Materials Science and Engineering, A 171 (1993) 223-230 223

A methodology for the prediction of time-temperature-transformation

diagrams
Jye-Long Lee
Steel and Aluminium R&D Department, China Steel Corporation, Kaohsiung (Taiwan)
H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia
University of Cambridge, JRDC, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, Pembroke Street,
Cambridge CB2 3QZ (UK)
(Received January 15. 1993; in revised form March 18, 1993)

Abstract

A method based on nucleation theory but using fitted constants was used to model the time-temperature-transformation
(TTT) diagrams of steels. The transformation-start C-curves on the diagrams were represented as functions of the free
energy of nucleation and of an activation energy. The subsequent increase in volume fraction with time is treated using the
Johnson-Mehl-Avrami equation. These results, and published methods for determination of the variety of transforma-
tion-start temperatures, are demonstrated to estimate properly the published TTT diagrams for a large variety of
commercial steels containing C, Mn, Si, Ni, Mo and Cr as solute additions.

I. Introduction although the method is limited to the initiation of trans-

Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams
are incredibly useful in the design of steels and their
heat treatments. Recent applications include manipula-
tion of the microstructure during controlled rolling [1]
and accelerated cooling processes [2] in the manu-
facture of steel plates and rods, and in models for the
prediction of microstructure of the fusion [3, 4] and
heat-affected zones [5, 6] of steel welds.
There have been many useful attempts to predict
T T T diagrams as a function of steel chemistry and the
austenite grain structure. Kirkaidy [7] in 1973
proposed a method for estimation of the pearlite-start
curve of eutectoid steels. A Johnson-Mehl-Avrami
type equation has also been used by Umemoto et al. [8]
for the representation of pearlite formation kinetics in
eutectoid steels. Another approach is based on
Russell's model [9] for the incubation period during
nucleation. Thus, the T T T diagram is considered to
consist of two C-curves, the higher temperature curve
describing the initiation of reconstructive transforma-
tions, whereas the lower temperature curve similarly
describes displacive transformations. By fitting the
nucleation theory empirically to a large experimental
database [10], it is possible to predict the form of T T T
diagrams, and especially the bay between the two
C-curves, as a function of alloy chemistry [11],
formations only. A model [12-14] based on fitting to
experimental data [15] gives a more complete descrip-
tion of the T T T diagram, so that the volume fraction of
reaction can be estimated during isothermal heat treat-
ment. A recent assessment has demonstrated that all of
these models work reasonably well, but have limita-
tions in terms of alloy chemistry or in terms of the
ability to predict correctly the bay that arises between
the two C-curves as the alloy concentration is
increased [16].
The aim of the present work was to improve on
previous models to cover a larger range of alloy
chemistry, to cover the whole range of transformation
behaviour (rather than just reaction initiation) and to
optimize prediction of the bay region. The complexity
of the problem means that a fundamental application
of nucleation and growth theory is simply not feasible
[17], so the model parameters are derived by fitting to
published T T T data.
2. Methodology
Any isothermal transformation diagram for steels
should include the following vital elements: (1) the Ae 3
temperature below which ferrite formation becomes
thermodynamically possible; (2) the bainite-start B s

0921-5093/93/$6.00 © 1993 - Elsevier Sequoia. All fights reserved

224 J.-L. Lee, H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia / Predictionof TTl'diagrams
temperature; (3) the martensite-start M s temperature;
(4) a set of C-curves describing various degrees of
reconstructive transformation (allotriomorphic ferrite,
pearlite); (5) a set of C-curves describing various
degrees of displacive transformation (Widmanst~itten
ferrite, bainite).
2.1. Transformation temperatures
The Ae 3 temperature was calculated in each case
according to the method of Kirkaidy and coworkers
[18-20]. The bainite and Widmanst~itten ferrite-start
temperatures can be estimated according to thermo-
dynamic methodology discussed elsewhere [11,
21-23], but a simpler and equally reliable procedure is
adopted here.
It was emphasized earlier that the TTT diagram can
be described in terms of two C-curves, the lower curve
representing the Widmanst~itten ferrite and bainite
reactions. Both bainite and Widmanst~itten ferrite
nucleate by the same mechanism; the nucleus develops
into Widmanst~itten ferrite if at the transformation
temperature the driving force available cannot sustain
diffusionless transformation. By contrast, bainite forms
from the same nucleus if transformation can occur
without diffusion. Thus, the highest temperature 1"h of
the lower C-curve corresponds either to the Widman-
st~itten ferrite-start or the bainite-start temperature.
These ideas are due to relatively recent studies of the
mechanisms of transformation, whereas the experi-
mentally determined TTT diagrams do not address
such issues and always identify 1"h with B s. To be con-
sistent with this, we also refer to Th as the bainite-start
temperature whilst recognizing that it can in principle
also describe the Widmanst~itten ferrite-start tempera-
ture. The temperature was calculated using the empiri-
cal equation of Steven and Haynes [24].
The bainite transformation does not reach comple-
tion if the austenite enriches with carbon. However, in
many steels, carbide precipitation from austenite
eliminates the enrichment and allows the austenite to
transform completely. In those circumstances it is
appropriate to discuss a "bainite finish" temperature,
which according to Leslie [25] is given approximately
by
B~(°C) = B s - 120 (1)
Representations of intermediate states of transforma-
tion between 0% and 100% were derived by fitting to
the experimental TTT diagrams as follows:
Bx(°C) = B s - 300x x<0.1 (2)
Bx(°C)=Bs-30-75(x-O.1) 0.1 < x < 0 . 9 (3)
Bx(°C) = B s - 90 - 300(x - 0.9) 0.9 < x< 1 (4)
where x refers to the fraction of transformation.
The martensite-start temperature M s was predicted
according to ref. 26. Martensite is considered to form
when the driving force for diffusionless transformation
achieves a critical value which is a function of the
carbon concentration of the parent austenite [26]. The
driving force for diffusionless transformation was
calculated as in ref. 22.
2.2. Transformation start and finish C-curves
The equation that has been used previously to repre-
sent the incubation period for a specified proportion of
transformation is [11]
(5)
where T is the absolute temperature, R is the universal
gas constant, Gmax is the maximum free energy change
available for nucleation [11 ], Q is an activation energy,
and C, p and z = 20 are empirical constants obtained
by fitting to experimental data.
The above function has been demonstrated to
reproduce the shape of C-curves rather well, and was
consequently employed here to describe the transfor-
mation-start and finish curves. By varying p and plot-
ting ln(rGmaxP/T2°) against 1/RT it is possible to
choose an optimum value of p for each transformation
curve by maximizing the regression coefficient R~.
Once p has been determined, Q and C follow from
respectively the slope and intercept of the plot.
It is worth noting that in most cases, the bainite
finish C-curve of the experimental TTT diagrams not
only shifts to longer times relative to the corresponding
curve for the start of the reaction, but is also depressed
to lower temperatures (eqn. (1)). This is taken into
account by plotting ln[rGmJ/(T+120) 2°] against
l/R( T+ 120) in order to determine the values of p, Q
and C for the bainite finish C-curve.
2.3. Fractional transformation curves
To estimate the increase in the volume fraction of
bainite as a function of time, a Johnson-Mehl-Avrami
equation was adopted, as developed by Umemoto et al.
[8]:
x =l-exp~ KLt"
d']I (6)
where x is the transformed volume fraction, K, is a rate
constant which is a function of temperature and d is the
austenite grain size; n and m are empirical constants.
Since all the steels analysed in the present work have
rather similar austenite grain sizes (within the range
ASTM No. 7-8), the grain size effect can be neglected,
 J.-L. Lee, tt. K. D. tt. Bhadeshia / Prediction of TTT diagrams 225

so that the above equation simplifies to 3.2. The Q and C parameters

As explained earlier, substitution of an appropriate
x = 1 - exp{K,t"} (7) value of p into eqn. (5) enables the determination of Q
Assuming that the transformation-start and finish and C (Fig. 2). However, for the ferrite curves
curves in the experimentally determined TTT especially, the shapes of the C-curves (and hence the
diagrams really correspond to x = 0 . 0 1 and x = 0 . 9 9
respectively, once the time required to reach these two
transformation fractions has been determined from

/
1.01
eqn. (5), the values of K~ and n can be solved for each
transformation product as a function of temperature.
Fractional transformation curves for arbitrary values of 0.9
"U
x can therefore be determined using eqn. (7).
8
¢3
0.8
e'-.
o EN18
3. Determination of the fitting parameters .r'~

• EN16
0.7
o ENI4
The experimental data listed in ref. 10 were selected
for the determination of p, Q and C. The chemical 0.6 i I I t

compositions of those steels are listed in Table 1. For 0 2 4 6 8 I(I 12

the ferrite transformation, the analysis was restricted to Exponent p

below the temperature where the free energy change
Fig. I . Relation between the exponent p and the correlation
accompanying the paraequilibrium formation of ferrite
coefficient.
is AG ~'-7 +"< - 5 0 J mol-l [11].

The p parameter
Before determining the best fit for the parameters Q T A B L E 2. Optimum values of fitting constants, the concentra-
and C, it is necessary to determine the value of p tions are in weight per cent
in eqn. (5). Figure 1 illustrates how the correlation
FS p=4, C = - 155-9Ni-30Mo,
coefficient R~ varies as a function of p for steels Enl 4, Q = 3 3 1 3 4 0 + 83000Ni + 2 5 5 0 0 0 M o + 1 2 9 0 0 0 C r
En 16 and En 18. A value of p = 4 was selected for the FF p = 8 , C = - 1 5 5 - 9 N i - 30Mo,
start curve of ferrite formation since R~ ceases to be Q = 5 9 6 7 5 0 + 78000Ni + 265(100Mo + 115000Cr
sensitive to p beyond a value of 4. The results of similar - 110000C
BS p=5, C = -133,
determinations for the other curves are presented in
Q = 2 1 9 8 8 0 + 10000C + 6000Ni - 3 0 0 0 M o
Table 2. + 5000Cr
BF p=5, C= -133,
Q = 2 3 4 8 6 0 + 2 7 0 0 0 C + 40(l(JNi + 11000Cr

T A B L E I. Chemical compositions, in weight percent, of the

steels chosen to test the model
-100
Alloy C Si Mn Ni Mo Cr
ta EN18 J
Enl3 (I.19 0.14 1.37 0.56 0.31 (1.20 • EN, / J
Enl4 0.29 0.26 1.67 0.21 0.04 0.12
Enl5 0.33 0.23 1.54 0.18 0.05 0.15
Enl6 0.33 0.18 1.48 0.26 0.27 0.16
'~"
+ -110
Enl7 (I.38 0.25 1.49 0.24 0.41 0.14
Enl8 0.48 0.25 0.86 0.18 0.04 0.98
Enl9 (I.41 0.23 0.67 0.20 0.23 1.01 _~ -ll5
En20L (1.27 0.13 0.60 0.19 0.55 0.74
En20H (I.41 0.28 0.58 0.15 0.74 1.39
En24 0.38 0.20 0.69 1.58 0.26 0.95 -120 , I , I , I ,
En110 0.39 0.23 0.62 1.44 0.18 1.1 ! II 12 13 14 15
US 1050 0.50 0.I 3 (1.91 -- -- --
US4140 O.37 0.15 0.77 -- 0.21 0.98 105/RT
US4150 0.55 -- 0.60 0.36 0.19 1.03
US434(1 0.42 -- 0.78 1.79 0.33 0.80
Fig. 2. The plot of l n [ ( r G , , J ) / T 2"] against 1/RT showing that
US5140 (1.42 0.I 6 0.68 -- -- 0.93
each steel has a regression line of different intercept C and slope
Q.
226 J.-L. Lee, H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia / Prediction of 177"diagrams

Q and C values) seemed to vary with steel chemistry of the published TTT curve data. The results are
(Fig. 3). Thus, it was found necessary to express these presented in Table 2.
parameters as a function of the chemical composition
of the steel in order to obtain acceptable representation
3.3. Other restrictions
900 . . . . I " " I .... I " " " t ..... I ...... I ....
The TTT diagrams of ref. 9 show that for most of
E N I 4 the steels, the bainite C-curve has a plateau at its
highest temperature, and this was incorporated by con-
800 Ae~ -
structing a horizontal line at the B s temperature and
joining it to a C-curve calculation for temperatures
700 _ , ' / ...... i'!"-' ' - -':"-".............. below B~. A similar construction was used for other
t.)

o bainite curves representing different extents of trans-

r,a 600 formation.
[..,

4. Comparison with experimental TIT diagrams

£-~

400 Figure 4 shows the relationship between the

M.
............ q=656000, C=190 observed Q values and those calculated using the
300 .......... Q=517000, C=175
equations listed in Table 2. All the data fall quite close
to the line of ideality for the four transformation
_ _ q = 3 7 5 0 0 0 , C=160
........ I ....... I ........ I ........ I ........ I . . . . . . . . I . . . . curves.
1.0E+00 i.OE+0l 1.0E+02 I.OE+O3 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 I.@E÷06 Examples comparing experimental and calculated
TIME / S TTT diagrams for the British specification steels are
Fig. 3. Effect of Q-C values on the shape and position of the illustrated in Fig. 5. The model correctly estimates the
transformation curve. bay region where the incubation time is longer than

"7. 10 8
0
E E Fs
,-j 9' 7-
u') u-i
ov- 8" v- 6
7" ideallty
0 0 ~ ,/~J tdeahty
"0
5
•oQ 6" 0
P >
• 5" 4
J~ J~
0 0
4 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3
(a) Predicted Q / 10 5 j moll (b) Predicted Q / 10 5 j mol-1

"_ 2.4 ~_ 2.7

0 0
E Bs E
-,j
tt~ tt~ oj /
0o 0 2.6'
v,- v-
" 2.3" ~ " ~ Lineof
0 ~ 0 ideality 0
"O 0 0
"~ 2.5"
IU
0
ffl ffl
.a ,Q

0 2.2 0 2.4
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4 21s 216 2.r
(c) Predicted Q / 10 5 j mol-1 (d) Predicted O / 10 5 d mol-1
Fig. 4. Relation between the observed and predicted Q (J mol- ') value for (a) FS, (b) FF, (c) BS and (d) BF curves.
 J.-L. Lee, tt. K. D. tt. Bhadeshia / Prediction of 77Tdiagrams 227

900 I • I I I " I " I 900 I " I " I 1 " I I "

.......... E X P E R I M E N T A L .......... EXPERIMENTAL

__PREDICTED _ _ PREDICTED
800 Ae 800 Ae3

700 700

iiii
L) C.)
o o
(i,"I ~" .
rn 600 ,.~ 600
B_ B,

~ 500 500
n.

400 400
M,
M,

300 300
ENI4 ENI6

....... I ....... I ....... I ....... J ....... J ...... J ..... ..... I ........ I ........ I ........ I ........ I ....... ~ ......
1.0E+00 1.0E401 i . 0 E + 0 2 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 i . 0 E + 0 5 1.0E+06 1.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06

',a) TIME / S b) TIME / S

900 " " I - 1" I - - "1 ...... I ..... I "'- 900 9 . r. . . . I I -1 I 1

.......... EXPERIMENTAL ......... EXPERIMENTAL

800 PREDICTED 800 ..... PREDIC'I'ED

Ae~ Aea

700 700
0 {A

600 600
;D
[-.,

s00 n.
500
04

[..,
4O0 400

MI

300 300
ENI8 ENIIO

...... I ..... I ........ I ........ I ....... I ....... J .......

#-% 1.0E+00 1.0E÷01 1.0E+02 1.0E÷03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06
01
1.~-01
• . .~J . . . . . . . I ........ r

I.OE+0B 1.0E÷01 1.0E÷0? 1.0E~83 I.OE+04 i . 0 E + 0 5 1.0E~06

....... I I ...... J

(c) TIME / S (d) TIME / S

Fig. 5. Comparison of the experimental and predicted q T r diagrams for BS steels: (a) En 14, (b) En 16, (c) En 18 and (d) En I 10.

b e l o w the B s t e m p e r a t u r e , especially for the high alloy exaggerated for these two alloys. The difficulty lies in
steels illustrated in Figs. 5(b)-(d). T h e estimates are the fact that although steel EN19 and steel US4140
better than the earlier m o d e l of B h a d e s h i a [11 ]. This have almost identical chemical compositions, their
better a c c u r a c y also applies to the lower alloy steels reported TTT curves are quite different (Fig. 7). This is
w h e r e the bay region is (correctly) not e x a g g e r a t e d as a contradiction which needs to be resolved with further
was the case in ref. 11. experiments.
T h e r e is also a r e a s o n a b l e fit with A m e r i c a n specifi- The prediction of fraction transformation curves
cation steels (Fig. 6), although not for alloys U S 4 1 4 0 using eqn. (7) is illustrated in Fig. 8; the agreement with
and U S 5 1 4 0 . T h e calculated bay region is highly experimental data is found to be reasonable.
228 J.-L. Lee, H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia / Predictionof TTT diagrams

9~0 .... l " " l - [ " I I " I 900 " " I 'I " i " " i " I " l
.......... E X P E R I M E N T A L .......... EXPERIMENTAL

800 _ _ PREDICTED
Ae 800 - PREDICTED
A%

700 700
¢.J
o

ta 600 600

500

400 400
M.

300 300 M, ,,

US4140 US4150 " ""

........ I ....... L ...... I , , .._.] ........ I ........ I ....... J ........ I ....... J ....... J .... I ...... I

l 0E+0o 1.OE+Ol 1.0E+e 1.0E+03 ,.0E+04 1.0E+0S .OE+e l .~-001 L.oE,,oo t.o --,ol l. E+02 1. +03 1.0E+04 1.0E+0S 1.0E+0 ,
(a) TIME / S (b) TIME / S

900 .... I " I " i " I " I ..... i ' ] 900 I " I I I ..... q . . . . 1

800
..........
_ _
EXPERIMENTAL
PREDICTED t 000
.......... EXPERIMENTAL

PREDICTED
A%

700
(--
.................
<.-- ~-
~ 1 .
°'*
o

m b00 b00
/"//" ...
[.-.,

500 ~- ~,"'..........
"'"
J ....................... *''J --i ~ 500

400 t, v -.......... 400

M.
M,
300 300
US4340 US5140

L_ . . . . . I ...... I ....... I ....... I ....... J . . . . . . . ...... J ....... I ....... I ....... J ....... I ...... J .....

1.~01 i.OE~O I.OD0I 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 i.0E+04 1.0E+05 I.OE+06 1.~2~81 1.0E+08 I.OE+81 1.0E+02 I.eE+03 1.0E+04 i.0E+85 1.0E+06
(C) TIME / S (d) TIME / S

Fig, 6. C o m p a r i s o n of the experimental and predicted TTT diagrams for US steels: (a) 4140, (b) 4150, (c) 4340 and (d) 5140.

5. Discussion Similarly, Ni generally has a slight retarding effect on

transformation rates. Manganese has its influence only
5.1. Effects of alloying element via its effect on the driving force term AGm~ (Fig. 9).
The model incorporates the solute element effects These interpretations must all be treated with caution
via Q, C and A Gmax. Molybdenum strongly retards the since the analysis is essentially empirical.
formation of ferrite through its large influence on Q
(Table 2). However, it can promote bainite formation 5.2. Effect of austenite grain size
via the small negative coefficient that it has for the Q Although the grain size effect was neglected because
value of the bainite C-curve (Table 2). Chromium of the rather small variation in the grain structure of the
retards both balnite and ferrite, but the net effect is to experimental data, it can be included by multiplying the
promote the formation of bainite since the influence on incubation period calculated using eqn. (5), with a
the bainite C-curve is relatively small (Table 2). factor [14]:
 J.-L. Lee, H. K. D. II. Bhadeshia / Prediction of I T T diagram.g 229

900 ..... I ..... I .... I "1 " "1 .... I ..... 900 --- i i i i l ~ I

.......... ENI9 . . . . . . . . . . EXPERIMENTAL t

800 US4140 Ae a _ 800 - - - P R E D I C T ~ u-- Ae~-~ '
FS : ........
~ :=.:_=."
:-:-~
-~-........................

600 B,__=
iv,

s00
04 ( .-- .......... -- .........

40O
Mo

3OO

~.2°~E-°0~~.0e;;0'0i.~e;~-'e5 i.i~;i;'6
i.0E+00 t.OE-,-Ol 1.0E+02 t.0E+03 1.0E+94 1.0E+O5i.0E~-O6 (a] TIME / S

TIME / S
900 "'" I " I I " I " I - " 1 ""
Fig. 7. C o m p a r i s o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l T T T d i a g r a m s f o r s t e e l s
. . . . . . . . . . EXPERIMENTAL
E n 1 9 a n d 4141). T h e s e t w o s t e c l s h a v c a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l c o m p o s i -
tion. 800 _ _ PREDICTED
Ae;

700 O. I _ _ ~
L~
o
o7o ,,
r.a b00
2~1 - t;,/2

where G is the ASTM grain size number. However, in ~500

the absence of systematic TTT curve data as a function
of austenite grain size, it is not possible at present to 406
validate this procedure.

3Og
5.3. Some limitations
EN24
The model tends to overestimate the transformation
...... d ....... J ........ I ........ I ....... J ........ I
time at temperatures just below the A e 3 temperature. l.l~-OO'I l.Oe+o0 I.OE÷Ol 1.0E+02 1.0E+83 1.0[+84 1.0[+85 i.0E+06
This is because the driving force t e r m A-Gmax is calcu- (b) TIME / S
lated on the basis of paraequilibrium, and becomes
zero at some temperature less than the Ae 3 tempera- Fig. 8. Comparison of the experimental and predicted TTT
diagrams including fractional transformation curves at 0.1, 0.5
ture. and 0.9 transformedfractions:(a) En 19 and (b) En24.
The coefficients utilized in the calculations were
derived by fitting to experimental data, so that the
model may not be suitable for extrapolation outside of
that dataset. Thus, calculations should be limited to the
following concentration ranges (in weight per cent): C it should nevertheless be useful in procedures for the
0.15-0.6; Si (I.l 5-0.35; Mn 0.5-2.0; Ni 0.0-2.0; Mo calculation of microstructure in steels.
0.0-0.8; Cr 0.0-1.7.

Acknowledgments
6. Conclusions
The authors are grateful to Professor C. J.
A procedure has been developed which enables the Humphreys for the provision of laboratory facilities at
estimation of the time-temperature-transformation the University of Cambridge. The work of J.L.L. was
diagram of steels, as a function of the alloy chemistry. It funded by the China Steel Corporation and the
is recognized that the model is empirical in nature, but National Science Council of Taiwan (ROC).
 230 J.-L. Lee, H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia / Prediction of TTT diagrams

900 " " I " 1 " " J . . . . I " I " " I . . . . . 3 H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia, L.-E. Svensson and B. Gretoft, Acta
.......... 0.3C,0.SMn Metall., 33(1985) 1271-1283.
4 L.-E. Svensson, B. Gretoft and H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia,
800 0.3C,I.SMn ............. .A% Scand. J. Metall., 15 (1986) 97-103.
5 D. E Watt, L. Coon, M. Bibby, J. Goldak and C. Henwood,
Acta Metall., 36 (1988) 3029-3035.
700 6 E L. Harrison and R. A. Farrar, Int. Mater. Rev., 34 (1989)
o 35-51.
7 J.S. Kirkaldy, Metall. Trans., 4(1973) 2327-2333.
~a b00 8 M. Umemoto, N. Nishioka and I. Tamura, Trans. Iron Steel
[.., Inst. Jpn., 22 (1982) 629-636.
9 K.C. Russell, Acta Metall., 17(1969) 1123-1131.
~500 / _

10 Atlas of Isothermal Transformation Diagrams of B. S. En

/' ; ¥ Steels: Iron and Steel Institute Special Report 56, 1956; En 13,
p. 11; Enl4, p. 13; Enl5, p. 15; Enl6, p. 17; Enl8, p. 21;
400
M° Enl9, p. 23; En20, p. 25; En24, p. 33; En110, p. 59.
11 H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Met. Sci., 16(1982) 159-165.
300 12 J. S. Kirkaldy, B. A. Thomson and E. Baganis, in D. V.
Doane and J. S. Kirkaldy (eds.), Hardenability Concepts with
Applications to Steels, TMS-AIME, Warrendale, PA, 1978,
~i~_00, I ....... I ........ I ........ I ........ I ....... I ........ I . . . . .
pp. 82-125.
1. i.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 i.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+0b 13 J. S. Kirkaldy and D. Venugopalan, in A. R. Marder and J. I.
'rluz / s Goldstein (ed.), Phase Transformations in Ferrous Alloys,
TMS-AIME, Warrendale, PA, 1984, pp. 125-148.
Fig. 9. Effect of manganese content on the TTT diagram.
14 J.S. Kirkaldy, Scand. J. Metall., 20 ( 1991 ) 50-61.
15 USS Atlas of Isothermal Transformation Diagrams, US Steel
Company, Pittsburgh, PA, 1963.
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