux when Pitting leading to pinholing
soldering and failure to flush
flux residues
Copper cylinder corrosion Residual carbon film from Pitting leading to pinholing
Pepper pot This is a form of microbially influenced manufacturing
corrosion corrosion (MIC) that occurs under biofilm
in the lower part of the cylinder, particularly
around the cold water inlet at the base
of the cylinder, where the water remains
relatively cool. It results in a large number
of closely spaced pits (hence the pepper pot
description) with general thinning.
Rosette This type of corrosion occurs in the base of
corrosion cylinders fitted with aluminium anodes. In
principle the sacrificial anode is supposed to
protect the cylinder from corrosion but in
certain water chemistries at temperatures
below 40°C it has the opposite effect. New
copper cylinders do not use aluminium
anodes and should not be at risk.
Galvanised steel
INSTALLATION
Galvanised steel is still widely used for cold water pipes in buildings
but less so for tanks and cisterns. The purpose of the zinc coating
for galvanised products is to protect the underlying steel. If the steel "Tree ring" effect of progressive scaling of a copper
pipe over a long period of time. Each ring represents
becomes exposed, for example at cut edges, then the exposed steel a period of slightly different water quality.
surface will be more cathodic than the zinc and the surrounding
zinc will corrode preferentially. The zinc surface acts as sacrificial
anode.
An example would be connecting a galvanised steel pipe to a

copper cylinder. The zinc coating rapidly disappears and the
exposed steel begins to corrode.
Key points for connecting galvanised steel and copper

¾ Never install galvanised pipe or tanks downstream of copper pipe
or cylinders.
¾ Interrupt the electrical circuit between the pipe and the cylinder.
There are insulating fittings for this purpose.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Stainless steel
Stainless steel cylinders are used for direct and indirect applications of both
vented and unvented cylinders. Stainless steel is normally thought of as
being very corrosion resistant but that depends on the environment and
grade of steel. In adverse conditions, thin stainless steel tube can perforate
very quickly.
Early stainless steel cylinders were fitted with sacrificial anodes that needed
to be periodically replaced. Problems could occur if the anode completely
disappeared over time and was not replaced. Recent cylinders tend to be
Pinhole perforation of stainless steel tube due to
“no-anode” designs.
Microbially Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
The passivation of stainless steel depends on continuing exposure to
oxygen. If the wet surface becomes anoxic because of stagnation and
biofilm inside the pipe or environmental conditions outside the pipe then
pitting can occur.
Dezincification of brass
Dezincification occurs when zinc is selectively leached from a brass
component leaving behind a porous mass of copper. This is much weaker
than the original brass and can result in mechanical failure of stressed
components. The problem is more likely in potable water systems than
heating or chilled water as it requires a high oxygen concentration.
Corrosion cracking of stainless steel pipe Stress corrosion cracking

under saturated lagging
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a particular form of corrosion
affecting brass and stainless steel that can result in catastrophic failure. For
SCC to occur there needs to be a concentration of stress (imposed or
residual from manufacturing) and a corrosive agent. In the case of brass
components, SCC can be triggered by ammonia or amines concentrating
in condensation collecting under the insulation of a chilled water pipe. In
principle SCC could also occur in cold water pipework components but
no instances of this are known to BSRIA.
INSTALLATION
"Dezincification resistant” marking on brass
components
SCC fracture surface
SCC failure of ball valve

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
EROSION
Erosion occurs when water flows through a pipework system at excessive
velocity. This results in turbulence and eddies downstream of flow
discontinuities. These eddies impinge on the pipe surface causing erosion.
Pipework erosion
NOISE AND VIBRATION

Pipe and valve noise
Pipes do not generally create noise but they can help to transmit noise
from other sources. High frequency noise in cold water supplies is usually
caused by water passing though partially closed valves with a high pressure
differential. In extreme cases this can result in cavitation effects leading to
valve plug erosion.
Pump noise and vibration

Modern pumps are designed to run quietly, and excessive noise may
indicate a serious problem. Routine measurements to detect any increasing
trend of pump vibration can be used as part of condition monitoring.
Water hammer
Water hammer is percussive noise and vibration generated by control
instability or a valve slamming shut. This may become evident if the
pipework is poorly supported and begins to oscillate resulting in a positive Water hammer arrestor
feedback situation. In extreme cases this can result in catastrophic failures Picture courtesy of Altecnic Ltd.
of pipework and joints.
INSTALLATION

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
PREVENTION OF BURSTING
AND JOINT FAILURE
Freezing
Bursting of metal by water pressure alone rarely occurs
Liquid water Ice plug Liquid water except where the pipe is already seriously weakened by
corrosion or other factors. Even if there is a situation
that can produce pressures of several times the pressure
rating of the pipe, there will usually be a joint in the
Fracture system that fails first and relieves the pressure. Most
bursts through a pipe wall are probably the result of
freezing.
Ice plug Incompressible
Liquid water liquid water Obstruction Freezing water bursts pipes because ice is less dense
and therefore occupies a higher volume than the same
mass of water. This can impose very high stresses on
the pipe wall as it tries to accommodate the increased
Expansion of pipe
volume of ice relative to water. If the ice plug is
Ice plug formation relatively short and unconstrained at either end then
bursting is unlikely as the ice can expand along the
pipe. This is the principle used when freezing pipes for
16
Class C maintenance. If the ice plug is longer or constrained
14 Class D by a valve or other obstruction then bursting is more
Class E likely. Plastic pipes tend to be less affected by freezing as
12
plastic is more elastic than metal and can stretch further
10 without bursting.
Pressure bar
8
Solvent welded joint failures
6 A common cause of joint failure in solvent welded
4
pressure pipe (PVC-U and ABS) is allowing the
joint to be stressed through misalignment, during or
2 immediately after assembly. This can result in stress
cracking of the pipe.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature ºC
INSTALLATION
Another cause of failure is softening of the joint at
Down-rating of PVC-U pipe pressure rating at elevated temperature. high temperature leading to a pressure induced failure.
Source data: Georg Fischer
Designers are not always aware that the nominal
pressure rating of plastic pipe only applies to cold water
operation. As the temperature increases the maximum
design pressure rapidly reduces (see PVC-U and ABS
on page 27).
Crack Surplus
adhesive
residue
Stress cracking in solvent welded plastic pipe
Pressure induced joint failure at elevated temperature

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Compression joint failure

Compression joint leaks frequently occur due to poor pipe preparation
and/or over-tightening. The pictures below show a sample of leaking pipe
where jointing compound was used in an attempt to compensate for these
defects.
Catastrophic failure rarely occurs on small diameter pipework (up to 28

mm) except in cases of bad workmanship, for example the end of the pipe
not being cut square or the pipe being insufficiently inserted into the
fitting.
As the pipe diameter increases, the amount of torque required to compress

the olive increases dramatically, partly due to the frictional forces between
the nut and olive. It is essential to lubricate the contact edge of the nut to
reduce these forces so that sufficient compression can be achieved. If this
does not happen then the water pressure in the pipe, particularly if there
is a water hammer effect, can exert sufficient force to push the olive and
fitting off the end of the pipe.
Catastrophic failure of compression joint
Over-tightening of compression olive
Press-fit joint failures

In press fit joints, the liquid seal is achieved by an O-ring and the
mechanical integrity is achieved by crimping the fitting over the pipe with
a special tool.
INSTALLATION
The press fit joint failures examined by BSRIA have all been due to
inadequate insertion before crimping. It is essential that installers mark the
pipe with the recommended insertion distance before insertion. It is very
expensive to check joints for correct insertion after they have been made
unless they have been marked in this way.
While press-fit joint problems can occur anywhere, they are most likely to
occur when making joints in a confined space or where there are several
joints close together that inhibit correct use of the crimping tool. If there is
any doubt about sufficient space for the crimping tool then an alternative
arrangement of joints or jointing strategy must be used.
Push-fit joint failure

Most push fit joint failures are due to inadequate insertion. This may not
be evident during the initial pressure testing. It is essential that installers
mark the pipe with the recommended insertion distance before insertion.
Some push-fit joints for plastic pipe rely on a toothed grab ring to retain
the inserted pipe and an O-ring to make the water seal. These joints are
not intended to be stressed or subjected to excessive movement in use.
The pipe run must be supported in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Flat face seals

Flat face seals with fibre or rubber washers are used in tap connectors and
some other fittings. Fibre and rubber washers provide a good seal when
first fitted but will deteriorate with age especially if disturbed or subject
to thermal cycling. They should be considered as limited life replaceable
components and replaced whenever the joint is separated or shows external
signs of leakage.
Cyclic stress
If materials are repeatedly stressed then they can develop stress cracks. These
Detiorated tap washer
cracks form at a stress concentration point such as a sharp bend, thread root
or even a surface marking. The risk of stress cracks and failure depends on
the degree of stress and the number of cycles.
Full loop Horseshoe
It is permissible to use a change in direction to absorb the effects of
thermal expansion and contraction (copper tube expands at a rate of
16.8 × 10-6 per °C between 20°C and 100°C) but there are guidelines on
the maximum that can be absorbed. If the amount of movement is too
large for an elbow then a bend or loop will decrease the stress. Guidance
and calculations for the accommodation of expansion are given in CIBSE
Pipe expansion loops Guide B.
Fractured 15 mm elbow from unsupported branch
INSTALLATION

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
LEGISLATION
This section of the guide summarises various legislation affecting hot and
cold water services and drainage in England. Mention is also made of the
equivalent legislation in other parts of the UK. Legislation affecting private
sewage treatment plants and the permitting of trade effluent discharges is
not discussed.
The text of all UK legislation can be found online at

www.legislation.gov.uk.
Approved Codes of Practice (ACoPs), guidance documents and other

information on health and safety legislation can be found on the Health &
Safety Executive website: www.hse.gov.uk.
Building Regulations are legal requirements that apply whenever building

work is carried out. They are supported by guidance in Approved
Documents. Building work must be notified to a building control body,
who may inspect the work and, if it complies, will issue a certificate on
completion. Members of a relevant competent persons scheme can self-
certify work, so inspections by a building control body are not required in
this situation.
Further information about English Building Regulations, including free

downloads of Approved Documents, can be found at
www.planningportal.gov.uk. More information about Parts G, H and L of
the English Building Regulations can be found on pages 50 and 51.
Since 2012, the Welsh Government has had powers to enact Building
Regulations, and in some areas has already issued amendments to the 2010
England & Wales Building Regulations, and new Wales-only Approved
Documents. Information can be found at
www.wales.gov.uk/topics/planning/buildingregs.
Information about Scottish Building Regulations can be found at

Two of the Approved Documents supporting
www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Built-Environment/Building. England and (at the time of writing) Wales
Building Regulations
Information about Northern Ireland Building Regulations can be found at
www.dfpni.gov.uk/index/buildings-energy-efficiency-buildings.
More information about legislation in general can also be found on the

BSRIA website: www.bsria.co.uk/legislation.
LEGISLATION

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
The Water Industry Act 1991

The Water Industry Act sets out the duties of water undertakers to supply
wholesome water to consumers in England and Wales. The quality
requirements derive from the European Directive on the quality of water
intended for human consumption. It should be emphasised that wholesome
water is not sterile water. Bacteria will be present and, under certain
conditions, these may multiply within the building water distribution to
a level that could cause a risk to health or corrosion issues. Many water
supply companies in England provide the facility to download local water
quality reports from their website. This is useful for information about the
hardness of the water supply when considering fitting a water softener but
also allows the results of building water analysis to be compared with the
mains supply. This can help in identifying the cause of poor water quality.
The Water Industry Act also governs the provision of sewerage services.
There is separate legislation in Scotland and Northern Ireland, where mains

water is supplied by single bodies owned by the respective governments,
but the quality requirements are the same. Separate legislation applies to
private water supplies.
The Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000

These regulations apply in England and Wales, and state that:
Water supplied
a. for such domestic purposes as consist in or include, cooking, drinking, food
preparation or washing; or
b. to premises in which food is produced,
will be regarded as wholesome if it meets specified quality requirements
included in the Schedules to the Regulations.
The location of the sample point for the purpose of demonstrating the
quality of the water supply under these regulations is the “consumer’s
tap”. Unfortunately this term is not defined in the regulations and there
is a lack of clarity regarding the respective responsibilities of the water
undertaker and the building owner to provide wholesome water at every
tap. For example, is it technically permissible for a tap to provide rainwater?
The pragmatic solution is to label taps as “not for drinking” if they are not
to be treated as consumer’s taps but in the longer term there needs to be
clarifications to the regulations.
Separate regulations apply in Scotland and Northern Ireland.

LEGISLATION
The Private Water Supplies Regulations 2009
These regulations apply in England only – separate regulations apply in
Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Private water supplies such as those obtained from a borehole should meet
the quality requirements for wholesome water as identified in Schedule 1
of the regulations. In addition, there is a specific restriction on nitrates and
nitrites. The water is wholesome only if:
nitrate (mg/l) nitrite (mg/l)

50
+
3
≤1
Monitoring and enforcement of the regulations is by the local authority.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulation 1999

The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (WSR) replaced the The Water Regulations Guide
system of water byelaws previously operating in England and Wales. There
is similar legislation in Northern Ireland. The equivalent legislation in
Scotland is the Water Supply (Water Fittings) (Scotland) Byelaws 2014.
The WSR address several issues:

1. The prevention of waste and misuse of water or contamination of the
supply
2. Appropriate quality of water fittings and conformance to European
Directives
3. Installations and activities that must be notified to the water
undertaker and may be subject to inspection
4. The provision to the building owner of contractors’ certificates for
completed works This bookk provides
id theh full
f ll text off the
h Water
W
Supply (Water Fittings) Regulation 1999 and the
5. Definitions of fluid categories Water Byelaws 2000 Scotland (note that these
have been superseded by the Water Supply (Water
The requirements of the WSR must be considered for any modifications Fittings) (Scotland) Byelaws 2014). It also provides
to the water distribution system at any time, not just at the time of guidance from DETR (a now defunct government
department), and recommendations made by
construction or refurbishment or material change of use.
the water industry. It is published by the Water
Regulations Advisory Service (www.wras.co.uk) and
Most attention is normally given to avoidance of contamination of the is only available in hard copy.
supply. In practice this means:
¾ only allowing permitted materials to come into contact with water.
¾ preventing backflow and accidental cross connection between
different fluid categories as defined in the WSR and summarised
overleaf.
LEGISLATION

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Fluid categories
Fluid category Definition Examples

Fluid category 1 Wholesome water supplied by a water undertaker Water supplied to
cold taps
Fluid category 2 Water in Fluid Category 1 whose aesthetic quality is impaired owing to: Water supplied to
hot taps
¾ a change in temperature; or
¾ the presence of substances or organisms causing a change it its taste, odour or
appearance,
including water in a hot water distribution system
Fluid category 3 Fluid which represents a slight health hazard because of the concentration of substances of low See note
toxicity including any fluid which contains:
¾ ethylene glycol, copper sulphate solution or similar chemical additives; or
¾ sodium hypochlorite (chloros and similar disinfectants)
Fluid category 4 Fluid which represents a significant health hazard because of the concentration of toxic Water in heating
substances, including any fluid which contains: and cooling systems
and industrial
¾ chemical, carcinogenic substances or pesticides (including insecticides or herbicides); or
processes
¾ environmental organisms of potential health significance.
Fluid category 5 Fluid representing a serious health hazard because of the concentration of pathogenic Water in drains and
organisms, radioactive or very toxic substances, including any fluid which contains sewers
¾ faecal material or other human waste; or
¾ butchery or other animal waste; or
¾ pathogens from any other source.
Note: According to the Water Regulations Guide, heating systems in houses and apartments can be treated as Fluid Category
3. This assumes the water treatment chemicals are low toxicity. Commercial water treatment chemicals may be toxic and the
ingestion of water containing a significant concentration of these could be fatal. If in doubt, commercial heating systems should
be treated as Fluid Category 4.
The technical means of backflow prevention are explained on page 7.

Approval schemes for water fittings The prevention of cross connection is also aided by labelling pipes. More
¾ WRAS scheme for all fittings and materials information on this can be found on page 31.
used in hot and cold water services
www.wras.co.uk/approval.asp The WSR require that water fittings should be of an appropriate quality
¾ BSI Kitemark schemes for hot water cylinders, and standard and suitable for the circumstances in which they are used. For
copper tube and fittings the purposes of the WSR, a water fitting is of an appropriate quality or
www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/our-services/ standard only if it:
product-certification/
¾ bears an appropriate CE marking in accordance with the Directive
¾ TMV scheme for thermostatic mixing valves
¾
LEGISLATION
www.buildcert.com/tmv2.htm conforms to an appropriate harmonised standard or a European
technical approval
¾ conforms to an appropriate British Standard or some other national
specification of an EEA State which provides an equivalent level of
protection and performance, or
¾ conforms to a specification approved by the regulator.
There are a variety of UK schemes covering different products that certify

compliance with these and other requirements. These are listed in the box
to the left.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
The Building Regulations 2010 Part G

Part G of the Building Regulations and the associated Approved
Document deal with the supply of water to buildings, water efficiency and
hot water safety. The legal requirements are summarised below:
Requirement Main points

G1 Cold water supply ¾ Wholesome water must be supplied to any place where drinking water is
drawn off and to bathrooms and food preparation areas.
¾ Water of a suitable quality must be supplied for any sanitary convenience
fitted with a flushing device.
G2 Water efficiency ¾ In new dwellings or those formed by a material change of use, reasonable
provision must be made for the efficient use of water and for the prevention
of undue consumption.
¾ The estimated consumption of wholesome water per person must not
exceed 125 litres per day.
G3 Hot water supply and systems ¾ There must be suitable provision for the supply of heated wholesome water
to bathrooms and food preparation areas.
¾ A hot water system (including the cold water cistern where it receives
expansion water) must be designed to withstand the effects of temperature
and pressure.
¾ A hot water storage vessel must be fitted with safety devices to ensure that
the temperature does not exceed 100°C. Safety discharges must be visible
but not cause a danger to persons in or about the building. Further details
are provided on requirements for unvented hot water storage packages.
¾ In new dwellings or those formed by a material change of use, the hot
water supply must be fitted with a thermostatic mixing valve such that the
temperature does not exceed 48°C.
G4 Sanitary conveniences and washing facilities Guidance is given on the provision and layout of sanitary facilities, including
separation from food preparation areas. This applies to all buildings.
G5 Bathrooms Every dwelling must be provided with a bathroom containing a basin and a bath
or shower.
G6 Kitchens and food preparation areas A suitable sink must be provided in any area where food is prepared
The Building Regulations 2010 Part H

Part H of the Building Regulations and the associated Approved Opposed branch connection in the
Document are health and safety led, dealing with drainage and waste horizontal plane should be avoided
disposal.
Approved Document H provides guidance on sanitary pipework (the

above-ground part of a wastewater system), foul water drainage (the below-
ground part of a wastewater system) and rainwater drainage. Guidance
LEGISLATION
includes pipe sizes, gradients and acceptable materials. In the case of below
50 in
m
m
ground drainage, guidance is also provided on bedding and backfilling of

m
trenches, and pressure testing of pipework. Although it is not explicitly 50 mm

parallel 200 mm
stated in the Building Regulations or in Approved Document H, the junction
building control body normally asks to inspect below-ground pipework
before it is covered up.
Guidance is also provided on providing separate systems for foul water and
rainwater drainage. This is normal practice, even in locations where there is
a combined sewer to which both systems discharge.
Example of guidance from Approved Document H
Approved Document H also provides guidance on topics not discussed in
this guide – wastewater treatment systems, cesspools, building over sewers
and solid waste storage (i.e. rubbish and recycling).

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
The Building Regulations 2010 Part L

Compliance guides Part L of the Building Regulations is concerned with conservation of
fuel and power. Its legal requirements are supported by four approved
documents:
¾ Approved Document L1A for new dwellings
¾ Approved Document L1B for work in existing dwellings
¾ Approved Document L2A for new non-dwellings
¾ Approved Document L2B for work in existing non-dwellings.
For all new buildings, a CO2 emission rate calculation must be carried out.
The emission target is derived from a notional building, and has reduced
a number of times since its introduction in 2006. The CO2 emission
calculation takes into account energy used by fixed building services,
including water heating, and also takes into account savings from renewable
energy systems such as solar thermal water heating. So specifying efficient
hot water generation will assist with the building achieving its CO2
These compliance guides, providing minimum emission target.
standards for building services systems in new and
existing buildings, can be downloaded for free from For both new and existing buildings, there are minimum standards
the Planning Portal website. (sometimes referred to as backstops) in place for the building fabric and
fixed building services. These are stated in the domestic and non-domestic
building services compliance guides. For domestic hot water systems,
standards include minimum efficiencies for appliances, maximum heat
losses for storage vessels, minimum controls packages, and insulation of
pipework.
The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 is the primary legislation
under which specific regulations affecting health and safety in the
workplace are made. Two of these are discussed below. The requirements
of such regulations do not apply to individual private homes and their
owners but may apply to communal areas and communal services provided
in multi-residential buildings such as apartment blocks.
The Health & Safety Executive (HSE) publishes an
Approved Code of Practice L8 Legionnaires’ disease –
The control of legionella bacteria in water systems. The The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992
fourth edition was published in 2013, and at this These govern, amongst many other things, the minimum provision of
time a guidance document HSG274 was published, toilets, washing facilities and drinking water in the workplace.
in three parts covering cooling towers, domestic
water systems and other risk systems. All of these
The Control of Substances Hazardous To Health Regulations
can be downloaded for free from the HSE website. 2002
The risk of Legionnaires’ disease is covered by the Control of Substances LEGISLATION
Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH). The reason is that risks
due to any bacteria in the working environment fall under COSHH.
These regulations do not apply to private houses though they may apply
to certain aspects of multi-residential buildings such as apartment blocks.
Nevertheless it is good practice to apply the guidance for reducing the risk
of Legionnaires’ disease to all buildings where it is feasible to do so.
Unlike other waterborne pathogens, legionella bacteria are not regulated

in the water supply. This is because the small numbers of bacteria that
might be present would be undetectable and not directly harmful to health.
It is not until the legionella bacteria enter the water distribution system
within the building that conditions, particularly temperature, may favour
their multiplication to a potentially harmful concentration. Even then,
Legionnaires’ disease can only be contracted through inhaling an aerosol of
water containing the bacteria.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
GLOSSARY
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene – a thermoplastic
Anode The positive pole in a chemical reaction cell, for example in a battery. Metals always corrode at the anodes.
Biofilm Community of bacteria and other microorganisms embedded in a protective layer attached to a surface
BMS Building Management System - a networked direct digital control system which performs the overall control
and monitoring functions of some or all of a buildings plant and systems
Borehole A shaft bored into the ground. In the context of this guide, a borehole is used for extracting groundwater for
use in a building.
BSP British Standard Pipe – a family of standard screw thread types ranging from 1/16 inch to 6 inch
Bund A low wall built around a tank or other item of equipment, for the purpose of containing any fluid that leaks
out
Cathode The negative pole in a chemical reaction, for example cell in a battery. Metals tend to be passive at the
cathode.
Cation Ion possessing negative charge
Cavitation Formation and sudden collapse of vapour bubbles in a liquid. Can occur in pumps, causing erosion of the
pump impeller
Corrosion Loss of metal from a component due to the electrochemical reaction with its environment. The term is also
used to describe the chemical degradation of non-metallic materials.
Dead leg A length of pipe normally closed at one end
Dezincification Corrosion of brass (an alloy or copper and zinc) where the zinc is preferentially removed to leave a weak
porous matrix of copper
DN Diamètre Nominal (Nominal Diameter) – an international system of pipe sizes that are loosely related to the
actual pipe diameter in millimetres, for example DN 10, DN 15 and DN20
Erosion Loss of metal by physical removal though impingement with water alone or gases and particles suspended
within it
Flux A chemical agent used in soldering to clean the surfaces to be joined. It generally takes the form of a paste
applied to both surfaces.
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic (commonly known as fibreglass) – a composite material consisting of a plastic such
as polypropylene reinforced with glass fibres
Hardness A measure of the calcium and magnesium content of the water
HDPE High Density Polyethylene – a thermoplastic
Jointing compound A purpose designed paste complying with BS 6956-5, used with fibre to promote a water seal in threaded
joints. Jointing compounds that are suitable for use in potable water systems are listed in the WRAS approval
scheme (see page 49).
MIC Microbially Influenced Corrosion. Corrosion that is initiated or accelerated by microbial activity, particularly
the formation of biofilms
Microorganism Microscopic life forms that can thrive in water system including algae, fungi and bacteria.
NB Nominal Bore – a system of pipe sizes that are loosely related to the actual pipe diameter in inches, for
example ½” NB, ¾” NB, 1” NB
GLOSSARY
pH A measure of the whether the water is alkaline or acidic based on the logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentration. Water at pH 7 is neutral. Water at greater than pH 7 is alkaline and water at less than pH7 is
acidic. For most metals corrosion rates will increase as the pH falls below 7.

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
Pitting Locally severe corrosion forming deep pits in the metal surface. This can lead to perforation of pipes.
Plate heat exchanger A means of transferring heat between two fluids without the fluids coming into contact. A plate heat
exchanger consists of a stack of corrugated metal plates forming alternating chambers and a large surface
area for heat to exchange between fluids.
Polyethylene A plastic, also known as polyethene, polythene or PE
Polypropylene A thermoplastic polymer, also known as polypropene or PP
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride – a fluoropolymer plastic
PVC-U Unplasticised PVC. Formerly known as UPVC.
Scale A hard deposit that forms on the insides of pipes, fittings and equipment
Stainless steel An alloy, primarily of iron and chromium, but also containing other metals. Stainless steel offers high
resistance against corrosion but will corrode under certain conditions.
Thermostat A control device which senses the temperature of a system so that the temperature is maintained near a
desired setpoint
Tundish A purpose designed fitting that allows overflowing water to be visually observed
Water undertaker A company that has been appointed by the Secretary of State to supply water in England and Wales in a
specific geographical area. A map and list of water undertakers in England and Wales can be viewed on the
OFWAT website www.ofwat.gov.uk/industryoverview/today/map. Some water undertakers are also the
sewerage undertaker.
The statutory water undertaker in Scotland is Scottish Water (www.scottishwater.co.uk ). The statutory
water undertaker in Northern Ireland is Northern Ireland Water (www.niwater.com).
GLOSSARY

© BSRIA BG 33/2014
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The Illustrated Guide To Hot and Cold Water Services

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THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

BSRIA has also published three companion guides: BG 31/2012 The

THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

COLD WATER SERVICES 3

HOT WATER SERVICES 13

BATHROOM AND KITCHEN FITTINGS 19

INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING 26

THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

Cross connection of water services

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PREVENTION OF LEAKAGE Measures to mitigate the consequences

Mains water service to appliances

and cold water storage tank

Non return valve

Earth tag with warning ‘do not

Pipe laid in duct with or

Domestic water supply arrangement

2 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

Directive 2004/22/EC of the European Parliament METERING AND SUB-METERING

Larger meters for public and commercial buildings may be located in a

Meters used for water consumption billing should conform to the

Water meter access in a street

Pictures courtesy of Electromagnetic ﬂow meter

Small water meter for a house or

Large water meter for a commercial or

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In commercial or public buildings it may be useful to measure and

Picture courtesy of Flexim

4 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

COLD WATER STORAGE

The advantage of storage is that the short term availability

In a typical two-storey house with cold water storage, the difference

Cold water is normally stored in high density polyethylene (HDPE)

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Storing more water than needed is counterproductive, as stagnation

consumption. Different recommendations apply to hospitals and other

To avoid stagnation zones, the entry and exit of

Typical unobstructed space for a cold water storage tank

Screened air inlet corrosion resistant Sleeve for

Warning / overflow pipe

Insulation against frost

Principal details of a cold water storage tank

6 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

The same principle is applied to cisterns

A warning pipe is intended to provide

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For a pressurised supply where it is not possible to provide

valve (also known as a double non-return valve) used with

outdoor taps to prevent backﬂow from a garden hose.

Single check valves (non-return valves) are used on hot and

Illustrations of single and double check valves can be found

An additional requirement of the Water Supply (Water Fittings)

Reduced Pressure Zone (RPZ) valve

8 THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO HOT AND COLD WATER SERVICES

If the water storage is provided at the top of a tall building then

Pressure reducing valve.

Pump on – water forced into Pump off – water forced out on

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