1

OBSERVATION:

Hardness
S. Load Indenter Hardness
Material Scale
No (kgf) shape I II III Number

2
 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Ex.No:

Date:

AIM:

To determine the hardness of the given material by rockwell hardness tester.

APPARATUS REQIRED:

1. Indenter 1/16˝
2. Alan Key
3. Block of the given material

THEORY: -

Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and

cutting, hardness after gives clear indication of strength. In all hardness tests, a
define force is mechanically applied on the piece, varies in size and shape for
different tests. Common indentors are made of hardened steel or diamond.

Rockwell hardness tester presents direct reading of hardness number on a dial

provided with the m/c. principally this testing is similar to Brinell hardness testing.
It differs only in diameter and material of the indentor and the applied force.
Although there are many scales having different combinations of load and size of
indentor but commonly ‘C’ scale is used and hardness is presented as HRC. Here
the indentor has a diamond cone at the tip and applied force is of 150 kgf. Soft
materials are often tested in ‘B’ scale with a 1.6mm dia. Steel indentor at 100 kgf.

3
 The ball (B) is used for soft materials (e.g. mild steel, cast iron, Aluminum, brass.
Etc.) And the cone (C) for hard ones (High carbon steel. etc.)

Initial
Type of Major
Scale load Kind of material
Indenter load (kgf)
(kgf)

Tungsten carbide, Cemented carbides, thin steel,

A Cone, 120° 10 60
and shallow case hardened steel.

B Ball, 1.58mm 10 100 Soft steels, copper, aluminum,etc

C Cone, 120° 10 150 Hard steels, Ti, W, Va, etc

PROCEDURE:

In this Rockwell hardness test, the direct reading instrument on the principle
of different in depth measurement is used.

1. Place the specimen on the horizontal platform so as to be in contact with the

indentator.
2. Apply the minor load of 10 kg by raising the platform.
3. Set the dial of the indicator of the depth gauge of suitable scale, as the initial
position. Apply major load without shock within 2 to 8 seconds, value of
load shall be 140 kg for diamond cone, 90 kg for ball, this load is in addition
to the initial mirror load of 10 kg.
4. Maintain the load till the indicator stops moving.
5. Remove the major load.
6. Record the indentation of appropriate scale and calculate the Rockwell
hardness number

4
MODEL CALCULATION:

APPLICATIONS:

Hardness testing plays a vital role in materials testing, quality control, and
acceptance of components. The data is needed in order to verify the heat treatment,
structural integrity, and quality of components that will help determine if a material
has the properties essential for its proposed use. Establishing a correlation between
the desired material property and the hardness result allows this, thus making
hardness tests extremely useful in R&D and industrial applications and also in
assuring that the materials utilized in the things used every day contribute to a
well-engineered, safe and efficient world.

Superficial scale is ideal for testing materials that do not have sufficient width or
thickness to be tested on the Regular (R) Rockwell Hardness Scale, these are
typically:

5
Very thin metal, Strip metal, Wire, Small rounds, Lightly carburized steel, other
similarly configured specimens or materials

Manufacturers can also use hardness testing to eliminate secondary processes.

RESULT:

Thus the hardness of the material was calculated. They are found to be

(1) Mild steel = ___________ HRC

(2) Aluminum = ___________ HRB

OBSERVATION:

Diameter of Diameter of
Load Hardness
S. No Material indenter (D) indentation (d)
in ‘kgf’ (BHN)
in ‘mm’ in ‘mm’

6
 BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Ex.No:

Date:

AIM:

To find the hardness of the given material by Brinell hardness tester.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Brinell hardness testing machine

2. Ball indenter
3. Brinell microscope
4. Block of the given material

7
THEORY:

Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching

and cutting, hardness after gives clear identification of strength. In all hardness
testes, a define force is mechanically applied on the test piece for about 15
seconds. The indentor, which transmits the load to the test piece, varies in size and
shape for different testes. Common indenters are made of hardened steel or
diamond.

In Brinell hardness testing, steel balls are used as indentor. Diameter of the
indentor and the applied force depend upon the thickness of the test specimen,
because for accurate results, depth of indentation should be less than 1/8th of the
thickness of the test pieces. According to the thickness of the test piece increase,
the diameter of the indentor and force are changed.

FORMULA USED:

Brinell hardness number, BHN =

Surface are of indenter = mm2

Where,

D – Diameter of the ball indenter, mm

d– Diameter of the indentation, mm

w – Load applied in Kgf.

8
PROCEDURE:

1. Place the specimen on the anvil of the machine.

2. Depending on specimen material and the diameter of the ball indenter
is selected.
3. The indenter is fitted into the holder slot.
4. Select the load for specified specimen.
5. The load was applied for few seconds till the indentation is made on
the specimen.
6. Release the load and remove the specimen from the anvil.
7. Measure the diameter of impression using brinell’s microscope.
8. Repeat the procedure for sufficient number of readings.

The reading are noted and tabulated

MODEL CALCULATION:

APPLICATIONS:

9
The Brinell method is suitable for testing the hardness of soft metals (light
metals, lead, tin) through to hard metals, such as steel and iron. ... Brinell methods
belonging to HBW 30 are used for testing hard metals, such as steel and iron.

Brinell is suitable for inhomogeneous metals and metals containing coarse

structural elements, as for example castings and forgings. Limited to larger
specimens due to high loads and indenters used – in particular cast irons, steel and
aluminium.

RESULT:

Thus the Brinell hardness number for the given material was calculated and
found

(i) Mild steel =______________BHN

(ii) Brass = _____________ BHN
(iii) Aluminum = _____________ BHN
OBSERVATION:

S. No Material Max impact energy (J) Impact energy (J)

10
IMPACT TESTING EQUIPMENT POSITION OF SPECIMEN
FOR IZOD TEST

IZOD IMPACT TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN

Ex.No

Date:

AIM:

To conduct izod impact test on the specimen.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

(i) Testing machine

11
 (ii) Standard specimen of 75×10×10 mm

THEORY:-

In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. the components

are subjected to impact (shock) loads. These loads are applied suddenly. The stress
induced in these components are many times more than the stress produced by
gradual loading. Therefore, impact tests are performed to asses shock absorbing
capacity of materials subjected to suddenly applied loads. These capabilities are
expressed as (i) Rupture energy (ii) Modulus of rupture and (iii) Notch impact
strength.

In an impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a

single blow from a heavy hammer and energy required being a measure of
resistance to impact.
Impact load is produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer)
from a height h. Release of the weight from the height h swings the weight through
the arc of a circle, which strikes the specimen to fracture at the notch .Kinetic
energy of the hammer at the time of impact is mv 2 /2, which is equal to the relative
potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mgh),where m is the mass of the
hammer and v = 2gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is gravitational
acceleration (9.806 m/s2 ) and h is the height through which hammer falls. Impact
velocity will be 5.126 m/s or slightly less.
Here it is interesting to note that height through which hammer drops
determines the velocity and height and mass of a hammer combined determine the
energy. Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between
potential energies is the fracture energy. In test machine this value indicated by the
pointer on the scale. With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on

12
scale showing energy also increase or decrease. This can be seen from the attached
scale with any impact machine.

Two types of notch impact tests are commonly-

1. Charpy test

2. Izod test

In Izod test, the specimen is placed as ‘cantilever beam’. The specimens have V-
shaped notch of 45°. U- shaped notch is also common. The notch is located on
tension side of specimen during impact loading. Depth of notch is generally taken
as t.5 to t/3 where ‘t’ is thickness of the specimen.

PROCEDURE:

1. For conducting izod test, proper strike is to be reused firmly to the

bottom of the hammer with the help of clamping piece. Also clamping
device is to be fixed to the base with the help of socket head screw.
2. The latching table for the test is to be firmly, secured to the bearing
housing at the top of the stand.
3. Before actual testing is carried out, the frictional loss is of the machine is
determine, Adjust the reading point carried out 16.52 kgm / 162 joules.
4. When the pendulum is hanging for vertically from the socket head screw
carrier, now raise hammer by hand and hatch it in release.
5. Now simply rise the handle pendulum by hand latch it.
6. The specimen for izod test is firmly reused in clamping device with the
help of clamping screws.
7. After ascertaining that there is a person in saving range of pendulum is
operated.
8. The oscillating pendulum is stopped using pendulum brake.
9. Read the position of the reading pointer in the dial and note the Indicated
value.
13
MODEL CALCULATION:

APPLICATIONS:

The purpose of an impact test is to determine the ability of the material to absorb
energy during a collision. This energy may be used to determine the toughness,
impact strength, fracture resistance, impact resistance or fracture resistance of the
material depending on the test that was performed and the characteristic that is to
be determined. These values are important for the selection of materials that will be
used in applications that require the material to undergo very rapid loading
processes such as in vehicular collisions.

RESULT:

Thus the impact energy of the given specimen by using izod position
method = J
OBSERVATION:

S. No Material Max impact energy (J) Impact energy (J)

14
IMPACT TESTING EQUIPMENT POSITION OF SPECIMEN
FOR CHARPY TEST

CHARPY IMPACT TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN

Ex.No

15
Date:

AIM:

To conduct the impact test on the given specimen by using charpy’s method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Impact testing machine.

Standard specimen of 55×10×10 mm

THEORY:-

In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. the components

are subjected to impact (shock) loads. These loads are applied suddenly. The stress
induced in these components are many times more than the stress produced by
gradual loading. Therefore, impact tests are performed to asses shock absorbing
capacity of materials subjected to suddenly applied loads. These capabilities are
expressed as (i) Rupture energy (ii) Modulus of rupture and (iii) Notch impact
strength.

In an impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a

single blow from a heavy hammer and energy required being a measure of
resistance to impact.
Impact load is produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer)
from a height h. Release of the weight from the height h swings the weight through
the arc of a circle, which strikes the specimen to fracture at the notch. Kinetic
energy of the hammer at the time of impact is mv 2 /2, which is equal to the
relative potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mgh),where m is the
mass of the hammer and v = 2gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is
gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s2 ) and h is the height through which hammer
falls. Impact velocity will be 5.126 m/s or slightly less.
16
Here it is interesting to note that height through which hammer drops determines
the velocity and height and mass of a hammer combined determine the energy.
Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between
potential energies is the fracture energy. In test machine this value indicated by the
pointer on the scale. With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on
scale showing energy also increase or decrease. This can be seen from the attached
scale with any impact machine.

Two types of notch impact tests are commonly-

1. Charpy test

2. Izod test

In Izod test, the specimen is placed as ‘cantilever beam’. The specimens have V-
shaped notch of 45°. U- shaped notch is also common. The notch is located on
tension side of specimen during impact loading. Depth of notch is generally taken
as t.5 to t/3 where ‘t’ is thickness of the specimen.

PROCEDURE:

1. For conducting the charpy’s test, a proper strike is to be firmly secured to

the bothern of the hammer with the help of clamping device.
2. The latching tube for charpy test is to be firmly secured with the help of a
fit at the top of stands with the help of socket.
3. Before presiding to the actual test, the frictional losses is done in Izod
test.
4. Additional weight are to be fastened on the hob provided on the side
plotter of the pendulum.
5. Place the specimen on the support such that the is in the falling the
direction of hammer.
6. Use setting gauge supplied by the lever with left hand.
17
 7. After ascending there is no person in Swing range of pendulum.
8. Wait until the pendulum is swinging the direction of motion.
9. The pointer reading in noted.
10.The broken pieces are removed within the point readings

MODEL CALCULATION:

APPLICATIONS:

 In forging industry, the Charpy impact test can be used to determine the
malleability and ductility of a material that is being forged.

 In the rubber industry, the test can be used for determining the shock
absorbing ability of a type of rubber so that its proper application could be
decided.

 In plastic industry, the test is used for analyzing the breaking strength of a
sample when it is subjected to a high impact from a pendulum. This helps in
ensuring that the material is best for an application where it is subjected to
such impacts.

 Charpy test is widely used during construction of pressure vessels and also
in constructions of bridge which is very important to determine which
material is the most suitable against air factor and load on it.

18
RESULT:

Thus the impact energy of the given specimen by using Charpy

position method = J
OBSERVATION:
Original gauge Length (Lo) = Final Gauge Length (L1) =
Original Diameter (do) = Neck Diameter (d1) =

Cross section
Cross
S. Load Load dimension of Stress = Load/C.S Area
Sectional area
No Region (N) Specimen (do) 2 (N/mm2)
(mm )
(mm)

1.
Yield
Original dia of specimen

2.
Ultimate
Original dia of specimen

3. Breaking
Original dia of specimen

19
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE STRESS – STRAIN CURVE
TENSILE TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD USING UTM
Ex.No

Date:

AIM:

To conduct Tension Test on universal testing machine (UTM) for the given
specimen.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Universal testing machine.

2. Extensometer.
3. Vernier caliper.
4. Mild Steel rod sample
5. Scale.

20
THEORY:

The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of test
piece and fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring
device. If the applied load is small enough, the deformation of any solid body is
entirely elastic. An entirely deformed solid will return to its original form as soon
as load is removed. However, if the load is too large, the material can be deformed
permanently. The initial part of the tension curve, which is recoverable
immediately after unloading ,is termed as elastic and the rest of the curve, which
represents the manner in solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed as plastic.
The stress below which the deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known as
the yield strength of material. In some materials the onset of plastic deformation is
denoted by a sudden drop in load indication both an upper and a lower yield point.
However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield point. During plastic
deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate for the
decrease in section and thus the load passes through the maximum and then begins
to decrease. At this stage the “ultimate strengths”, which is defined as the ratio of
the load on the specimen to the original cross sectional are, reaches the maximum
value. Further loading will eventually cause neck formation and rupture.

Usually a tension test is conducted at room temperature and the tensile load is
applied slowly. During this test either round of flat specimens may be used. The
round specimens may have smooth, shouldered or threaded ends. The load on the
specimen is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the type of testing
machine.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the diameter of the rod using Vernier caliper.

21
2. Measure the original length of the rod.

3. Select the proper jaw inserts and complete the upper and lower chuck
assemblies.

4. Apply some graphite grease to the tapered surface of the grip surface for the
smooth motion.

5. Operate the upper cross head grip operation handle and grip fully the upper end
of the test piece.

6. The left valve in UTM is kept in fully closed position and the right valve in
normal open position.

7. Open the right valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted.

8. Adjust the load to zero by using large push button (This is necessary to remove
the dead weight of the lower table, upper cross head and other connecting parts of
the load).

9. Operate the lower grip operation handle and lift the lower cross head up and grip
fully the lower part of the specimen. Then lock the jaws in this position by
operating the jaw locking handle.

10. Turn the right control valve slowly to open position (anticlockwise) until we
get a desired loadings rate.

11. After that we will find that the specimen is under load and then unclamp the
locking handle.

12. Now the jaws will not slide down due to their own weight. Then go on
increasing the load.

13. At a particular stage there will be a pause in the increase of load. The load at
this point is noted as yield point load.

22
14. Apply the load continuously, when the load reaches the maximum value. This
is noted as ultimate load.

15. Note down the load when the test piece breaks, the load is said to be a breaking
load.

16. When the test piece is broken close the right control valve, take out the broken
pieces of the test piece. Then taper the left control valve to take the piston down.

Formula used:

i) Stress at yield point =

ii) Ultimate Tensile strength =

iii) Breaking strength =

iv) Percentage elongation = = [(L1-L0) /L0]×100

v) Percentage Reduction in Area = = [(A0-A1) /A0]×100

vi) Modulus of elasticity = (From Graph)

Where,

23
Original diameter of the specimen = do

Original gauge length= Lo

Area of original cross section =A0=

Final length between gauge marks = L1

Diameter of section or neck dia after failure =d1

Area of cross section at failure = A1=

MODEL CALCULATION:

24
 RESULT:

Thus the Mild Steel Rod is tested using Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
and the result obtained is

1. Yeild Stress = ___________N/mm2.

2. Ultimate stress = __________ N/mm2.
3. Breaking Stress = __________ N/mm2.
4. Percentage of Elongation = ___________
5. Percentage Reduction in Area = _____________
6. Modulus of Elasticity, E = _____________N/mm2

OBSERVATION:

Double shear strength

Load applied Cross section area of
S. No
(N) specimen (mm2) (N/mm2)

25
 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

DOUBLE SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

Ex.No

Date:

AIM:

To conduct double shear stress test on universal testing machine (UTM) for
the given specimen.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

26
 (i) Universal Testing Machine
(ii) Shear test attachment
(iii) Given specimen (MS – Rod)

Theory:

In actual practice when a beam is loaded the shear force at a section always comes
to play along with bending moment. It has been observed that the effect of shearing
stress as compared to bending stress is quite negligible. But sometimes, the
shearing stress at a section assumes much importance in design calculations.

Universal testing machine is used for performing shear, compression and tension.

There are two types of UTM.

1. Screw type

2. Hydraulic type.

Hydraulic machines are easier to operate. They have a testing unit and control unit
connected to each other with hydraulic pipes. It has a reservoir of oil, which is
pumped into a cylinder, which has a piston. By this arrangement, the piston is
made to move up. Same oil is taken in a tube to measure the pressure. This causes
movement of the pointer, which gives reading for the load applied.

FORMULA USED:

Double Shear stress = ‘N/mm2’

W = Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure in ‘N’

Cross sectional area (A) = 2 × π d2 /4 ‘mm2’

Where, d = Diameter of the Specimen in mm

PROCEDURE:

27
 1. Insert the specimen in position and grip one end of the attachment in the
upper position and one end in lower position.
2. Switch on the main switch of universal testing machine.
3. Bring the drag indicator in contact with main indictator.
4. Select the suitable range of load and spare the corresponding weight in
pendulum and balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing
weights.
5. Operate the buttons for driving the motor to drive the pump.
6. Gradually move the head control lever in left hand direction until the
specimen shears.
7. Note down the load at which specimen shows.
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
9. Repeat the experiment with other specimen.

MODEL CALCULATION:

28
 RESULT:
Thus the Mild Steel Rod is tested for double shear using Universal
Testing Machine (UTM) and the result is obtained.
Shear strength of the specimen = _________________N/mm2

OBSERVATION:
Spring diameter (D) = Spring wire diameter (d) =
Number of turns (n) =

Load Scale reading Deflection ( ) Stiffness (S) Modulus of

Sl. N/mm
Applied = (L1- L2)x10 Rigidity (C)
No Initial(L1) Final(L2) (From
(N) ‘mm’ in N/mm2
‘cm’ ‘cm’ Graph)
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

6.

29
 SPRING TESTING MACHINE
TENSION TEST ON A CLOSELY COILED HELICAL SPRING
Ex.No

Date:

AIM:

To find the modules of rigidity and stiffness for a given closed coil helical
spring by conductivity.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Tensile Testing Machine

2. Closely wiled helical spring.
3. Screw gauge
4. Vernier caliper

THEORY

30
Helical springs are wide-spread elastic elements and are very often used in
machines construction. Usually helical springs are produced by coiling steel wire
of circular or rect- angular section. Wires with small diameter are mostly cold-
coiled after heat treatment. After forming springs are usually tempered in order to
reduce residual stresses. Springs with bigger sections as well as springs with liable
applications are hot-coiled and subsequently heat treated in order to increase
mechanical properties. Because of different applications and followed by them
different requirements related to characteristic, ratio between maximum load and
transversal dimensions, mounting solution etc. many different constructions of
helical springs are used. The construction that is relatively new among others is
spring machined from cylindrical sleeve. Helical springs are used as shock
absorbers in automobiles and in railway coaches. Spiral springs are used in clocks
and watches to store energy. Laminated springs are used in railway wagons,
coaches, road vehicles, power hammers, etc. There are two types of helical springs.

i) Closely coiled helical spring and ii) Open – Coiled helical spring

FORMULA USED:

Stiffness, S = N/mm.

Rigid modulus, C = N/mm2

Where,
W – Load applied in N
R – Mean radius of spring in mm
D – Diameter of spring in mm
31
 n – No of turns
– Deflection due to load in mm
d – Diameter of spring wire in mm

OBSERVATION:
Diameter of spring D = mm
Diameter of wire d= mm
Number of turns on spring n =

PROCEDURE:

1. At the outset, the diameter of spring and the mean radius of the spring
was calculated by using screw group and vernier caliper respectively.
2. The number of turns for the given closely coiled helical spring was noted
down.
3. The suitable range for the given specimen was selected.
4. The given spring was placed between two hangers and critical value of
the load is adjusted to zero.
5. At that load, the corresponding value of the scale fitted to the right of the
spring was noted down.
6. With the help of start button, the load was gradually increased and the
corresponding values.
7. With the help of reverse button, the load was gradually deceased up to
zero and corresponding value are re checked.

32
MODEL CALCULATION:

33
RESULT:

Thus the modules of rigidity and stiffness for a given closed coil helical
spring is found

(i) By graph Spring Stiffness, S = _____________ N/mm.

(ii) The Modulus of rigidity of closely coiled helical spring, C =___________ N/mm2

OBSERVATION:
Spring diameter (D) = Spring wire diameter (d) =
Number of turns (n) = Height of the spring (h) =

Scale reading Deflection ( ) Stiffness (S)

Load Modulus of
Sl. N/mm
Applied Initial(L1) Final(L2) = (L1- L2) Rigidity (C)
No (From
(N) cm cm mm in N/mm2
Graph)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Average

34
 SPRING TESTING MACHINE
COMPRESSION TEST ON AN OPEN COILED HELICAL SPRING
Ex. No

Date:

AIM:

To find the modules of rigidity and stiffness for a given open coil helical
spring.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Tensile Testing Machine

2. Open coil helical spring.
3. Screw gauge
4. Vernier caliper

THEORY

Helical springs are wide-spread elastic elements and are very often used in
machines construction. Usually helical springs are produced by coiling steel wire
35
of circular or rect- angular section. Wires with small diameter are mostly cold-
coiled after heat treatment. After forming springs are usually tempered in order to
reduce residual stresses. Springs with bigger sections as well as springs with liable
applications are hot-coiled and subsequently heat treated in order to increase
mechanical properties. Because of different applications and followed by them
different requirements related to characteristic, ratio between maximum load and
transversal dimensions, mounting solution etc. many different constructions of
helical springs are used. The construction that is relatively new among others is
spring machined from cylindrical sleeve. Helical springs are used as shock
absorbers in automobiles and in railway coaches. Spiral springs are used in clocks
and watches to store energy. Laminated springs are used in railway wagons,
coaches, road vehicles, power hammers, etc. There are two types of helical springs.

i) Closely coiled helical spring and ii) Open – Coiled helical spring

FORMULA USED:

Stiffness, S = N/mm.

Modulus of Rigidity, C = N/mm2

P = h/n
Where,
W – Load applied in N
R – Mean radius of spring in mm

36
 D – Diameter of spring in mm
n – No of turns
– Deflection due to load in mm
d – Diameter of spring wire in mm
P- Pitch
h- Height of spring in mm
C- Modulus of Rigidity N/mm2
E- Young’s Modulus

PROCEDURE:

1. At the outset, the diameter of spring and the mean radius of the spring was
calculated by using screw group and vernier caliper respectively.
2. The number of turns for the given closely coiled helical spring was noted
down.
3. The suitable range for the given specimen was selected.
4. The given spring was placed between two hangers and critical value of the
load is adjusted to zero.
5. At that load, the corresponding value of the scale fitted to the right of the
spring was noted down.
6. With the help of start button, the load was gradually increased and the
corresponding values.
7. With the help of reverse button, the load was gradually deceased up to zero
and corresponding value are re checked.

MODEL CALCULATION:

37
38
 RESULT:

Thus the modules of rigidity and stiffness for a given open coil helical spring
is found

i) Spring Stiffness, S = _____________ N/mm.

ii) The Modulus of rigidity of open coiled helical spring, C =_______N/mm2

Deflection Actual W/
Load (W) Modulus of Bending
S. Load 1 deflection
(N/mm)
(Kg × 9.81 Elasticity (E) Moment
No (kg) (rotation in = 0.01* 1 (From
= N) (N/mm2) (N-mm)
dial indicator) ( mm) graph)
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
Average

OBSERVATION:

Length of the beam (L)= Breadth (b)= Depth (d) =

39
 DEFLECTION TEST ON SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Ex. No

Date:

AIM:

To find the values modulus of elasticity of the material and bending moment
of beam (say a wood or steel) simply supported at the ends and carrying a
concentrated load at the centre.

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT:

(i) Weight
(ii) Beam of different cross – Section and materials
(iii) Deflections of beam apparatus.

THEORY:

40
 A beam is a length of material supported at its two ends, in such a way so as
to bear loads. The load perpendicular to its longitudinal axis will result in bending
and, in most cases, transverse shearing. In the simplest of situations, the beam is
taken to have a rectangular cross-section and the loads and supporting reactions act
in the vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis. The loads and the reactions at
the supports are considered external forces and they must be in equilibrium for the
entire beam to be in equilibrium. To study the strength of the beam, it is necessary
to know how these external forces affect it.

The mathematical approach is to assume that an imaginary transverse

section cuts the beam into two parts, and then to examine the equilibrium of each
part. To maintain the equilibrium, certain forces must be introduced at the point of
cut. When the cut is not present, these forces must continue to exist internally in
the material of the beam. Before the slope or the displacement at a point on a beam
(or shaft) is determined, it is often helpful to sketch the deflected shape of the
beam when it is loaded, in order to “visualize” any computed result and thereby
partially check these results. The deflection diagram of the longitudinal axis that
passes through the centroid of each cross-sectional area of the beam is called the
elastic curve. For most beams the elastic curve can be sketched without much
difficulty. When doing so, however, it is necessary to know how the slope or
displacement is restricted at various types of supports. In general, supports that
resist a force, such as a fixed wall, restrict displacement, and those that resist a
moment, such as a fixed wall, restrict rotation or slope. Due to the nature
characteristic of the materials, when a force acting on a long beam, the force will
cause the beam to bend. If the force is acting downwards, the moments at the two
ends will act upwards and same for the opposite way.

41
FORMULA USED:

Young’s Modulus, E = N/mm2

Moment of Inertia, mm4

Bending moment at mid point, M = W L/4

W – Load acting at centre (N)
L – Length of the beam
E – Young’s Modulus
I – Moment of inertia of beam about N.A
- Deflection in mm

b – Breadth of beam in mm
d - Depth or thickness of beam in mm

PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust cast iron blocks along the bed, so that they are symmetrical with
respect to the length of the bed.

2. Place the beam on the knife edge on the blocks so as the project equally
beyond each knife edge.

3. Note the initial reading of vernier scale.

4. Add a weight and again note the reading of the vernier scale.

5. Go on taking readings adding weight, each from till you have minimum
six reading.

6. Find the deflection in each case by subtracting the initial reading of

vernier scale.

42
 7. Calculate the reading bending stress for different loads using relative as
given in the observation table.

8. Repeat the experiment for different beams.

MODEL CALCULATION:

43
 RESULT:

Thus the simply supported beam is loaded with centre point load and the
values obtained are given below

Modulus of Elasticity = ___________________N/mm2

Bending Moment of the given beam =___________________ N-mm

OBSERVATION:
Diameter of specimen (d) = mm Length of Specimen (l) = mm

Sear stress Modulus of rigidity

Angle of Twist Torque
= 16T/ d3 = TL/J
S.No
Rad
Degree N-m N-mm N/mm2 N/mm2
( )

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

44
6.

Average

TORSION TESTING MACHINE

TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD
Ex. No

Date:

AIM:

To find modules of rigidity and shear stress of the given specimen

Aluminum piece of using Torsion Testing Machine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Screw gauge
2. Torsion Testing Machine
3. Aluminum Piece – given specimen

THEORY:

45
In many areas of engineering applications, materials are sometimes subjected to
torsion in-services, for example, drive shafts, axles and twisted drills. Moreover,
structural applications such as bridges, springs, car bodies, airplane fuselages and
boat hulls are randomly subjected to torsion. The materials used in this case should
require not only adequate strength but also be able to withstand torque in
operation. Even though torsion test is not as universal as tension test and do not
have any standardized testing procedure, the significance lies on particular
engineering applications and for the study of plastic flow in materials. Torsion test
is applicable for testing brittle materials such as tool steels and the test has also
been used to determine the forge ability of the materials by means of torsion testing
at elevated temperatures.

Generally, torsion occurs when the twisting moment or torque is applied to a

member. The torque is the product of tangential force multiplied by the radial
distance from the twisting axis and the tangent, measured in a unit of N-m. In
torsion testing, the relationship between torque and degree of rotation is
graphically presented and parameters such as ultimate torsional shearing strength,
shear strength at proportional limit and shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) are
generally investigated. Moreover, fracture surfaces of specimens tested under
torsion can be used to determine the characteristics of the materials whether it
would fail in a brittle or a ductile manner. In order to study the response of
materials under a torsional force, the torsion test is performed by mounting the
specimen onto a torsion testing machine and then applying the twisting moment till
failure. The torque and degree of rotation are measured and plotted.

FORMULA USED:

= N/mm2

46
 C= N-mm,

J = π/32 d4 mm4

Where,

- is shear stress of specimen in N/mm2

T - is Torque at which specimen breaks, is N-mm

L - is gauge length of the specimen, in mm

d - is Diameter of the specimen in, mm

J - is Polar moment of Inertia, in mm4

- is Angle of twist in radian

C- is modules of rigidity, in N mm.

PROCEDURE:

1. At the outset, the suitable range for the given specimen (Aluminum
Piece) was selected.
2. The diameter of the specimen was measured using screw gauge the gauge
length of the specimen was measured by steel rule.
3. The one end of the specimen was fixed on movable spindle and the other
end to the fixed spindle rigidly.
4. The motor is switched on and the movable spindle was made to rotate so
that the specimen was torsion.
5. After the specimen gets broken, the indicator needle shows the maximum
torsion.
6. Angle of twist is noted.

Release the jaw key and remove the broken specimen from the needle

47
MODEL CALCULATION:

48
RESULT:

Thus torsion test was conducted for the given specimen and the values
obtained were found to be.

(i) Peak torque =_____________N-mm

(ii) Peak angle = _____________degrees

(iii) Shear Stress, =______________N/mm2

(iv) Modules of rigidity, C =_____________N/mm2

49
OBSERVATION:
Rockwell Hardness:

Dia of Hardness Hardness no.

Material
indentation I II III HRB

Unhardened
Mild steel 1/16″
steel

50
 Tempered
and
Mild steel 1/16″
Quenched
steel

Impact test:

Material Max impact energy (J) Impact energy (J)

Unhardened
steel

Tempered and
Quenched steel

TEMPERING – IMPROVEMENT OF MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Ex. No:

Date:

AIM:

To study the effect of heat treatment of steel and to determine the hardness
of the given material by rock well hardness test.

APPARATUS REQIRED:
51
 1. Furnace

2. Tongs

3. Indenter 1/16˝

4. Alan Key
5. Block of the given material

THEORY: -

Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to

alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most
common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the
manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the
use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired
result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques
include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and
quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to
processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of
altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally
during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

Steels can be heat treated to produce a great variety of microstructures and

properties. Generally, heat treatment uses phase transformation during heating and
cooling to change a microstructure in a solid state. Thermo mechanical treatments,
which modify component shape and structure, and thermo chemical treatments
which modify surface chemistry and structure, are also important processing
approaches which fall into the domain of heat treatment.

Tempering:

52
It is defined as the process of reheating the hardened specimen to some
temperature before the critical range followed by any rate of cooling such a
reheating permit trapped temperature to transform and relieve the internal
stresses.

Quenching:
It is an operation of rapid cooling by immersing a hot piece into a quenching
bath.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the hardness of the sample using Rockwell hardness tester

before placing the sample in the furnace.
2. Set the furnace for 950◦C and wait till the furnace attains the set
temperature.
3. Place the sample inside the furnace using the tongs.
4. The sample is kept inside the furnace for 3 hours.
5. Take out the sample and allow it to cool in air to room temperature.
6. Clean the surface of the heat treated sample and measure the hardness
again using the Rockwell hardness machine.

53
RESULT:

Thus study of effect of heat treatment in steel and the hardness of the given
material by Rockwell hardness done.

Hardness before Tempering and Quenching =___________ HRB

Hardness after Tempering and Quenching = ____________ HRB

OBSERVATION:

Rockwell Hardness:

Dia of Hardness Hardness no.

Material
indentation I II III HRB

54
Unhardened
Mild steel 1/16″
steel

Hardened
Mild steel 1/16″
steel

Impact test:

Max impact energy Impact energy

Material
(J) (J)
Unhardened
steel

Hardened
steel

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR UNHARDENED AND

HARDENED SPECIMEN
Ex.No:

55
Date:

AIM:

To find hardness number and impact strength for unhardened and hardened
specimen or Quenched and compare mechanical properties.

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT

1. Unhardened specimen,

2. Hardened or Quenched and tempered specimen,

3. Muffle furnace,

4. Rockwell testing machine,

5. Impact testing machine.

THEORY:

Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to

alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most
common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the
manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the
use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired
result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques
include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and
quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to
processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of
altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally
during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding

56
HARDENING:

It is defined as a heat treatment process in which the steel is heated to a

temperature within or above its critical range, and held at this temperature for a
considerable time to ensure thorough penetration of the temperature inside the
component and allowed to cool by quenching in water, oil or brine solution.

PROCEDURE:

Unhardened specimen

1. Choose the indenter and load for given material

2. Hold the indenter in indenter holder rigidly

3. Place the specimen on the anvil and raise the elevating screw by rotating the
hand wheel up to the initial load.

4. Apply the major load gradually by pushing the lever and then release it
as before

5. Note down the readings in the dial for corresponding scale

6. Take min 5 readings for each material.

For Hardened specimen

1. Keep the specimen in muffle furnace at temperature of 700˚ to 850˚ for 2

hours

2. The specimen is taken from muffle furnace and quenched in water or oil.

3. Then above procedure is followed to test hardness

57
RESULT:

1. Unhardened steel, Hardness = ____________ HRC

Impact energy = ____________ J

2. Hardened and quenched steel,

Hardness = ____________ HRC
Impact energy = ____________ J
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HARDENED AND
TEMPERED SAMPLES
Ex.No

58
Date:

AIM:

To prepare the specimens of hardened and tempered samples of steel for

microscopic examination.

APPARATUS:

1. Given specimen
2. Specially designed files
3. Belt grinder
4. Emery papers (80,120,240,400,600)
5. Disc polishing machine
6. Microscope

THEORY:

Plain carbon steels are steels having carbon as the predominant alloying
element and the other alloying elements are either Nil or negligible though some
amount of sulphur and phosphorous are present. Normally the amounts are less
than 0.05 percent and hence they are not considered. The plain carbon steels are
broadly classified in to low carbon steels with carbon content less than 0.3 percent
and medium carbon steels contain Carbon between 0.3 to 0.7. The high carbon
steels contain carbon from 0.7 to 1.5 percent.

PROCEDURE:

1. The specimens of pure metals like Mild steel, Low carbon steel or high
carbon Steels are mounted in a thermosetting material.
2. Polish the specimen by using (80,120,240,400and 600) grade emery papers.
3. Subject the given specimen to mirror like finish by using disc polishing
machine and with suitable abrasive.
59
 4. Clean the specimen with alcohol and wash it under the stream of flowing
water. After washing the specimen is dried.
5. After drying apply the suitable etching agent for 30 to 60 sec. After etching
wash the specimen under the stream of flowing water.
6. Dry the specimen with the help of air blower. Place the specimen under the
microscope for metallurgical studies.
7. Draw the micro structure and identify the material for the given specimen.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Polishing should be slow, sooth and flat.

2. Uniform pressure is applied throughout the polishing.

RESULT:

Thus the microscopic examinations of hardened and tempered steel are

studied.

OBSERVATION:

Diagonal
Diameter of
Distance ‘D’ Load Hardness
indentation,
S.No Material (mm) applied number,
Dm=D1+D2/2
D1 D2 (kg) HVp
(mm)
(Horizontal) (Vertical)

60
 VICKERS HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

Ex.No

Date:

AIM:

To find the hardness of the given material by Vickers hardness tester.

61
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Vickers hardness testing machine

2. Ball indenter or Diamond indenter
3. Block of the given material

THEORY:

The Vickers hardness test is based on the same principle as the Brinell test,
except the indenter is a diamond pyramid with square base. The angle between the
faces of pyramid is 1360 as shown in Figure-2. The Vickers Hardness Number
(VHN) of materials is obtained by dividing the applied force P, in kgf, by the
surface of the pyramidal depression yielding the relationship VHN=1.8544 P / d 2
where d is the average length of diagonals in mm.

Due to the shape and hardness of indenter the method is applicable to metals
and alloys with wide variety of hardness. Test load is selected between 1 and 120
kgf depending on the hardness of materials. It is also possible to apply micro
hardness testing by keeping the force between 5 grf and 2 kgf in Vickers scale.

FORMULA USED:

Vickers Hardness, HVp = 1.8544 P / D2 or 2P sin (136◦/2) / D2

Where,

HVp - Vickers hardness number for given load P

P - Load applied in kg

62
 Dm - Diameter of indentation (Diagonal distance of square. Dm = (D1+D2)/2
where D is the diagonal of square)

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the specimen on the anvil of the machine.

2. The indenter is fitted into the holder slot.
3. Check whether the sample is flat and surface is clean.
4. Select the load for specified specimen.
5. The load was applied for few seconds till the indentation is made.
6. Release the load and remove the specimen from the anvil.
7. Measure the diameter or diagonal of impression using Vickers
microscope.
8. Repeat the procedure for sufficient number of readings.
9. The reading are noted and tabulated.

MODEL CALCULATION:

63
RESULT:

Thus the Vickers hardness number for the given material was calculated and
found

(i) Mild steel = ____________ HV

(ii) Aluminium = ____________ HV

Distance Hardness
S. Load Hardness
Material Scale from end
No (kgf) I II III Number
(mm)

64
OBSERVATION: Hardness Before Test:

JHOMINY END QUENCH TEST

JHOMINY END QUENCH TEST

Ex.No

65
Date:

AIM:

To find out hardness as a function of quench rate and investigate the

hardenability of steels using Jhominy end quench test.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Rockwell hardness testing machine

2. Jhominy end quench setup
3. Material sample

THEORY:

The hardenability of a steel is defined as that property which determines the depth
and distribution of hardness induced by quenching ftom the austenitic condition.
The dependence of hardness upon quenching rate can be understood ftom the time-
temperature-transformation characteristics of steel, and, for a particular steel, can
be estimated from the T-T-T diagram. A part may be hardened by quenching into
water, oil, or other suitable medium. The surface of the part is cooled rapidly,
resulting in high hardness, whereas the interior cools more slowly and is not
hardened. Because of the nature of the T-T-T diagram, the hardness does not vary
linearly from the outside to the center. Hardenability refers to capacity of
hardening (depth) rather than to maximum attainable hardness. The hardenability
of a steel depends on

(1) the composition of the steel,

(2) the austenitic grain size, and

(3) the structure of the steel before quenching.

In general ,hardenability increases with carbon content and with alloy content. The
most

66
important factor influencing the maximum hardness that can be obtained is mass of
the metal being quenched. In a small section, the heat is extracted quickly, thus
exceeding the critical cooling rate of the specific steel and this part would thus be
completely martensitic. The critical cooling rate is that rate of cooling which must
be exceeded to prevent formation of non martensite products. As section size
increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to extract the heat fast enough to exceed
the critical cooling rate and thus avoid formation of nonmartensitic products.
Hardenability of all steels is directly related to critical cooling rates.

PROCEDURE:

1. Sample of medium carbon steel machined to the shape. It is a cylindirical

bar
with a 25 mm diameter and 100 mm length.
2. The specimen is placed in the furnace at 900 for about 1/2 hour.
3. The water flow rate is adjusted in the Jhominy setup so that the water
column is approximately the distance 50 mm above the end of the pipe,
when water is flowing freely.
4. After the sample has been austenitized, it is removed from the furnace and
placed directly into the quenching apparatus.
5. The jet of water is quickly splashed at one end of the specimen. Remove the
sample after it cooled to room temperature.
6. The scale oxidation is removed and two opposite and flat parallel surfaces
are ground along the length of the bar.
7. Rockwell C hardness measurements are then made every 2 mm and these
readings are recorded.
8. Plot a hardenability curve of Rockwell hardness vs distance from the
quenched end.

67
RESULT:

Thus the hardness of the steel sample is found using Rockwell hardness and
the graph is drawn.

FATIGUE TESTING
Ex. No
Date:

Aim:

To study the effect of fluctuating stress normally encountered in the cyclic

loading of materials in service.

Requirements for the experiment

1) Specimen with the correct design
2) Vernier calipers
3) Dead weight as load
4) Wrench for tightening the bolt of specimen holder

Theory:
68
 Fatigue is the condition where a material cracks or fails as a result of repeated
(cyclic) stresses applied below the ultimate strength of the material.
Fatigue failures generally involve three stages:
1. Crack Initiation,
2. Crack Propagation, and
3. Fast Fracture
Fatigue failures often occur quite suddenly with catastrophic (disastrous)
results and although most insidious for metals, polymers and ceramics (except
for glasses) are also susceptible to sudden fatigue failures. Fatigue causes
brittle like failures even in normally ductile materials with little gross plastic
deformation occurring prior to fracture. The process occurs by the initiation
and propagation of cracks and, ordinarily, the fracture surface is close to
perpendicular to the direction of maximum tensile stress.
Applied stresses may be axial (tension-compression), flexural (bending) or
torsional (twisting) in nature. In general there are three possible fluctuating
stress-time modes possible. The simplest is completely reversed constant
amplitude where the alternating stress varies from a maximum tensile stress
to a minimum compressive stress of equal magnitude. The second type,
termed repeated constant amplitude, occurs when the maxima and minima are
asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level. Lastly, the stress level may vary
randomly in amplitude and frequency which is merely termed random cycling.

Experimental Procedure

1. Polish the sample surface as smooth as possible and observe for any surface
defects and deep scratch/machining marks. Reject the sample if you find any
defects.
2. Measure dimensions of the given specimen of mild steel.
3. Fit the specimen is in the sample holder such that it passes through the
opening provided in the rod on which the loads are seated.

69
 4. After fitting the sample, keep the desired load on the seat provided for the
loads.
5. Switch on the instrument to conduct the fatigue test and record the time for
the failure, when it occurs,.
6. Note the appearance of the fractured surface in each case.
7. From the above experiment fatigue strength can be calculated.

Result:

Thus the fatigue tests of mild steel will give the value of stress below which it can
endure infinite number of cycles which is important from the engineering design
point of view.
CE6411-STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. Define Hooke’s Law.

2. Define Strength of materials
3. What is stress?
4. What is strain?
5. What is deformation?
6. How is deformation calculated?
7. Say something on Rigid Body.
8. Say something on deformable solids.
9. Differentiate simple and compound stress.
10. What is stiffness?
11. Types of stresses.
12. Types of strains.
13. What is volumetric strain?
14. Differentiate Tensile Strain and Tensile stress.
15. Differentiate Compressive Strain and Compressive stress.
16. Differentiate Shear Strain and Shear stress.
17. What is factor of safety?
18. What is Ultimate strength?
19. What is working stress?
20. What is Yield Strength?
21. Define Stiffness of a helical spring.
22. Differentiate between closed and open coil helical spring.
23. Principle of Superposition in bars of varying cross section.
24. Types of Loads.

70
25. Explain torque.
26. What is Torsional force?
27. What is torsional rigidity?
28. Define Centripetal force.
29. Define Centrifugal force.
30. Explain Radius of gyration.
31. What is calibration?
32. Tell About Moment of inertia.
33. What is Inertia?
34. Polar moment of inertia.
35. Say something on Traction.
36. Explain about Principal plane.
37. Explain about Principal axis.
38. Draw Shear force diagram for a cantilever beam with udl and point load.
39. Draw Shear force diagram for a SSB with udl and point load
40. What are SSB, Fixed Beams, Hinged Beams.
41. Explain the equilibrium condition for a body.
42. Differentiate between Bar and column
43. Types of beams.
44. What is Shear centre?
45. Tell something on elastic constants.
46. What is Poisson’s ratio?
47. Differentiate Longitudinal and Lateral Strain.
48. Relation between Bulk Modulus and Young’s modulus.
49. Explain about modulus of rigidity.
50. What is Strain energy?
51. What is Resilience?
52. Define proof of resilience.
53. Define modulus of resilience.
54. How is potential energy related to strain energy
55. Explain Castigliano’s Theorem.
56. What is slenderness ratio?
57. When do we call the failure to be fatigue?
58. Explain sudden impact.
59. Explain about buckling in a beam.
60. Why is it necessary to check hardness?
61. Enumerate the advantages of Rockwell Hardness test over Brinell hardness test.
62. Differentiate between pneumatic and hydraulic pumps.
63. Unit of force, deflection, stress, strain, E, K, G.
64. Purpose of UTM.
65. Define a Hydraulic jack.
66. What is torsional bending?
67. What is axial load?

71
68. Say something on ageing factor.
69. Define Section modulus.
70. What is a composite beam.

72