Activities to develop

Each student in the group should answer the following questions using academic references
to support the research:

1. Explain how the phenomenon of refraction and reflection in transmission systems

could be used.
The fiber optic devices have a wide range of medical applications in instruments known as
endoscopes, which can be inserted directly into the bronchial tubes, the gallbladder, the
colon, etc., to carry out a visual examination. A set of fibers can be inserted into a
hypodermic needle to study the tissues and blood vessels well below the skin.
Optical fibers also have applications in communication systems, where they are used to
transmit a modulated laser beam. The speed at which a wave (of light, of radio or of any
type) can transmit information is proportional to the frequency. To qualitatively see why
this is so, consider the modulation (modification) of a wave by trimming some wave crests.
Assume that each crest represents a binary digit: a crested wave crest represents a zero and
an unmodified crest represents a one. The number of binary digits that we can transmit per
unit of time is, therefore, proportional to the frequency of the wave. Infrared and visible
light waves have frequencies much higher than radio waves, so a modulated laser beam can
transmit a huge amount of information through a single fiber optic cable. For example, the
calculation system of the Carnegie-Mellon University, which includes several thousand
personal computers connected to a network and work stations, is linked in part by fiber
optic cables. Many telephony systems are connected by optical fibers.

2. Explain Snell's law, the critical angle and the practical applications where it could
be used.

Snell's law is very simple, it establishes a relation between the refractive index of each
medium with the angle of displacement with respect to the normal one. It is necessary to
say that the relationship between the speed of light in vacuum and the speed of light in the
medium whose index is calculated is called the refractive index.
As we said before, Snell's law establishes the relationship between the index of refraction
and the angle of entry and exit of each medium, with respect to the normal one. The
mathematical formula is the following.

Knowing the refractive index of both media and the input angle of the incident light beam,
we can predict the direction of the ray in the refracted medium.

The trajectories of the rays of light are reversible, which implies a symmetry in Snell's law,
making it clear that it can be applied to incoming rays as protrusions.

An important aspect to keep in mind, that the higher the refractive index of a medium, the
more light beam will approach the normal.

The critical angle is the maximum angular value of an incident ray that produces a reflected
signal at the boundary of the core and the coating.
Refraction allows us to have lenses, magnifying glasses, prisms and rainbows. Even our
eyes depend on this curvature of light. Without refraction, we would not be able to focus
the light on our retina.

Optical fiber is a transmission medium that is used mainly in data networks. It consists of a
very thin thread of plastic or glass material by means of which pulses of light or data to be
transmitted are sent. The beam of light propagates through the fiber by means of a
reflection angle that passes over the angle that is the limit of the total reflection. This light
source that is used can be a laser or also a led light.

Otic fibers are widely used in telecommunications because they have the advantage of
being able to carry information over long distances at very fast speeds.

3. Explain the physics behind the lenses for optical diseases.

An optical lens has the ability to refract light and form an image. The light that strikes
perpendicularly on a lens is refracted towards the focal plane, in the case of converging
lenses, or from the focal plane, in the case of divergent lenses.

The converging lenses: they are thicker in the center than in the edge, and they concentrate
(they converge) in a point the rays of light that cross them. At this point it is called focus
(F) and the separation between it and the lens is known as focal distance (f)

Note that the lens (2) has a smaller focal length than (1). We say, then, that the lens (2) has
more power than (1).

The power of a lens is the inverse of its focal length and is measured in diopters if the focal
distance is measured in meters.
Convergent lenses are used in many optical instruments and also for the correction of
hyperopia. Hyperopic people do not see well up close and objects have to get away. A
possible cause of hyperopia is the anteroposterior flattening of the eye, which assumes that
the images would be sharply formed behind the retina.
There are mainly three types of converging lenses:
• Biconvex: They have two convex surfaces
• Planoconvexas: They have a flat surface and another convex
• Concave Convex (or Convergent Meniscus): They have a slightly concave surface and a
convex surface

If we look through a diverging lens it gives the feeling that the rays come from the point F.
At this point it is called virtual focus.
In diverging lenses the focal length is considered negative.

There are three types of divergent lenses:

• Biconcave lenses: They have both concave surfaces

• Planoconcavas lenses: They have a flat surface and another concave

• Convexocóncavas lenses (or divergent meniscus): They have a slightly convex and
concave surface

Image formation

If you take a converging lens (you probably have them in your center's lab) and move it
closer and away from a white sheet that you hold with the other hand, you will see that for a
certain distance an inverted and smaller image of the objects that are far from the lens.
When it is possible to project the formed image we say that it is a real image, and if we can
not project it we call it a virtual image.

Convergent lenses, for distant objects, form real, inverted and smaller images than objects
On the other hand, if you look at a nearby object through the lens, you will see that a right
image is formed and larger than the object.

For nearby objects they form virtual, right and larger images.

Try to do the same with a divergent lens and you will notice that it is not possible to obtain
an image projected on the paper and that when looking through it you see a right image and
smaller than the objects.

The images produced by the diverging lenses are virtual, right and smaller than the objects
4. What is the importance of the refractive index?

The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum (c) and the speed of light in the medium (v) is

symbolized by the letter n being a dimensionless value.

5. Is it possible for a single beam of light to be refracted in several beans? Explain

6. How is it possible to use the Brewster angle in practical applications?

When a beam of light falls on the surface that separates two non-conducting media
characterized by different electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability, part of it is
reflected back to the source medium, and part is transmitted to the second medium. In 1812
Brewster observed that when the directions of the transmitted and reflected beams formed a
90 ° angle (as seen in the figure), the beam of reflected light was linearly polarized.
Put another way: The polarization by reflection is maximum when the tangent of the angle
of incidence is equal to the index of refraction of the substance. Polarization is zero for
normal incidence.

Choose one of the following problems, taken from “Cutnell, J. D.,

& Johnson, K. W. (2009), John Wiley & Sons Ltd., New York &
Paz, A. (2013)” solve it and share the solution in the forum.
Perform a critical analysis on the group members’ contributions
and reply this in the forum.
1. When red light in vacuum is incident at the Brewster angle on a
certain glass slab, the angle of refraction is 35𝑜 What are (a) the
index of refraction of the glass and (b) the Brewster angle?

SOLUTION
First we find the refractive index of the glass,
𝑐
𝑛2 =
𝑣
Where :𝑛2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 , 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 (𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠)
The speed of light in a vacuum is = 3 ∗ 108 𝑚⁄𝑠
The speed of light in the middle is = 2 ∗ 108 𝑚⁄𝑠
With these data we can find the refractive index.
𝑐 3∗108 𝑚⁄
𝑛2 = 𝑣 𝑠𝑜 , 𝑛2 = 2∗108 𝑚⁄𝑠 , 𝑛2 = 1,5 ∗ 108 𝑚⁄𝑠|
𝑠

Indication of refraction of vacuum is𝑛1 = 1

We find the angle of Brewster :

The formula is deduced as follows:

When the incident beam does so with the polarization angle, the reflected beam is
perpendicular to the transmitted beam. Therefore, the angle of refraction𝜃1 .
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃2 ) = cos(𝜃1 )
We use Snell's law
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 ) = 𝑛2 sin(𝜃2 )
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 ) = 𝑛2 cos(𝜃1 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 ) 𝑛2
=
cos(𝜃1 ) 𝑛1
Using the mathematical relationship found by Brewster
𝑛2
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃1 ) =
𝑛1
𝑛2
The general formula of the polarization angle of Brewster is obtained 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃𝐵 ) =
𝑛1

𝑛
So 𝜃𝐵 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑛2 )
1

1,5
𝜃𝐵 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 1 ) so 𝜃𝐵 = arctan 1,5

𝜃𝐵 = 56°