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What effects do drugs have on the youth and how are their minds shifted

when under the influence of drugs?

Bell, James. "Pharmacological Maintenance Treatments of Opiate Addiction."​ British Journal of Clinical
Pharm​acology​, vol. 77, no. 2, 2014, pp. 253-263​.

In this article,​ they state that “​Heroin addiction is strongly associated with deviant
behaviour and crime, and the objectives in treating heroin addiction have been a blend of humane
support, rehabilitation, public health intervention and crime control” (2). They also touch upon
the pharmaceutical basis and how this is used to “minimize withdrawal symptoms and attenuate
the reinforcing effects of street heroin, leading to reduction or cessation of street heroin use” (7).
By doing their research, it has shown that “treatment as delivered in practice may result in poorer
outcomes” (11), this is basically stating that opioid maintenance treatment comes out with a
better result when helping an addict. They then conclude their findings by talking about
injectable heroin and how it “provides a more reinforcing medication for some ‘nonresponders’
and can be a valuable option in the rehabilitation of demoralized, socially excluded individuals”
(16).

Mars, Sarah G., et al. ""Every 'Never' I Ever Said Came True": Transitions from Opioid Pills to Heroin
Injecting."​ The International Journal on Drug Policy​, vol. 25, no. 2, 2014, pp. 257.

​While reading this article, they studied “the pathways to injecting heroin by users in
Philadelphia and San Francisco before and during a pharmaceutical opioid pill epidemic” (1).
They did semi-structured interviews where they “conducted against a background of longer-term
participant-observation, ethnographic studies of street-based drug users and dealers in
Philadelphia (2007–12)” (5). When conducting these interviews, they found that a lot of the users
started their drug journey by using prescription drugs, like percocets. They also found that “older
users in both Philadelphia and San Francisco were more likely to have graduated to heroin
injection from non-opiate drugs such as cannabis, methamphetamine and cocaine” (21). The
result that they had found, led them to believe that the up-cycle of heroin is most likely caused
by prescription opioid pill use.

Moore, Sarah K., Honoria Guarino, and Lisa A. Marsch. ""this is Not Who I Want to be:" Experiences of
Opioid-Dependent Youth before, and during, Combined Buprenorphine and Behavioral Treatment."
Substance use & Misuse​, vol. 49, no. 3, 2014, pp. 303-314.

In this text, they collected data from “youth in treatment for opioid dependence
(2009-2010) regarding their experiences with opioid dependence and combined
behavioral-pharmacological treatment” (2). They collected their youth participants from urban
areas and were randomized from a large controlled trial where they examined “the relative
efficacy of two tapers of buprenorphine-naloxone, combined with behavioral treatment (ages
13-24 eligible)” (6). They used a grounded theory approach and found results that showed “the
potential to inform the development of efficacious treatments for this growing, yet understudied,
group of youth” (10).

Roy, Élise, Jean-François Boivin, and Pascale Leclerc. "Initiation to Drug Injection among Street Youth: A
Gender-Based Analysis."​ Drug and Alcohol Dependence​, vol. 114, no. 1, 2010;2011;, pp. 49-54.

​While reading this, I found that they conducted a study in which they collected​ “​data from
two consecutive prospective street youth ​cohort studies​ (1995–2001 and 2001–2005) were used
to conduct these analyses, stratified by gender” (5). To proceed in this study and find the best
results, they used semi-annual interviewer-administered questionnaires when interviewing the
street youth. When finding their results, they interviewed 946 youths and they found that “among
girls, ​cocaine​ or crack use (adjusted ​hazard ratio​ (AHR) = 1.97), ​heroin​ use (AHR = 2.86),
homelessness (AHR = 2.49) and hanging out regularly with people who inject (AHR = 4.46) all
independently increased risk of first injection” (16). They also ended up with the conclusion that
“among boys, age decreased risk of initiating injection (AHR = 0.90/year), while cocaine or
crack use (AHR = 2.14), heroin use (AHR = 3.56), homelessness before age 16 (AHR = 1.68),
incest or ​rape​ before age 14 (AHR = 1.98) and hanging out regularly with people who inject
(AHR = 1.66) all independently increased this risk” (19).

Zhu, Mei, et al. "Heroin Abuse Results in Shifted RNA Expression to Neurodegenerative Diseases and
Attenuation of TNFα Signaling Pathway."​ Scientific Reports​, vol. 8, no. 1, 2018, pp. 9231-11.

​As stated in this passage,​ they report their findings from a study where they “​examined
the peripheral blood from 810 HDPs versus 500 healthy controls (HCs) according to the
inclusion criteria” (6). They also reported their findings on another study in which “analyses
were performed on blood of 16 long-term HDPs and 25 HCs” (12). From conducting these
studies, they found that “the TNFα signaling pathway and hematopoiesis related genes were
inhibited in HDPs” (14). They then compared the data that they found and related it back to
posttraumatic stress disorder. They stated that the patients they studied that had posttraumatic
stress disorder, identified neurodegenerative diseases related genes that were commonly
up-regulated in coupled with biological processes “vesicle transport”, “mitochondria” and
“splicing” (18). This study, in all, show that long-term heroin abuse could result in
neurodegenerative diseases.

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