DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

DIGITAL DATA, ANALOG SIGNALS

We turn now to the case of transmitting digital data using analog signals. The most familiar use of this
transformation is for transmitting digital data through the public telephone network. The telephone network was
designed to receive, switch, and transmit analog signals in the voice-frequency range of about 300 to 3400 Hz.
Digital devices are attached to the network via a modem (modulator-demodulator), which converts digital data to
analog signals, and vice versa.

For the telephone network, modems are used that produce signals in the voice-frequency range. The same basic
techniques are used for modems that produce signals at higher frequencies (e.g., microwave). This section
introduces these techniques and provides a brief discussion of the performance characteristics of the
alternative approaches.

We mentioned that modulation involves operation on one or more of the three characteristics of a carrier signal:
amplitude, frequency, and phase. Accordingly, there are three basic encoding or modulation techniques for
transforming digital data into analog signals, as illustrated in Figure amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift
keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK). In all these cases, the resulting signal occupies a bandwidth
centered on the carrier frequency.

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal
(output) based on the information in digital data (input). Figure shows the relationship between the digital
information, the digital – to - analog modulating process and the resultant analog signal.
Three mechanisms for modulating digital data into an analog signal: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency
shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK). In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that
combines changing both the amplitude and phase, called quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). QAM is
the most efficient of these options and is the mechanism commonly used one in today’s communications sytems
(see Figure below).

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion

Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, two basic issues must be reviewed: bit and
baud rates and the carrier signal.

Data Element Versus Signal Element

We had already discussed the concept of the data element versus the signal element. We defined a data
element as the smallest piece of information to be exchanged, the bit. A signal element is the shortest unit
(timewise) of a digital signal. In other words, data elements are what we need to send; signal elements are
what we can send. Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers. Although we continue to
use the same terms in this chapter, we will see that the nature of the signal element is a little bit different in
analog transmission.

Data Rate Versus Signal Rate

We can define the data rate (bit rate) and the signal rate (baud rate) as we did for digital transmission. The
relationship between them is

where N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data elements carried in one signal element.

Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can find the value of N from

The value of r in analog transmission is r = log2 L, where L is the number of different signal elements. The same
nomenclature is used to simplify the comparisons. Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the
number of signal elements per second (symbols per second). In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud
rate is less than or equal to the bit rate. In transportation, a baud is analogous to a vehicle, and a bit is analogous
to a passenger. We need to maximize the number of people per car to reduce the traffic. The figure here should
help us understand bits and bauds more clearly.

Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are carried
by each signal element? How many signal elements do we need?
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are unknown. Find the value of r and then the value of L.

Example
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6 bits, what is the baud rate?
Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

Bandwidth
The required bandwidth for analog transmission of digital data is proportional to the signal rate except for FSK, in
which the difference between the carrier signals needs to be added. We discuss the bandwidth for each
technique.

Carrier Signal
In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a base for the
information signal. This base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier frequency. The receiving device is
tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from the sender. Digital information then changes the
carrier signal by modifying one or more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase). This kind of
modification is called modulation (shift keying).

Amplitude Shift Keying

In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements. Both frequency
and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes. In ASK, the two binary values are represented by two
different amplitudes of the carrier frequency. Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero; that is, one binary digit is
represented by the presence of a carrier, at constant amplitude, and the other by the absence of the carrier The
resulting transmitted signal for one bit time is where the carrier signal is A cos(2πfct).

Binary ASK (BASK)

Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each with a different amplitude, ASK is normally
implemented using only two levels. This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying (BASK) or on-off keying
(OOK). If the input is “ONE” a carrier is present at a higher amplitude level at the output. If the input is “ZERO”
carrier is present at a lower amplitude level at the output. Figure gives a conceptual view of binary ASK.

Another form of ASK is On-Off Keying (OOK) denotes the simplest form of amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
modulation. If the input is “ONE” a carrier is present at the output. If the input is “ZERO” carrier is absent at the
output. Figure shows this

ASK-Modulated Signal: Frequency Spectrum

Bandwidth required for ASK
The figure shows the bandwidth required

Example
Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-duplex.

In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the same. The baud rate is therefore 2000. An ASK signal requires a
minimum bandwidth equal to its baud rate. Therefore, the minimum bandwidth is 2000 Hz.

Example
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, what are the baud rate and bit rate?

In ASK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, which means the baud rate is 5000. But because the baud
rate and the bit rate are also the same for ASK, the bit rate is 5000 bps.

Example
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz), draw the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the
carriers and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume there is no gap between the bands in the two directions.

For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is

BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of each band
 .

fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000 / 2 = 3500 Hz

fc (backward) = 11000 – 5000 / 2 = 8500 Hz

Example
Determine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary to pass a 10 kbps binary signal using amplitude shift
keying.
For ASK, N = 1, and the baud and minimum bandwidth are determined from Equations
fb
B = N
= 10,000 / 1 = 10,000 Hz
fb
Baud = N
=10, 000 /1 = 10,000 symbols/sec

Bandwidth for ASK

Figure also shows the bandwidth for ASK. Although the carrier signal is only one simple sine wave, the process
of modulation produces a non-periodic composite signal. As we expect, the bandwidth is proportional to the
signal rate (baud rate). However, there is normally another factor involved, called d, which depends on the
modulation and filtering process. The value of d is between 0 and 1. This means that the bandwidth can be
expressed more accurately, as shown, where S is the signal rate and the B is the bandwidth.

The formula shows that the required bandwidth has a minimum value of S and a maximum value of 2S.

Implementation
The complete discussion of ASK implementation is beyond the scope of this book. However, the simple ideas
behind the implementation may help us to better understand the concept itself. Figure shows how we can simply
implement binary ASK.
Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency
and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our carrier frequency can be
at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).

Example
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links with communication in both directions. We need to
divide the bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies, as shown in Figure. The figure shows the positions of
two carrier frequencies and the bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each direction is now 50 kHz, which
leaves us with a data rate of 25 kbps in each direction.

Multilevel ASK
The above discussion uses only two amplitude levels. We can have multilevel ASK in which there are more than
two levels. We can use 4, 8, 16, or more different amplitudes for the signal and modulate the data using 2, 3, 4,
or more bits at a time. In these cases, r = 2, r = 3, r = 4, and so on. Although this is not implemented with pure
ASK, it is implemented with QAM (as we will see later).

Like AM, an ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation conditions on
different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation and demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive.

Applications: The ASK technique is also commonly used to transmit digital data over optical fiber. For LED
transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a short pulse of light and binary 0 by the absence of light.

ASK Modulator
The ASK modulator block diagram comprises of the carrier signal generator, the binary sequence from the
message signal and the band-limited filter. Following is the block diagram of the ASK Modulator.

The carrier generator, sends a continuous high-frequency carrier. The binary sequence from the message signal
makes the unipolar input to be either High or Low. The high signal closes the switch, allowing a carrier wave.
Hence, the output will be the carrier signal at high input. When there is low input, the switch opens, allowing no
voltage to appear. Hence, the output will be low.
The band-limiting filter, shapes the pulse depending upon the amplitude and phase characteristics of the band-
limiting filter or the pulse-shaping filter.

ASK Demodulator
There are two types of ASK Demodulation techniques. They are −
 Asynchronous ASK Demodulation/detection
 Synchronous ASK Demodulation/detection
When the clock frequency at the transmitter and the clock frequency at the receiver match, then it is known as
a Synchronous method, as the frequencies get synchronized. Otherwise, it is known as Asynchronous.

Asynchronous ASK Demodulator

The Asynchronous ASK detector consists of a half-wave rectifier, a low pass filter, and a comparator. Following
is the block diagram for the same.

The modulated ASK signal is given to the half-wave rectifier, which delivers a positive half output. The low pass
filter suppresses the higher frequencies and gives an envelope detected output from which the comparator
delivers a digital output
Advantages of Amplitude-shift keying (ASK): The main advantage of ASK modulation is generation of
ASK is very much easy. Both ASK modulation and demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive. The ASK
technique is also commonly used to transmit digital data over optical fiber. There are many other advantages
of ASK, Such as Amplitude-shift keying transmitters are very simple and transmitter current is lower than FSK.
One important advantage of ASK is it need lees bandwidth than FSK.

Disadvantages of Amplitude-shift keying (ASK): Unfortunately, ASK is linear and sensitive to

atmospheric noise, distortion, propagation condition on different routes in PSTN.It requires excessive bandwidth
and is therefore a waste of power.
FSK - Frequency Shift Keying
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data. If the input is “ONE” a
carrier is present at a frequency f1 at the output. If the input is “ZERO” carrier is present present at a frequency f2
at the output. The frequency of the modulated signal is constant, for the duration of one signal element, but
changes for the next signal element if the data element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain
constant for all signal elements.

Binary FSK (BFSK)

One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier frequencies. In Figure, we have selected
two carrier frequencies, f1 and f2. We use the first carrier f1, if the data element is 0; we use the second carrier f2,
if the data element is 1. Normally the carrier frequencies are very high, and the difference between them is very
small.

As Figure shows, the middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other is f2. Both f1 and f2 are ∆f apart
from the midpoint between the two bands. The difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf.
Note Bit rate = Baud rate in FSK
Bandwidth for BFSK
Figure also shows the bandwidth of FSK. Again the carrier signals are only simple sine waves, but the
modulation creates a non-periodic composite signal with continuous frequencies. We can think of FSK as two
ASK signals, each with its own carrier frequency ( f1 or f2). If the difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf,
then the required bandwidth is
B = (1+d)S + 2 Δf
The figure explains this better. [d=0, 2Δf = fc1 – fc0 S = N]
What should be the minimum value of 2∆f ? In Figure, we have chosen a value greater than (1 + d )S. It can be
shown that the minimum value should be at least S for the proper operation of modulation and demodulation.

Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d =1?

This problem is similar to the previous example, but we are modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of
the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2∆f to be 50 kHz; this means

Compared to the previous example, we can see the bit rate for ASK is 50 kbps while the bit rate for FSK
is 25 kbps.

Example
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode,
and the carriers are separated by 3000 Hz.
For FSK
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
BW = bit rate + fc1 - fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz

Example
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the bandwidth of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference
between the two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in full-duplex mode.

Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is allocated for each direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
Baud rate = BW - (fc1 - fc0 ) = 6000 - 2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the bit rate is 4000 bps.

Implementation
There are two implementations of BFSK: non-coherent and coherent. In non-coherent BFSK, there may be
discontinuity in the phase when one signal element ends and the next begins. In coherent BFSK, the phase
continues through the boundary of two signal elements. Non-coherent BFSK can be implemented by treating
BFSK as two ASK modulations and using two carrier frequencies. Coherent BFSK can be implemented by
using one voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) that changes its frequency according to the input voltage.

Figure shows the simplified idea behind the second implementation.

The input to the oscillator is the unipolar NRZ signal. When the amplitude of NRZ is zero, the oscillator keeps its
regular frequency; when the amplitude is positive, the frequency is increased.
Multilevel FSK
Multilevel modulation (MFSK) is not uncommon with the FSK method. We can use more than two frequencies.
For example, we can use four different frequencies f1, f2, f3, and f4 to send 2 bits at a time. To send 3 bits at a
time, we can use eight frequencies and so on…. However, we need to remember that the frequencies need to be
2Δf apart. For the proper operation of the modulator and demodulator, it can be shown that the minimum value of
2Δf needs to be S. We can show that the bandwidth is

where L is the number of different signal elements.

Note that MFSK uses more bandwidth than the other techniques; it should be used when noise is a serious
issue.
Example
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3 Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate, and the bandwidth.
We can have L = 23 = 8. Therefore there will be 8 carriers.
The baud rate is S =3 MHz/3 =1 M baud. This means that the carrier frequencies must be 1 MHz apart (2Δf =1
MHz).
The bandwidth is B = 8 X 1= 8 MHz.
Figure shows the allocation of frequencies and bandwidth.

FSK Modulator
The FSK modulator block diagram comprises of two oscillators with an input clock and a binary message
sequence. Following is its block diagram.

The two oscillators, producing a higher (f1) and a lower frequency (f2) signals, are connected to a switch along
with an internal clock. To avoid the abrupt phase discontinuities of the output waveform during the transmission
of the message, a clock is applied to both the oscillators, internally. The binary input sequence is applied to the
transmitter so as to choose the frequencies according to the binary input.
FSK Demodulator
FSK demodulator is popularly implemented using a 565 PLL. In this, The incoming FSK wave form with two
distinct frequencies f1 (lower) and f2 (higher) is fed as input to the PLL. The local oscillator of the PLL is designed
to oscillate at the center frequency (fo) between f1 and f2. If the input is f1 which is lower than fo, the phase
detector output of PLL will be ONE and if the input is f2 which is higher than fo, the phase detector output of PLL
will be ZERO. Thus the input FSK is demodulated to ONEs and ZEROs

A 3-stage RC ladder filter is used to remove the sum frequency component from the PLL o/p. As an example the
PLL input at 1,070 Hz frequency makes the PLL o/p voltage HIGH. An input at 1270 Hz similarly drives the PLL
1070+1270
o/p LOW. In this example the local oscillator is designed for = 1170Hz
2

Benefits or advantages of FSK

Following are the benefits or advantages of FSK:
➨It has lower probability of error (Pe).
➨It provides high SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio).
➨It has higher immunity to noise due to constant envelope. Hence it is robust against variation in attenuation
through channel.
➨FSK transmitter and FSK receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of FSK
Following are the disadvantages of FSK:
➨It uses larger bandwidth compare to other modulation techniques such as ASK and PSK. Hence it is not
bandwidth efficient.
➨The BER (Bit Error Rate) performance in AWGN channel is worse compare to PSK modulation.

Applications of FSK:
• It is used on voice grade telephony as modem data rates upto 1200 bps.
• It is used in caller id applications and fax machines

Numerical problems
Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK signal with a
mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kHz, and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
The peak frequency deviation is
a. ∆f = ∆f = |fm – fs | / 2 = (51kHz - 49 kHz) / 2 =1 kHz
b. The minimum bandwidth B = 2(∆f + fb) B = 2(1000 + 2000) = 6 kHz
fb
c. For FSK, N = 1, and the baud is Baud = Baud = N
= 2000 / 1 = 2000 symbols/sec

Example:
You have an FSK transmitter using a carrier of 500 kHz sending 10 kbps and a frequency deviation of 100 kHz.
How much bandwidth do you need for your transmission?
BW = 2 (Δf + Rb) = 2 ( (100 x 103 ) + (10 x 103 ) ) = 2 (110 x 103 ) = 220 kHz
Phase Shift Keying

Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation. In phase
shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal elements. Both peak
amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes. Today, PSK is more common than ASK or
FSK. However, we will see shortly that QAM, which combines ASK and PSK, is the dominant method of digital-
to-analog modulation.

Binary PSK (BPSK)

The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N = 1 and M = 2.. Therefore, with BPSK,
two phases (21 = 2) are possible for the carrier. One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase represents
a logic 0. As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1), the phase of the output
carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180°. Hence, other names for BPSK are phase reversal
keying (PRK) and Biphase modulation. BPSK is a form of square-wave modulation of a continuous wave (CW)
signal.
The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two signal elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the
other with a phase of 180°. Figure gives a conceptual view of PSK. Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK with
one big advantage — it is less susceptible to noise. In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the amplitude of the

signal; in PSK, it is the phase. Noise can change the amplitude easier than it can change the phase. In other
words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK. PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier
signals. However, PSK needs more sophisticated hardware to be able to distinguish between phases.

Bandwidth
Figure also shows the bandwidth for BPSK. The bandwidth is the same as that for binary ASK, but less than that
for BFSK. No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier signals.
 PSK Constellation diagram

PHASE-SHIFT KEYING - Implementation

BPSK Transmitter
The implementation of BPSK is as simple as that for ASK. The reason is that the signal element with phase 180°
can be seen as the complement of the signal element with phase 0°. This gives us a clue on how to implement
BPSK. We use the same idea we used for ASK but with a polar NRZ signal instead of a unipolar NRZ signal, as
shown in Figure. The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier frequency; the 1 bit (positive voltage) is
represented by a phase starting at 0°; the 0 bit (negative voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 180°.

Block diagram of BPSK Transmitter.

Figure shows a simplified block diagram of a BPSK transmitter. The balanced modulator acts as a phase
reversing switch. Depending on the logic condition of the digital input, the carrier is transferred to the output
either in phase or 180° out of phase with the reference carrier oscillator.

Ring Modulator: Figure shows the schematic diagram of a balanced ring modulator. The balanced modulator
has two inputs: a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator and the binary digital data.
For the balanced modulator to operate properly, the digital input voltage must be much greater than the peak
carrier voltage. This ensures that the digital input controls the on/off state of diodes D1 to D4. If the binary input
is a logic 1(positive voltage), diodes D 1 and D2 are forward biased and on, while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse
biased and off (b).With the polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 in phase with
the carrier voltage across T 1. Consequently, the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator.

If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes Dl and D2 are reverse biased and off, while diodes D3
and D4 are forward biased and on (Figure c). As a result, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2
180° out of phase with the carrier voltage across T 1.

Bandwidth considerations of BPSK.

In a BPSK modulator. the carrier input signal is multiplied by the binary data. If + 1 V is assigned to a logic 1 and
-1 V is assigned to a logic 0, the input carrier (sin ⍵ct) is multiplied by either a + or - 1 . The output signal is either
+ 1 sin ⍵ct or -1 sin ⍵ct . The first term represents a signal that is in phase with the reference oscillator, the
second term represents a signal that is 180° out of phase with the reference oscillator.
Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modulator is proportional to
BPSK output = [sin (2πfat)] x [sin (2πfct)]
Where fa = maximum fundamental frequency of binary input (hertz) and fc = reference carrier frequency (hertz)
Solving for the trig identity for the product of two sine functions,
BPSK output = 0.5 cos [2π(fc – fa)t] – 0.5 cos [2π(fc + fa)t]
Thus, the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth (B) is fc + fa and fc – fa
fa = fb / 2, where fb = input bit rate

Example
For a BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit rate of 10 Mbps, determine the
maximum and minimum upper and lower side frequencies, draw the output spectrum, determine
the minimum Nyquist bandwidth, and calculate the baud.
BPSK output = [sin (2π fa t)] x [sin (2π fc t)]; fa = fb / 2 = 5 MHz
= [sin 2π (5MHz) t)] x [sin 2π (70MHz) t)]
= 0.5 cos [2 π (70MHz – 5MHz) t] – 0.5 cos[2π (70MHz + 5MHz) t]
lower side frequency upper side frequency
Minimum lower side frequency (LSF): LSF = 70 MHz – 5 MHz = 65 MHz
Maximum upper side frequency (USF): USF = 70 MHz + 5 MHz = 75 MHz
Therefore, the output spectrum for the worst-case binary input conditions is as follows:
The minimum Nyquist bandwidth (B) is The minimum Nyquist bandwidth (B) is

B = 75 MHz - 65 MHz = 10 MHz

Baud rate = fb or 10 mega-Baud.

BPSK Receiver
Figure shows the block diagram of a BPSK receiver. The input signal maybe + sin ⍵ct or - sin ⍵ct .
The coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates a carrier signal that is both frequency and phase
coherent with the original transmit carrier.

The balanced modulator is a product detector; the output is the product of the two inputs (the BPSK signal and
the recovered carrier).The low-pass filter (LPF) recovers binary data from the complex demodulated signal.

Mathematically, the demodulation process is as follows.

For a BPSK input signal of + sin ωc t (logic 1),
the output of the balanced modulator is output = (sin ωc t )(sin ωc t) = sin2 ωc t
But sin2 ωc t = 0.5 (1 – cos 2ωc t) = 0.5 - 0.5 cos 2ωc t. The 2ωc component will be filtered out by the LPF
Therefore LPF output = + 0.5 V = logic 1

For a BPSK input signal of - sin ωc t (logic 0),

the output of the balanced modulator is output = (- sin ωc t )( sin ωc t) = - sin2 ωc t
But sin2 ωc t = - 0.5 (1 – cos 2 ωc t) = - 0.5 + 0.5 cos 2ωc t. The 2ωc component will be filtered out by the LPF
Therefore LPF output = - 0.5 V = logic 0

By recovering the band-limited message signal, with the help of the BM circuit and the band pass filter, the first
stage of demodulation gets completed. The base band signal which is band limited is obtained and this signal is
used to regenerate the binary message bit stream.
In the next stage of demodulation, the bit clock rate is needed at the detector circuit to produce the original
binary message signal. If the bit rate is a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency, then the bit clock regeneration is
simplified.

BPSK Applications
The BPSK modulation is a very basic technique used in various wireless standards such as CDMA, WiMAX
(16d, 16e), WLAN 11a, 11b, 11g, 11n, Satellite, DVB, Cable modem etc. It is considered to be more robust
among all the modulation types due to difference of 180 degree between two constellation points. Hence it can
withstand severe amount of channel conditions or channel fading. It is used in OFDM and OFDMA to modulate
the pilot subcarriers used for channel estimation and equalization. As we know different channels are used for
specific data transmission in cellular systems. The channels used to transmit system related information which
are very essential are modulated using BPSK modulation.

Benefits or advantages of PSK

Following are the benefits or advantages of PSK:
➨It carries data over RF signal more efficiently compared to other modulation types. Hence it is more power
efficient modulation technique compared to ASK and FSK.
➨It is less susceptible to errors compare to ASK modulation and occupies same bandwidth as ASK.
➨Higher data rate of transmission can be achieved using high level of PSK modulations such as QPSK
(represents 2 bits per constellation), 16-QAM (represents 4 bits per constellation) etc.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of PSK

 Following are the disadvantages of PSK:
 It has lower bandwidth efficiency.
 The binary data is decoded by estimation of phase states of the signal. These detection and recovery
algorithms are very complex.
 Multi-level PSK modulation schemes (QPSK, 16QAM etc.) are more sensitive to phase variations. t is
also one form of FSK and hence it also offers lower bandwidth efficiency compare to ASK modulation
type.
 Carrier waveform has abrupt phase transitions (jumps) in the output. These sharp transitions potentially
create signals, that have sidebands extending out a long way from the carrier, and this creates spurious
emission problems, for many radio communications systems, as any sidebands outside the allowed
bandwidth, cause interference to adjacent channels and also produces non linear distortions. These
interferences matter, in narrow band mobile communications, such as GSM where a number of users
communicate, in narrow bandwidths and also packed together with virtually no guard bands, between
adjacent users.
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

In QPSK two input bits are taken at a time and converted into one phase of output carrier. Therefore, with QPSK,
the binary input data are combined into groups of two bits, called dibits. The input combinations possible are 00,
01, 10 and 11. In the modulator, each dibit code generates one of the four possible output phases (+45°,+135°, -
45°, and -135°). QPSK is an M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M= 4 (hence, the name "quarternary"
meaning "4").

The simplicity of BPSK encouraged designers to use 2 bits at a time in each signal element, thereby decreasing
the baud rate and eventually the required bandwidth. The scheme is called quadrature PSK or QPSK because it
uses two separate BPSK modulations; one is in-phase, the other quadrature (out-of-phase).

The incoming bits are first passed through a serial-to-parallel conversion that sends one bit to one modulator
(odd stream) and the next bit to the other modulator (even stream). If the duration of each bit in the incoming
signal is T, the duration of each stream is 2T.. Figure shows the idea.

The two composite signals created by each multiplier are sine waves with the same frequency, but different
phases. When they are added, the result is another sine wave, with one of four possible phases: 45°, −45°,
135°, and −135°. There are four kinds of signal elements in the output signal (L = 4), so we can send 2 bits per
signal element (r = 2).

Look at the PSK generation above. There is an odd PSK output and there is an even PSK output. When they are
added together, QPSK is obtained

Example
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.
For QPSK, 2 bits are carried by one signal element. This means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N
× (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6 MHz.
I and Q Channel (example)
Figure shows how an input bit stream of 10110010 is split into even (I) bit stream and odd (Q) bit stream.
Note I stream is 11110011 and Q stream is 00110000.

QPSK modulation | Quadrature Phase Shift Keying modulation

As shown in the figure, QPSK modulator maps 2 bits per symbol.

QPSK transmitter.
A block diagram of a QPSK modulator is shown in Figure Two bits (a dibit) are clocked into the bit splitter. After
both bits have been serially inputted, they are simultaneously parallel outputted. The I bit modulates, a carrier
that is in phase with the reference oscillator (hence the name "I" for "in phase" channel), and the Q bit modulates,
a carrier that is 90° out of phase.
For a logic 1 = + 1 V and a logic 0= - 1 V, two phases are possible at the output of the I balanced modulator
(+ sin ⍵ct and - sin ⍵ct), and two phases are possible at the output of the Q balanced modulator (+ cos ⍵ct), and
(- cos ⍵ct).

I signal = sin(wt) ... for binary 1

= - sin(wt) for binary 0
Q signal = cos(wt) for binary 1
= - cos(wt)... for binary 0

When the linear summer combines the two quadrature (90° out of phase) signals, there are four possible
resultant phasors given by these expressions: + sin ⍵ct + cos ⍵ct, + sin ⍵ct - cos ⍵ct, - sin ⍵ct + cos ⍵ct,
and - sin ⍵ct - cos ⍵ct.
For a binary data input of Q = 0 and I = 0, the two inputs to the I balanced modulator are -1 and sin ωct, and the
two inputs to the Q balanced modulator are -1 and cos ωct. Consequently, the outputs are

and the output of the linear summer is

For the remaining dibit codes (01, 10, and 11), the procedure is the same. The results are shown in figures 1, 2,
and 3.

Constellation Diagram
A constellation diagram can help us define the amplitude and phase of a signal element, particularly when we
are using two carriers (one in-phase and one quadrature). The diagram is useful when we are dealing with
multilevel ASK, PSK, or QAM (see next section). In a constellation diagram, a signal element type is represented
as a dot. The bit or combination of bits it can carry is often written next to it.
The diagram has two axes. The horizontal X axis is related to the in-phase carrier; the vertical Y axis is related to
the quadrature carrier. For each point on the diagram, four pieces of information can be deduced. The projection
of the point on the X axis defines the peak amplitude of the in-phase component; the projection of the point on
the Y axis defines the peak amplitude of the quadrature component. The length of the line (vector) that connects
the point to the origin is the peak amplitude of the signal element (combination of the X and Y components); the
angle the line makes with the X axis is the phase of the signal element. All the information we need can easily be
found on a constellation diagram. Figure shows a constellation diagram.

Example
Show the constellation diagrams for ASK (OOK), BPSK, and QPSK signals.

Solution
Figure shows the three constellation diagrams. Let us analyze each case separately:

For ASK, we are using only an in-phase carrier. Therefore, the two points should be on the X axis. Binary 0 has
an amplitude of 0 V; binary 1 has an amplitude of 1 V (for example). The points are located at the origin and at 1
unit.

BPSK also uses only an in-phase carrier. However, we use a polar NRZ signal for modulation. It creates two
types of signal elements, one with amplitude 1 and the other with amplitude −1. This can be stated in other
words: BPSK creates two different signal elements, one with amplitude 1 V and in phase and the other with
amplitude 1 V and 180°out of phase.

QPSK uses two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature. The point representing 11 is made of two
combined signal elements, both with an amplitude of 1 V. One element is represented by an in-phase carrier, the
other element by a quadrature carrier. The amplitude of the final signal element sent for this 2-bit data element is
√2, and the phase is 45°. The argument is similar for the other three points. All signal elements have an
amplitude of√2,but their phases are different (45°, 135°, −135°, and −45°). Of course, we could have chosen
1
the amplitude of the carrier to be to make the final amplitudes 1 V.
√2
The Phasor diagram for QPSK is shown below
QPSK The time waveforms of I, Q and combined QPSK signal (I+Q) as well as constellation diagram are shown
below.

In these figures it can be seen that with QPSK each of the four possible output phasors has exactly the same
amplitude. Therefore, the binary information must be encoded entirely in the phase of the output signal.
It can be seen that the angular separation between any two adjacent phasors in QPSK is 90°.

QPSK Demodulator

The demodulator does the reverse of modulator and is self-explanatory

Example:
For a QPSK modulator with an input data rate (fb) equal to 10 Mbps and a carrier frequency 70 MHz, determine
the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth (fN) and the baud. Also, compare the results with those achieved
with the BPSK modulator. Use the QPSK block diagram of the QPSK modulator model.

The bit rate in both the I and Q channels is equal to one-half of the transmission bit rate, or
fbQ = fbI = fb / 2 = 10 Mbps / 2 = 5 Mbps
The highest fundamental frequency presented to either balanced modulator is
fa= fbQ / 2 = 5 Mbps / 2 = 2.5 MHz
The output wave from each balanced modulator is (sin 2πfat) (sin 2πfct)
0.5 cos 2π (fc – fa)t – 0.5 cos 2π (fc + fa)t
0.5 cos 2π [(70 – 2.5) MHz]t – 0.5 cos 2π [(70 –2.5) MHz]t
0.5 cos 2π (67.5 MHz)t - 0.5 cos 2π (72.5 MHz)t
The minimum Nyquist bandwidth is
B=(72.5-67.5) MHz = 5 MHz
The symbol rate equals the bandwidth: thus,
symbol rate = 5 megabaud
The output spectrum is as follows:

It can be seen that for the same input bit rate the minimum bandwidth required to pass the output of the QPSK
modulator is equal to one-half of that required for the BPSK modulator in Example 2-4. Also, the baud rate for the
QPSK modulator is one half that of the BPSK modulator.

8 - PSK Constellation diagram

Example
Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, which means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit
rate is 3 times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps

Example
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what are the baud rate and bit rate?
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, which means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit
rate is 3 times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps

Relationship between baud rate and Bandwidth in PSK

Example
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?
The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45 degrees apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with each
signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud

Example
Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal.
A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since log216 = 4.
Thus, (1000)(4) = 4000 bps

Example
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since log2 64 = 6.
Thus, 72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud

QPSK Modulation Applications

Similar to BPSK, QPSK is used in various cellular wireless standards such as GSM, CDMA, LTE, 802.11 WLAN,
802.16 fixed and mobile WiMAX, Satellite and CABLE TV applications. 1.CDMA System
2.cable modem 3.video conferencing 4.in satellite communication

Advantages of QPSK
For the same Bit Error Rate, the bandwidth required by QPSK is reduced to half that of PSK
Because of reduced bandwidth, the transmission rate for information is much higher in QPSK than PSK
Variation of QPSK amplitude is negligible. Hence carrier power almost remains constant
Dis advantages of QPSK
Receiver is complex
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
PSK is limited by the ability of the receiver, to distinguish small differences in phase. This factor limits its potential
to achieve higher bit rates. So far, we have been altering only one of the three characteristics of a sine wave at a
time; but what if we alter two? Why not vary amplitude and phase? Why not combine ASK and PSK? The idea of
using two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature, with different amplitude levels for each carrier is the
concept behind quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or QAM is a form of modulation which is widely used for modulating data
signals onto a carrier used for radio communications. It is widely used because it offers advantages over other
forms of data modulation such as PSK, although many forms of data modulation operate alongside each other.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM is a signal in which two carriers shifted in phase by 90 degrees are
modulated and the resultant output consists of both amplitude and phase variations. In view of the fact that both
amplitude and phase variations are present it may also be considered as a mixture of amplitude and phase
modulation.

A time domain signal of a 8 QAM is shown below. Note there are 4 phases and 2 amplitudes. Compare with a
8 PSK wave form

A motivation for the use of quadrature amplitude modulation comes from the fact that a straight amplitude
modulated signal, i.e. double sideband even with a suppressed carrier occupies twice the bandwidth of the
modulating signal. This is very wasteful of the available frequency spectrum. QAM restores the balance by
placing two independent double sideband suppressed carrier signals in the same spectrum as one ordinary
double sideband supressed carrier signal

QAM - Hardware Implementation

Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) requires changing the phase and amplitude of a carrier sine wave. One
of the easiest ways to implement QAM with hardware is to generate and mix two sine waves that are 90 degrees
out of phase with one another. Adjusting only the amplitude of either signal can affect the phase and amplitude of
the resulting mixed signal.
These two carrier waves represent the in-phase (I) and quadrature-phase (Q) components of our signal.
Individually each of these signals can be represented as:
I = A cos(φ) and Q = A sin(φ).
Note that the I and Q components are represented as cosine and sine because the two signals are 90 degrees
out of phase with one another. Using the two identities above and the following trigonometric identity
cos(α + β) = cos(α) cos(β) – sin(α) sin(β),
rewrite a carrier wave A cos(2πfct + φ) as
A cos(2πfct + φ) = I cos(2πfct) – Q sin(2πfct).
As the equation above illustrates, the resulting identity is a periodic signal whose phase can be adjusted by
changing the amplitude of I and Q. Thus, it is possible to perform digital modulation on a carrier signal by
adjusting the amplitude of the two mixed signals.
Figure shows a block diagram of the hardware required to generate a 4 QAM. The “Quadrature Modulator”
block shows how the I and Q signals are mixed with the local oscillator (LO) signal before being mixed together.
The two LOs are exactly 90 degrees out of phase with one another. The block diagram is that of a 4 QAM. It is
similar to QPSK in the implementation. Both use 4 phases and single amplitude. Higher order QAMs like 8 QAM
or 16 QAM will be different than 8 PSK, 16 PSK and so on. They will have differentiators both in amplitude
domain and phase domain.
Example: 8 PSK will use 8 phases and single amplitude. 8 QAM will use 4 phases and 2 amplitudes.

Figure 1. Hardware Used to Generate the IF Signal

QAM constellations
Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM, when used for digital transmission for radio communications
applications is able to carry higher data rates than ordinary amplitude modulated schemes and phase modulated
schemes. As with phase shift keying, etc, the number of points at which the signal can rest, i.e. the number of
points on the constellation is indicated in the modulation format description, e.g. 16QAM uses a 16 point
constellation. When using QAM, the constellation points are normally arranged in a square grid with equal
vertical and horizontal spacing and as a result the most common forms of QAM use a constellation with the
number of points equal to a power of 2 i.e. 4, 16, 64 . . . .
By using higher order modulation formats, i.e. more points on the constellation, it is possible to transmit more bits
per symbol. However the points are closer together and they are therefore more susceptible to noise and data
errors. Normally a QAM constellation is square and therefore the most common forms of QAM 16QAM, 64QAM
and 256QAM.
The advantage of moving to the higher order formats is that there are more points within the constellation and
therefore it is possible to transmit more bits per symbol. The downside is that the constellation points are closer
together and therefore the link is more susceptible to noise. As a result, higher order versions of QAM are only
used when there is a sufficiently high signal to noise ratio.
To provide an example of how QAM operates, the constellation diagram below shows the values associated with
the different states for a 16QAM signal. From this it can be seen that a continuous bit stream may be grouped
into fours and represented as a sequence

16QAM :To provide an example of how 16 QAM operates, the constellation diagram below shows the values
associated with the different states for a 16QAM signal. From this it can be seen that a continuous bit stream
may be grouped into fours and represented as a sequence.

A few other constellations are shown below

Normally the lowest order QAM encountered is 16QAM. Note that 2QAM is the same as binary phase-shift
keying, BPSK, and 4QAM is the same as quadrature phase-shift keying, QPSK.

QAM applications
Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM may exist in what may be termed either analogue or digital formats. The
analogue versions of QAM are typically used to allow multiple analogue signals to be carried on a single carrier.
For example it is used in PAL and NTSC television systems, where the different channels provided by QAM
enable it to carry the components of chroma or colour information. In radio applications a system known as C-
QUAM is used for AM stereo radio. Here the different channels enable the two channels required for stereo to be
carried on the single carrier.
Digital formats of QAM are often referred to as "Quantised QAM" and they are being increasingly used for data
communications often within radio communications systems. Radio communications systems ranging from
cellular technology as in the case of LTE through wireless systems including WiMAX, and Wi-Fi 802.11 use a
variety of forms of QAM, and the use of QAM will only increase within the field of radio communications.
QAM is in many radio communications and data delivery applications. However some specific variants of QAM
are used in some specific applications and standards.
For domestic broadcast applications for example, 64 QAM and 256 QAM are often used in digital cable television
and cable modem applications. In the UK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM are currently used for digital terrestrial television
using DVB - Digital Video Broadcasting. In the US, 64 QAM and 256 QAM are the mandated modulation
schemes for digital cable as standardised by the SCTE in the standard ANSI/SCTE 07 2000.
In addition to this, variants of QAM are also used for many wireless and cellular technology applications

QAM advantages and disadvantages

Although QAM appears to increase the efficiency of transmission for radio communications systems by utilising
both amplitude and phase variations, it has a number of drawbacks. The first is that it is more susceptible to
noise because the states are closer together so that a lower level of noise is needed to move the signal to a
different decision point. Receivers for use with phase or frequency modulation are both able to use limiting
amplifiers that are able to remove any amplitude noise and thereby improve the noise reliance. This is not the
case with QAM.
The second limitation is also associated with the amplitude component of the signal. When a phase or frequency
modulated signal is amplified in a radio transmitter, there is no need to use linear amplifiers, whereas when using
QAM that contains an amplitude component, linearity must be maintained. Unfortunately linear amplifiers are less
efficient and consume more power, and this makes them less attractive for mobile applications.
QAM vs other modulation formats
As there are advantages and disadvantages of using QAM it is necessary to compare QAM with other modes
before making a decision about the optimum mode. Some radio communications systems dynamically change
the modulation scheme dependent upon the link conditions and requirements - signal level, noise, data rate
required, etc.

Comparisons with other modulations

The table below compares various forms of modulation
SUMMARY OF TYPES OF MODULATION WITH DATA
CAPACITIES
MODULAT BITS PER COMPLEX
ERROR MARGIN
ION SYMBOL ITY

OOK 1 01-Feb 0.5 Low

BPSK 1 1 1 Medium

QPSK 2 1 / √2 0.71 Medium

16 QAM 4 √2 / 6 0.23 High

64QAM 6 √2 / 14 0.1 High

The advantage of using QAM is that it is a higher order form of modulation and as a result it is able to carry more
bits of information per symbol. By selecting a higher order format of QAM, the data rate of a link can be
increased.
The table below gives a summary of the bit rates of different forms of QAM and PSK.

MODULATION BITS PER SYMBOL SYMBOL RATE

BPSK 1 1 x bit rate
QPSK 2 1/2 bit rate
8PSK 3 1/3 bit rate
16QAM 4 1/4 bit rate
32QAM 5 1/5 bit rate
64QAM 6 1/6 bit rate

QAM Modulator & Demodulator

QAM, Quadrature amplitude modulation is widely used in many digital data radio communications and data
communications applications. A variety of forms of QAM are available and some of the more common forms
include 16 QAM, 32 QAM, 64 QAM, 128 QAM, and 256 QAM..

QAM Modulator:
The QAM modulator and QAM demodulator are key elements within any quadrature amplitude modulation
system. The modulator and demodulator are used to encode the signal, often data, onto the radio frequency
carrier that is to be transmitted. Then the demodulator is used at the remote end to extract the signal from the RF
carrier so that it can used at the remote end. As quadrature amplitude modulation is a complex signal,
specialised QAM modulators and demodulators are required.
QAM modulator basics:The QAM modulator essentially follows the idea that can be seen from the basic QAM
theory where there are two carrier signals with a phase shift of 90° between them. These are then amplitude
modulated with the two data streams known as the I or In-phase and the Q or quadrature data streams. These
are generated in the baseband processing area.

Basic QAM modulator diagram

The two resultant signals are summed and then processed as required in the RF signal chain, typically
converting them in frequency to the required final frequency and amplifying them as required.
It is worth noting that as the amplitude of the signal varies any RF amplifiers must be linear to preserve the
integrity of the signal. Any non-linearities will alter the relative levels of the signals and alter the phase difference,
thereby distorting he signal and introducing the possibility of data errors.
QAM Demodulator:
The QAM demodulator is very much the reverse of the QAM modulator.
The signals enter the system, they are split and each side is applied to a mixer. One half has the in-phase local
oscillator applied and the other half has the quadrature oscillator signal applied.
Basic QAM demodulator diagram
A further requirement is to derive a local oscillator signal for the demodulation that is exactly on the required
frequency for the signal. Any frequency offset will be a change in the phase of the local oscillator signal with
respect to the two double sideband suppressed carrier constituents of the overall signal.
Systems include circuitry for carrier recovery that often utilises a phase locked loop - some even have an inner
and outer loop. Recovering the phase of the carrier is important otherwise the bit error rate for the data will be
compromised.

Bandwidth for QAM

The minimum bandwidth required for QAM transmission is the same as that required for ASK and PSK
transmission. QAM has the same advantages as PSK over ASK.

Example:
Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal
A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since log216 = 4.
Thus, 1000 X 4 = 4000 bps

Example:
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since log2 64 = 6.
Thus, 72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud

Example:
Using the signal constellation shown, answer the following questions.
a) What type of modulation does this represent?
16 symbols, all with same amplitude but different phases, so this is 16-PSK
c) How many bits per symbol are used (N)?
N = log2M = log216 = 4
d) If the Baud Rate is 10,000 symbols/second, what is the bit rate (Rb)?
Rb = Rs x N = 10,000 symbols/sec x 4 bits/symbol = 40 kbps.
e) Would 16-QAM be more or less susceptible to noise than this type of modulation?
If correctly designed, 16 QAM should in general be less susceptible to noise because the symbols would be
spread further apart. This makes it less likely for the receiver to make an error.
Minimum shift keying (MSK) and Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

Minimum shift keying, MSK, is a form of continuous-phase frequency-shift keying, that is used in a number of
applications. A variant of MSK modulation, known as Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is used for
a number of radio communications applications including GSM cellular telecommunications system. In addition to
this, MSK has advantages over other forms of PSK and as a result it is used in a number of radio
communications systems.

In practice, any communication system needs to conserve the bandwidth efficiently and totally avoid interference
with other bands. The efficiency of power supply needs to be improved and permit use of Class C amplifiers
without distortion. Minimum-shift keying is one such bandwidth conservation technique. It has the advantage of
producing a constant-amplitude signal and, consequently, Class C amplifiers can be used to amplify the signal
without distortion

Properties of MSK
1) continuous binary FSK；
2) modulation index is 0.5 always.
3) two signals are orthogonal over the bit interval；

Why MSK?
Recall the disadvantages of PSK transmissions.
Disadvantages:
PSK carrier waveform has abrupt phase transitions (jumps) in the output. Discontinuity in time-domain in
transmitted signal is translated to power leakage from main-band to side-band. This causes lot of problems like
interference etc. These sharp transitions potentially create signals, that have sidebands extending out a long way
from the carrier. This creates spurious emission problems, for many radio communications systems, as any
sidebands outside the allowed bandwidth, cause

interference to adjacent channels and also produces non-linear distortions. These interferences matter, in narrow
band mobile communications, such as GSM where a number of users communicate, in narrow bandwidths
(frequency reuse). GSM users are also packed together with virtually no guard bands, between adjacent users.
MSK removes these abrupt transitions and makes them smooth (like a 2 FSK). As a result, the harmonics come
down and interference with other channels also comes down.
Minimum Shift Keying, MSK basics
When looking at a plot of a signal using MSK modulation, it can be seen that the modulating data signal changes
the frequency of the signal and there are no phase discontinuities. This arises as a result of the unique factor of
MSK that the frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to half the
data rate. This can be expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.

Signal using MSK modulation

MSK – an Implementation:
Look at the waveforms in thefigure.
Waveform 1. Is the digital input signal.
Waveforms 2 and 3 are the even bit stream (consisting of even bits) and the odd stream (consisting of odd bits)
Waveform 4 is a low frequency carrier assigned for transmission
Waveform 5.is a high frequency carrier (at twice the low freq carrier) assigned for transmission.

MSK Generation:
Let us follow the truth table for the logic of the MSK output. (Pls view slot by slot)
a. If the even and odd bits are 0, 0 the high frequency carrier is selected and inverted
b. If the even and odd bits are 1, 0 the low frequency carrier is selected and inverted
c. If the even and odd bits are 0, 1 the low frequency carrier is selected and non-inverted.
d. If the even and odd bits are 1, 1 the high frequency carrier is selected and non-inverted.
Look at the final output. The abrupt signal jumps we saw in PSK have vanished and the transitions are a lot
smoother.

MSK and GMSK

MSK ( Minimum Shift Keying ) and its derivative GMSK, are forms of continuous phase frequency shift keying. In
these frequency changes occur at zero crossing points and there are no phase discontinuities. GMSK has a
better spectral efficiency than most methods of phase shift keying as well as a better noise resilience.
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a widely used modulation scheme in Digital Radio Communication, for
instance, in GSM and AIS in Maritime Navigation.

GMSK basics
A plot of the spectrum of an MSK signal shows sidebands extending well beyond a bandwidth equal to the data
rate. This can be reduced by passing the modulating signal through a low pass filter known as Gaussian filter,
prior to applying it to the carrier.

The requirements for this Gaussian filter are that it should have a sharp cut-off, narrow bandwidth and its impulse
response should show no overshoot. The ideal filter, known as a Gaussian filter has a Gaussian shaped
response to an impulse and no ringing. In this way the basic MSK signal is converted to GMSK modulation.

Spectral density of MSK and GMSK signals

Advantages of GMSK modulation

There are several advantages to the use of GMSK modulation for a radio communications system. One is
obviously the improved spectral efficiency when compared to other phase shift keyed modes. Spectral efficiency
is the figure of merit for a communication technology which aims to send maximum bits per second in a channel,
using minimum bandwidth. It is measured in bit/s/Hz. A further advantage of GMSK is that it can be amplified by
a non-linear amplifier and remain undistorted This is because there are no elements of the signal that are carried
as amplitude variations. This advantage is of particular importance when using small portable transmitters, such
as those required by cellular technology. Non-linear amplifiers are more efficient in terms of the DC power
utilisation. This results in lower levels of battery consumption for a given transmit power.
A further advantage of GMSK modulation again arises from the fact that none of the information is carried as
amplitude variations. This means that is immune to amplitude variations and therefore more resilient to noise,
than some other forms of modulation, because most noise is mainly amplitude based.

Advantages:
High spectral efficiency
Reduced sideband power
Excellent power efficiency. Batteries last for longer hours
Good choice for voice communication
Good BER performance
Good for narrow band wireless communication such as GSM

Disadvantages
Higher power needed than QPSK
Requires complex channel equalisers
Error performanc is better in MSK than GMSK