International Journal of Mineral Processing, 10 (1983) 141--160 141

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

DYNAMIC MODEL OF F L O T A T I O N CELL BANKS -- CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

M.C. WILLIAMS and T.P. MELOY

West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506 (U.S.A.)
(Received January 5, 1981 ; revised and accepted August 15, 1982)

ABSTRACT

Williams, M.C. and Meloy, T.P., 1983. Dynamic model of flotation cell banks -- circuit
analyses. Int. J. Miner. Process., 10: 141--160.

While all mineral industry flotation circuits are stable, they are sensitive to low-frequen-
cy perturbations in the feedrate. In both countercurrent and cocurrent circuits, the lead
cell is more sensitive to feed variations. The frequency response predicts the amount o f
extra cell capacity needed to handle the m a x i m u m feed due to a sinusoidal forcing func-
tion. Feedback loops are more significant than sump delays. The countercurrent 4 x 4
circuit floating quartz, with a 200-sec retention time, requires 75 minutes for the concen-
tration o f quartz in the input to the first cell to reach 95% o f its steady-state value. Coun-
tercurrent circuits were found superior to cocurrent circuits in all respects.

INTRODUCTION

Flotation is an increasingly i m p o r t a n t process in the upgrading o f raw

materials, particularly in the mineral industry. With the decreasing grade of
ores, and the increased dissemination of the target mineral within the ore,
the cost and energy cons um pt i on of f r ot h flotation becomes increasingly im-
p o rtan t. To increase p r o d u c t i o n and decrease cost and energy consumption,
controls have been applied to flotation circuits in an empirical manner be-
cause no complete control analysis o f a flotation circuit exists. There has
been a slow evolution o f the analysis of flotation unit operations and circuits
in the literature.
Two c o m m o n circuit designs f ound in chemical and mineral industries are
the c o u n t e r c u r r e n t , CC, and cocurrent, COC. The circuits may be stable,
unstable, oscillatory, n o n ~ s c i l l a t o r y , as well as have long or short response
times. Their classification is based on the dynamic behavior o f multi-element
circuits in response to sinusoidal forcing and step inputs. For flotation circuits
the mineral processing plant environment has dynamic feed fluctuations
understandable in the terms o f a dynamic model.

0301-7516/83/$03.00 © 1983 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

142

FLOTATION MODELING IN THE LITERATURE

Zimmerman (1948) and Kelsall (1961) identified the variables involved in

froth flotation, including: size range; composition of solids feed; concentra-
tion of solids in the feed; feed stream input flowrate; impeller design and
speed; aeration rate into the flotation cell; design, speed and number of froth
removers; flotation cell volume, area and overall geometry; amount and type
of reagent addition; surface condition of gangue and ore; water quality and
properties, including pH; and the flotation cell bank design. The flotation
cell c o m m o n l y in use consists of a tank into which a pulp is fed. In the bot-
t o m of the tank is an impeller and aerator. The pulp is violently mixed and
aerated. The particles entrained by the air are removed at the top while the
pulp is discharged from the tank. A flotation circuit or bank is a spatial ar-
rangement of individual cells.
In the first circuit model, Davis (1964) developed a steady-state, probabil-
istic model incorporating only F, the solids' feedrate, and a constant, p, the
probability of an individual particle of mineral species' floating. All the vari-
ables listed above except the solids' feedrate were assumed to remain con-
stant. Davis defined p as both characteristic of a unique mineral species,
identical and constant for each cell in a flotation bank, and independent of
the concentration of ore and gangue. This last assumption, the linearity as-
sumption, means that similar and non-similar mineral species do not interfere
with other particles during a specific flotation process. Davis experimentally
verified these assumptions in his work with the flotation of galena and quartz
in the flotation circuit utilized by the Zinc Corporation Limited. Davis as-
sumed first order kinetics, i.e., the yield is proportional to the solids' concen-
tration to the first power. From these assumptions, Davis derived the follow-
ing mass balance around a single flotation cell at steady-state:
F = p F + (1 - - p ) F (1)
where F is the feed.
Davis derived a mass balance around each cell in the flotation bank at the
plant and algebraically combined the mass balances to obtain an overall ex-
pression representing the total circuit yield in terms of the feed, F, and the
experimentally determined p. Subsequently, Meloy (1983a, b) generalized
the steady-state algebraic procedure utilized by Davis, developing the circuit
analysis algebra for mineral processing separation circuits.
The value o f p obtained experimentally by Davis was not an absolute value,
but depended on the particular operating conditions and flotation equipment
utilized. Davis believed that a steady-state model more accurately described
most flotation processes since flotation was not continuous, i.e., time delays
existed between individual cells in a flotation bank where flotation could not
occur, and therefore, a continuous equation could not represent the phenom-
enon.
 143

An early, dynamic flotation model was developed by Arbiter and Harris

{1962). The flotation kinetics equation presented was:
dC/dt = --kC n (2)
where C is the solids' concentration, k is the flotation rate constant, t is flota-
tion time, and n is the order of the kinetics. Arbiter assumed dilute pulp and
ideal mixing and discussed how n and k would vary depending on the opera-
tion of the cell and the mineral species involved. Bull (1966) later extended
and accurately defined the range o f applicability of eq. 2. Bull assumed a
constant air-bubble concentration at a constant aeration rate, and a negligible
solids' volume. The results of Bull's flotation of chalcopyrite show that:
(1) First-order kinetics holds for ideal mixing in a batch flotation test.
(2) First-order kinetics applies for a bank of continuous cells in series un-
dergoing plug flow and for some banks of cells in series undergoing undefined
flow.
(3) The assumption of negligible solids' volume was not always correct.
(4) Ideal mixing occurs in all cells at sufficiently high impeller speeds.
Bull concluded that first-order kinetics was not universal; however, flota-
tion systems not obeying first-order might obey other-order kinetics. Bull
solved eq. 2 for a single cell, obtaining:
R -- k t / ( 1 + kt) (3)
Bull ignored the loss of product from the froth back to the pulp which
Arbiter assumed to be also first-order kinetics with respect to the concentra-
tion of material in the froth.
Inoue and Imaizumi (1966) created a model for a batch cell by assuming
there was no interaction among the various particles in the cell, i.e. linearity,
and first-order kinetics. Furthermore, they adopted the idea of the flotation
rate distribution. Realizing that the flotation rate for a given system is a com-
plex function of particle mineralogy, degree of liberation, surface activity and
particularly, size, Inoue attempted to develop functions to represent the range
o f the flotation rate constant by using the gamma distribution. Inoue applied
the dynamic model to banks of continuous cells in series, deriving the general
dynamical expression and concluding that, while narrow, granulometric, i.e.
same-sized grains, fractions obey first-order kinetics, ensembles of various
size fractions exhibit other order kinetics.
All models discussed, with the possible exception of the model of Arbiter
and Harris (1962), who considered flotation subprocesses, were lumped
parameter models. These subprocesses were entry, preparation (mixing, sus-
pension, dispersion, sorption), selection (bubble attachment), levitation (rise
o f material), concentration (froth formation) and exit of product and gangue
along with any recycle phenomena. Although earlier workers defined these
subprocesses, Mika and Fuerstenau (1969) quantitatively incorporated these
subprocesses into a detailed, two-phase dynamic model. Mika identified four
different "states" within a flotation cell: (1) free particle in the pulp phase;
144

(2) particle attached to a bubble in the pulp phase; (3) particle attached to a
bubble in the froth phase; and (4) free particle in the froth phase. Mika and
Fuerstenau (1969) assumed first-order kinetics; ideal mixing (spatially homo-
geneous phase); continuous flotation; quick mechanical removal of the froth,
eliminating the need to consider recycle phenomena; the existence of classes
of floatable material with constant and distinct Kj (flotation rates) tantamount
to the assumption of linearity; and finally, negligible solids' volume. Four
mass balances, one for each state, solved simultaneously yield the particle
densities within each state. Mika and Fuerstenau (1969) evaluated the intra-
cellular phenomenon occurring within single flotation cells. Concerning the
existence of delays between individual flotation cells in a bank, Mika and
Fuerstenau (1969) concluded that the resistance to pulp flow between cells
in contemporary flotation practice was "limitingly small" and, consequently,
did not develop the differential equations describing the hydraulic behavior
between flotation cells. Mika viewed flotation cells as being separated by a
marginal weir in contrast with Davis (1964) who limited the applicability of
dynamic models to pneumatic and batch flotation.
Gardener {1980) measured particle retention time with radioisotopes.
Thus, the concept of a retention time distribution arose. Without violating
the mass balance envelope around a flotation cell, an apparent volume could
be defined or empirically determined for each operating condition and flota-
tion equipment type. The apparent volume could be substituted for the actual
volume in any derivations involving mass balances.
In the literature, there is little or no information on feed rate oscillations
or delays in flotation circuits. Machinery-induced feed oscillation was noted in
Mining Engineering (1979), but no systematic investigation of sinusoidal in-
puts was found, nor was any quantitative treatment of intercellular delays.

TABLEI

A s s u m p t i o n s in the literature. Yes = a s s u m p t i o n made; no = a s s u m p t i o n n o t m a d e

Author Perfect Neg. Recycle One p h a s e Linearity

mixing sol. vol. froth

Arbiter Yes No Yes No Yes

Harris Yes No Yes No Yes
Davis Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Mika Yes Yes No No Yes
Fuerst. Yes Yes No No Yes
Bull Yes No No Yes Yes
Gardener Yes
Inoue Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Imaizumi Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Niemi Yes
Jowett Yes
Woodburn Yes
Loveday Yes
Meloy Yes Yes No Yes Yes
 145

In the literature, the majority of investigators classify usual flotation prac-

tice as first order kinetics, and unusual flotation as other order kinetics. Bull
(1966), Arbiter and Harris (1962), Inoue and Imaizumi (1963), Mika and
Fuerstenau (1969), and Gardener (1975) assume a well-mixed cell which is in
accord with the findings of Niemi (1966), and Jowett (1961), as well as
Woodburn and Loveday (1965) who established that most particulate size
fractions and fluids exhibit perfect mixing for a large range of flotation cell
types. Bull (1966), Gardener (1980), and Arbiter considered the recycle of
froth to pulp to be significant. Mika (1969), Woodburn and Loveday (1965,
1966), and Inoue and Imaizumi (1963, 1966)have stated that the phenom-
enon is not important. Mika (1969), Bull (1966), Arbiter and Harris (1962),
Davis (1964), Inoue and Imaizumi ( 1966 ), and Meloy ( 1983 a) assume linearity.
Table I summarizes the assumptions regarding flotation made by the modelers
in the literature.

MODEL

Assume a flotation cell floating a single mineral class,j, where the input
o f j t h class, Feedi, equals the sum of the underflow, Sj, float, Fj, and accumu-
lation, Tj :
Feedj = Sj + Fj + Tj (4a)
The input stream mass, Feed i for an increment of time, is the input flow-
rate, Q(t}, times the solids concentration of the input stream, Cij(t), times the
small time interval dt:
Feed i = Q(t)Cii(t)dt (4b)
The assumption of a perfectly mixed, homogeneous pulp makes the model
a lumped parameter model. This is tantamount to assuming the solids' con-
centration throughout the cell is the same during the interval dt. The under-
flow stream mass, $1, is the concentration in the cell during the interval,
Coj(t), times Q(t) times dr:
Sj = Coj(t)Q(t)dt (4c)
The accumulation term, Ti, is the mass of t h e ] t h class in the cell during the
interval dt, or the incremental change of the concentration in the cell times
the flotation cell's volume:
T i = d[ViCoi(t)] (4d)
The assumption of an apparent volume distribution, V/, is made. Ideally, the
retention time of all species should be identical, however, particle density
differences lead to increased residence time with increased density (Gardener,
1980).
146

The float term, Fi, is the product of the cell concentration, Coj(t), to the
first power (first order kinetics), dt, the apparent cell volume, Vj, and the
flotation rate constant Kj.
Fj = Coj(t)VjKjdt (4e)
Flotation rate distributions, Ki, are functions of size, mineralogy, shape,
etc., for a specific operating condition. As in the case of the Inoue and Imaizumi
(1966) and Mika and Fuerstenau (1969) models, the values of individual Kj
are assumed constant for a given species in the jth class and assumed indepen-
dent of total cell solids' concentration. Kj is a continuous function over all
the individual species in a mineral class. For example, in the flotation of galena
and quartz described by Davis (1964), quartz and galena are two, distinct
mineral classes. Within the classes are various species distinguished by size,
shape, degree of lockedness, density, etc.. The first-order kinetic assumption
restricts the feed to narrow particle size ranges as defined by Tomlinson and
Fleming (1963). Assuming quick removal of the froth eliminates the need to
consider any recycle phenomenon. Finally, the volume associated with the
solids is not considered, and thus assumed negligible.
Substituting eqs. 4b--e into eq. 4a, one obtains:
Q(t)Cij(t)dt = Q(t)Coi(t)dt + d[VjCo](t)] + VjKjCoj(t)dt (4f)
Assuming Q(t) = Q and dividing both sides of eq. 4f by Qdt:
Cij(t) = Coj(t) + d[Coj(t)] /Aj + KjCoj(t)/A j (5)
where ,4i is the inverse retention time distribution, Q/Vi. In eq. 5, at steady-
state, the accumulation term is zero, and Co1 and Cij are constant. Under
these conditions eq. 5 reduces to:
Cij = Coj + KjCoj/Aj (6)
Solving eq. 6 for Coj,
Coj = UjCi1 (7)
where,
Uj =Aj/(Aj + Kj) (7a)
Substituting eq. 7 into the float term of eq. 6, the float concentration, Pj, is:
Pj = RjCij (8)
where,
Rj =Kj/(Aj + Kj) (8a)
Equations 7a and 8a contain the steady-state transfer functions for the
float concentration, R], and underflow or cell concentration, Uj, of a single
flotation cell. At steady-state, a large Cij increases Pj for constant Kj and Aj.
Also, small Aj and large Kj result in a large Pj.
 147

The total float concentration, P, of the single cell is obtained by integrat-

ing eq. 8 over all the variables determining the At, Cit, and Kj represented
by continuous functions defined within the class and then summing over all
the j classes:

P=Ef... f VAx,s,d,t. . . . )dxdsdddld.. (9)

J
where x,s,d, and l are the variables of particle size, shape, density, and degree
o f lockedness, respectively, and the summation is over all the j classes. The
float flowrate is PQ and the total float (yield), F, during a time dt is PQ(dt).
For non-steady state conditions, eq. 5 may be solved b y Laplacian methods.
Assuming all initial conditions are zero, Coj(O) = 0, and taking the Laplace
transform of both sides of eq. 5:
Coj(s) + KjCoj(s)/A i + sCoj(s)/A j = Ci](s) (10)
Solving for Coj(s) in eq. 10:
coj(s) = Ut(s)CiAs) (11)
where,
Ut(s ) = At/(s + A i + Kt) (12)
Substituting eq. 11 into the float term of eq. 10, Pi(s), the float concentra-
tion, is:
Pt(s) = Rj(s)Cij(s) (13)
where,
Rt(s ) -- gt/(s + A t + gt) (14)
Rt(s ) and Ui(s ) are the transient, transfer functions of the float concentration
and underflow or cell concentration. Since assuming linearity among the j and
since the Laplace transform is a linear operator, the individual transfer func-
tions of the separate Cit(t )'s may be added to obtain the total transfer func-
tion. For two mineral classes, e.g., quartz and galena:
Pq (s) = Rq (s)Ciq (s) (15)
and
Pg(s) = Rg(s)Cig(s) (16)
Summing eqs. 15 and 16, one obtains the total float concentration:
P(s) = Pq(s) + Pg(s) (17)

In the case of continuous flotation and retention time distributions, eq. 13

is integrated over the variables determining the distribution values defined
within the class, and summed over all the j classes, as shown above, to obtain
the total float concentration transfer function, P(s).
148

Q Q

o Q
¢~--J Cocurrent (coc) 3x3 F I

C o u n t e r c u r r e n t Ix 3 Cocurrent Ix 3

2-
Countercurrent 3x 1
_~ Seines, no feedback lx 3

Cocurrent 3x 1

Fig. 1. Countercurrent (CC), cocurrent (COC), and series flotation circuits.

Fig. 2. Linear CC and COC flotation circuits.

In the mineral industries, where many, individual separation cells are used,
certain spatial arrangements of the cells into banks or circuits are c o m m o n .
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate seven possible flotation circuits. In these figures,
" Q " , represents make-up water whose addition occurs when a float is re-
wetted prior to refloating; " O " represents the location of a dewaterer unit
operation included when m any underflows o f flowrate " Q " are recycled,
dewatered and refloated, i.e., when the feed must be concentrated. Applying
the c o m p a c t circuit analysis techniques of Meloy (1983a, b) to the seven
circuit ty p es in Figs. 1 and 2, the steady-state or overall transient transfer
functions are obtained. The overall transient transfer functions for Pl(s),
the float c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the final cell in the p r o d u c t leg, for t he seven
designs with identical cells with initial concentrations zero, are:

COC, 4 X 4 circuit

Pj(s) = Rj(s)4Cij(s)/[1 -- 2RI(s)Uj(s ) - - R j ( s ) 2 U j ( s ) - - R j ( s ) 3 U j ( s )

-- Uj(s)2Ri(s) -- Ui(s)3Rj(s) ] (18)
CC, 4 X 4 circuit
Pi(s) = Rj(s)4Cij(s)/[1 -- 4Rj(s)Ul(S ) + 2Rj(s)2Ui(s) 2 ] (19)
CC, 4 X 1 circuit
 149

P/(s) = R j ( s ) ' C i j ( s ) / [ 1 -- 3Rj(s)Uj(s) + R i ( s ) 2 U](s) 2 ] (20)

CC, 1 X 4 circuit
Pi(s) = Ri(s)Cij(s)[1 -- 2 R i ( s ) U j ( s ) ] / [ 1 -- 3Ri(s)Ui(s ) + Ri(s)2Uj(s) 2] (21)

COC, 4 X 1 circuit
Pi{s) = Rj(s)4Cii(s)/[1 - - R l ( s ) U j ( s ) -- Ri{s)2Ul(s ) -- Ri(s)3U/(s) ] (22)

COC, 1 X 4 circuit
Pj(s) = Ri(s)Cij(s)/[ 1 -- Rj(s)Uj(s ) -- Rj(s)Ul(s) 2 -- R](s)U/(s) 3] (23)

Series circuit, no feedback, 1 X 4

Pj(s) = R i ( s ) + Ri(s)Ui(s ) + Ri(s)U](s) 2 + Rj(s)Uj(s) 3 (24)
While in the m o n o g r a p h o n e solves o n l y for the float o r u n d e r f l o w con-
c e n t r a t i o n o f the final cell o f the product-leg, one m a y with equal ease solve
f o r the float c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r u n d e r f l o w o f a n y cell in the circuit. The response
o f the f l o t a t i o n cell b a n k final product-leg cell float c o n c e n t r a t i o n to a time-
d e p e n d e n t i n p u t , Ci](t). F o r A 1 = K 1 = 1 min -1 , and Cij(t ) a step-input o f mag-
n i t u d e 1, t h e P j ( t ) ' s o f eqs. 1 8 - - 2 4 are:

COC, 4 X 4 circuit
Pi(t) = 0 . 0 5 8 exp (--3.29t) -- 0 . 5 6 0 e x p (--0.10t)
+ 0.155 e x p ( - - 2 . 3 2 t sin 0 . 8 5 t ) + 0.001 exp (--2.32 cos 0 . 8 5 t )
+ 0.500 (25)

CC, 4 X 4 circuit
P j ( t ) = 0.186 e x p ( - - 1 . 2 3 5 t ) + 0 . 0 8 3 e x p ( - - 2 . 7 6 5 t )
- - 0.635 e x p (--0.15t) + 0.025 exp {--3.85t) + 0 . 5 0 0 (26)

CC, 4 X 1 circuit
Pj(t) = 0 . 1 9 8 -- 0.36 e x p (-<).38t) + 0 . 0 3 8 e x p (--3.62t)
+ 0 . 2 6 5 e x p (--1.39t) - - 0 . 1 4 1 e x p (--2.61t) (27)

CC, 1 X 4 circuit
P i ( t ) = [--1.53 e x p (--0.38t) -- 0.16 e x p ( - - 3 . 6 2 t ) + 0 . 0 5 9 e x p (--1.39t)
+ 0 . 0 3 2 e x p ( - - 2 . 6 1 0 + 1.60] -- 2 [ - - 0 . 5 8 5 e x p (--0.38t)
- - 0.061 e x p ( - - 3 . 6 2 t ) + 0 . 1 5 8 e x p (--1.39t) + 0.085 e x p (--2.61t)
+ 0.401] (28)
150

COC, 4 X 1 circuit
Pj(t) = --0.220 exp (--0.53t) + 0.112 exp (--3.0t) + 0.253 exp
[--2.23t sin (0.8t + 359°)] + 0.112 (29)

COC, 1 X 4 circuit
Pj(t) = --0.110 exp (--3t) -- 0.688 exp (--0.53t) + 0.146 exp
[--2.23t sin (0.80 + 317°}] + 0.920 (30)

Series circuit, no feedback, 1 X 3

Pj(t) = 0.5 (1 -- exp -- 2t) + 0.25 -- (0.5t + 0.25) exp -- 2t (31)
The values o f bot h the Aj and Kj are realistic experimentally. A one minute
retention time is c o m m o n in the mineral industry, and the value o f Kj = 1
m i n - ' is a typical experimental value for the quartz species investigated by
Imaizumi and Inoue (1965}.

STABILITY AND OSCILLATION

Stability criterion for linear systems is based on Routh's criterion. From

the stability criteria, the real ranges o f the flotation rate and retention time
distribution values, Aj and Kj, leading to stable transient solutions may be
determined. Only where the system of flotation cells is stable, will the out-
put reach steady-state at a finite level. Oscillation will occur if the character-
istic equation has imaginary roots and is indicated by sine and cosine terms
in the response. For the single flotation cell, whose characteristic equation
is s + Aj + Kj, instability is impossible since the value of Aj + Kj can never
be negative.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Consider the p r o d u c t frequency response, Pj(t), to sinusoidal inputs of

the type:
Cij(t) = Cij(1 -- sin Wt) (32}
The Laplace transform o f the sinusoidal term in eq. 32 is:
L(s) = WCij/(s 2 + W 2) (33)
After sufficient time, the contributions of all terms but L(s) in the overall
transient transfer function become zero. However, during this start-up inter-
val, all oscillating circuits may experience resonance. The frequency response
o f a float concentration to a pure, sinusoidal input is:
Pj(t)/Cij = Z ( W t ) sin (Wt + <~)/W (34)
 151

where X ( W t ) and ~ are constants determined during the course of solution

and W is the input frequency. Since linearity was assumed and the Laplace
transform is a linear operator, the dynamic response of a float concentration
to eq. 32 is:
Pj(t) = Cij[Y, -- Y2 sin (Wt + ~)] (35)
where Y, and Y2 are functions of A/, Ki, W, and the particular flotation cell
bank geometry. Y2 is the amplitude of the oscillation due to perturbations
in the feed input. As with the transient response, the frequency response of
any sink or input concentration can be found with equal ease.

DELAYS

If a delay exists, a certain amount of time to is required for the circulating

load, froth or underflow, to return to a designated cell. In the case of flota-
tion cells in series with no feedback loops, delays existing between the cells
can be handled analytically. The dynamic response of the product stream to
a step input Cii for n flotation units in series with a to delay between cells is:
n--1 t
Pi(t) = ~ [KiCiiAig/F(g + 1)] f tgexp[--(Aj + K j ) ( t - - ] t o ) ] d t (36)
g=l o

In general, where feedback exists, a delay results in the insertion of a

exp(--t0s) tr~msfer function between the points where the delay exists. For-
tunately, exp(--t0s) can be approximated with a Taylor series to any degree
required:
exp(t0s) = I + (tos) + (tos2)/2 + (tos)3/6 + . . . (37)
Equation 37 's polynomial approximation can be factored and introduced
as an additional transfer function. Physically, the conduits transporting the
flotation material are pipes undergoing turbulent flow while sumps are used
in storing and mixing. The conduits transporting the flotation material are
pipes undergoing turbulent flow while sumps are used in storing and mixing.
The delay transfer functions are:
D(s) = A / ( s + A ) (38)
The A is the inverse of the delay time which must be approximated on a
case-by-case basis. Equation 38 is identical to the truncation of eq. 37 at the
second term. If greater accuracy is required, the delay time may be halved
and two well-mixed reactors used to approximate the delay. In this manner,
eq. 37 can be approximated to any desired degree. Delays are c o m m o n con-
trol problems; Takahashi et al. (1970) has dealt with approximating delays.
152

CIRCUIT DESIGN, ANALYSIS, AND COMPARISON

The only fair comparison which can be made between circuits must be on
the basis of production of desirable species (yield and sharpness) for a given
feed. The total concentrations of all mineral species with rate constants Kj
must be summed (eq. 9). Meloy (1983a) has shown that for symmetrically
arranged heavy-media circuits, the steepness of the recovery versus particle
density curve increases with the number of additional units. The use of eq.
8a, the steady-state separation function, can serve in steady-state circuit
design and analysis. Circuit design and selection can also be based on many
features of dynamic responses such as response times which are obtained by
plotting concentration versus time.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

In recent years, flotation has become an important unit operation in the

mineral industry for upgrading of increasingly disseminated, lower grade
ores. Because it is difficult to work experimentally with non-pure mineral
classes, such as locked particles, and because each species in a mineral class is
represented by a different flotation rate distribution and has a different
frequency and transient response, theoretical analysis can both yield predic-
tive results and guide the experimenter in both choosing his experiments
and in predicting his results. With our flotation circuit model, one can study
the reaction of flotation circuits to time varying inputs of either pure or
mixed inputs. During start-up and shut<lown, before steady-state is reached,
one can predict each cell's mineral concentrations, maximal load as well as
the time for the circuit or plant to settle down to steady-state. Following
are the results obtained from examining the transient response of flotation
circuits to input variations.
An important feature of a flotation bank is its behavior under sinusoidal

16

14t

05

02

O0 I ~ t I
0 10 100 200
W ( r a d min ]

Fig. 3. A m p l i t u d e o f oscillatory t e r m o f eq. 35 versus f r e q u e n c y for COC 1 x 3 floating

q u a r t z w i t h a flotation rate o f 2 m i n - I and a retention t i m e of 200 sec. The upper curve
is t h e input to cell no. 1 a n d t h e l o w e r curve is the float o f cell no. 1.
 153

forcing functions. Consider the response o f the COC 1 X 3 flotation bank

c o mp o s ed o f identical flotation cells floating quartz of one species to a feed
input Cij(1 -- sin Wt). Figure 3, shows the f requency response o f the COC
1 X 3, the solution of eq. 35 plotted against t he forcing function (feed)
frequency. At low forcing function frequencies, the amplitude o f oscillation
in b o t h the input and o u t p u t streams o f cell no.1 is significant but less so in
the o t h e r cells. However, at high frequencies the oscillation in the o u t p u t
o f cell no.1 dies out and the amplitude o f the oscillation in the input to cell
no.1 approaches the amplitude of the forcing function sinusoidal term. The
amplitude o f the oscillation in the input to cell no .1 increases with decreasing
flotation rate, Kj, and increases with increased Ai, decreased ret ent i on time.
Table IIa shows the variation in amplitude o f oscillation o f the input to cell
no.1 in the CC 1 X 2 as a function o f flotation rate, quartz species, and
forcing function frequency. Table IIa reveals the higher amplitude o f oscilla-
tion at the lower frequencies.
TABLE IIa
Oscillation of input to cell 1 for a retention time of three minutes with three different
flotation rates, Kj, at a function frequency W

Amplitude (above steady~state) under sinusoidal function of

oscillation of input to cell 1 as percent of steady-state
w Kj
kHz
0.03/rain 0.3/rain 3/rain

0.027 100 100 100

0.133 99.4 99.2 100
0.265 97.8 96.9 100
2.65 91.2 72.6 99.9
13.26 91.2 74.7 90.8
26.52 91.2 74.9 90.8
265.2 91.2 74.9 91.0

TABLE IIb
Oscillation of float of cell 1 for a retention time of three minutes with three different
flotation rates, Kj, at a function frequency W

Amplitude (above steady-state) under sinusoidal function

of oscillation of float o f cell 1 as percent of steady-state
w Kj
kHz
0.03/min 0.3/min 3/min

0.027 100 100 100

0.133 98.0 98.2 100
0.265 93.4 95.1 100
2.65 28.3 37.3 93.6
13.26 6.1 8.8 50.1
26.52 3.0 4.5 28.6
265.2 0.0 0.4 3.0
154

TABLE IIc

Oscillation of sink of cell 1 for a retention time of three minutes with three different
flotation rates, Ki, at a function frequency W

Amplitude (above steady--state) under sinusoidal function

of oscillation of sink of cell 1 as percent of steady~state
w gj
kHz
0.03/min 0.3/min 3/min

0.027 100 100 100

0.133 98.3 98.4 100
0.265 93.7 95.1 100
2.65 28.6 37.2 98.9
13.26 6.1 8.8 50.5
26.52 3.0 4.5 28.3
265.2 0.0 0.4 3.0

TABLE IId

Oscillation of sink of cell 2 for a retention time of three minutes with three different
flotation rates, Kj, at a function frequency W

Amplitude (above steady~state) under sinusoidal function

of oscillation of sink of cell 2 as percent of steady-state
w gj
kHz
0.03/min 0.3/min 3/rain

0.027 100 100 100

0.133 97.2 98.4 100
0.265 89.7 94.3 100
2.65 9.0 19.2 99.9
13.26 0.4 1.2 22.2
26.52 0.1 0.3 11.1
265.2 0.0 0.0 0.0

Tables I I b - - d reveal t h a t the oscillations in the float o f cell n o . l , sink o f

cell n o . l , and sink o f cell no.2 in t h e CC 1 X 2 die o u t at t h e higher frequen-
cies. The a m p l i t u d e o f t h e oscillation in t h e float stream decreases with
decreasing f l o t a t i o n rate, Kj, and increased A j, decreased r e t e n t i o n time.
H o w e v e r , the a m p l i t u d e o f the oscillation in each cell u n d e r f l o w increases
with decreasing f l o t a t i o n rate, Ki, and increased Aj, decreased r e t e n t i o n time.
S y s t e m a t i c classification o f circuits into oscillatory and n o n - o s c i l l a t o r y
categories is possible. Consider a COC 1 X 4 circuit, with an individual cell
having a r e t e n t i o n time o f 200 sec, floating q u a r t z with a f l o t a t i o n rate Kj =
0.3 min -~ . S o l u t i o n o f the p r o d u c t ' s response, eq. 23, s h o w s t h a t it is oscil-
l a t o r y , and t h a t the natural f r e q u e n c y o f oscillation is 3 cycles per m i n u t e .
 155

S o l u t i o n o f t h e CC 1 X 4 p r o d u c t ' s response, eq. 21, for t h e same c o n d i t i o n s

indicates no oscillation. It is believed t h a t all f l o t a t i o n banks having a feed-
back f a r t h e r back t h a n t h e i m m e d i a t e l y preceding cell are oscillatory. Thus,
in t h e o p i n i o n o f the authors, COC's are oscillatory while CC's are n o t . A n y
CC circuit will be oscillatory if it is m o d i f i e d so t h a t o n e o r m o r e cells feeds
back t w o o r m o r e cells. T h e natural frequencies o f oscillation o f COC's
decrease with increased r e t e n t i o n time, decreasing Aj, increased r e t e n t i o n
time, and increase with increased f l o t a t i o n rate K i.
R e s p o n s e times are an i m p o r t a n t characteristic o f all d y n a m i c physical
systems including f l o t a t i o n circuits. Response t i m e is t h e t i m e for the con-
c e n t r a t i o n o f a specific mineral species t o reach a 67% or 95% o f its steady-state
value. S h o w n in Fig. 4, for t h e mineral q u a r t z floated in a COC, 4 X 4 flota-
tion bank with a typical, industrial r e t e n t i o n t i m e are t h e times to reach 67
and 95% o f steady-state, 36 and 75 m i n u t e s , o r 11 and 24 r e t e n t i o n times f o r
a single cell, respectively. U n d e r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s , t h e COC 4 X 4 p r o d u c t ,
eq. 18, requires 40 and 101 m i n u t e s t o reach respectively, 67 and 95% steady-
state o r 12 and 30 r e t e n t i o n times for a single cell.
lO0
95 os/e"
lOO

5C 8O

67 67
6C 60

4o ~ 4o

2O 2O

I I I 1(3 I l I 810 I t
O( 10 20 30 4 50 60 70 °o ~o 20 3'0 4'o 5'o 6o 7'0 ~'o
t (min) t (rain)

Fig. 4. Percentage of time versus steady-state reached by a 4 x 4 COC floating quartz with
a flotation rate of 0.005 sec-' and a retention time of 200 sec. Note 67% and 95% of
steady-state reached in 30 and 70 minutes, respectively.
Fig. 5. Percentage of steady-state reached by a 1 x 2 CC floating quartz with a flotation
rate of 0.005 sec-' and a retention time of 400 sec. versus time.

R e s p o n s e times for a given species can vary m a r k e d l y . As s h o w n in Fig. 5,

a CC, 1 X 2 f l o t a t i o n bank using the same p a r a m e t e r s floating the same
species used above, b u t at a r e t e n t i o n t i m e o f 400 sec, requires 3 and 16
m i n u t e s , or 0.5 and 2.5 r e t e n t i o n times o f a single cell t o reach 67 and 95%
o f steady-state, respectively.
R e s p o n s e times vary with cell r e t e n t i o n t i m e f o r a given species and flota-
t i o n bank. As s h o w n in Table III, the 4 X 4 CC's p r o d u c t stream requires dif-
f e r e n t settling times f o r d i f f e r e n t r e t e n t i o n times in t h e cells which are float-
ing q u a r t z .
156

TABLE TIT
CC, 4 x 4, Kj = 0.3 min -1

Retention time % Steady-state

65 95 99

100 sec 14 rain 2 9 min 48 rain

200 sec 29 rain 67 rain 1 0 0 rain
400 sec 27 min 60 min 86 min

N o t e t h a t t h e d o u b l i n g o f r e t e n t i o n t i m e to 400 sec decreased the a m o u n t

o f q u a r t z r e p o r t i n g to the f e e d b a c k , increasing the a m o u n t in t h e p r o d u c t t o
t h e e x t e n t t h a t a high p e r c e n t a g e o f the steady-state value was actually
r e a c h e d sooner. T h u s , circuit response times are significant design parameters.
A p r o b l e m in m a n y physical systems is t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f lags or delays,
altering the system's response. T o show the significance o f these delays, con-
sider a 2 X 1 circuit in which 3 d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f delays are used: no delay,
c o n d i t i o n e r sump o r a p p r o x i m a t e d d e l a y in the f e e d b a c k loop, and a s u m p
delay- well-mixed r e a c t o r into which b o t h the feed and f e e d b a c k are fed. T h e
t h r e e time versus stream c o n c e n t r a t i o n plots o f the float o f cell no.1 to the
forcing f u n c t i o n , C i i ( 1 - - sint), Fig. 6, reveal t h a t the f e e d b a c k l o o p delay had
the highest a m p l i t u d e o f oscillation, while little d i f f e r e n c e was n o t e d b e t w e e n
the no delay and the sump delay. F e e d b a c k l o o p delays a p p r o x i m a t e d b y a
well-mixed r e a c t o r (sump o r c o n d i t i o n e r ) , h o w e v e r , significantly i n f l u e n c e
the f r e q u e n c y and transient responses o f circuits. While delays d o n o t e f f e c t
t h e final steady-state values reached, t h e y d o e f f e c t circuit response times and

o 7o, ~:o2:2 ~,;ote ~:~,~?,%2i:4o in

o6ol ~ ,~ ,od~,oyf~¢k

, / / \'~ I \ ~/r
~o4o ~' \ , /
030 / /

o o, ;
0
O I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
t (rain)

Fig. 6. Variation of f r e q u e n c y response versus time of the recovery of a CC 2 x 1 for

quartz. The three curves are for each of three delay strategies w i t h a f l o t a t i o n rate of
1 rain 1, a r e t e n t i o n and delay t i m e s o f 1 rain and a forcing f u n c t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 1 rad
seE -1"
 157

frequency responses. A delay of great enough magnitude will convert a non-

oscillatory circuit into an oscillatory circuit. Delays must be considered when
making accurate response time and frequency response evaluations.
Recently the study of circuits progressed significantly with b o t h the devel-
opment of separation functions and the algebra of circuit analysis. Meloy has
shown that for symmetrically arranged separation circuits, the steepness of
the recovery curve at the cutpoint increases with the number of additional
units. By using the specific separation function for a flotation cell, eq. 8a, to
calculate recovery for 1 X 1 through 4 X 4 flotation circuits, one can see the
increase of steepness of recovery, Fig. 7.
O9
4×4

OB
•
/¢3
O
07

0.6

OE

~ 04 mJA
O ~n

02

01

0
0.01 0 0 2 Q03 0,04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
K (sec -~)

Fig. 7. Comparison of steepness of recovery curves for 1 x 1 through 4 x 4 countercurrent

flotation banks with a retention time of 200 sec, floating quartz.

DISCUSSION

Because both countercurrent and cocurrent flotation circuits are used

widely in the mineral industry, the question arises as to whether one t y p e of
circuit is better in all applications. While both COC's and CC's are sensitive to
low frequency sinusoidal feed inputs and both are stable, CC's are better
flotation circuits because: COC's are oscillatory; require a larger first cell;
require a longer time to reach steady-state; symmetric COC's feed back more
solids at the same yield; and COC's require a greater capital investment.
As shown, COC and CC flotation banks are sensitive to very low frequen-
cies, b u t not to the typical frequencies generated by mineral industry equip-
ment such as jigs, crushers, vibrating feeders, screens and pumps. Low frequen.
cies arise from low bin feed rates or repair and maintenance activity which
could temporarily create low frequency perturbations.
While no flotation cells are sensitive to high-frequency feed variations, the
first cell in a flotation bank is sensitive to a wider range of feed frequencies
than the other cells since the oscillatory term in the frequency response
never decays as in other cell inputs. Thus, during design and equipment selec-
158

tion, the first cell requires special consideration. To avoid the deleterious
effects of operating at high pulp densities in the first cell, such as floating of
gangue along with ore, the frequency response can be used to predict the ac-
tual expected maximum concentration due to oscillations and to estimate
the actual required flotation capacity necessary to insure effective operation.
The frequency response plots, Fig. 3, show that all cells in the flotation
bank are sensitive to very low frequency inputs. To handle a sinusoidal forc-
ing function with frequency 18 per hour, the 1 X 3 COC requires a 60% in-
crease in capacity. An oscillating feed forcing function could be created by
performing repetitive task influencing solids concentration every 4 minutes.
During start-up and shut<town of a mineral processing circuit, the time to
reach steady-state is long. For a 4 X 4 COC flotation bank with a residence
time of 4 minutes per cell it takes 1.5 hours to reach 95% of steady-state.
During start-up, a plant with six, mineral processing, feedback, unit opera-
tions in series, may take a day or more to reach 95% steady-state. The time
for the systems to reach steady-state is greater than the sum of the individual
subsystems to reach equilibrium.
Calculation of response times for a given mineral species provides a criteria
for distinguishing among flotation banks, especially where the plant process
is started and stopped daily. Grade and recovery are impaired during non-
steady-state. Transient responses also can be used directly in a first approxi-
mation to determine the range of operation required by control and sensing
equipment, such as assay and percent solids instrumentation.
Delays influenced both transient and frequency responses. The correct
approximation of the delay transfer function is important if the dynamic
model is to accurately describe the flotation separation circuits. Both tur-
bulent flow in pipes of a small length and sumps can accurately be approxi-
mated by well-mixed reactors, although detailed analysis may involve a more
accurate delay transfer function.
In the circuit responses to step function inputs shown in the model sec-
tion, there is a lower than anticipated number of eigenvalues in the solutions
of the symmetric forms. This occurs only if all the cells in the flotation cir-
cuit are identical. Fortunately, this assumption and the attendant simplifica-
tion expedite the dynamic analysis generalizations which are the focus of this
investigation.
While this analysis of flotation circuits deals with a pure mineral species,
flotation circuits operate on a number of mineral species simultaneously. The
effects are additive (eq. 9). Constructive and destructive interference occur
between the various responses in determining the total, undifferentiated
mass flowrates, but the concentration and location of a given mineral species
in any cell, at any time, may be determined. Because each species has its own
flotation rate, the solid's concentration fluctuation in a given cell is mitigated
by a variety of minerals in the float.
 159

SUMMARY

A lumped parameter, dynamic model for continuous flotation circuits was

used to study the transient and frequency responses of both COC and CC
flotation banks. This study revealed that:
(1) CC's are better circuits than COC's in all applications since COC's are
oscillatory, require a larger first cell, require ancillary equipment and have
longer response times.
(2) All flotation circuits are stable.
(3) Cell mineral concentrations are sensitive to low-frequency perturbations
in the feedrate or feed assays. The first cell in a circuit is particularly sensitive
to variations in the feed. The frequency response can be used to predict the
amount of extra cell capacity required in the event of a sinusoidal forcing
function.
(4) The model can be extended to incorporate delays between flotation
cells.
(5) The delay transfer function is analogous to a series of well-mixed reac-
tors.
(6) Feedback loop delays approximated by well-mixed reactors are more
significant than sump delays.
(7) The dynamic responses of flotation banks can be used in predicting cell
concentrations and in calculating response times. The CC 4 X 4 floating
quartz with a 200-sec retention time requires 75 minutes for the concentra-
tion of quartz of the first cell's input to reach 95% its steady-state value, and
100 minutes for the product stream concentration to reach 95% its steady-
state value.
(8) COC flotation circuits are oscillatory, CC, non-oscillatory; both types
are overly damped.
(9) The natural frequencies of oscillation of CC flotation banks are zero.
(10) The natural frequencies of oscillation of COC banks increased with
increased flotation rate, Ki, and decreased with decreased Aj, increased reten-
tion time.

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