1 Steel Penstock

1.1 Location and Arrangement

The location and arrangement of penstocks will be determined by the type of dam, location of intake and
outlet works, relative location of dam and power plant, and method of river diversion used during
construction. In large dams which have both transverse and longitudinal contraction joints, steel
penstocks are used to provide the required water tightness in the concrete and at the contraction joint.
Penstocks embedded in concrete dams, encased in concrete, or installed in tunnels backfilled with
concrete may be designed to transmit some of the radial thrust due to internal water pressure to the
surrounding concrete. More generally, such penstocks are designed to withstand the full internal pressure.
In either case, the shell should be of sufficient thickness to provide the rigidity required during fabrication
and handling, and to serve as a form for the concrete. Embedded or buried penstock shells also should be
provided with adequate stiffeners or otherwise designed to withstand any anticipated external hydrostatic
or grouting pressures.
Proper location of the penstock intake is important. In most cases the intake is located at the upstream
face of the dam, which provides short penstocks and facilitates operation of the intake gates. Regardless
of arrangement, the intake should be placed at an elevation sufficiently below low reservoir level and
above the anticipated silt level to allow an uninterrupted flow of water under all conditions.
Each intake opening is protected against floating matter by means of a trashrack structure and is
controlled by suitable gates. To prevent the development of a partial vacuum during certain operating
conditions, penstock profiles from intake to turbine should, whenever possible, be laid on a continuous
slope.

1.2 Economic Studies

Penstock is designed to carry water to a turbine with the least possible loss of head consistent with the
overall economy of installation. An economic study will size a penstock from a monetary standpoint, but
the final diameter should be determined from combined engineering and monetary considerations. An
example would be an installation where the economic diameter would require the use of a surge tank.

The economic diameter of a penstock is a diameter that minimizes the total cost of installation and present
worth of power revenue loss due to hydraulic loss in the penstock over the repayment period. The cost
items directly affected by penstock diameter are included in the analysis.
Economic diameter equations are developed for following two cases:

Case 1- Minimum penstock shell thickness

Case 2- Internal pressure

1.2.1 Installation Cost

1) Case 1- Minimum penstock shell thickness

The cost of steel and penstock is calculated by calculating the thickness of the pipe. The determination of
the total head (including the effect of water hammer) from the calculated minimum thickness can be used
to derive the weight of the penstock required and thereby the cost of the penstock can be derived.

The installation cost for a Case1 penstock is calculated by equation:

pr
m  m  V  m  2    r  t  L  m  2    r   L  C1  r 2

K t  M  m  M  C1  r 2

Where:
m = Mass of the pipe [kg]
3
rm = Density of the material [kg/m ]
3
V = Volume of material [m ]
r = Radius of pipe [m]
L = Length of pipe [m]
p = Pressure in the pipe [MPa]
s = Maximum stress [MPa]
C1 = Calculation coefficient

Kt = Installation costs [$]

M = Cost for the material [$/kg]

2) Case 2- Internal Pressure
L Q2 C
PLoss    g  Q  h f    g  Q  f   52
2r 2g  r
2 4
r

C2
K f  PLoss  T  kWh price   T  kWh price
r5

Where:
PLoss = Loss of power due to the head loss [W]
2
g = gravity [m/s ]
3
Q = Flow rate [m /s]
hf = Head loss [m]

f = Friction factor [-]

L = Length of pipe [m]
r = Radius of the pipe [m]
C2 = Calculation coefficient

Kf = Cost for the hydraulic losses [€]

PLoss = Loss of power due to the head loss [W]

T = Energy production time [h/year]

kWhprice = Energy price [€/kWh]

r = Radius of the pipe [m]

C2 = Calculation coefficient

The economic diameter equations are developed by adding the Case 1 and Case 2 to obtain the total cost.
The total cost equation is differentiated with respect to the diameter (D), set equal to zero, and then solved
for D.
1.3 Water Hammer
Rapid opening or closing of the turbine valves produce a pressure wave in the penstock called water
hammer, the intensity of which is proportional to the speed of propagation of the pressure wave produced
and the velocity of flow destroyed.
Joukovsky’s fundamental equation gives the maximum increase in head for closures in time less than
2L/a seconds:

a  cmax 2 L
hwh  IF TC 
g a

Joukovsky’s equation also gives the maximum increase in head for closures in time greater than 2L/a
seconds:

2 L
a  cmax a  cmax  2  L 2 L
hwh   IF TC 
g TC g  TC a

1.4 Head Loss in Penstock

Hydraulic losses in a penstock reduce the effective head in proportion to the length of the penstock
and approximately as the square of the water velocity. Head losses in pipes because of friction vary
considerably, depending upon velocity of flow, viscosity of the fluid, and condition of the inside
surface of the pipe. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is used to calculate the friction loss in a pipe.
L c2
hf  f  
D 2 g
Where,
Hf=head loss(m)
F=friction factor
L=length of pipe(m)
D=inner diameter of pipe(m)
c=velocity of fluid(m/s)
g=acceleration due to gravity(m/s2)
1.5 Material for Penstock
There is a wide choice of materials for penstocks. The types of steels used by the Bureau of Reclamation
for penstocks conform to the Standard Specifications of the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM). Low carbon steels are considered to be the most satisfactory because of their favorable
fabrication and welding characteristics and their high ductility. The steels most often used conform to
ASTM Specifications A-286, Grade B or C or A-201, Grade B.

Several factors will influence the type of pipe material chosen for a penstock pipe: corrosiveness of water,
water pressure, flow required, soil characteristics and the physical properties of pipe materials.

1.6 Penstock Accessories

Besides the main components of the penstock system several accessories will also have to be provided for
in a pipeline to facilitate fabrication, installation, testing, safe operation, inspection and maintenance. The
accessories are described below:

1.6.1 Manholes
Manholes are provided in the course of the penstock length to provide access to the pipe interior for
inspection, maintenance and repair.

The normal diameter of manholes is 500 mm. Manholes are located at intervals of 120-150 meters. For
convenient entrance, exit manholes on the penstock may be located on the top surface or lower left or
right surface along the circumference of the penstock.

The manhole consists of a circular nozzle head, or wall, at the opening of the pipe, with a cover plate
fitted to it by bolts. Sealing gaskets are provided between nozzle head and cover plate to prevent leakage.
The nozzle head, cover plates and bolts should be designed to withstand the internal water pressure head
in the penstock at the position of the manhole.

1.6.2 Bellmouth
The magnitude of entrance losses depends upon the shape of the intake opening. A circular bellmouth
entrance is considered to be the most efficient form of intake if its shape is properly proportioned. It may
be formed in the concrete with or without a metal lining at the entrance. For a circular orifice, maximum
contraction occurs at a distance of approximately one-half the diameter of the orifice. Losses in circular
bellmouth entrances are estimated to be 0.05 to 0.1 of the velocity head. For square bellmouth entrances,
the losses are estimated to be 0.2 of the velocity head.
1.6.3 Straight Pipe
Straight pipe penstocks are installed if the geography, topography of the site enables for its installation.
The straight pipe means lower head loss in the pipe and therefore the efficient penstock pipes. Straight
pipe penstock requires less support elements and structure.

1.6.4 Bends
Changes in direction of flow are accomplished by curved sections commonly called bends. Plate steel
bends are made up of short conserve as much of the available head as possible, bends for penstocks
should be made with large radii and small deflections between successive segments. Bend radii of three to
five times the pipe diameter and deflection angles of 5⁰ to 10⁰ between segments are recommended.
Bends may be designed with a constant diameter or with a different diameter at each end.

1.6.5 Reducer
In the case of very long penstocks, it is often necessary to reduce the diameter of the pipe as the head on
the pipe increases. This reduction from one diameter to another should be effected gradually by
introducing a special pipe piece called reducer piece. The reducer piece is a frustum of a cone. Normally
the angle of convergence should be kept between 5⁰ to 10⁰ so as to minimize the hydraulic loss at the
juncture where the diameter is reduced.

1.6.6 Pipe Stiffener Rings

Embedded or buried penstock shells also should be provided with adequate stiffeners or otherwise
designed to withstand any anticipated external hydrostatic or grouting pressures.

1.6.7 Saddle Plates

These are a type of intermediate supports with concrete base shaped to suit the bottom of the pipe. A well
lubricated steel plate, rolled to suit the shape of the pipe shell in contact, is provided in between the
concrete surface and the pipe to facilitate smooth movement of the pipe over saddles.

Saddles are generally fabricated from structural grades of steel (A36 is the most common) and are of
welded construction.

1.6.8 HDPE Sheet

HDPE SHEET is extremely strong against impact, abrasion resistant, and exhibits a low coefficient of
friction. The material is also moisture, stain and odor resistant. Use of HDPE steel can be very expensive
in the penstock leading to high cost of penstock and is economically not viable.
1.6.9 Branch Pipe and wyes
Depending upon the number of units a single penstock feeds, the penstock branching is defined as
bifurcation when feeding two units, trifurcation when feeding three units and manifold when feeding a
greater number of units by successive bifurcations. Branch pipes of bifurcating type are generally known
as “wye” pieces which may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

Generally, the bifurcating pipe has two symmetric pipes, after the bifurcating joints, and the deflection
angle of the branching pipes ranges between 30⁰ to 75⁰. In order to reduce the head loss, a smaller
deflection angle is advantageous. However, the lesser the bifurcating angle, greater the reinforcement
required at the bifurcating part. The wye branches should be given special care in design to ensure safety
of the assembly under internal pressure of water. The introduction of a bifurcation considerably alters the
structural behavior of the penstock in the vicinity of the branching.

On some large penstocks, fabricated branch outlets and wyes are used for diverting water from the
headers. The main considerations in the design of branch outlets and wyes are structural strength to
withstand the internal pressure, and proper streamlining to reduce hydraulic losses. Since outlet openings
reduce the strength of the pipe at the opening, reinforcement must be provided to compensate for the
removed material. As a general rule the reinforcement should be adequate to make the connection equal
in strength to that of the pipe without the opening. However, difficulties are encountered in reinforcing
branch outlets and wyes with deflection angles less than 45⁰. The hydraulic efficiency increases as the
deflection angle decreases.

1.6.10 Air vents and valves

These are provided on the immediate downstream side of the control gate or valve to facilitate connection
with the atmosphere. Air inlets serve the purpose of admitting air into the pipes when the control gate or
valve is closed and the penstock is drained, thus avoiding collapse of the pipe due to vacuum excessive
negative pressure. Similarly, when the penstock is being filled up, these vents allow proper escape of air
from the pipes.

The factors governing the size of the vents are length, diameter, thickness, head of water, and discharge in
the penstock and strength of the penstock under external pressure. Air vents are designed according to
ASME code.