Chevron Pump Manual

Pump Manual
Manual Sponsor: J. Demetriou / Phone: (510) 242-7210 / E-mail: jdem@chevron.com

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Engineering Specifications
Standard Drawings & Forms
50 Using This Manual 50-1
100 General Information 100-1
200 Centrifugal Pumps 200-1
300 Reciprocating Pumps 300-1
400 Rotary Pumps 400-1
500 Metering Pumps 500-1
600 Sealless Pumps (Section not developed)
700 Miscellaneous Pumps 700-1
800 Mechanical Seals 800-1
900 Inspection and Testing 900-1
1000 Pump Installation 1000-1
1100 Startup and Troubleshooting 1100-1
Other References
Appendices
Appendix A Conversion Tables and Formulas
Appendix B Viscosity Data
Appendix C Vapor Pressures
Appendix D Properties of Water
Appendix E Specific Gravities
Appendix F Mechanical Seals Bellows Failure
Appendix G Hardness Tables
Appendix H Factory Test Procedure
Chevron Corporation June 1999

100 General Information
Abstract
The General Information section is an overview of all categories of pumps and a
guide which directs readers to more detailed information on specific pump catego-
ries in later sections.
System Hydraulic Design is included in this section because it is the first step in
work involving all pump categories. This is a critical step in pump selection and
often in troubleshooting as well.
This section does not include detailed information on any particular pump or appli-
cation. Except for the section covering system hydraulics, do not use the informa-
tion in this section as a design basis.
Contents Page
110 Introduction 100-3

111 Background
120 Pump Categories 100-3
121 Classification
122 Centrifugal Pumps
123 Positive Displacement Pumps
124 Miscellaneous Pumps
130 System Hydraulic Design 100-7
131 Introduction
132 Overview of the Hydraulic Calculation Sheet, PMP-EF-467
133 PMP-EF-467 Instructions
134 Calculation I (Initial Estimate)
135 Calculation II (Pre-purchase)
136 Calculation III (Final Review)
140 Application and Selection Criteria 100-23
141 Introduction
Chevron Corporation 100-1 March 2001

100 General Information Pump Manual
142 Pump Selection Fundamentals

144 Reciprocating Pumps
145 Rotary Pumps
150 Considerations for H2S Services 100-33
160 Suction Piping Design Considerations 100-34
161 NPSHA and Fluid Velocity
162 Adequate Venting
163 Fluid Velocity Profile Entering Pump Suction
March 2001 100-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual 100 General Information
110 Introduction
111 Background
Most work involving pumps falls into one of three categories:
1. Purchasing and installing new pumps
2. Troubleshooting pump problems during startup or while in service
3. Modifying pumps to resolve problems or to accommodate operational or
service changes (different flows, liquid, head, etc.)
The overall goal in all three cases is the same: To maximize Company profits while
providing safe, reliable equipment which satisfies operating requirements and local envi-
ronmental constraints. Profitability is a long-term goal involving the following factors:
1. Meeting safety and environmental needs (including noise restrictions)
2. Initial pump cost
3. Installation and commissioning expense
4. Reliability
5. Maintaining production (this is often the overwhelming economic factor)
6. Operability (troublesome equipment wastes resources that can be spent on prof-
itable work)
7. Starting up on time, the first time, in critical services
8. Maintenance expense
9. Energy consumption (this is less important for pumps than for compressors, but
it can still be a significant factor)
Although each of these factors must be considered when making decisions, there is
some degree of conflict between them. For example, buying an inexpensive pump
may keep initial costs down, but the cheaper pump may also be less reliable and
require frequent maintenance or special, costly installation. On the other hand,
buying the ultimately reliable pump may be prohibitively expensive in up-front
costs and unnecessary to ensure acceptable performance.
Use judgment when deciding which factors are the most important. It is especially
important to communicate with the people responsible for operating and main-
taining the pump. Their input on the relative priority of the above factors is invalu-
able. In the end, however, engineering judgment will always be necessary.
120 Pump Categories

All specific pump types covered in this manual fall into one of the five categories
illustrated in Figure 100-1.

Fig. 100-1 Pump Categories
121 Classification
Pumps are divided into two major classifications: centrifugal (kinetic) and positive
displacement. These two divisions are further divided into numerous subdivisions.
Figure 100-2 illustrates the many pump types available. The pumps shown in bold-
face are the most common in the petroleum, chemical, and related industries.
Fig. 100-2 Pump Categories Courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute (1 of 2)

Fig. 100-2 Pump Categories Courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute (2 of 2)

Centrifugal pumps are the most frequently used pumps. They are widely accepted
because they combine a relatively low initial cost with high reliability, compact size,
non-pulsating flow, and easy maintenance. They are also widely available, cover
broad flow/pressure application ranges, and can operate over a wide flow range.
Centrifugal pumps are usually purchased to meet one of two levels of duty:
1. General and Chemical pumps are commonly used in non-critical, non-
hazardous services. Most, but not all, of these pumps are built to ANSI (Amer-

ican National Standards Institute) Standard B73.1 (Horizontal End-Suction) or

ANSI Standard B73.2 (Vertical In-Line) specifications.
2. Heavy Duty pumps are commonly used in refinery applications. This pump-type
is suitable for critical, hazardous, or “heavy duty” service including chemicals,
refining, and producing services. Virtually all pumps in this category are built to
API (American Petroleum Institute) Standard API 610 (“Centrifugal Pumps for
General Refinery Services”) specification. A Company model specification
(PMP-MS-983) which supplements API 610 is also included in this manual.
Many General/Chemical pumps are in service in refineries and many Heavy Duty
pumps are used outside refineries. The determining factors are the required reli-
ability of design and ruggedness of construction. The Company specifications noted
above contain additional information on their respective applications.
Centrifugal pumps used as Fire Pumps (firewater delivery) are most often Heavy
Duty pumps.
See Section 200 for more information on centrifugal pumps.
123 Positive Displacement Pumps

Although not as common as centrifugal pumps, positive displacement pumps
are also widely employed. The three major positive displacement pump sub-
categories are:
1. Reciprocating
2. Rotary
3. Controlled Volume (Metering)
These subcategories are discussed in more detail in Sections 300, 400, and 500.
Section 140 lists criteria that favor positive-displacement pumps over centrifugals.

Sucker rod (“walking beam”) and electric submersible pumps are both very
common and important to producing applications. Extensive Company documenta-
tion for both pump types already exists and is referenced in Section 700 of this
manual.
Several other pump types have been designed to accommodate specific needs.
These are also covered briefly in the Miscellaneous Pumps section and include:
• Air diaphragm pumps
• Regenerative turbine pumps
• Jet pumps (fluid eductors)
• Slurry pumps
Sealless pumps will be covered in this manual at a later date. Other pumps, or fluid-
moving devices, not included in this manual due to their infrequent use include blow

pots or blow cases, pitot or rotating casing pumps, vacuum pumps (which are
usually compressors), and centrifugal-screw pumps. Progressive cavity pumps are
discussed in Section 400, Rotary Pumps.
For information on these pumps see the section “Other References” in this manual
or contact the Vendors of the selected equipment.
130 System Hydraulic Design
131 Introduction
This section outlines a method for determining system hydraulics, which can be
used for pump sizing, selection, retrofitting, or troubleshooting. Establishing system
hydraulics is an essential and integral step for all pumps, centrifugal or positive
displacement.
The purpose of determining system hydraulics is to assure that:
1. The pump is sized to deliver an adequate flow rate.
2. Sufficient driver horsepower is provided.
3. The pump develops sufficient discharge pressure to: a) deliver adequate flow
through all downstream pressure drops and elevations, b) allow for adequate
system control at all operating conditions.
4. The suction conditions are sufficient to ensure adequate flow into the pump
(cavitation-free service).
THIS PROCEDURE IS GENERAL AND ADDRESSES NEITHER LOCAL
ADMINISTRATIVE NOR APPROVAL REQUIREMENTS. YOU MUST
DETERMINE THESE WITHIN YOUR OWN ORGANIZATION.
132 Overview of the Hydraulic Calculation Sheet, PMP-EF-467

Completing the Hydraulic Calculation Sheet, PMP-EF-467, will determine the
necessary system hydraulics in almost all applications. The form is flexible,
allowing straightforward calculations when the system is well defined (Case I). It
also allows for progressive calculations often needed on large projects (Case II).
See the section “Standard Drawings and Forms” for a copy of the PMP-EF-467
Form. (A sample of PMP-EF-467 is illustrated in Figure 100-3; Figure 100-4 illus-
trates a completed form.) The four parts of this form are described below:
1. The “Pump Service and Liquid Properties” section includes service require-
ments and fluid properties. Space is provided to list maximum and minimum as
well as rated conditions. These limit values are important because they must be
allowed for in the design.
2. The “System Sketch” is helpful in visualizing the system and helps ensure all
significant pieces of equipment are considered.

3. The “Pressure Calculations” section is divided into three steps: Initial Esti-
mate, Pre-purchase, and Final Review. However, in most cases, only one
calculation is necessary, as explained in cases I and II below.
4. The “Pressure Profiles” section also helps visualize the system and ensure
consideration of important factors regarding system pressures.
133 PMP-EF-467 Instructions

Determine which of the following two cases applies to your situation:
Case I. The hydraulic system is well defined either by design specification or
because the hardware already exists. Go directly to Calculation II (“Pre-purchase”)
and complete it only.
Case II. The hydraulic system is not yet well defined (such as for a large plant
construction project). However, estimates must be made in order to initiate bidding
on long-delivery pumps. Complete Calculations I and II, (and III if appropriate).
134 Calculation I (Initial Estimate)

This initial calculation is only performed in situations where the hydraulic system is
not yet well defined.
Calculation I is identical to Calculation II (Pre-purchase) except that several design
factors must be estimated. Refer to the detailed instructions in Calculation II for
completing Calculation I, but consider the following in this initial estimate:
1. Vessel, heat-exchangers, furnaces: design pressures and elevations must be
estimated. An estimate of the pump's net positive suction head required
(NPSHR) will help determine the height of the suction vessel.
2. Discharge and suction piping sizes, lengths, and layouts must be estimated
unless a plot plan/system layout is available.
3. If no other estimates or numbers are available, Figure 100-5 shows values to
use for preliminary estimates.
135 Calculation II (Pre-purchase)

Completing the system hydraulic design is actually a four-step process:
1. Enter the Pump Service and Liquid Properties
2. Complete the System Sketch
3. Complete the Pressure Calculations
4. Establish the Pressure Profile

PMP-EF-467 Form (Example)
Fig. 100-3
PMP-Completed EF-467 Form
Fig. 100-4
Fig. 100-5 Table of Preliminary Estimates for Calculation

If no other estimates or numbers are available, use the following for preliminary estimates only:
Minimum Pressure
Drop (psi)
A. Reflux to Towers 5
Feed to Columns 10
To plot limits, or other plant connections 10
Fired Reboiler Loop 15
B. Exchangers: If no other information is available, assume a 10 psi pressure drop 10
per exchanger for liquids with a viscosity less than 10 cs, 15 psi with viscosi-
ties between 10 and 25 cs and 25 psi for viscosities above 25 cs. These pres-
sures are based on fouled exchangers.
15
With air coolers, assume a 15 psi pressure drop for liquids with viscosities of
10 cs or less and 20-50 psi for liquids with viscosities between 10 and 100 cs.
C. Furnaces: Contact Process Engineering or refer to the specific unit’s Vendor 50
data if available.
D. Orifices: A nominal pressure drop of 2 psi (corresponds to 100-inch meter 2
orifice) is used for all orifice meters.
E. Others: For equipment in which pressure losses vary considerably (mixers, 2
filter, centrifuges, etc.), an assumed contingency is included here. Contin-
gency is usually not less than 2 psi, and only exceeds 10 psi in high pressure,
complex systems.
1. Enter the Pump Service and Liquid Properties

When defining pump service conditions, the entire range of service conditions must
be considered. These alternatives should be shown as a range of values
(minimum/maximum) for specific gravity, viscosity, temperature, vapor pressure,
and flow rates as illustrated in Figure 100-6.
Fig. 100-6 Example: Pump Service and Liquid Properties

In addition to the effect on fluid properties from alternate service conditions, it is

also necessary to consider the effect of abnormal operating conditions: startup,
shutdown, pumpout, cold winter night vs. hot summer day operation, emergency
situations, etc. It is important to develop the following numbers as accurately as
possible in order to achieve reliable operation:
a. “Corr./Erosion Caused by” and “Solids” Contaminants, such as water,
chlorides, H2S, and sand may affect overall performance and should be
considered.
b. “Viscosity at Pumping Temperature (PT) (Centistokes)” In addition to
the normal pumping viscosity, any long term viscosity changes, such as
continuous pumping in winter months, must be checked. Viscosity changes
affect pump DP, efficiency, and driver size.
c. “Vapor Pressure at PT - psia” The vapor pressure of pumped, boiling
liquids is the absolute pressure at the surface of liquid in the suction vessel.
This is a critical number. Obtain an accurate assessment; consult the
Appendix of this manual, Process Engineering, CRC, a lab for an actual
test or a specialist, if necessary.
d. “Specific Gravity (SG) at PT” See item B for similar concerns.
e. “Flow-normal - gpm” If the pump operates over a range of “normal”
flows, examine the flow extremes for piping, pump, and control valve
sizing (e.g., start-of-run/end-of-run).
f. “Flow-rated-gpm” Most pumps should be rated for 110% of “normal”
flow. Level-controlled pumps and furnace-charge pumps should be
designed to handle 120% of normal flow. Minimum flow is particularly
important for centrifugal pumps.
2. Complete the System Sketch

This is a schematic drawing of all system components. It shows relative elevations
and any temperature changes that can effect viscosities, specific gravity, and pres-
sure drop. In some pipeline systems, the pump discharge pressure may be dictated
by the highest point in the system and not the pressure or elevation of the receiving
vessel.
Figure 100-7 illustrates a typical system sketch. Note there are three lines for listing
pressure drops of the respective pieces of equipment. These correspond to the three
calculation steps.
3. Complete the Pressure Calculations

Refer to Figure 100-8 under “Suction Pressure” for a sample calculation:
“Suction Pressure”
• “Original Pressure - psia” should be the lowest expected pressure under all
normal operating conditions at the point of origin at the surface of the liquid.
Absolute, not gage, pressure (tank, sump, vessel, etc.).

Fig. 100-7 Example: System Sketch
• “Static HD (ft. × SG × .433) - psi” is the suction static head, measured from
lowest liquid level to center of pump suction flange. If the lowest liquid level is
below the pump centerline, the number is negative.
• “ - Loss (Line) psi” For NPSH purposes, pump suction line sizing is based
on the rated flow (110 or 120% of normal). Enter the calculated friction loss,
in psi.
• The total friction loss in suction lines should not exceed 0.5 psi. An evaluation
of NPSHA may allow a greater loss, provided the pump NPSH requirements
are satisfied.
• “Pump Suction Pressure - psia” is the sum of the above values. It is used to
establish pump differential pressure, NPSHA, and head requirements.
“Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)”

A pump’s NPSHA is usually set by the height of the lowest liquid level in the
column, vessel, or tank. With boiling liquids, static head is the only source of
NPSHA. (Elevating the vessel or column, or establishing a low liquid level which
satisfies pump NPSH requirements is preferred over the use of pumps in a pit or
vertical pumps in a suction can.)
• The formula for calculating NPSH available (NPSHA) is:
NPSHA = S - F + H - Vp
(Eq. 100-1)

Fig. 100-8 Example: Pressure Calculations
where:
NPSHA is measured in feet of the liquid pumped at the pump suction
flange.
S = Static Head. The vertical distance, in feet, between the surface of
the pumped liquid and the center of a horizontal pump suction
flange. The value is negative (-) when the pump is above the
liquid surface.
F = Line Loss. The friction head in the suction pipe and fittings,
measured in feet of liquid. (See the Fluid Flow Manual.)
H = Original Pressure. The lowest normal operating absolute pres-
sure, measured in feet of liquid, on the surface of the pumped
liquid.
Vp = The pumped fluid’s maximum true Vapor Pressure at pumping
temperature, in feet of liquid.

Pump suction systems should provide enough NPSHA to allow use of an 9000
suction-specific-speed (Nss) pump with at least a 3-foot margin. Refer to the
nomograph (Figure 100-9) to determine the 9000 Nss value for NPSH for the
correct pump flow. (Note: The nomograph assumes the flow rate used is equal
to the pump’s most efficient flow rate). Pump specific speed and NPSHA are
discussed further in Section 210.
• Acceleration Head - Feet" For reciprocating pumps, calculating NPSHA must
include the additional pressure drop that results from pulsating flow.
It is calculated in the same manner as for a centrifugal pump, except in the
NPSH required for a reciprocating pump some additional allowance must be
made for the reciprocating action of the pump termed acceleration head. This
is the head required to accelerate the liquid column on each suction stroke so
that there will be no separation of this column in the pump or suction line.
If this minimum condition is not met, the pump will experience a fluid knock
caused when the liquid column, which has a vapor space between it and the
plunger, overtakes the receding plunger. This knock occurs approximately two-
thirds of the way through the suction stroke. If sufficient acceleration is
provided for the liquid to completely follow the motion of the receding face of
the plunger, this knock will disappear.
Refer to Section 300, Figure 300-9 for estimated acceleration head values.
(These are not as accurate as the calculated values.)
If there is insufficient head to meet minimum acceleration requirements of
NPSH, the pump will experience cavitation resulting in loss of volumetric effi-
ciency; also, serious damage can occur to the plungers, piston, valves, and
packing due to the forces released in collapsing the gas or vapor bubbles.
The head required to accelerate the fluid column is a function of the length of
the suction line, the average velocity in this line, the rotative speed, the type of
pump, and the relative elasticity of the fluid and the pipe, calculated as follows:
LVnC
h a = ----------------
Kg
(Eq. 100-2)
where:
ha = Acceleration head in feet
L = Length of suction line in feet
V = Velocity in suction line in fps
gpm × 0.321
V = ------------------------------------------------------------------
2
area of the suction pipe, in
(Eq. 100-3)

Specific Speed and Suction Specific Speed Chart
Fig. 100-9
where:
n = Pump speed in RPM
C = .200 for duplex single-acting
= .115 for duplex double-acting
= .066 for triplex single or double-acting
= .040 for quintuplex single or double-acting
= .028 for septuplex single or double-acting
= .022 for nonuplex, single or double acting
Note The constant C will vary from these values for unusual ratios of connecting
rod length to crank radius.
K = A factor representing the reciprocal of the fraction of the theoret-
ical acceleration head which must be provided to avoid a notice-
able disturbance in the suction line (K = 2.5 for hot oil, 2.0 most
hydrocarbons, 1.5 amine, glycol, water, 1.4 deareated water, 1.0
urea and liquids with small amounts of entrained gases).
g = Gravitation constant (32.174 ft/sec2)
When the suction system consists of pipes of various sizes, calculate the
acceleration head for each section separately. Add the acceleration head of
all sections to obtain the total.
If the calculated NPSHA, including acceleration head, is greater than the
suction system can provide, the system NPSH should be increased. This
can be accomplished by:
– Increasing the static head
– Adding a booster pump to the system
– Adding pulsation damper
A pulsation damper properly installed with a short, full-size connection to

the pump or suction pipe can absorb the cyclical flow variation and reduce
the pressure fluctuation in the suction pipe to that corresponding to a length
of 5 to 15 pipe diameters, if kept properly charged.
There is a similar pressure fluctuation on the discharge side of every power
pump, but it cannot be analyzed as readily because of the greater influence
of liquid and piping elasticity and the smaller diameter and much greater
length of the discharge line in most applications. However, a pulsation
damper can be just as effective in absorbing the flow variation on the
discharge side of the pump as on the suction side, and should be used if
pressure-fluctuation and piping vibration is a problem.

Example: Given a 2" × 5" triplex pump running at 360 RPM and
displacing 73 gpm of water with a suction pipe made up of 4 feet of 4-inch
pipe and 20 feet of 6-inch pipe:
Average velocity in 4-inch pipe
0.321 × 73
V 4 = ------------------------- = 1.84 fps
12.73
(Eq. 100-4)
Average velocity in 6-inch pipe
0.321 × 73
V 6 = ------------------------- = 0.811 fps
28.89
(Eq. 100-5)
Acceleration head in 4-inch pipe
4 × 1.84 × 360 × 0.066

h a4 = ------------------------------------------------------ = 3.88ft
1.4 × 32.2
(Eq. 100-6)
Acceleration head in 6-inch pipe
20 × 0.811 × 360 × 0.066

h a6 = ------------------------------------------------------------ = 8.55ft
1.4 × 32.2
(Eq. 100-7)
Total acceleration head
h a = 3.88 + 8.55 = 12.4ft

(Eq. 100-8)
“Discharge Pressure”
a. “Delivery Pressure - psia” is the absolute pressure in the receiving vessel
manifold or well at the desired destination of the fluid.
b. “Static Head (ft. × S.G. × .433) - psi” is the difference in elevation
between pump discharge and highest point in the discharge system, in psi.
c. “Line Loss psi” Although pumps are specified to deliver rated flows,
discharge piping and equipment pressure losses should be based on normal
flow requirements. If the calculated pressure drop is less than
5 psi, use 5 psi.
d. Add up the losses for exchangers, furnaces, and orifices and enter the
sum on the appropriate line.

e. Enter any “Contingency” on the next line. Overly conservative contingen-

cies will waste energy and may cause unreliable operation.
f. “∆P Control Valves” If the system's flowrate is regulated by throttling
a centrifugal pump's discharge through a control valve, the pressure
drop across the valve must be estimated. This is important for two
reasons: 1) the pump must be designed with enough discharge pres-
sure to allow the control valve to have the pressure drop it needs to
control flow; 2) allowing too much pressure drop for the control valve
will waste energy as the pump puts up more pressure than needed,
only to be let down (with no energy recovery) across the valve.
For background information, see control valve sizing and selection
in the Instrumentation and Control Manual. System curves (discussed in
Method B) are covered in Section 210 of this manual. The Fluid Flow
Manual has information on calculating pressure losses from flow. Two
methods are presented:
Method A - Quick Estimation

1. Add all the system pressure losses due to flow through lines, ∆P exchangers,
∆P furnaces, etc. (Include suction as well as discharge losses). These are
“dynamic losses.”
2. Enter Figure 100-10 (bottom scale) at the sum of these dynamic losses, read up
to the line, then left to the scale marked “% of Dynamic Losses.”
3. The left scale is a percentage of the dynamic losses to allow for the control
valve. For example: Calculated total pressure loss due to flow is 139 psi.
From Figure 100-13, the added percentage is approximately 33%. Add 46 psi
(.33 × 139=46) for “control valve ∆P.”
Figure 100-10 is a general, empirical chart for estimating common installations. It
does not ensure adequate pressure loss for all control valves, nor that energy losses
will be minimized. In most cases, it will be conservative (adequate pressure loss).
Method B - Detailed Approach

Control valves normally need a wide range of control in order to accommodate
varying conditions in the hydraulic system. For example, lowering a plant's feed rate
by 50% can lower the system's pressure losses by 300% or more. Other common
changes include pumping through alternate manifolding, pumping from/to tanks at
various elevations, pumping into higher-pressure systems due to fouling in lines,
reactors, etc. All these situations affect the ∆P across the control valve.
Method B accounts for these variations and helps ensure adequate control in most
situations. At the same time, it will help avoid excess energy waste across the
control valve. It will not be accurate where there are large variations in the suction
static pressure. Consult a specialist in this situation.

Fig. 100-10 Control Valve Pressure Drop Selection
Note that a pump curve must be available or estimated for this method. Vendors are
the most likely source of curves for proposed pumps.
1. Define the system curve which has the maximum pressure losses from flow
(highest flow rate, worst possible piping arrangement) combined with the
highest static pressure on the pump discharge. Calculate a system curve for this
situation over the expected range of flow rates. (See Section 210 and the Fluid
Flow Manual, if necessary.)
2. Similarly, define the system curve with minimum pressure losses and the
lowest static pressure on pump discharge. Calculate a system curve for that
situation.
3. Define the situation where the pump will experience the lowest suction
pressure.
4. Construct a graph with the following three curves:
a. Plot the pump discharge pressure (not differential head) by adding suction
pressure to differential head. Use the lowest suction pressure from step 3.
This is the plot of discharge pressure in Figure 100-11.
b. Superimpose the two system curves from steps 1 and 2 as shown in Figure
100-14.
c. Define the maximum and minimum flows that the control valve would be
expected to handle. Draw vertical lines from the maximum- and minimum-
flow situations as shown. F1 (min.) is the minimum flow, F2 (max.) is the
maximum flow.
d. ∆P1 is the maximum pressure drop that would ever have to occur at the
control valve. ∆P2 is the minimum ever across the control valve. If the

Fig. 100-11 Combined System/Pump Curves
system curve is above the pump curve at F2 (max.), then the pump curve
must be raised.
5. Check that the values from the graph (∆P1, ∆P2, F1, F2) satisfy the following
equation:
(F2/F1) × (∆P1/∆P2)1/2 ≤ 10
(Eq. 100-9)
If the pump curve satisfies this equation, then the necessary range of control
will be achieved, with minimum pressure losses, across a normal control valve.
If the equation is not satisfied, then the pump must be specified with more
differential head in order to raise the discharge pressure plotted on the graph.
Raise the discharge pressure until the equation is satisfied.
You should consult a specialist if:
• you cannot satisfy the equation with a reasonable discharge pressure;
• the flow-rate turndown exceeds 5:1; or
• the system is unusually complex.
g. “Pump Discharge Pressure - psia” is the sum of all discharge system
pressure losses at normal pump flow, plus static head and delivery
pressure.

“Differential Pressure”
a. “Total Pump Diff. Press. - psi” is the difference between pump discharge
and suction pressures.
b. “Pump Head (psi × 2.31/S.G.) - Feet” is total pump differential pressure,
converted to feet.
“Horsepower”
a. “Hydraulic Horsepower (gpm × psi /1715)” is the pump power require-
ment at “Rated Flow” and “Total Pump Diff. Press” assuming 100%
efficiency.
b. “Efficiency %” Use an estimate initially. If necessary, consult a machinery
specialist or Vendor for assistance. Efficiency could range from 20 to 80%
depending on the selection and application.
Once pump quotes are received and a pump selected, the actual efficiency
should be checked for driver sizing.
4. Establish Pressure Profiles

Pressure profiles graphically describe the pressures in all components of the system.
A profile visually tracks pressure changes through the system for various operating
situations. Although in simple situations profiles may not be necessary, they are
valuable in complex or high-pressure systems where pump head determines the
design pressure of equipment and relief valve settings.
Note Since Calculation I profiles are often estimates, Calculation II and III
profiles may need to be adjusted. Confirm design pressures against system pres-
sures and relief valve settings.
The pressure profiles illustrated in Figure 100-12 are based on the following:
a. Maximum suction pressure equals the PSV setting of the suction vessel,
plus static head.
b. Pump shutoff pressure, based on maximum suction pressure.
c. The pressure profile, plotted through equipment and lines based on normal
and maximum suction pressures at rated differential pressure and
normal flow.
d. Downstream equipment design pressures, which determine minimum
design pressures. In the example, the design pressure is 10% or 20 psi
(whichever is greater) over system operating pressure.
Always check actual pump shutoff head against the design pressures of all
system components to help avoid equipment overpressure or undesirable
relief valve operation. This most commonly occurs in an installation of
high pressure multi-stage pumps.

Fig. 100-12 Pressure Profiles
136 Calculation III (Final Review)

The final calculation is the same as Calculation II. This is an opportunity to refine
the hydraulic design by substituting available information for any previous esti-
mates, which may be common on large projects where information becomes final-
ized in the latter design stages. Likewise, the “Final Review” column can also be
used to adjust for any design changes and contingent operation.
140 Application and Selection Criteria
141 Introduction
In specifying a pump installation, one of the first decisions is to determine the pump
category to use. As defined in this manual, “category” can be either centrifugal,
reciprocating, rotary, metering, sealless, or miscellaneous. This section discusses the
features, advantages, and disadvantages of each category. Once a category is
selected, refer to the respective section of the manual for information on selecting
the type of pump in that category.
142 Pump Selection Fundamentals

Note In addition to the following text, see Figures 100-13 through 100-17.
During the selection process, centrifugal pumps should always be considered first.
They are preferred because of their lower cost, simplicity, reliability, and smooth-

flow characteristics. However, under the following conditions, reciprocating or

rotary pumps may be more applicable:
1. Very high head, especially when combined with a low capacity. These terms
are relative. Centrifugal pumps of special design (high speed) have been built to
pump as little as 10 or 20 gallons a minute against pressures of 1000 psi or
more. However, under most similar circumstances, a positive displacement
(reciprocating or rotary) pump will be a better choice.
2. Low speed drivers. A centrifugal pump for normal oil service operates at
nominal speeds of 1800 or 3600 RPM. If the pump is driven by an internal
combustion engine operating at 600 RPM, a speed-increaser will be necessary.
A gearbox can easily cost more than the pump. In these cases, a positive
displacement pump may prove more economical.
3. High efficiency requirements over a range of pressure conditions. This situ-
ation frequently occurs in pipeline transportation. A positive displacement
pump at any capacity remains reasonably efficient at pressures between 25%
and 100% of its rating. A centrifugal pump will not remain efficient in these
circumstances.
In pipeline service, centrifugal pumps usually are connected in series while
reciprocating pumps are connected in parallel. These arrangements are most
suitable to the pump’s characteristics.
4. High viscosity. The efficiency of centrifugal pumps starts to fall significantly
when the viscosity of the oil exceeds about 100 centistokes or 500 SSU. While
centrifugal pumps are used successfully at higher viscosities, especially where
the pump is large, rotary or reciprocating pumps probably will be more
economical.
5. Emulsification. Impellers impose great agitation on pumped stock, making
centrifugal pumps a poor choice where water/oil emulsions must be avoided.
Both rotary and reciprocating pumps are better equipped to prevent
emulsification.
When selecting a pump for a given service, conflicting factors may make the choice
unclear. For example, if a pumped fluid is both highly viscous and contains abra-
sives, a rotary pump may be first choice for the viscous stock. However, because of
the abrasives, ultimately it would be a poor choice. The Pump Selection Guide,
Figure 100-13 and the Head/Capacity Selection Curve, Figure 100-14, give addi-
tional information on choosing between centrifugal, reciprocating, and rotary pump
categories.
The Head/Capacity Selection Curve shows the category of pump most suitable from
a head/capacity standpoint. The Pump Selection Guide is then used to identify the
other factors affecting the selection. Completing the Local Priority column on the
Pump Selection Guide weighs factors by their importance in any given situation.
The user (usually an operating representative) should always be consulted
during pump selection, especially when the choice between centrifugal and posi-
tive displacement pumps is difficult. In addition to preference based on past perfor-

Fig. 100-13 Pump Selection Guide
Fig. 100-14 Head/Capacity Selection Curve
mance, the user may also wish to consider local maintenance and the convenient
availability of interchangeable parts.

Centrifugal pumps are selected more often than any other pump type. There are
many reasons why centrifugal pumps are the best choice. Some of these include:
• low total cost of ownership (first cost, operating and maintenance cost)
• good reliability
• capable of a wide range of flow rates from 10 GPM to over 100,000 GPM
• capable of developing heads from 20 feet to over 10,000 feet
• ability to operate with relatively low NPSH available
• wide temperature and pressure capabilities
• minimal environmental impact with proper seals
• flow variation flexibility
• easily controlled
• availability from many manufacturers
• availability in many different materials of construction
• wide range of designs and types
• low levels of vibration imposed on piping
• low discharge pressure pulsations
• capability of handling suspended solids
Instead of listing the many applications for which centrifugal pumps are well suited,
a list of “poor” applications or limitations of centrifugal pumps follows.
Poor Applications for Centrifugal Pumps

1. When a self-priming pump is needed. Although centrifugal pumps are avail-
able in a self-priming design, the available sizes are limited and performance
penalties are substantial. Conventional centrifugal pumps must be primed and
supplied with adequate NPSH for proper operation.
2. Low flow, moderate to high head applications. Operating centrifugal pumps
far to the left of their best efficiency flow causes many problems. For example,
impeller eye recirculation and higher levels of vibration result when operating
below the recommended minimum flow. The effects of low flow operation are
shaft breakage, seal and bearing failures.
The definition of “minimum flow” will vary for every pump. Some of the
factors which affect the minimum flow are fluid density, NPSHA, impeller
design suction specific speed, casing volute design, piping and control systems
designs.
If a centrifugal pump is selected for a low flow application, refer to Section
270, “Maintaining Acceptable Flow Rates for Centrifugal Pumps.” for pump
protection alternatives.

Sundyne vertical in-line pumps are designed for low-flow, moderate to high
head applications. However, these pumps will also have a minimum flow which
should be maintained for reliable service.
3. Handling fluids with entrained gas. Centrifugal pumps can lose suction due
to an excess amount of gas accumulation in the impeller eye. The vapor or
gas accumulation can be caused by excessive cavitation, recirculation, or
entrained gas.
The centrifugal pump impeller is a good centrifuge. The heavy material (liquid)
is expelled through the impeller while the light fluid (gas) will collect in the eye
of the impeller. If the gas or vapor volume fills the impeller eye, the pump may
lose suction.
A worst-case example of this would be a centrifugal pump selected for an
application with little NPSHA, some entrained gas, and operated at reduced
flow rates. At reduced flows, the fluid velocity in the suction pipe may not be
capable of pushing the entrained gas or vapor, through the impeller.
4. Pumping viscous fluids. Although centrifugal pumps are capable of pumping
fluids with a viscosity of 4000 SSU and higher, the performance penalties are
substantial. As shown in Figure 200-17, pump efficiency can be drastically
reduced. The pump’s capacity and head capability are also reduced.
The selection of rotary or reciprocating pumps may be a better choice for low-
flow, viscous services. However, if the required flow rate exceeds the capa-
bility of rotary or reciprocating pumps, centrifugal may be only choice.
5. When fluid emulsification must be avoided. Centrifugal pumps are good
agitators and mixers. Rotary or reciprocating pumps are better choice to mini-
mize fluid emulsification.

Reciprocating pumps are used most frequently for lower-capacity, high-pressure
services. The initial cost of small reciprocating pumps is competitive with centrif-
ugal pumps. However, larger reciprocating pumps (particularly over 200 gpm
capacity) are usually more expensive (initially and to maintain) than other pump
types. High-speed centrifugal pumps should not be overlooked when low-capacity
high-head services are involved.
When service requirements permit using either a centrifugal pump or a recipro-
cating pump, carefully consider both operating and maintenance costs. For most
services, the operating costs of motor-driven or turbine-driven centrifugal pumps are
less than the costs for reciprocating pumps. Maintenance costs usually exceed those
of a centrifugal pump because of the many moving parts, including valves and
sliding contacts.
Pulsating flow may limit the use of reciprocating pumps. However, pulsating flow is
usually not the decisive factor for determining if reciprocating pumps are the best
selection. The effects of pulsation can be minimized but not eliminated by using

pulsation dampers. Pulsating flow may cause problems in the application of auto-
matic control flow measurement or process. See Section 300 for more details about
reciprocating pumps.
Good Applications for Reciprocating Pumps

1. Low to moderate capacity with relatively high differential pressure. Figure
100-14 shows the head/capacity range for which reciprocating pumps are
normally considered in nonviscous services. The division shown is intended as
a guideline only.
2. Relatively high viscosity. The efficiency of a centrifugal pump drops rapidly
with increasing viscosity. The most economical applications of these pumps are
normally limited to viscosities under about 500 SSU. Reciprocating pumps can
efficiently handle stocks up to about 8000 SSU.
Higher viscosity oils can be delivered by reciprocating pumps operating at
slower speeds, but such applications usually are not economical. Rotary pumps
are more appropriate.
3. Relatively constant capacity with widely varying discharge pressures.
Reciprocating pumps are particularly suited to this application.
4. Highly variable capacity with either constant or varying discharge pres-
sure. Direct-acting, gas-driven pumps are well suited to this application
because the speed is easily controlled by the gas driver.
5. Where a self-priming pump is needed.
Poor Applications for Reciprocating Pumps

1. When pulsating flow is undesirable. An example of such a service is a fuel oil
feed to boilers. Ordinarily, rotary pumps are preferred for this service because
of their smooth discharge pressure and better efficiency at higher viscosities.
2. Medium capacity and medium differential pressure with low viscosity.
Centrifugal pumps ordinarily are more economical. Examples of such services
are water or hydrocarbons pumping about 100 gpm with differential pressures
up to about 700 feet or 300 psi.
3. High capacity. For capacities above about 200 gpm, reciprocating pumps are
seldom the best selection, regardless of the discharge pressure. In this range,
reciprocating pumps become so large that they are more expensive than centrif-
ugal pumps. An exception may be high-pressure water injection services.
4. Minimum packing leakage required. Some hazardous or toxic services, such
as phenol or HF acid, require absolute minimum stock leakage. Reciprocating
pumps are subject to packing leaks and in such services must be fitted with a
double stuffing box to provide an enclosed leakage disposal system. Centrif-
ugal pumps with mechanical seals would be preferred.

145 Rotary Pumps

The most common rotary pump types are gear, multiple screw, and single screw.
Cam-and-piston and sliding vane pumps can be considered for special services.
The following discussion applies to all rotary pumps (also see Figures 100-15 and
100-16). See Section 400 for more details.
Fig. 100-15 Positive Displacement Pump Selection and Application

Maximum Maximum
Flow gpm Pressure psi Application
Reciprocating:
1) Plunger 300 6000 Used primarily as glycol pumps,
steam-generator feed pumps,
condensate pumps, and drilling mud
pumps.
2) Piston 800 1500 Same as plunger.
3) Diaphragm 10 1000 Used mainly in controlled volume
applications as a metering pump.
4) Rotary Gear 150 700 Used to transfer recovered oil from
a drain separator to a process oil/
water separator. Also used as a
diesel transfer pump and in high
viscosity applications.
Notes: 1. For reciprocating pumps, the recommended RPM is a function of stroke length (inches). See API
Standard 674.
2. For reciprocating pumps handling liquids with viscosities of 300 SSU at pumping temperature, the
speeds are normally reduced to a percent of the basic speed. See API Standard 674.
Good Applications for Rotary Pumps

1. Viscous stocks. Rotary pumps can deliver high-viscosity stocks with a smaller
reduction in efficiency than other pump types. Rotary pumps can handle stocks
with viscosities varying from LPG (not recommended for continuous duty) to
very viscous greases. For stock more viscous than about 10,000 SSU, rotary
pumps are usually the most economical selection.
Under special conditions, centrifugal pumps can deliver viscosities up to about
5000 SSU, but their efficiency above 500 SSU is so poor that such applications
are not usually economical. Special reciprocating pumps operating at greatly
reduced speeds can handle viscosities as high as those handled by rotary
pumps, but these pumps must be so large, they become prohibitively expensive.
2. Lubricating and hydraulic oils. Rotary pumps are most commonly used to
circulate lubricating oil in mechanical equipment or to provide pressure for
hydraulic operating systems. The oil used in these systems is usually cleaned by
filtering. The pumped stock lubricates the pump’s internal gears and
bearings.

Fig. 100-16 Centrifugal Pump Selection and Application

Typical
Capacity Typical Head Common
Range gpm Range Feet Applications
1. Vertical Inline (single stage) 20 to 1200 15 to 600 General processing and transfer service
at temperatures below 350°F. Minimum
space application.
2. End Suction, Frame Mounted 35 to 4,000 30 to 700 General processing and transfer service
ANSI at temperatures below 350°F.
3. Horizontal, Single-Stage, 100 to 20,000 40 to 900 Hydrocarbons in the low to moderate flow
Horizontal-suction Between and moderate head ranges. Cooling tower
Bearings API water circulation.
4. Horizontal, Multi-Stage Axially 200 to 1500 200 to 4500 Used to pump crude oil, high-pressure
split boiler feed water, sea water, gasoline, and
other hydrocarbons and also in water-
flood operations.
5. Horizontal Barrel (Double 200 to 1700 up to 9000 Used principally for process plant high
Case) pressure reactor charge and water-flood
applications. Pump speed may approach
7500 RPM.
6. Radially Split Vertical Can 20 to 2000 55 to 2000 Used principally for improving NPSHA
when pumping bubble point hydrocarbon
mixtures. Pumping end usually encased in
a pressure vessel (can).
7. Vertical Turbine 100 to 30,000 10 to 1500 Used for lift application such as sea water
Lineshaft and fire water.
8. Electric Submersible 100 to 30,000 10 to 2000 Used to eliminate long shaft lengths. Same
application as vertical turbines, and crude
oil production.
3. Self-priming. Rotary pumps work well when services require self-priming in

moderate capacities, such as barrel, small tank, and sump unloading. However,
when these services involve high capacities and low-viscosity fluids, vertical
centrifugal pumps are usually used.
4. Vacuum services. Rotary pumps, lubricated by special oils, are often used in
vacuum services to pump air or other gases and vapors. Low vapor pressure
oils are used to lubricate the pumps and seal the clearance spaces. Oil separa-
tors on the discharge of such pumps remove the oil from the gas. Cam-and-
piston-type and sliding-vane-type rotary pumps are frequently used in this
manner. Pressures as low as 2 × 10-4 mm mercury absolute are attainable with
the cam-and-piston-type.
With either the oil or water seal, the vacuum obtainable is limited by the vapor
pressure of the sealing liquid.

5. Intermittent low-capacity services. Small internal-bearing rotary pumps can

sometimes be used economically in intermittent services where rotary pumps
might seem to be unsuited. In such cases, it is cheaper to periodically replace
inexpensive pumps than it is to buy pumps not subject to the same rate of wear.
An example of this application is pumping out small tanks or vessels where a
certain amount of scale and grit is expected. Another example is intermittent
handling of non-lubricating stocks, such as LPG and gasoline at small
marketing plants or on tank trucks.
6. Non-pulsating flow. Hydraulic operating systems and fuel oil systems usually
require non-pulsating flow. Rotary pumps work well in these services, espe-
cially when high viscosity renders centrifugal pumps uneconomical.
7. Handling “wet” oil. “Wet” oils (over 3% water by volume) should be used
only with pumps that will not cause the water and oil to emulsify. Rotary
pumps operated at slow speed (300 to 400 RPM) work well in such services.
Poor Applications for Rotary Pumps

1. Non-lubricating stocks in continuous service. Internal parts of rotary pumps
must be adequately lubricated. Stocks with poor lubricating qualities, such as
LPG, gasoline, and water are not usually satisfactory for rotary pumps in
continuous service.
2. High differential pressures and large capacity. Rotor deflection usually
limits the differential pressure produced by a rotary pump. For standard
designs, the larger the pump, the lower the maximum allowable differential
pressure.
3. Medium-Capacity and Medium-Head Services. Except for high viscosities,
medium-capacity and medium-head services usually can be handled more
economically by centrifugal or reciprocating pumps than by rotary pumps.
Because of the rotary pump's close clearances and the possibility of mechan-
ical damage, reciprocating and centrifugal pumps are usually recommended
unless a rotary pump promises significant savings.
4. Abrasive material or possibility of running dry. Rotary pumps are ordinarily
not recommended for stocks containing appreciable quantities of abrasive mate-
rial. However, under certain conditions, single-screw pumps with rubber
liners (progressive cavity) can be used, although they may have very high
maintenance requirements. In any case, rotary pumps should never be allowed
to run dry.
Rotary pumps do not handle corrosive liquids well. Pumps constructed of brass
and bronze are used occasionally. Stainless-steel rotary pumps are not practical
because of the possibility of galling or seizure.


Figure 100-17 lists pumps for special applications that do not fit into the typical
centrifugal or positive displacement categories.
Fig. 100-17 Miscellaneous Pumps

Pump Type Characteristics
Axial Flow Also called propeller pump. Used where large capacity and low
head are required. Generally with a vertical configuration for lifting
wastewater, effluent, etc.
Disc friction Also called regenerative turbine pumps. Similar to centrifugal
pumps except liquid is pressured by recirculation in the impeller
vanes. A low-capacity, moderate to high head pump that can
handle large amounts of gas or vapor. Pump efficiency is greatly
affected by internal clearances. These pumps are usually unsatis-
factory where abrasives are present. (See Section 700.)
Metering Small reciprocating plunger or diaphragm pumps used for accu-
rate pumping of chemicals and additives. Pumping rates are
normally measured in gallons per hour and are adjustable from
zero to full pump rate. Capable of high discharge pressures. (See
Section 500.)
Diaphragm An air-operated, versatile, utility pump normally using compressed
air as the driving fluid. Useful in handling hazardous or abrasive
materials, and in explosive environments. Smaller units are occa-
sionally used in metering service. (See Section 700.)
Jet Also called eductors or ejectors. Jet pumps have no moving parts
and use the venturi action of high velocity fluids through a nozzle to
create suction. The driving fluid and pumped fluid are mixed at the
discharge. Typical applications are moving granulated solids with
water, deep-well water pumping, and shipboard bilge pumping
with water. (See Section 700.)
Archimedes Screw Used in lifting effluent and waste water at relatively low flows
where agitation and mixing are undesirable. Limited to lifts of
approximately 25 feet. Similar to a screw conveyor.
Peristaltic Also called hosepumps. Peristaltic pumps are used for pumping
fluids such as waste sludges, lime and cement mortar, adhesives
and shear sensitive fluids such as latex paints. In the petrochem-
ical industries use is limited to shear sensitive services. The pumps
have few moving parts, no seals, and can be run dry. Life is limited
due to the life of the elastomer hose.
150 Considerations for H2S Services

Pumps represent a potential leak source. They should be avoided as much as
possible where there are high concentrations of H2S. If pumps must be used,

centrifugal-types are more reliable and provide a better seal than reciprocating-
types.
When a centrifugal pump is required, select a high quality pump that has a low shaft
deflection. API 610 and Specification PMP-MS-983 are recommended design speci-
fications. The pump case should be constructed of steel or higher alloy, not cast iron
or bronze. Wherever possible, use a mechanical seal and inject a clean, non-H2S-
bearing fluid as a seal flush. The source of the flush should be reliable and available
whenever the pump is in operation. Use a close-clearance bushing outboard of the
mechanical seal and plug the openings in the seal-to-bushing chamber. Site-specific
evaluation of regional air quality standards is recommended to decide if the pumps
should have stuffing boxes large enough to accommodate a future retrofit to the
double or tandem mechanical seals for increased leak
protection.
Reciprocating pumps are generally not recommended because of the number of
stuffing boxes on multiplex pumps, the greater difficulty of sealing reciprocating
motion, and packing is more difficult to positively seal than a mechanical seal on a
centrifugal pump.
When using a reciprocating pump, use steel material on the liquid end, including
steel rods. Provide a non-H2S-bearing flush to the lantern ring. Reciprocating
pumps that meet the requirements of API 674 are recommended, if a reciprocating
pump is selected.
Many copper alloys have poor resistance to H2S. Use them with care if it is
likely that they will make wetted contact with an H 2S-containing process stream.
Acceptable copper-containing items include sleeve bearings, thrust bearings, and
mechanical-seal throttle bushings.
Avoid the use of alloys stronger than 90 ksi yield strength or harder than 235 BHN
(equivalent to about Rockwell C22). Exceptions to this hardness limit include
components such as reciprocating-compressor valves and piston rods where greater
hardness is required for reasonable service life. Materials with high yield strengths,
or hard materials, are very susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking.
160 Suction Piping Design Considerations
161 NPSHA and Fluid Velocity

NPSHA, Piping Symmetry and Parallel Operation
Suction piping should be as short and direct as possible without “pockets” or “high
spots” which could trap air or gas.
Suction piping should be designed to satisfy the NPSH requirements assuming
parallel operation of installed pumps.

Most pump installations include two 100% pumps, one operating and one spare. It is
a common operating practice to test run spare pumps at least once per month or
share operating duty between installed pumps on a monthly basis.
During monthly spare pump operation or switching between pumps, both pumps
will operate in parallel. With both pumps operating, flow through the suction piping
system may increase. An increase in flow in the suction line will increase the fric-
tion loss and reduce the NPSHA to both pumps.
Symmetrical suction piping (size and layout) will ensure equal pressure drop and
minimize operational problems caused by inadequate NPSHA to one or both pumps.
Refer to Section 225 “Suction Stealing”.
Suction line fluid velocity for reciprocating pumps

Suction lines should be sized for velocities below three feet per second. Refer to
Section 333 for more discussion of line sizing. The calculation of friction losses in
the suction line to reciprocating pumps must include “acceleration head” losses.
Refer to Section 135 for acceleration head equation and discussion.
Suction line fluid velocity for centrifugal pumps

Generally, suction pipe velocities should not exceed the value which exists at the
pump suction flange. For most centrifugal pump designs, suction flange velocity
will vary between 8 and 15 feet per second. Suction line sizing is usually at least
one pipe size larger than the pump suction size to minimize friction losses and
maximize the NPSHA.
Boiler Feedwater Application

Boiler feed water pump suction piping design may be an exception to the normal
suction line velocity guidelines presented above. Under stable operating conditions,
the water in the deaerator is at saturation conditions. Unstable or transient condi-
tions in the deaerator can cause operational problems with the pumps including
“steam-binding”. Unstable conditions can occur when the condensate feed to the
deaerator is cooler than normal due to a change in the utility load conditions. The
pressure in the deaerator may drop slightly due to the cooling effects of the
returning condensate, while the water in the suction pipe may be at the original
higher temperature. Under these unstable conditions, the NPSHA to the feed pumps
will decrease and the water in the suction line may boil.
Reducing the volume of water in the suction pipe will minimize the problems
caused by unstable conditions in the deaerator. This reduces the temperature differ-
ence between the water in the suction pipe and the deaerator. “Reduced volume”
may be accomplished by using a smaller diameter suction pipe and separate suction
lines to each pump. In either case, fluid velocity in the suction line may be higher
than in most installations.

162 Adequate Venting

Suction Pipe Slope
Fluid velocity in suction lines is normally low so trapped air or gas may not be
swept out by the fluid flow. Selecting the proper pipe layout is critical to minimize
gas and vapor collection.
If the pump must lift the liquid from a lower level, the suction piping should be
designed with a continuously rising slope toward the pump suction flange. If the
liquid level in the suction vessel is above the pump suction, the pump suction piping
should slope continuously downward to the pump suction flange.
Trapped air or gas in the suction piping effectively reduces the diameter of the pipe,
increases suction line friction losses, and reduces NPSHA to the pump.
Pump Inlet Reducer Selection

Pumps with horizontal or side-suction flange orientation that require a reducer
should use an eccentric reducer with the flat side on the top.
End-suction pumps are the most common and require additional reducer selection
cautions because of the close proximity of the impeller inlet to the suction flange.
Reducers for end-suction pumps should be limited to one change in diameter of one
pipe size; however, more than one reducer can be installed in series. If the selected
reducer has a more abrupt reduction than one pipe size, then a run of straight pipe
between the reducer and the pump suction of at least 5 diameters is recommended.
End-suction pump installations where the suction pipe comes down from overhead
should use a reducing elbow or a combination of a long-radius elbow and a concen-
tric reducer.
163 Fluid Velocity Profile Entering Pump Suction

Providing a uniform velocity profile for fluid entering a pump should be the goal of
the inlet piping designer. A velocity profile is a snapshot of the fluid velocity
through a cross-section of the suction pipe perpendicular to flow direction. Uniform
velocity would indicate equal fluid velocity at all points in the cross-sectional plane.
For example, the velocity profile of fluid flowing through an elbow would typically
have higher fluid velocity at the outside diameter of the elbow and lower velocity
near the inside diameter. See Figure 100-18. The flow exiting the elbow would not
be a uniform velocity profile. Other piping components such as isolation block
valves, and check valves can also disturb the fluid velocity profile at the inlet to
the pump.
The detrimental effect of a poor inlet velocity profile can be minimized by using
straightening vanes or length of straight pipe just upstream of the pump suction.
Other devices, such as Cheng Rotation Vanes, are also available and can be
specially designed to improve an inlet velocity profile. The use of straightening

Fig. 100-18 Uniform Velocity Profile Flowing into Elbow
vanes and lengths of straight pipe are most common and are explained in detail later
in this section.
Elbow Orientation for Double Suction Pumps

Single-stage, double-suction centrifugal pumps are particularly sensitive to suction
piping configurations which do not provide a uniform velocity profile. The use of an
elbow installed at the pump suction and parallel to the pump shaft will result in
higher fluid velocity and pressure on the outside of the piping turn (elbow) and
uneven flow to each side of the double-suction impeller. Standard elbows present a
bigger problem than long-radius elbows. Uneven flow distribution to each side of
the double-suction impeller can result in axial unbalance (shaft shuttling), cavita-
tion on the low flow side, premature bearing failure, and seal failure. There have
been many cases of premature failures due to improper suction piping layout.
The installation of an elbow where the plane of the elbow is parallel to the pump
shaft is unacceptable. See Figure 100-19.
The plane of an elbow should always be perpendicular to the pump shaft centerline.
This applies whether the fluid supply source is above or below the pump suction.
The use of long-radius elbows is recommended for suction lines to double-suction
pumps.
Inlet Swirl
High velocity and high pressure tend to develop on the outside of each piping turn
and successive turns made at right angles to each other produce a fluid swirl inside
the pipe. Pump impeller and inlet design is based on a uniform velocity profile, not
a swirling fluid. The result of swirling fluid at the inlet of the pump may be cavita-
tion damage, poor pump hydraulic performance (low head), short bearing life, and
noisy operation even if adequate NPSHA is provided.

Fig. 100-19 Elbow Orientation for Double Suction Pump Courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute
Minimizing the Effects of Inlet Swirl and Fitting Turbulence

If the suction line (not pump suction nozzle) design velocity is five feet per second
or less, a straight run of pipe directly upstream of the pump suction of at least five
pipe diameters should be adequate to correct irregularities (swirl) in the velocity
profile created by one elbow or tee. A swirl generated by two or more fittings or
elbows may require straightening vanes at least two pipe diameters in length in the
straight length of inlet pipe or at least 10 diameters of straight pipe.
At suction velocities of ten feet per second, the straight section of pipe will have to
be at least ten diameters in length. Similarly, a swirl or disturbance created by two

or more elbows or fittings may require straightening vanes or a longer straight run
of pipe to correct the inlet velocity profile. Generally, the use of reducers at the
pump suction downstream of elbows, valves, and fittings will tend to improve the
inlet velocity profile.

Abstract
This section describes how centrifugal pumps work, lists their limitations, and
explains how to select the right centrifugal pump for a given application. For infor-
mation on troubleshooting centrifugal pump problems, see Section 1100. For infor-
mation on mechanical seals, or installation or startup of centrifugal pumps, see those
sections.
Contents Page
210 Engineering Principles 200-3

211 Fundamentals
212 Head
213 Pump Curves
214 Series and Parallel Operation of Multiple Centrifugal Pumps
215 Effects of Changing Pump Speed (“Affinity Law”)
216 Effects of Changing Impeller Diameter (“Affinity Law”)
217 Cut-off Point
218 Specific Speed
219 Effect of Viscosity on Centrifugal Pump Performance
220 Suction Considerations 200-24
221 Pumping Liquids Near Their Boiling Points
222 Cavitation
223 Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)
224 Required NPSH (NPSHR)
225 “Suction-Stealing”
226 Horsepower
231 Factors in Pump Selection
232 Energy Efficiency for Centrifugal Pumps
Chevron Corporation 200-1 June 1999

200 Centrifugal Pumps Pump Manual
233 Special Service Pumps

234 Application Guidelines
240 Centrifugal Pump Descriptions 200-49
250 Mechanical Components 200-78
251 Cases
252 Impellers
253 Wearing Rings
254 Shafts and Shaft Sleeves
255 Throat Bushings and Lantern Rings
256 Glands
257 Balance Drums and Bearings
258 Base Plates
259 Couplings and Coupling Guards
260 Centrifugal Pump Subsystems 200-92
261 Special Requirements for Hot Service
262 Vertical Turbine Pumps
270 Maintaining Acceptable Flow Rates for Centrifugal Pumps 200-94
271 General
272 Power Measurement
273 Flow Control Methods
274 Proportional Flow Control
275 Self-Contained Flow Control Valves
276 Economics of Flow Control
June 1999 200-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual 200 Centrifugal Pumps
210 Engineering Principles
211 Fundamentals
Centrifugal pumps comprise a wide category of pumps which move liquid by the
rotational motion of one or more impellers. Their flow is uniform and normally
devoid of pulsations.
A centrifugal pump produces pressure by accelerating a fluid to a high kinetic
energy (velocity), then converting that energy to pressure.
Fluid flows into the “eye” of the impeller and is thrown outward by the vanes of the
spinning impeller, slowing as the velocity is converted to pressure in the “diffuser”
or “volute.” (See Figure 200-1). This momentum exchange provides an increase in
pressure or “head.”
Fig. 200-1 End View of a Centrifugal Pump From Centrifugal Pumps Design and Application
by Lobanoff and Ross, Copyright 1985 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX.
Used with permission. All rights reserved.
The incoming fluid is pushed into the low pressure area of the impeller eye by
higher pressure in the upstream system. Having enough upstream or “suction” pres-
sure to push adequate flow into the pump is a critical design consideration.
(Covered in Section 220.)
212 Head
The term “head” is used almost exclusively in the centrifugal pumping industry to
express pressure. All pump curves are calibrated to read “feet of head” as a
measure of pressure rise. Similarly, suction pressures and, often, friction losses are
also expressed as feet of head, not psi.
The concept of head is derived from the fact that a column of liquid will exert a
local pressure proportional to the depth of that liquid. For example, the pressure of a

column of water increases 0.433 psi for every foot of depth. In other words, at a
depth of ten feet, the pressure is 4.33 psi higher than at the surface; at 100 feet,
43.3 psi higher; at 1000 feet, 433 psi higher, etc.
The depth, or distance in feet, can therefore be used as a measure of pressure. For
water, the equivalent pressures are:
1 foot of head = 0.433 psi (for water at 60°F and 1.0 specific gravity) or
1 psi = 2.31 feet of head (for water at 60°F and 1.0 specific gravity)
Another example of measuring pressure by liquid depth is the barometric pressure,

reported as millimeters or inches of mercury.
14.7 psi = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 inches Hg
This relationship illustrates that normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi at sea level)
is the same pressure that would be exerted at the bottom of a column of liquid
mercury 29.92 inches high (assuming zero pressure—i.e., a vacuum—at the surface
of the mercury).
Similarly, visualize a centrifugal pump connected to a vertical pipe on its discharge.
The discharge pressure from the pump would push the liquid up the column to a
level where the pressure from the height would equal discharge pressure. This
height would be the feet of head noted by the pump manufacturer as “total head”
across the pump.
One reason the centrifugal pump industry has settled on head, or feet, as a measure
of pressure rise is that a pump will develop the same head regardless of the fluid's
specific gravity. A pump that develops a column of water (S.G.=1) 1000 feet high
will also develop a column of hydrocarbon (S.G.= 0.7) 1000 feet high.
Of course, the actual pressure, in psi, would be quite different between water and
hydrocarbon. The pressure developed in a pump and the pressure at the bottom of a
column of liquid are both proportional to specific gravity. To convert from feet to
psi (and vice versa) use the following equation:
Pressure (psi) = feet × S.G. × 0.433

(Eq. 200-1)
213 Pump Curves

Total Developed Head (TDH) is a measure of the energy a pump delivers to a fluid.
It is equal to the total discharge head minus the total suction head in feet of liquid.
The word “total” is used because each of these heads is composed of the pressure
head, velocity head, static head, and head loss. The Total Developed Head is
approximated by measuring the discharge pressure and suction pressure at the pump
nozzles, subtracting to determine the differential pressure, and converting to units of
head in feet. This approximation neglects the velocity head component, which

usually results in an error of 1% or less. A centrifugal pump’s Total Developed Head

depends on the impeller diameter, pump speed, fluid viscosity, impeller and case
design, and pump mechanical condition. It also varies with flow rate, largely due to
frictional losses in the impeller and casing. This relationship is plotted in a “pump
curve.” These characteristic curves are important to understanding the performance
of centrifugal pumps.
Typical Characteristic Curves for a Centrifugal Pump

Most characteristic curves show the relationship between Total Developed Head
(TDH), pump capacity (flow rate), brake horsepower, efficiency, and Net Positive
Suction Head Required (NPSHR) for a particular pump. Characteristic curves are
also known as “head-capacity” curves or, simply, “pump curves.” Two methods are
commonly used for plotting the characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump.
Figure 200-2 shows the method used to depict pump performance for a single speed
and impeller size. These curves result from a pump test at constant speed. Manufac-
turers commonly use these characteristic curves to predict and guarantee pump
performance.
Figure 200-3 shows the method used to express more fully the entire range of
performance of a pump, with various impeller diameters at constant speed. These
curves are commonly used in the selection of a pump for a specific service. The
curves in Figure 200-3 are generally made up from the average results of tests for
various diameter impellers plotted as shown in Figure 200-2.
Figure 200-4 shows a third method of plotting characteristic curves for a centrifugal
pump driven at variable speeds, with a fixed impeller diameter.
Note that practically all performance curves furnished by manufacturers are based
on water as the pumped liquid. If the pump is handling some other liquid, adjust-
ments must be made for viscosity and specific gravity before flow rate and
discharge pressure (psi) can be predicted.
Every centrifugal pump will operate on its characteristic curve if there is
enough Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) for a given S.G. and
viscosity. For any given capacity, there will be one total head rise, one efficiency,
one horsepower, and one NPSHR.
The slope and shape of the head-capacity curve is affected by individual pump
design. Head-capacity curves can take one of four typical shapes, as shown in
Figure 200-5.
• Steep-rise curve
• Steady-rise curve
• Flat curve
• Drooping curve (will have multiple flow points for a given head)
As a rule of thumb, curves that show a 140% increase in head between the capaci-
ties of peak efficiency and shutoff are called steep-rising curves; those showing a
10–25% increase are called steady-rising curves; and those with no more than a

Fig. 200-2 Typical Performance Curve for a 6-inch, Single-stage, Double-suction Centrifugal Pump—Speed and Impeller Diameter Fixed.
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Pump Manual
Fig. 200-3 Typical Performance Curve for a 6-inch, Single-stage, Double-suction Centrifugal Pump—Speed Fixed, Impeller Diameter Variable
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Pump Manual
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June 1999
Fig. 200-4 Typical Performance Curve for a 6-inch, Single-stage, Double-suction Centrifugal Pump—Speed Variable, Impeller Fixed
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Pump Manual
Fig. 200-5 Four Typical Shapes of Head Capacity Curves
5% increase are called flat curves. Rise to shutoff is a function of the following
parameters:
• Specific speed (Ns) design for the impeller
• Impeller-outlet-vane angle and volute diffuser area ratio
• Friction losses
Pumps with drooping characteristic curves should be avoided because they may
exhibit unstable operating characteristics. In some cases, however, such as systems
with mostly dynamic loss and no requirements for parallel operation, drooping char-
acteristics could be acceptable.
Centrifugal pumps with steady-rise curves are most commonly used. Since the head
varies distinctly with a change in capacity, precise flow control can be maintained
with this type of curve. The rising curve is a stable curve; for every head, only one
corresponding capacity occurs.
System-Head Curves
Plotting the head vs. flow rate in a pumping system can be an aid in system design
and pump selection. Such a plot is called the system-head curve.
A system curve represents a complete piping system, i.e., the friction losses of all
the piping, elbows, valves, etc., and the total static head vs. flow rate. Each point on
the curve shows the head required to deliver that amount of flow through the piping
system.

A system-head curve (Figure 200-6) is obtained by combining the system friction

curve (Figure 200-7) with a plot of the total developed head. A system friction
curve is a plot of friction losses versus flow rate in a piping system.
Fig. 200-6 Pump Characteristic Curve Superimposed Fig. 200-7 System Friction Curve
on System-Head Curve
Superimposing the pump characteristic curve on the system-head curve gives the
point at which a particular pump will operate (Figure 200-6, Point “A”). Changing
the resistance of the piping system by partially closing a valve changes the system-
head curve. Partially closing a valve in the discharge line produces a second system-
head curve, shown in Figure 200-6, shifting the operating point to higher head but
lower flow rate. The intersection of the pump characteristic curve and the new
system-head curve is the new operating point.
Operating Point
It is important to understand that a centrifugal pump will operate at one point
(assuming the pump curve rises steadily to shutoff). This point is the intersection
of the system curve and the pump curve. This is an important concept both for
sizing pumps and troubleshooting problems.
This concept also illustrates the most common basis for centrifugal-pump control:
discharge throttling. As a control valve in the discharge line varies the total pres-
sure drop in the system, the system curve varies. This variance in the system curve
causes the operating point to shift right or left on the pump curve, with a resulting
increase or decrease in flow rate.
Unstable Head-Capacity (Drooping-Curve) Characteristics

Under certain conditions, a portion of the head-capacity curve of a low-specific-
speed pump is unstable, causing fluctuations in the pump head, capacity, and power
input. Figure 200-8 shows the type of head-capacity curve (a drooping curve) that
can cause unstable operation.

Fig. 200-8 Typical Head-Capacity Curve that May Indicate Unstable Operation (Drooping
Curve)
In Figure 200-8 the system curves OB, OC, OD, OE and OF correspond to different
settings of a pump discharge throttle valve. Point F represents the normal operating
condition of the pump. As system resistance is increased (by throttling the discharge
valve, for example) the pump is able to supply the additional head until point C is
reached on the pump head-capacity curve. Additional system resistance causes the
operating point to move into the part of the pump curve where the head decreases as
the flow decreases. Operation in this region of the head-capacity curve may result is
an unstable surging discharge pressure.
It is not good practice to install drooping-curve centrifugal pumps in parallel. One
pump may operate at a lower flow rate than the other and could fail if operating
below the manufacturer’s recommended minimum flow rate.
214 Series and Parallel Operation of Multiple Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal pumps may be operated in series or in parallel. The combined head-
capacity curves for series or parallel operation of two or more centrifugal pumps are
obtained as follows:
• Series: Add heads for each pump at any given capacity.
• Parallel: Add capacities for each pump at any given head.
Figure 200-9 illustrates both series and parallel operation for two pumps under
various discharge conditions. Two pumps, P-1 and P-2, have head-capacity curves as
shown and are to pump through pipe systems with characteristics shown by system
curves I, II, III, IV, and V. The intersections of the pipe system characteristics with

Fig. 200-9 Typical Series and Parallel Operation of Two Centrifugal Pumps Pumping Through a Pipe System Throttled at the Discharge End
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Pump Manual
the pump head-capacity characteristics show the quantities and heads at which the
pumps will operate either singly, in series, or in parallel. Adequate suction pressure is
assumed.
Figure 200-10 is an example of the difficulty with series pump operation. Two iden-
tical pumps, P-5 and P-20, operate in series. The suction and discharge pressures
are noted on the diagram. Both pumps should develop the same differential head.
Actually, P-5 develops a differential of 20.5 psi and P-20 develops a differential of
72.0 psi. Average capacity is 543 GPM, which is well below the anticipated flow
rate. The performance curve for the two pumps, Figure 200-11, shows that P-20 is
developing its rated head but P-5 is not. The difficulty is that Pump P-5 is “losing
suction” and “cutting off” at about 543 GPM as shown on Figure 200-11.
In Figure 200-10, the actual differential developed by P-5 is shown by AC. The
differential head developed by P-20 is shown by DG. The sum of these two
produced the head required at H for a flow of 543 GPM. If P-5 had been provided
with adequate suction pressure, it would have developed a differential head equal to
AE. The total pressure which both pumps would have developed is shown by BI.
215 Effects of Changing Pump Speed (“Affinity Law”)

Knowing the effects of varying a centrifugal pump’s speed is helpful in many situa-
tions, such as adjusting to new service requirements, sizing a new driver, turning
down to avoid excessive flow or pressure, etc.
The following affinity law holds for any corresponding points on the head-capacity
characteristic curve when the speed is changed:
1. Flow rate (quantity) varies directly with the ratio of change in speed.
2. Head varies with the square of the ratio of change in speed.
3. Horsepower varies with the cube of the ratio of change in speed.
In all three cases, the efficiency remains relatively constant. Efficiency tends to rise
very slightly as speed increases, because neither hydraulic nor mechanical losses
increase as fast as the square of the speed.
The characteristic curve of Figure 200-4 is marked to show a set of corresponding
points for the same impeller at different speeds.
The affinity law for speed change holds with considerable accuracy when speed
changes do not exceed a two-to-one ratio and flow is not limited by suction
conditions.
216 Effects of Changing Impeller Diameter (“Affinity Law”)

The curves in Figure 200-3, except the underfiled curve, may be approximated from
a single curve by the following rules, which apply to reducing impeller diameter to

the stated design minimum without other changes in design. They are applicable to
minor changes (5-15%) in impeller diameter.
Fig. 200-10 Analysis of Performance of Two Identical Centrifugal Pumps in Series When Suction Pressure at First
Pump is Too Low

Fig. 200-11 The Effect of Abnormal Suction Conditions on Centrifugal Pump Performance
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June 1999
The following rules may be applied for any corresponding points on the character-
istic curves when the impeller diameter is changed:
1. Flow rate (quantity) varies directly with the ratio of change in impeller diam-
eter.
2. Head varies with the square of the ratio of change in impeller diameter.
3. Horsepower varies with the cube of the ratio of change in impeller diameter.
These rules are essentially the same as the affinity law for speed change, but do not
apply with the same accuracy over as wide a range.
For (1), (2), and (3) all to be true, the efficiency must remain constant for the corre-
sponding point. Since this is not exactly what happens, the head calculated by the
above rules will be too low. The efficiency will usually drop. The table in Figure
200-12 will aid in estimating how much deviation from the simple rule should be
expected. Both columns give impeller diameter, in percent, of original diameter.
Fig. 200-12 Impeller Diameters (% of Original)

% to Reduce
Impeller, as
Calculated by the Actual % Impeller
Affinity Law Reduction
65 71
70 75
75 79
80 83
85 87
90 91.5
95 91.5
When the cut becomes so great that the overlap of the vanes is destroyed, proper
guidance or “control” of the liquid is lost and the performance becomes unpredict-
able. When possible, the correct diameter for new conditions should be obtained
from the manufacturer.
Conservative practice limits the diameter after cutting to not less than 75% of the
full diameter. The pump manufacturer can readily determine the allowable
minimum diameter from the impeller drawings.
The affinity law for impeller diameter applies not only to the point of best effi-
ciency, but to any corresponding points on the original and calculated new head-
capacity characteristics, provided they are not affected by suction conditions.
The combined effects described above are summarized in the affinity law equa-
tions shown in Figure 200-13.

Fig. 200-13 Affinity Law Equations From Centrifugal Pumps Design and Application by Lobanoff and Ross, Copyright
1985 from Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
Diameter Change Only Speed Change Only Diameter and Speed Change
Q2 = Q1 (D2/D1) Q2 = Q1 (N2/N1) Q2 = Q1 (D2/D1 × N2/N1)
H2 = H1 (D2/D1)2 H2 = H1 (N2/N1)2 H2 = H1 (D2/D1 × N2/N1)2
BHP2 = BHP1 (D2/D1)3 BHP2 = BHP1 (N2/N1)3 BHP2 = BHP1 (D2/D1 × N2/N1)3
where:
Q1 = Initial flow rate Q2 = New flow rate
H1 = Initial differential head H2 = New differential head
N1 = Initial rpm N2 = New rpm
D1 = Initial diameter D2 = New diameter
BHP1 = Initial brake horsepower BHP2 = New brake horsepower
Effects of Changing Liquid Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (S.G.) has the following effects on pump performance, assuming
constant rpm and impeller diameter:
1. Flow rate (quantity) is unchanged by S.G. (although the flow reading on a
differential-pressure flow meter varies.)
2. Pressure varies directly with S.G. (Although pressure varies, head is constant.)
3. Horsepower varies directly with S.G.
These relationships are important when converting a pump to another service or if
significant changes to fluid gravity are anticipated. For example, converting from a
light hydrocarbon service to water service may significantly overload an existing
driver.
Increasing the Capacity of a Given Pump

Increasing the capacity and head of a pump within its design limits is usually
accomplished by increasing impeller diameter or driver speed.
Small increases can be obtained by underfiling the impeller vanes without changing
impeller diameter. This means that the exit end of the vanes are filed back, without
cutting the shroud, as shown in Figure 200-14. (Figure 200-3 shows the effect on
the pump curve of “underfiling” the impeller.)
In Figure 200-3 the head-capacity curve for the underfiled condition is for the full
diameter vanes. Similar effects are obtained by underfiling any other usable diam-
eter. Underfiling is adopted only in cases where the standard impeller does not attain
the required rating and changing the impeller or using a larger pump is not
warranted.
Figure 200-3 shows a set of typical characteristic curves for a 6-inch, single-stage,
double-suction pump running at 1770 rpm. Total pumping head, efficiency, and

Fig. 200-14 Underfiled Vanes on a Centrifugal Pump Impeller
horsepower are plotted against capacity for impeller diameters from 15½ to 18¼
inches using the standard vane, and also for full diameter with underfiled vanes.
Note that the underfiled curve is unstable. Underfiling pumps with flat curves can
lead to unstable (drooping) curves; this would not happen on pumps with steep
curves. This is a good example of why underfiling should be carefully considered.
217 Cut-off Point

Figure 200-11 shows that the greatest possible capacity obtainable with this pump is
about 1100 GPM, which may be obtained at a head of 150 feet. This point is known
as the cut-off point and is the maximum quantity of liquid that the available suction
head can force into the impeller. The cut-off point depends on the relationship
between required and available NPSH. See Section 220 for a complete discussion of
NPSH and Figure 200-21 for an example of NPSH limiting capacity.
Pumps should not be selected with a cut-off close to the required rating. Pumps
operating above cutoff will vibrate excessively and fail prematurely.
218 Specific Speed

Specific speed is a dimensionless term used to compare the performance and shape
of impellers, regardless of their size. Specific speed (usually designated Ns) is the
speed, taken in revolutions per minute, at which a geometrically similar
impeller would run if it were of such size as to discharge one gallon per minute
against one foot of head.
In practice, specific speed is used to relate the three main parameters (GPM, head,
and rpm) to the performance of the pump:

0.5
Q
N s = n -------------
0.75
H
(Eq. 200-2)
where:
Q = U.S. gallons per minute
H = Feet per stage
n = Revolutions per minute
Low-specific-speed impellers have high heads and low flow capacities. Impellers
for low heads and high flow rates have high specific speeds.
Figure 200-15 gives the general relationships between impeller shape, efficiency,
and capacity. It also shows that each impeller design has a specific speed range for
which it is best adapted. These ranges are approximate, without clear-cut demarca-
tions between them. Most petrochemical pumps are designed with impellers that
have specific speeds between 800–1500 (as calculated using Equation 200-2).
Fig. 200-15 Relationship of Impeller Shape, Efficiency, and Capacity From Pump Handbook,
(1976) Edited by Karassik, Krutzch, Fraser & Messina. Used with permission from
McGraw Hill.

Specific speed is a pump design tool, but it may be used in the pump selection
process to compare the curve shape and stability. It can also be used in evaluating
new pump bids. (See Section 231)
In general, low specific speeds indicate flat head-capacity curves, with peak effi-
ciency over a wide range of capacity, and brake-horsepower decreasing as the pump
is throttled. High specific speeds result in steep head-capacity curves, sharply
peaked efficiency curves, with brake-horsepower increasing as the pump is throt-
tled.
219 Effect of Viscosity on Centrifugal Pump Performance

Since requirements often call for pumping liquids with a viscosity greater than
water (while most manufacturers’ curves are for pumping water), it is important to
have a method for estimating the effect of viscosity upon water performance curves.
In general, because of the increased internal fluid friction, the head, efficiency, and
flow of centrifugal pumps are reduced when pumping a fluid with a higher viscosity
than water.
Figure 200-16 shows the effect of viscosity on pump performance. Figure 200-17 (1
and 2) provides viscosity corrections to pump performance. These data are also
available from the Hydraulic Institute Standards, 14th Edition. The curves convert
the pump’s water performance to that of the viscous fluid.
These correction curves do not apply to mixed-flow or axial-flow pumps, nor to
pumps handling non-Newtonian liquids. Slurries and similar non-Newtonian liquids
may produce widely different results depending on their characteristics. Also, the
correction curves cover only single-stage performance using the best efficiency flow
rate for the impeller. If viscous performance for a multi-stage centrifugal pump is
required, the head per stage should be used to obtain the proper correction factors,
which should then be verified with the original equipment manufacturer.
It is worth noting that, at 100 GPM, Figure 200-17 (1 and 2) gives somewhat
different results, indicating they are compiled from separate tests and that either
chart is only an approximation of the actual results for a viscous liquid.
The correction curves provide factors to be applied at the best-efficiency-point to
arrive at the viscous performance curve. Efficiency is the parameter affected most
severely by viscosity, followed by capacity, then head. In practice, since efficiency
has the greatest effect, power cost should be evaluated as it may impact the pump
selection.
Positive-displacement reciprocating screw or gear pumps are very efficient in
viscous fluids. They should be considered when fluid viscosity exceeds 200 to
500 SSU and when there are very few suspended solids present.
Sample Problem: Viscosity Effects. Given the pump performance obtained by test
on water, plot the performance of this pump when handling oil with a specific
gravity of 0.9 and a viscosity of 1,000 SSU, both at pumping temperature.

Fig. 200-16 Effect of Viscosity on Centrifugal Pump Performance. Note: In Figure 200-17 (both parts 1 and 2, overleaf ), enter the chart at GPM, read vertically
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to Head, then Horizontally to Viscosity, then vertically to Head/Capacity/Efficiency, then left to the Correction Factor.
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Fig. 200-17 Viscosity Corrections for Centrifugal Pumps Handling Viscous Fluids 100 GPM and Over (1 of 2) From
Standards 14th edition, Hydraulic Institute. Used with permission.

Fig. 200-17 Viscosity Corrections for Centrifugal Pumps Handling Viscous Fluids Under 100 GPM (2 of 2) From Stan-
dards 14th edition, Hydraulic Institute. Used with permission
On the performance curve, Figure 200-16, the best-efficiency-point when pumping

water is 750 GPM at 100 ft of head (Point A) with an efficiency of 82% (Point B).

Using 750 GPM, 100-ft head, and 1,000 SSU, read Figure 200-17 (1 of 2) and deter-
mine the correction factors:
Capacity correction factor: CQ = 0.95
Head correction factor: CH = 0.92
Efficiency correction factor: CE = 0.635
Multiplying the water capacity, head, and efficiency by the correction factors gives
the best-efficiency-point as follows:
Viscous capacity:
750 GPM × 0.95 = 712 GPM

Viscous head:
100 ft × 0.92 = 92 ft
Viscous efficiency:
82% × 0.635 = 52%
The point for viscous capacity and head can now be located below the water curve
(Point C, Figure 200-16). The viscous head-capacity performance curve is drawn
from the water head at zero capacity (Point D) through the viscous head-capacity
point (Point C) with approximately the same shape as the water curve. The effi-
ciency at the best-efficiency-point for viscous performance can be plotted as
Point E and the viscous efficiency curve plotted from zero (Point F) through
Point E; the shape of the curve is similar to that obtained for water efficiency.
The horsepower (BHP) for any capacity can now be calculated from the head and
efficiency at the capacity desired. The best-efficiency-point for viscous perfor-
mance is:
712GPM × 92 ft. × 0.9 S.G.

BHP = -------------------------------------------------------------------- = 28.6
3960 × 0.52 eff
(Eq. 200-3)
This horsepower can now be plotted as Point G and the horsepower curve for
viscous performance drawn through Point G approximately parallel to the brake
horsepower curve for water.
220 Suction Considerations

One of the most important aspects of successful pump operation is to have enough
suction pressure to push liquid into the pump without flashing or boiling. This
requirement is particularly critical where liquids are already near their boiling points
(reflux, boiler feedwater, flash separators, furnace circulation, etc.). Failure to
assure adequate suction pressure will lead to numerous operational and
mechanical problems, up to and including destruction of the pump.

221 Pumping Liquids Near Their Boiling Points

Pumps should be selected with inlet velocities sufficiently low to prevent vapor
formation in the entering liquid. This may call for (1) oversized inlet piping,
(2) pumps operating at low speed, (3) pumps designed for such conditions, or
(4) use of vertical pumps installed in a suction can.
The design requirement is that the pressure at the pump inlet be adequate to accel-
erate the liquid to the required velocity at the impeller entrance without the pressure
in the pump falling below the fluid’s vapor pressure. Boiling or flashing of the fluid
in the pump suction eye is called cavitation and can significantly affect pump
performance.
222 Cavitation
The formation of vapor bubbles in the impeller suction eye due to fluid flashing or
boiling, with subsequent collapse of the bubbles as the pressure rises, is called cavi-
tation. Cavitation may cause vibration, pitting damage, and impaired performance.
Cavitation may or may not be serious depending on the pump, HP/stage, impeller
design, and the fluid being pumped. In small pumps with low differential head per
stage, the energy of collapsing bubbles is much less than in larger, high-head-per-
stage pumps. Cavitation is more severe in a single-boiling point fluid (like water)
than with a mixture (like petroleum stocks) that have a broad boiling range.
Recirculation
Recirculation is a flow reversal at the inlet eye or discharge tip of an impeller.
Recirculation at the inlet eye is called suction recirculation. Discharge recirculation
occurs at the impeller tip. Recirculation usually occurs when operating centrifugal
pumps at flows below their best efficiency flow.
Refer to standard drawing GA-G1097-2, “Minimum Continuous Flow for Centrif-
ugal Pumps,” to help predict the flow at which a pump will begin to demonstrate
problems related to suction recirculation. Section 270 describes several ways to
prevent pump operation below the recommended minimum flow.
All impellers will begin to recirculate at a certain flow rate. The point recirculation
begins may not be the same for suction and discharge. Suction recirculation usually
will begin at a higher flow than discharge recirculation.
The capacity at which recirculation occurs is determined primarily by the impeller
design. Most of the problems associated with recirculation can be avoided by
selecting pumps with impellers of low suction specific speed (Nss) designs. Recom-
mended limits for Nss are:
Horsepower Per Stage < 250 to 300 > 300
Nss limit 11,000 9,000
The effects of recirculation can be impeller and casing damage, bearing failures, and
seal or shaft failures. Symptoms associated with recirculation are listed below.

Suction Recirculation:
• Cavitation damage to the pressure side of the impeller vanes at the inlet of
the vane.
• Cavitation damage to the stationary or splitter vanes in the suction side of the
pump casing.
• Random crackling or gravel pumping noise. (Inadequate NPSH will sound the
same except the noise will be constant not random.)
• Surging pressure in the suction pipe.
Discharge Recirculation:
• Cavitation damage to the pressure side of the impeller vane and exit shroud at
the discharge of the impeller. This may be seen as impeller failures at the
impeller exit vanes or shroud.
• Higher-than-normal axial vibration or shaft movement. This may be accompa-
nied by thrust bearing damage.
• Cavitation damage to the “cut water” (casing tongue) or diffuser vanes in
the case.
223 Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)

NPSHA is a critical factor in pump performance. It is a result of the suction system
design. In practical terms, NPSHA is the differential pressure between (1) the actual
pressure at the lowest pressure point in the pump, and (2) the pressure at which the
liquid begins to vaporize (flash or boil). NPSHA is the “available” pressure above
the liquid's vapor pressure that prevents vaporization (or cavitation). Remember that
as the liquid accelerates into the spinning impeller eye, its pressure drops. If the
pressure falls below the vapor pressure, cavitation occurs.
NPSHA is technically defined as the total suction pressure (in psia) at the
suction nozzle less the true vapor pressure of the liquid (in psia) at the pumping
temperature. For centrifugal pumps, NPSHA is always expressed in feet of the
liquid pumped.
Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR)

NPSHA must exceed the NPSH required by the pump. NPSHR depends on the
impeller design, operating speed and flow rate, and, to a lesser extent, on the charac-
teristics of the liquid handled. NPSHR represents the frictional losses and initial
pressure-to-velocity energy conversions occurring between the suction flange and
the point where the impeller begins to do work on the fluid.
During NPSH testing and NPSH curve development, the pump manufacturer oper-
ates the pump at a constant flow rate while closely monitoring the pump head as
suction pressure is reduced. During the process of lowering suction pressure, cavita-
tion begins. When the volume of the vapor bubbles impairs pump performance by a
reduction in head of 3%, the pump manufacturer defines that NPSH value as the

required NPSH for that particular flow. This is repeated at several flow points to
develop an NPSHR curve.
NPSH testing is done using cold water as the pumped fluid. The values of NPSHR
determined from cold water tests are conservative and are practical to use for virtu-
ally all services.
NPSHR, Suction Specific Speed, and Minimum Flow

The NPSHR by a pump is largely dependent on the impeller “eye area” and inlet
“vane angle” design. These relatively complicated and proprietary design features
can easily be evaluated by comparing each pump's Suction Specific Speed (Nss).
Nss is a design number which relates the best-efficiency flow and NPSHR for the
maximum diameter and pump rpm. This value provides a great deal of information
about pump performance. To calculate Nss, use the following formula:
0.5
(Q) N
Nss = ----------------------------------
0.75
( NPSHR )
(Eq. 200-4)
where:
Q = pump best efficiency flow in GPM for the maximum diameter
impeller. Q divided by 2 is used for double suction impellers.
N = pump rotating speed in rpm
NPSHR = net positive suction head required in feet at flow point Q
Typical values for Nss range between 7,000 and 14,000 as determined by pump
design. However, conservative impeller designs will have a Nss value less than
11,000. Multistage, high-energy pumps which operate above 3600 rpm should have
a first-stage impeller Nss value of less than 9000.
The following is an example of the relationship between Nss, NPSHR, and pump
minimum flow.
PUMP #1 PUMP #2
Manufacturer ABC Co. XYZ Co.

Model 3×2×8 3×2×8
Speed (rpm) 3,600 3,600
NPSHR (feet) 10 6
Nss 8,750 11,500
Minimum flow (GPM) 30 60
Pump #1 with the lower Nss requires a higher NPSHR and has a lower minimum
flow. Therefore: (1) Pump #2 probably has a larger impeller inlet eye area and less
conservative inlet vane angle design; and (2) due to the less conservative design of

Pump #2, the stability of flow in the impeller is reduced at lower flow rates resulting
in a higher minimum flow.
In summary, as Nss increases, the pump NPSHR decreases, and the pump minimum
flow increases.
Company experience has shown that pump reliability is directly related to the pump
Nss. Pumps with Nss values above 11,000 are less reliable. The lower reliability
usually manifests itself as high vibration and shaft deflection due to flow instability
in the impeller eye. The shaft deflection and vibration results in reduced mechan-
ical seal and bearing life.
Refer to Figure 200-18 for a nomograph to help determine NPSHR or Nss values for
pumps without the need for calculation. The nomograph along with basic knowledge
of pump performance requirements can (1) assist in the selection of a conservatively
designed pump by establishing design parameters for new or retrofit of existing pump
suction systems; and (2) help diagnose problems with existing pump suction systems.
Refer to Figure 200-19 to help determine the stable operating range for the selected
pump based on its Nss. This figure can also be used to compare minimum flow
quotes from various vendors, as they often will not consider the Nss of the pump
when quoting the stable minimum flow.
NPSHR for Liquids Other than Cold Water

Manufacturer’s test data for NPSHR are published based on cold water and
are normally included on pump performance curves. When liquids other than
cold water are handled, the actual NPSHR becomes uncertain. Tests, however, indi-
cate that cavitation starts at nearly the same NPSH for all liquids, but that some
liquids (primarily high-vapor-pressure liquids such as propane and butane) do not
require as much NPSH as does cold water.
Three factors cause the NPSHR for some liquids to be less than for cold water:
1. Vaporization removes heat from surrounding liquid, reducing its vapor pres-
sure, and suppressing further vaporization. The magnitude of this effect depends
on the thermodynamic properties of the liquid at the suction conditions.
2. The volume of vapor bubbles in the impeller eye determines the extent to which
performance is impaired. The volume of vapor formed depends on the pressure
and temperature at which vaporization takes place and on the molecular weight
of the stock. To make the same volume of vapor, more weight of a high-vapor-
pressure stock must be vaporized than of a low-vapor-pressure stock. The
higher molecular weights of hydrocarbons compared to water require
more hydrocarbon than water to be vaporized for the same volume of
vapor formed.
3. Multi-component liquids have light ends that vaporize first. These may be
small enough in proportion to the total fluid so that some vaporization can
reduce the vapor pressure before pump performance is seriously impaired. This
effect will vary with changes in the composition of the hydrocarbon. Some
hydrocarbons require almost as much NPSH as cold water if the fractions of the

stock first evaporating are significant in relation to the whole NPSH for a given
service condition. The use of any NPSH correction factor which supposedly
allows less NPSHR than cold water is not recommended.
Vapor Pressure and NPSH

A primary factor in calculating the NPSHA for a pump is the vapor pressure of the
liquid handled. One commonly used method, Reid vapor pressure, requires a certain
amount of liquid to be evaporated in the measuring apparatus before the vapor pres-
sure is indicated. Such vapor pressures are too low for determining when gas evolu-
tion will start (the point that will affect pump performance). This error is variable,
being small for fractioned stocks and greater for wild crudes. The true vapor pres-
sure (TVP) at the pumping temperature should be used for NPSHA calcula-
tions rather than vapor pressure by the Reid method.
In determining true vapor pressure, do not overlook the possibility of dissolved
gases in the liquid. A frequent cause of NPSH trouble is dissolved or entrained air
or gas in the liquid pumped. When tested by the bubble-point method, water which
has been aerated has a higher “vapor pressure” than water which has not been
aerated. The same is true for hydrocarbons or other liquids. When the pressure of a
liquid containing dissolved gases is reduced, the gas dissolved in the liquid may
evolve and cause an effect similar to cavitation.
You must consider the effect of temperature changes on vapor pressure in
determining the NPSH available for a pump. Vapor pressure is a function of
temperature alone for any given composition of liquid. For some fluids, a small
increase in temperature causes a relatively large increase in vapor pressure. When
selecting a pump for such a fluid (water, for example), see that the NPSHA is calcu-
lated at the highest probable fluid temperature.
4. The same precaution applies to pressure changes. The NPSHA must take into
account any reduction in suction pressure that might result from pressure varia-
tions in the system. This is of particular importance in applications such as
boiler feed pumps, where you should always make reasonable allowance for
variation in deaerator pressure and its effect on pump suction.
NPSHR Quotations
Since most pumps are tested by the manufacturer on cold water only, quotations by
the supplier will usually provide the cold water NPSHR.

Fig. 200-18 Specific Speed and Suction Specific Speed
Fig. 200-19 Minimum Continuous Flows for Centrifugal Pumps
Calculation of NPSHA
NPSHA can be calculated as follows:
NPSHA = H + S - F - Vp
(Eq. 200-5)
where:
NPSHA = feet of head of the pumped liquid, at the pump impeller-eye eleva-
tion and suction flange face.
H = minimum absolute pressure on the surface of liquid pumped, in
feet of the liquid.
S = static head, or vertical distance between the surface of the liquid
and the center of the impeller, in feet. S is negative (-) when the
pump is above liquid surface, and positive (+) when the pump is
below.
F = friction losses, in the suction pipe and fittings, in feet of the
liquid.
Vp = True vapor pressure of the liquid, in feet of liquid, at pumping
temperature. For water this may be determined from the steam
tables. For hydrocarbons refer to CRTC technical data books,
process designs, or other sources. (Also see the Appendix.)
H and Vp are calculated from pressures in absolute, not gage units. (Absolute
pressure = gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure).
Sample Calculation: Static Head (S)

Gasoline is to be pumped at a rate of 300 GPM from a tank having atmospheric
pressure on the surface of the gasoline. What is the minimum required static head,
S, to satisfy the pump NPSH requirements?
Since we want to obtain Static head (S), Equation 200-5 can be rearranged to:
S = Vp + F + NPSHA - H
A check on the gasoline shows that the true vapor pressure is 10 psi absolute, and
the specific gravity is 0.75. Therefore:
Vp psia × (2.31 feet/0.75) = 30.8 ft.
From the size and length of the line, fittings, and quantity to be pumped, the friction
head loss of the suction line is found to be:
F = 10 ft.

To calculate NPSHA for the specified pump flow of 300 GPM, Figure 200-18
shows the pump requires a NPSH of 10 feet, assuming 3600 rpm operation and a
Nss of 11,000.
Since the objective is to find the necessary static head (S) to satisfy the pump NPSH
requirements, we can substitute the 10 feet required from Figure 200-18 and add an
operating margin of 4 feet, for the minimum necessary NPSHA.
In other words, we must provide:
NPSHR from Figure 200-18 10 feet
Operational margin 4 feet
System NPSHA by design 14 feet
(The minimum recommended operational margin is 2 feet, a margin of 4 feet is

preferred.)
H is the atmospheric pressure, or 14.7 psia:
14.7 × (2.31/.75) = 45.4 feet of gasoline
Substituting in the equation,
S = Vp + F + NPSHA - H
S = 30.8 + 10 + 14 - 45.4
and
S = 9.4 ft.
The positive value of S indicates that the center of the impeller must be below the
surface of the gasoline; the example shows that the center of the impeller should be
at least 9.4 feet below the lowest level of the gasoline in the tank.
Figure 200-20 shows variations of the equation for calculating NPSHA, depending
on whether the liquid surface is above or below the pump centerline, and open or
closed to atmospheric pressure.
224 Required NPSH (NPSHR)

NPSHR is a function of pump design, varying with the capacity and speed of any
given pump. While NPSHA is easily calculated for a given set of conditions, the
NPSHR for a particular pump must be obtained from the manufacturer (determined
by the actual testing of a similar pump) or estimated from Figure 200-18.
If NPSHR is particularly critical for the pump application being considered, an
NPSH test can be specified for the actual pump being furnished. This test is recom-

mended if the difference between NPSHR and NPSHA is less that 4 feet for a
centrifugal pump.
For a properly designed pumping system:
NPSHA ≥ NPSHR + OM
(Eq. 200-6)
where OM (operating margin) is the extra margin to suppress cavitation.
Values of OM may be selected from experience or in consultation with a specialist.
For most centrifugal pump applications, a 2-foot margin should be considered as a
minimum, with values from 3 to 5 being recommended. Any margins less than
4 feet should be demonstrated by an NPSH test in the manufacturer’s shop. New
pump or impeller designs should also be NPSH and performance tested.
Limit of Capacity Due to NPSH

Figure 200-21 shows a method for computing the capacity limitation imposed by
the NPSH on a given pump.
225 “Suction-Stealing”
When two or more pumps are connected to the same suction header and operated in
parallel, the total volume pumped is often much less than proportional to the
number of pumps used. One pump seems to take all the liquid from the other pump
or pumps. This effect, called “suction-stealing,” arises from unequal suction
pressures at the impeller inlets of the various pumps. It is most pronounced where
the pressure in the suction header is low, so that the inequalities in friction between
the inlet to the header and inlets to the various pump impellers greatly influence the
volume of flow into the pump. The remedy is to provide equal head losses between
the inlet to the header and the inlets to the pump suction nozzles and adequate
NPSHA to both pumps at the total flow rate. Independently matched pump curves
give the same effect, especially if they are “flat,” permitting minor inlet piping vari-
ances to produce major effects. Actual cases of suction-stealing can usually be
traced to flat or unstable curves.
It is equally important that pumps in series have adequate suction pressure. Occa-
sionally, pumps in series operation have not developed the anticipated total differen-
tial head. This is usually the result of one pump operating under cavitating
conditions because of insufficient NPSHA. Figure 200-21 shows how capacity is
limited when adequate NPSHA is not provided.
226 Horsepower
The hydraulic horsepower (HHP) for a centrifugal pump is a theoretical value calcu-
lated from the rated capacity and differential head, assuming a 100% efficient pump.
It can be calculated as:

Fig. 200-20 Calculations of System Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) for Typical Suction Conditions
Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc.
Legend:
S = Static head, feet absolute
Vp = Vapor pressure of the liquid at maximum pumping temperature, in feet absolute
H = Pressure on surface of liquid in feet absolute
F = Friction losses, feet absolute
HHP = ( Q × H × S.G. ) / 3960

where:
HHP = hydraulic horsepower
Q = rated capacity in gpm
H = differential head at rated capacity in feet
S.G. = fluid specific gravity
(Eq. 200-7)

Fig. 200-21 Limit of Capacity Due to Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Once the pump efficiency is known, the rated power (BHP) can be determined. The
rated power is the power which the pump driver must transmit to the pump shaft at
the rated pump capacity. It can be calculated as:
BHP = HHP / eff

where:
BHP = rated power in horsepower
HHP = hydraulic horsepower
eff = pump efficiency at rated capacity as a fraction
(Eq. 200-8)

Pump efficiency is determined empirically from the pump’s factory performance

test, and appears on the pump’s characteristic curve.

This section discusses the criteria for selecting a centrifugal pump for a specific
service. It is assumed that a centrifugal pump has been selected rather than a posi-
tive displacement pump. This material provides background information on
selecting a pump configuration for most applications in the petrochemical industry.
While this section provides general information for pump selection, engineering
judgement and user preferences must always be considered in the final decision.
Keep in mind that you are trying to minimize the sum of first cost, operating cost,
and maintenance cost for every selection. Also note the potential flexibility required
in operations and changes in environmental laws (which might require multiple
seals where a pump cannot accommodate it).
231 Factors in Pump Selection

General Pump Quality
Recommended practice is to specify that any pump in heavy-duty or critical service
be manufactured to API Standard 610. This includes all continuous-duty, process-
plant, hydrocarbon pumps and all other pumps in critical services (i.e., boiler feed-
water, off-plot charge pumps, high-pressure waterflood, etc.). Light duty pumps
(smaller than 150 HP and in noncritical services) are often purchased to meet ANSI
Standards or as general purpose pumps to supplier standards.
In practice, most pumping needs are met with single-suction, single-stage,
3600/1800 rpm centrifugal pumps. These are the work horses of the industry and are
generally the best choice for a given service. Historically, these have been hori-
zontal pumps. In recent years, however, single-stage, vertical, in-line pumps have
often proven to be as reliable and usually less expensive to purchase and install.
In all cases, the user should be consulted on proposed selections. There may be local
preferences based on past performance. Availability of maintenance and stocking of
interchangeable parts can also be significant factors.
ANSI versus API

There are significant construction and design differences between ANSI and API
pumps. These differences will impact the pump selection. A tabulation of major
differences is shown in Figure 200-22.
There are two major differences: pressure rating and materials of construction.
ANSI pumps are limited to 150# ratings. Also, ANSI pumps are not readily avail-
able with carbon steel casings or impellers. Cast iron or ductile iron are ANSI stan-
dard materials.

There are two limitations with use of cast or ductile iron.

• Cast or ductile iron castings (case and impeller) cannot be repaired by welding.
• Cast iron materials are susceptible to cracking due to thermal shock. When a
hot cast iron pump is exposed to cold extinguishing fluids it may crack. If the
pump was pumping a flammable or hazardous fluid, it could feed a fire or cause
other environmental hazards.
If ANSI pumps meet the required service conditions but cast or ductile iron mate-
rials are not acceptable, consider using 316 SS.
Fig. 200-22 Comparison of ANSI and API Pump Designs (1 of 2)

ANSI API
Type Pump and ANSI B73.1 for horizontal end suction top API 610 for horizontal single and multistage pumps,
Specification discharge pumps. vertical in-line, vertical single and multistage centrifugal
ANSI B73.2 for vertical in-line pumps. All are single pumps.
stage.
Maximum Allowable 275 PSIG Minimum 700 PSIG

Working Pressure Some API pumps are designed for
(MAWP) pressures above 5000 PSIG.
Hydrostatic Test 415 PSIG Minimum 1050 PSIG

Pressure API pump hydrostatic test pressure will be 1.5 times the
MAWP.
Flange Rating 150# flat faced is standard. 150# raised face is 300# raised face is standard. 600, 900, 1500, and higher
available. ratings are available if required by the service.
Maximum Temperature 250°F 800°F

Pump casing is foot mounted which limits allow- Pump casing is centerline mounted. No casing thermal
able thermal growth. growth limitations.
Materials of Ductile Iron Carbon steel casing is standard;

Construction (Casing and 316 SS stainless steel is also available.
impeller) Alloy 20 Impeller materials are cast iron, carbon steel, and stain-
A carbon steel casing or impeller is not commonly less steel.
available.
Maximum Head 550 to 600 feet Practical limit is 10,000 feet.

Differential ANSI pumps are only single stage. Maximum Horizontal API pumps can have as many as 14 stages.
impeller diameter is about 13 inches.
Impelller Design and Open impellers are common. Some enclosed impel- All are enclosed design. Some open designs are avail-
Attachment lers are available. able for special coke crushing services. Impellers must
No standard for attachment to the shaft. Most are be key driven with a lock nut attachment.
threaded on the end of the shaft.
Standard Dimensions ANSI pumps are built for interchangeability No standard dimensions apply.
between manufacturers.
Shaft Sleeves Not required but are available. Fit to the shaft and Are required to prevent shaft damage in the seal or
extension past the gland are not ANSI specifica- packing area. Sleeve and stuffing box design is part of the
tion requirements. API 610 specification.
Lubrication Can be grease or oil lubricated. Oil lubrication is required. Usually ring oil system is
provided.

Fig. 200-22 Comparison of ANSI and API Pump Designs (2 of 2)

Thrust Bearing and Life Antifriction bearings only. Antifriction ball bearings must be duplex, single-row, 40-
B-10 bearing life of 17,500 hours at design load is degree angular-contact type, installed back to back.
required. L-10 bearing life must exceed 25,000 hours at rated condi-
tions, or 16,000 hours at maximum axial and radial loads at
rated speed.
Wear Rings Not required and not available in most designs due Case and impeller, front and back wear rings are required.
to the use of open impellers. Wear ring clearances, attachment, and hardness differ-
ential are specified.
Head/Capacity Considerations
The head-capacity requirement is a significant factor in selecting pumps. Proper
definition of these parameters requires considerable thought to be sure all possible
operating conditions have been considered. This is discussed in detail in Section
130, “System Hydraulic Design.”
The performance of centrifugal pumps over a range of Heads and Capacities is a
function of the pump impeller and case design. There are three general impeller
designs: radial-flow, mixed-flow, and axial-flow (or propeller). These designs and
their relative performance are noted in Section 210, “Engineering Principles.”
Figure 200-15 indicates the general shape of the characteristic curves for radial,
mixed flow, and axial (propeller) pumps. It shows the head, brake horsepower, and
efficiency plotted as a percent of their values at the design, or best efficiency, point
of the pump.
The head curve for a radial flow pump is relatively flat, and the head decreases
gradually as the flow increases. Note that the brake horsepower increases gradually
over the flow range with the maximum normally at the point of maximum flow.
Mixed flow centrifugal pumps and axial flow or propeller pumps have considerably
different characteristics. The head curve for a mixed flow pump is steeper than for a
radial flow pump. The shut-off head is usually 150% to 200% of the design head.
The brake horsepower remains fairly constant over the flow range. For a typical
axial flow pump the head and brake horsepower both increase drastically near
shut-off.
The distinction between the above three classes is not absolute, and there are many
pumps with characteristics falling somewhere between the three.
Head-capacity ranges, and other pump features are shown in the Application
Guidelines (Figures 200-23 and 200-24) and on the Pump Description sheets in
Section 240.
Although 3600/1800 rpm, single-stage pumps are the most popular selections in the
centrifugal pump family, the following factors may preclude their use.

Fig. 200-23 Horizontal Centrifugal Pump Application Guidelines
Fig. 200-24 Vertical Centrifugal Pump Application Guidelines
High Head
When an installation calls for a high head combined with a low-flow rate (outside
the typical range of single-stage pumps), a high-speed, single-stage, vertical-in-line
pump should be investigated. If requirements exceed the limits provided by this
pump, a multi-stage centrifugal or positive displacement pump may be suitable.
Axially-split, horizontal, multi-stage pumps should be limited to approximately
2000 psig discharge pressure. Higher heads require double case or barrel pumps,
which are inherently more expensive. In special cases such as high-pressure pipe-
lines with limited NPSH available, pumps in series may be considered, but shaft
sealing becomes increasingly difficult as pump inlet pressures increase.
Some situations require vendors to develop a design for a particular service. For
example, the feed pumps in the Richmond Refinery ISOMAX TKN units were
designed to pump 1425 GPM of light hydrocarbons against an 8900 ft head at
300°F. These pumps are radially-split, horizontal, 14-stage, 6600 rpm, and stretch
the vendor’s experience in design and operation for proven machinery. However,
“prototype” pumps are definitely not recommended. Consult a specialist in such
situations and always check the user’s list carefully when in doubt.
Low Head/High Flow

If a requirement calls for low head (50-200 ft) combined with a high pumping rate
(greater than 5000 GPM) that does not fall within the parameter range provided by
horizontal or in-line pumps, high-capacity pumps should be investigated.
There are also many double-suction pumps available that provide higher heads than
mixed-flow or axial-flow pumps. These are designed to move large quantities of
liquid without the usual high NPSH required by high-capacity suction pumps.
Typical services include transfer and loading pumps, ballast pumps, and cooling
water pumps.
Another pump type for very low heads in water service is the “Archimedes Screw
Pump.” The Company has almost no experience with these.
Physical Installation
In some cases, the physical arrangement of the installation is a significant factor in
pump selection. This is especially true when adding to existing facilities or retrofit-
ting a plant. For example, there may be limited space available, resulting in the
installation of a vertical, multi-stage, barrel pump where a horizontal pump with
fewer stages would be the first choice. This is also true for offshore platforms where
deck space is at a premium.
NPSH
Suction considerations often dictate pump selection. Cavitation can be of prime
concern if there is limited NPSH available or if suction lift is required. Pumps which
operate at low speed, have high Nss (suction specific speed), or have double suction
impellers require less NPSH. In certain cases, vertical-turbine barrel or self-priming
pumps may be the most reasonable solution. Vertical sump pumps can be used when
suction lift is required, if the head requirement is not too high.

Operating Temperature
Most pump installations operate at 250°F or less, and pump design temperature is
normally not a problem. In high temperature situations (greater than 450°F), atten-
tion must be given to pump materials and mechanical design, as they relate to the
stock and severity of service. Auxiliary cooling of bearings and seals is recom-
mended in most pumps starting at 300°F, plus pedestal cooling at temperatures
above 500°F. Some process pumps operate above 800°F. Suggested bearing, seal,
and pedestal cooling arrangements are shown in API-610.
Three special design features needed for hot service:
1. An arrangement that permits piping and pump thermal expansion without
moving bearings out of line or imposing undue loads on them.
2. Corrosion-resistant materials suitable for the pumping temperature.
3. A design that minimizes leakage and confines it to avoid ignition and hazard to
personnel. Mechanical seals are used in almost all centrifugal pump services.
See Section 800, “Mechanical Seals.”
Hazardous Stocks
Special care must be given to installations handling toxic or hazardous stocks (H2S,
LPG, Ammonia, chlorine, HF, other acids, etc.) or hydrocarbons above their flash
point. In such cases, pumps that can take dual mechanical seals, or seals with
external flush should be considered. Pump materials must be carefully selected for
compatibility with toxic, hazardous, or corrosive stocks. Suggested seal flush
arrangements are also shown in API 610 and Section 800. Canned seal-less, and
hydraulic-seal pumps are available for low head/low HP applications. See Section
150 for H2S considerations.
Dirty Fluids
Depending on the pumped fluid and its contaminants, some pumps will require
more frequent maintenance than others. This can be due to entrained solids (as in
crude oils, FCC cycle oils, sandy water, sludges, etc.) or the corrosivity of the fluid
itself.
Pumps with replaceable liners in the pump case are also available. Centrifugal
pumps in abrasive service should operate near the best-efficiency point to avoid
imbalanced hydraulic forces that accelerate wear.
When selecting pumps for such service, consider access to bearings and seals and
the pump itself. In such cases, consider pumps that can be disassembled without
disturbing connected piping (back pull-out feature), or that allow seal replacement
in place (cartridge seals).
Intermittent Operation
Centrifugal pumps are normally designed for continuous operation. If frequent shut-
downs are possible, the pump should remain flooded. If this is not possible, or
suction lift is needed, the seals must be flushed at startup. Canned pumps with

stock-lubricated bearings and pumps with close internal clearances must never be
run dry. Intermittent operation is generally harder on a pump than continuous
operation.
232 Energy Efficiency for Centrifugal Pumps

Operating costs account for a major portion of the total cost of ownership of pumps.
Small increases in efficiency (1–2%) can result in company-wide energy savings
amounting to several million dollars per year. Selection of the proper impeller size
and the proper number of stages can significantly affect pump efficiency. For all
centrifugal pumps, wear ring design, materials, and running clearances may improve
efficiency.
Impeller Considerations
Impeller disc friction is a major factor affecting overall efficiency. The outer
surfaces of a rotating impeller are subject to friction with the surrounding fluid.
Some of this friction is recovered as contribution to pump head if the rotating flow
induced by disk friction freely enters the pump casing. Wear ring leakage, on the
other hand, causes a radial flow which tends to reduce disk friction.
Disc friction effects are more evident in low specific speed (Ns) pumps. (Refer to
Section 218 for discussion of specific speed.) These pumps tend to have large diam-
eter, narrow shaped impellers as shown in Figure 200-15. Figure 200-25 shows the
typical variation of pump losses with N s. For low Ns impellers (Ns < 1000), disc
friction accounts for 15% or more loss in efficiency.
Fig. 200-25 Factors Affecting Overall Pump Efficiency

Disc friction horsepower losses can be estimated as follows:
HP = 1.83(U/100)3 (D/10)2 (S.G.)(N)
where:
U = Peripheral velocity of impeller, Ft/sec
D = Outside diameter of impeller, inches
S.G. = Specific gravity of fluid at pumping temperature
N = Number of impellers
(Eq. 200-9)
Other calculation methods are available for determining disc friction losses but none
are precise because of the effect of other pump design details. For example, disc
friction losses increase as impeller-to-casing side clearances increase and as
impeller sidewall roughness increases. Losses are also affected by fluid viscosity.
For most pumps, this is generally an insignificant effect since fluid viscosity is typi-
cally low. (Refer to Section 219 for services where fluid viscosity is greater than
water.)
When pump suppliers offer a different number of stages for a specific pump appli-
cation, disc friction can clearly account for differences in quoted efficiency. Pump
supplier’s quoted number of stages will vary most often when the rated capacity is
less than 200 gpm or the head is more than 500 feet. Adding a stage or stages and
reducing impeller diameters may reduce losses and increase overall efficiency. The
addition of stages is not desirable from first cost and maintenance standpoints but
the operating cost incentive may more than offset maintenance aspects.
Wearing Ring Considerations

Similarly, wearing ring (also commonly called wear ring) clearances can signifi-
cantly affect efficiency. Figure 200-26 shows the effect of increasing wear ring
clearance on pump horsepower (efficiency). Most petrochemical pumps are
designed with impeller specific speeds in the range of 800–1500. As shown in
Figure 200-25, wear ring losses for a new pump in this Ns range typically average
only 3–4%. For low Ns impellers (Ns < 800), wear ring losses can account for much
larger losses (up to 15%) in efficiency. Generally there is little incentive to reduce
new wear ring clearances to a minimum. The likely efficiency savings is only 1–2%
with an increased risk of reduced reliability. (See Section 253.)
In service, wear ring clearances gradually increase due to corrosion, erosion, abra-
sion, etc. Consequently, efficiency decreases. Clearance increases of 100% or more
over as-built (new) clearances typically occur in a 2 to 3 year operating period. This
100% increase results in about a 5% decrease in pump efficiency. Sustaining as-new
clearances over long operating periods is much more beneficial from an
efficiency standpoint than reducing clearances to minimize losses when the pump
is new.

Fig. 200-26 Effect of Wearing Ring Clearance on Pump Horsepower
Selection of proper wear ring materials is critical to minimizing efficiency losses

and maintaining long-term pump reliability. Section 253 discusses metallic and non-
metallic materials available for use in today’s pumps.
Trimming Impellers for Efficient Operation

Section 216 discusses the “affinity law” for changes in impeller diameter. This law
provides a reasonable estimate as long as impeller diameter changes are within 15%
of the original impeller diameter.
When the head developed by a single stage pump with constant speed driver is
higher than that actually required, the impeller diameter can be reduced. For multi-
stage pumps with constant speed drivers, one or more impellers can be removed.
This assumes that the lower head requirement is not a short-term operational condi-
tion. The required BHP is reduced directly with a reduction in head.
If the pump is driven by a steam turbine or variable speed motor, the speed can be
reduced to obtain the lower head. However, caution should be used since driver effi-
ciency may decrease and offset the benefit of the lower pump head.
There are two ways to trim impellers to achieve best efficiency. One way is to trim
only the vanes, leaving the shrouds (disc and cover) untrimmed. The second way is
to trim both the vanes and the shrouds to the same diameter. In addition to effi-
ciency considerations, machining costs, stress levels in unsupported shrouds, stress
levels at the vane-to-shroud joint, the effect on the shape of the performance curve,
thrust loads and seal cavity operating pressure need to be considered.

Industry practice for both enclosed and semi-open impeller designs is to trim both
vanes and shrouds to the same diameter. Exceptions to this practice include high
capacity pumps, mixed flow pumps, multistage diffuser pumps and certain pump
designs with pumping vane construction on the back shroud (disc).
For multistage diffuser pumps (typically double case types), suppliers often trim
only the impeller vanes. Leaving shrouds untrimmed helps guide the flow exiting
the impeller as it enters the narrow diffuser passage. There are stress limits which
set the amount of unsupported shroud which can be left untrimmed. A typical limit
for steel impellers running at 3600 rpm is ½-inch.
For volute pump designs (typically single stage and multistage, axially split case
types), industry practice is to trim both vanes and shrouds to the same diameter. In
general, there is no clear cut efficiency advantage to leaving the shrouds untrimmed
or to trimming them. Efficiency improvements afforded by added flow guidance
provided by the shrouds is approximately offset by the efficiency decrease due to
added disc friction. From a manufacturing standpoint, it is easier and less costly to
trim vanes and shrouds to the same diameter. Much more care needs to be taken if
only the vanes are trimmed. For example, profiling the vane-to-shroud intersection
to reduce stress concentrations is important when only the vanes are trimmed. (See
Figure 200-14.)
In high capacity, low speed volute design pumps, suppliers sometimes taper the
impeller trim from the front to the back shroud. This is done to reduce pressure
pulsations due to vanes passing the volutes. Vanes of double suction impellers
sometimes are profiled in a “V” shape for the same reason.
In a few specific cases, it may be advantageous to leave shrouds untrimmed for
other reasons. One reason may be the stability of the pump's head-capacity curve.
(See Figure 200-8.) Also, having the shroud permits vanes to be restored to their
original diameter should future head requirements require it.
233 Special Service Pumps

“Magnetic Drive” or “Canned” Pumps for Hazardous Stocks
Stuffing boxes have been eliminated in designs called “magnetic drive” or “canned”
pumps.
Canned pumps have a special electric motor operating under pressure in a liquid-
filled chamber adjacent to the pump case. The motor chamber is filled with the
liquid pumped. The bearings are usually carbon, lubricated by liquid pumped. These
pumps are available in sizes up to 150 HP, 1500 GPM and 600 feet of head;
however, they cost considerably more than pumps with stuffing boxes or seals.
Magnetic drive pumps utilize standard horizontal electric motors which are coupled
to the pump bearing housing which supports a rotating magnet. The rotating magnet
rotates or “pulls” the impeller rotor supported by product-lubricated, carbon bush-
ings inside a sealed case. Like canned motor pumps, these are available in sizes up

to 200 HP, 2000 GPM, and 600 feet of head and cost considerably more than
conventional centrifugal pumps with seals.
The advantages of completely eliminating stuffing box or seal leakage have led to
many installations of these pumps in the Company, primarily in acid and hydrogen
sulfide services. However, performance has often been unsatisfactory, primarily
because of bearing wear from grit or lack of lubrication. Use these pumps only
where the liquid pumped is clean and lubricating, and the pumps are never run dry.
Propeller (Axial-Flow) Pumps

These pumps are used in high volume/low head services. Although available with
2 or 3 stages, most are low-speed, single-stage, vertical pumps. Typical applications
are sewage, waste-water lifting, and sump pump out. Lifting 30,000 GPM against
20 ft of head is typical.
Slurry Pumps
These units are in common use and handle abrasive slurries, sand, chemical sludges,
plant wastes, and similar products. They are generally low-speed and often are
rubber-lined, or cast from very hard materials.
Non-Metallic and Lined Pumps

Non-metallic and lined centrifugal pumps are available as a lower cost alternative to
pumps constructed of more expensive metallic alloys. Both types are horizontal
end-suction pumps designed to ANSI standards (ANSI/ASME B73.1M). They are
primarily used in acid, deionized water, and other highly corrosive chemical
services.
The wetted components of non-metallic pumps are generally manufactured of glass
filament reinforced plastic (FRP). The wetted components of lined pumps are gener-
ally manufactured of ductile iron and steel lined with Teflon (PTFE). Both types of
pumps are available in capacities to about 800 gpm and head to about 450 feet.
Non-metallic and lined pumps can be considered when the material class goes
beyond Alloy 20 (when metals such as nickel, hastalloy, or titanium are required).
They should only be considered when there are significant savings over the cost of
metallic pumps, or when there is no other practical pumping solution.
234 Application Guidelines

Figures 200-23 and 200-24 show several factors to consider in selection and appli-
cation of horizontal and vertical centrifugal pumps. As in selecting the pump cate-
gory, there is no straightforward, general procedure to follow in all cases. The
design factors are too numerous and often conflict. Consider the design factors most
important to your location and refer to the Application Guidelines for information
on those factors.

240 Centrifugal Pump Descriptions

This section illustrates and describes the most commonly used types of centrifugal
pumps.
Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps

1. Single Stage, API, top/end suction and discharge.
2. Single Stage, ANSI, end suction, top discharge.
3. Single Stage, ANSI, end suction, top discharge, self priming.
4. Single Stage, Double suction, axially split.
5. Multi-stage, API, axially-split case.
6. Multi-stage, API, radially-split case.
Vertical Centrifugal Pumps

1. Single Stage, In-line, ANSI, rigid coupling.
2. Single Stage, In-line, ANSI, integral-shaft.
3. Single-Stage, In-line, ANSI, flexible coupling.
4. Single Stage, In-line, high-speed
5. Single Stage, Sump, bearing supported.
6. Single Stage, Sump, overhung impeller.
7. Multi-Stage, Vertical-Turbine, barrel.
8. Multi-Stage, Vertical-Turbine, deep well.

Pump Description Centrifugal – Horizontal – single-stage (top/end suction and top

discharge) typical API 610 class pump (See Figure 200-27.)
Typical Service Continuous-duty refinery process and critical water service.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 50-800 ft/100-10,000 GPM
Max Allowable Temperature 350°F without cooling

500°F with Bearing Cooling
800°F with Bearing Cooling and Pedestal Cooling
Typical Speed Range Up to 3600 rpm
Construction Features Cast steel and alloy available. Available single or double suction.
Normally closed impellers. Oil lubrication. Packed, single or multi-
seals. Radially split. Centerline mounted. Back pullout for mainte-
nance with single suction. Ductile iron or cast iron casings are not
available.
Typical Control Method Throttled discharge on flow, level, or pressure control.
Advantages More rugged and reliable than ANSI or Industry Standard pumps.
Available in a wide range of pressures and capacities. Lower operating
costs since efficiency is usually higher. Available in overhung design up
to 900 HP.
Disadvantages and Limitations Most expensive standard centrifugal pump.
Specification PMP-MS-983/API 610.
Data Sheet API 610, Appendix B.

Fig. 200-27 Horizontal, Single-stage, Top/end-suction, Top-discharge, API 610 Class Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of
Peerless Pump Co.

Pump Description Centrifugal – Horizontal - single-stage. ANSI B73.1 (end suction,

top discharge) (See Figure 200-28.)
Typical Service Chemical. Water. Noncritical hydrocarbon. General purpose.
Typical Head-Capacity Range 50-600 ft/50-3500 GPM
Max Allowable Temperature 250°F recommended
Construction Features Standard material options for the pump casing and impeller are cast
iron or ductile iron, 316 series stainless, and Alloy 20. Carbon steel is
not standard or readily available. Always end suction/top centerline
discharge with overhung impeller. Open or closed impellers available.
Ball bearing grease or oil lubricated single, tandem, or double seals
available. Foot-mounted casing. Back pullout for maintenance.
Advantages For each size, ANSI pumps are dimensionally interchangeable from
any manufacturer. Less expensive than API pumps. Wide variety of
alloy construction materials available.
Disadvantages and Limitations 150 HP maximum recommended. Carbon steel case is generally not
available. Pressures limited to 275 psig @ 60°F.
Specification ANSI B73.1. See also PMP-PC-1241 in this manual.
Data Sheet PMP-DS-1241-H.

Fig. 200-28 Horizontal, Single-stage, End-suction, Top-discharge ANSI Class Centrifugal Pump Copyright 1995
Ingersoll Dresser Pumps. Worthington is a trademark of Ingersoll Dresser Pump Company.

Pump Description Centrifugal – Horizontal – single-stage. ANSI B73.1 (end

suction, top discharge) self-priming (See Figure 200-29.)
Typical Service For vertical lift when non-pulsating flow desired. Sump pumpout.
Tank car unloading.
Typical Head/capacity Range 150-250 ft/0-1000 GPM
Max Allowable Temperature 250°F Recommended
Construction Features Same as ANSI Horizontal
Typical Control Method Throttled discharge, on/off level control.
Advantages Up to 20 ft effective static lift. Eliminates need for foot valve.

Dimensionally interchangeable with all ANSI pumps. More reli-
able than submerged vertical sump pumps.
Disadvantages and Limitations Less efficient than standard nonself-priming pumps. May take too
long to prime on large suction lines. A mechanical seal may run dry
without an external flush.
Company Specification ANSI B73.1. See also PMP-PC-1241 in this manual.
Company Data Sheet(s) PMP-DS-1241-H.

Fig. 200-29 Horizontal, Single-stage, Self-priming, ANSI Class Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc.

Pump Description Centrifugal – Horizontal – single-stage. (double suction, axially

split) (See Figure 200-30.)
Typical Service Cooling water circulation. Fire pump. Cargo loading. Crude transfer.
Construction Features Typically cast iron or bronze case (steel case for HC’s) and bronze
trim. External sleeve or anti-friction bearings. Horizontal inlet and
outlet. Closed impellers. Also available with stainless steel impellers
for higher cavitation resistance
Typical Control Method Throttled discharge, system back pressure (cooling water).
Advantages Balanced thrust on shaft. Can maintain pump in place. Low NPSH
requirement. Wide range of sizes and capacities.
Disadvantages And Limitations More expensive than single suction, overhung pump design. Suction
lines must be carefully designed to avoid nonsymmetrical flow that
would channel to one side, resulting in unbalanced thrust and possibly
cavitation.
Specification PMP-MS-983/API 610 (hazardous, flammable, and special purpose

services).
See also PMP-PC-1241 in this manual (general purpose services).
Data Sheet API 610, Appendix B (hazardous and flammable services).

Fig. 200-30 Horizontal, Single-stage, Double-suction, Axially (Horizontally)-split Case, Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of
Goulds Pumps, Inc.

Pump Description Centrifugal – Horizontal – multi-stage. API 610 axially split

(See Figure 200-31.)
Typical Service Crude feed. Waterflood. Boiler feedwater. Process. Pipeline.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 200-7000 ft/100-5000 GPM
Max Allowable Temperature 250°F without cooling

400°F with Cooling
Construction Features Carbon steel case. CI, steel, stainless steel, or bronze impellers.
Between bearings. Horizontal nozzles, both suction and discharge
nozzles located in bottom half casing.
Advantages Ease of in-line assembly and inspection. Can be designed with

balanced axial thrust. Eliminates multiple in-line series pumps.
Disadvantages and Limitations API 610 limits the axially-split case design to applications below
400°F and pumped fluids with specific gravity above 0.70. More complex
than single-stage pumps. However, note that pressures to 2000 psig are
common in producing water flood applications.

Fig. 200-31 Horizontal, Multi-stage, Axially (Horizontally)-split Case Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Flowserve
Corporation

Pump Description Centrifugal – Horizontal – multi-stage. API 610 radially split

double case (high pressure, high temperature)
Typical Service High pressure process feed pumps. Boiler feedwater. Crude pipeline.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 0-10,000 ft/100-5000 GPM
Max Allowable Temperature 850°F w/pedestal, bearing and seal cooling
Typical Speed Range 1800 - 7000 rpm
Construction Features Usually top suction/discharge; however, nozzle location may vary
with installation requirements. Radially split. Double casing. Carbon
steel cases. Water-cooled pedestals, bearings and seals available.
Typical Control Method Spillback on external-flow control.
Advantages Pressures possible without series pump operation. Double casing

allows in-line assembly/disassembly.
Disadvantages and Limitations Clearances extremely sensitive to differential temperatures in pump.

Slow pump startup mandatory with hot pumps. Proper assembly
difficult with many stages. Very important not to run with blocked
discharge.

Fig. 200-32 Horizontal, Multi-stage, Radially (Vertically)-split, Double Case, Centrifugal Pump Copyright 1995
Ingersoll Dresser Pumps. Pacific is a trademark of Ingersoll Dresser Pump Company

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical – single-stage - in-line. ANSI B73.2– Rigid

Coupling (See Figure 200-33.)
Typical Service Chemical. Water. Noncritical hydrocarbon. General purpose.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 600 ft/3000 GPM
Construction Features DI/CI, stainless steel or alloy available; steel not available. Motor
supported by pump. Suction/discharge flanges with common center-
line which intersects shaft axis. Open or closed impellers. Motor
bearings carry pump loads.
Advantages Can remove seal and impeller without disturbing motor. Unit is inter-
changeable with all other vertical ANSI designs. Simpler and cheaper
to install than horizontal. Occupies less floor space. No field align-
ment of pump and motor needed (as long as fits remain within toler-
ance).
Disadvantages and Limitations 150 HP maximum recommended. Typically cannot install dual
mechanical seals. Vapor or gas in liquid tends to collect at mechanical
seal faces, promoting failure unless properly vented during startup
(needing a vent), and flushed during operation. Always single-stage.
Rigid couplings are troublesome to keep in alignment (causes short
bearing and seal life typically).
Company Data Sheet(s) PMP-DS-1241-H.

Fig. 200-33 Vertical, In-line, Single-stage, Rigid-coupled, ANSI Class Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Flowserve Corpo-
ration

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical – single-stage - in-line. ANSI B73.2 Inte-

gral Shaft (no Coupling) (See Figure 200-34.)
Typical Service Chemical. Water. Non-critical Hydrocarbon.
Typical Head/capacity Range 600 ft/3000 GPM
Construction Features Motor shaft is integral with pump shaft. All bearings are in the
motor—none in the pump. DI/CI, 316 stainless steel, and alloy 20 are
standard materials; carbon steel is not available.
Typical Control Method Throttled discharge on flow, level, or pressure control
Advantages Unit is interchangeable with all other vertical ANSI designs. Simpler
and cheaper to install than horizontal pump. Occupies less floor
space. No field alignment of pump and motor needed. Provides better
seal and bearing life than rigidly coupled in-line.
Disadvantages and Limitations Must remove motor for access to seal or impeller. Cannot accommo-
date dual mechanical seals.
Data Sheet PMP-DS-1241-H.

Fig. 200-34 Vertical, Single-stage, In-line, Integral Shaft, ANSI Class Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Flowserve Corpo-
ration

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical – single-stage - in-line. ANSI B73.2 flex-

ible coupling (See Figure 200-35.)
Typical Service Chemical. Water. Noncritical Hydrocarbon. General purpose.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 600 ft/3500 GPM
Construction Features Pump has own bearings. Otherwise, same as rigid coupling pump.
Advantages Field alignment of pump and motor shafts is maintained by register

fits. Hydraulic loads not carried by motor bearings. Can remove seal
and impeller without disturbing motor. Interchangeable with all
other vertical ANSI designs. Simpler and cheaper to install than hori-
zontal. Occupies less floor space. No field alignment of pump and
motor needed.
Disadvantages and Limitations Complete bearing bracket/pump rotor must be sent to shop for seal
repairs. More expensive than rigid coupling or integral shaft pumps;
otherwise, same as rigid coupling pump. Taller and heavier installed
height than other vertical in-line options.
Data Sheet PMP-DS-1241V.

Fig. 200-35 Vertical, In-line, Single-stage, Flexible-coupling, Centrifugal Pump Copyright 1995 Ingersoll Dresser
Pumps. Worthington is a trademark of Ingersoll Dresser Pump Company

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical – single-stage – in-line. High-speed

Typical Service High head/low flow service for water and HC.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 0-4500 ft/0-800 GPM
Max Allowable Temperature 400°F with cooling
Typical Speed Range Up to 15,000 rpm
Construction Features Integral gear box with self-contained lube system. Available in
carbon steel, stainless steel or alloy. Built-in seal flush, dual seals
available. Usually open impellers. Suction/discharge flanges with
common counterline intersecting shaft axis.
Typical Control Method Minimum flow bypass with flow control.
Advantages Less expensive to purchase and install than comparable moderate

high-pressure horizontal, centrifugal, and plunger pumps. Field align-
ment of pump/motor not required. Occupies less floor space than
equivalent horizontal or P.D. pumps.
Disadvantages and Limitations Special prelube system for higher suction-pressure applications.
Separate minimum flow bypass with controller for each pump. High
speed creates seal face problems. Vapor collecting at top of case can
cause seal failure if not flushed. Accidental reverse rotation can
loosen impeller and cause failure. Must dismantle to replace seals.
May have unstable performance curve at low flows. 400 HP upper
limit. More NPSH(R) and much less efficient than equivalent hori-
zontal pumps. Better metallurgy required for impeller/diffuser due to
sensitivity of performance vs. internal clearances. There are
numerous ports (seal flush, vents, etc.) which are complex, and must
be carefully piped up.

Fig. 200-36 Vertical, In-line, Single-stage, High-speed Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Sundstrand Fluid Handling
Company.

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical – single-stage. Sump - bearing supported

Typical Service Sump pumpout. Sewage. Nonabrasive solids. Sludge.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 20-250 ft/50-2000 GPM (@ 30 ft)
Max Allowable Temperature 250°F
Construction Features Typical C.I. Plastic and 316 stainless steel available. Optional line
shaft bearing flush. Open or closed impellers.
Typical Control Method On/Off level control and throttled discharged.
Advantages Simple mounting; no foundation. No stuffing box or seal leakage.

Submerged impeller.
Disadvantages and Limitations 20 ft shaft is practical limit. Less reliable than self-priming hori-
zontal or vertical cantilever pump. Line shaft bearings require lubri-
cation from one of the following: (1) grease, (2) Continuous
Water/pumped Fluid Injection, (3) Pumped Fluid.
Data Sheet PMP-DS-1241-V

Fig. 200-37 Vertical, Sump, Single-stage, Bearing-supported Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc.

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical – single-stage. Sump - Pump Cantilever

Impeller and Shaft (See Figure 200-38.)
Typical Service Sump pumpout. Sewage. Abrasive solids, sludge, slurry
Typical Head/Capacity Range 0-200 ft/0-5000 GPM (@ 100 ft)
Speed Range Up to 1800 rpm
Construction Features Typical C.I. Plastic and 316 stainless steel available. Open or closed
impellers. No bearings in pumped liquid. Large-diameter shaft to
support cantilevered impeller.
Typical Control Method On/off level; throttled discharged
Advantages No bearing/pumped liquid contact. More reliable than bearing

supported vertical sump pumps in abrasive or sludge service. Simple
mounting; no foundation. No stuffing box or seal. Submerged impeller.
Pump can run dry for short periods.
Disadvantages and Limitations 10 ft is practical shaft limit. Requires rigid, large diameter shaft. More
expensive than bearing supported vertical sump pump.

Fig. 200-38 Vertical, Sump, Single-stage, Cantilever Impeller and Shaft Centrifugal Pump Copyright 1995 Ingersoll
Dresser Pumps. Worthington is a trademark of Ingersoll Dresser Pump Company

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical-turbine – multi-stage. Barrel

Typical Service Low NPSHA applications. Boiler feed water. Flashing liquid.
Condenser hotwells.
Speed Range Up to 3600 rpm; however, 1800 rpm is the preferred maximum speed
for improved reliability.
Construction Features Open or closed impellers. Steel barrel and steel or C.I. head with
typically C.I. bowls and C.I. steel or bronze impellers. Barrel
designed for discharge pressure. Can be installed in a sump without
the barrel. Weight of pump and pump thrust taken by motor thrust
bearing.
Typical Control Method Throttled discharge, flow, pressure or level control.
Advantages Little floor space required. Low NPSH required. Typically high effi-
ciency.
Disadvantages and Limitations Shaft sleeve bearings exposed to pumped liquid. Must remove pump
for all maintenance except mechanical seal changes.
Specification PMP-MS-983/API 610 (hazardous, flammable and special purpose

services).
See also PMP-PC-1241 in this manual (general purpose services).
Data Sheet API 610, Appendix B (special purpose); PMP-DS-V (general

purpose).

Fig. 200-39 Vertical, Multi-stage, Barrel, Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation

Pump Description Centrifugal – Vertical-turbine – multi-stage. Deep well line-shaft

type (See Figure 200-40.)
Typical Service Potable and irrigation water wells. Platform. Seawater. Firewater.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 0-3500 ft/60,000 GPM
Construction Features Column pipe and shaft in 10 ft lengths can be provided with open or
enclosed oil lubricated shaft. Open lineshaft arrangement is preferred;
less expensive and easier to assemble/disassemble. Semi-open or closed
impellers. Weight of shaft and hydraulic thrust supported by vertical
motor bearings. Can be provided with engine driver with right angle
drive. Same materials as vertical turbine (barrel).
Typical Control Method Throttled discharge. Level control for sumps.
Advantages Typically high efficiency. Can be installed in wells or wet-pit sumps.
Disadvantages and Limitations Size limited to diameter of well casing. Practical maximum setting
depth 1000 ft. 1800 maximum rpm. Bowl bearings are process-fluid
lubricated. Abrasives will shorten pump life.
Available With Submersible Motors To Eliminate Long Drive Shafts;
However, Submersible Motor Installations Are Less Reliable And Are
Not Recommended Above 50 Hp.

Fig. 200-40 Vertical, Multi-stage, Deep-well (Vertical Turbine) Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation

250 Mechanical Components

This section considers the mechanical design of the principal parts of centrifugal
pumps. See Section 260 for related subsystems.
The principal parts of centrifugal pumps include:
1. Cases
2. Impellers
3. Wearing Rings
4. Shafts and Shaft Sleeves
5. Throat Bushings
6. Lantern Rings
7. Glands
8. Balance Drums
9. Bearings
10. Base Plates
11. Couplings
12. Coupling Guards
Figure 200-41 is a cross-section showing most of the principal parts of a typical
centrifugal pump.
251 Cases
The case is that part of the pump in which energy imparted by the impeller is
converted into pressure. Pump cases are either axially (horizontally) split or radially
(vertically) split. Although axially-split cases were common on all types of pumps
for many years, they are now used principally in high-flow and multi-stage designs.
Pumps with the most common head and capacity ranges are radially split.
Diffuser vs. Volute Construction

Single-stage centrifugal pumps are usually “volute” type. Multi-stage pumps are
either diffusion-vane or volute. The diffusion-vane or diffuser type incorporates in a
cylindrical case a stationary ring of vanes around the periphery of each impeller.
Diffusion-vane pumps are widely applied in boiler feed and in high-head, hot oil
services. In general, however, volute construction is preferred.
The vane angle for either volute or diffuser, if properly designed, is correct for only
the capacity at the best efficiency point. If the pump is operated at some other
capacity, the diffuser may act as a hindrance rather than as an aid to efficient
operation.

Fig. 200-41 Cross-section of a Typical Centrifugal Pump Courtesy of Peerless Pump, Inc.
In recent designs, the efficiency of the volute type is equal to or better than the
diffusion-vane type. Further, the diffusion-vane type is more difficult to reassemble
after dismantling for maintenance. In some services, however, diffusion-vane pumps
are preferred because of space considerations. One such use is for pumping deep
wells of small diameter. All centrifugal deep-well pumps are “turbine” type pumps
with diffusion vanes as an integral part of the case.
The volute-type pump presents one problem not found in a diffusion-vane pump:
radial force against the shaft caused by unbalanced pressure conditions in the volute.
The radial force is greatest at shutoff and least at maximum efficiency. This radial
force must be compensated for by using a stiff shaft or placing a second volute
throat on the opposite side of the shaft. This “double-volute” construction is
provided on many heavy-duty process-type pumps, 3- to 4-inch discharge size or
larger.
Centerline vs. Bracket vs. Foot Mounting

In horizontal single-stage, centrifugal pumps (commonly used for process services),
two case arrangements have been available – the bracket-mounted type shown in
Figure 200-42 and the centerline-mounted type shown in Figure 200-43. Points in
favor of centerline-mounted pumps are:
1. Piping stresses are transmitted more directly to the foundations and are less
likely to cause misalignment and distortion of the pump.

2. Piping and driver can be left in place while the complete rotating element,
including the bearing housing and stuffing box, is removed for repairs. This is
called the “back pullout” feature.
3. Some pumps are designed with larger impeller eye areas which need less
NPSHR than bracket-mounted pumps for the same operating conditions.
4. Centerline-mounted pumps in accordance with API 610 generally have heavier
construction with greater case thickness, heavier shafts, heavier bolting, and
high design pressures.
Fig. 200-42 Bracket-mounted Centrifugal Pump Fig. 200-43 Centerline-mounted Centrifugal Pump
Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation
While centerline mounted pumps provide superior support for heavy-duty service
and high temperatures (greater than 250°F), foot-mounted pumps are less expensive
and suitable for low temperature, lighter-duty service.
Typical foot-mounted pump casings are shown in Figures 200-28 and 200-29. These
pumps are not suitable for temperatures above 250°F because all the casing thermal
expansion is from the casing base or feet toward the discharge nozzle. The thermal
growth will cause misalignment between the rotor/impeller and the case.
Vertical In-line
Single-stage, single-suction centrifugal pumps are also made in a vertical in-line
design as shown in Figure 200-44. The “in-line” pump is increasingly used in a
variety of services including process plant services. The pump case is flanged
directly in the line and a vertical motor is supported by the pump. The in-line pump
offers the following advantages over a comparable horizontal pump:
1. Lower initial cost because there are fewer parts, no fabricated base plate, no
pump bearing housing on some designs (bearings are in the motor) and no flex-
ible couplings or coupling guards.
2. Lower installation costs because the foundation is smaller or not needed at all
and the piping is simplified.

Fig. 200-44 Vertical In-Line Pumps Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation
3. Lower maintenance cost because the pump has fewer parts and is permanently
aligned with its driver.
4. Occupies less plot or deck space.
In-line pumps are generally applicable for temperatures to 250°F, flows to
3000 GPM, and heads to 600 feet. They usually have mechanical seals to seal the
shaft but can also be obtained with packing. A special high speed in-line, the
Sundyne pump (discussed below), is rated for temperatures to 400°F and can
produce 4500 feet of head at lower flow rates.
There are three basic types of shaft coupling designs for in-line pumps:
1. Flexible spacer-coupling
2. Integral or close-coupled
3. Axially-split rigid coupling
Flexible coupling allows changing the mechanical seal without removing the motor.
Alignment of motor and pump shafts are maintained by register fits. In addition, the
pump has its own bearings which minimizes shaft deflection at the seal for
improved seal life.
The close-coupled type has the significant advantage of built-in alignment and a
short stiff shaft. The close-coupled pump has one disadvantage: the motor and

impeller assembly must be lifted and removed to change the seal. Unless being able
to change the seal without removing the driver is of primary importance (as in some
remote locations with larger drivers) and operation is always near peak efficiency,
the close-coupled or integral shaft design is recommended.
The bearings for rigidly coupled and integral shaft-type in-line pumps are in the
motor. These motor bearings should be checked to see that their design life meets
Company specifications. This is particularly important on high suction pressure
services where up thrust may be quite high.
Axially-split rigid-coupled in-line pumps are the least reliable due to the inability of
getting and maintaining proper alignment between the pump and motor shaft,
resulting in vibration. Company experience with these pumps is very poor.
In addition, in-line pumps with rigid couplings have greater shaft deflection at the
seal than integral or flexibly-coupled pumps, leading to reduced seal life. The
advantage of rigid-coupled in-line pumps is the motor does not need to be removed
for seal maintenance. In-line pumps are made by almost all major centrifugal pump
manufacturers. The Company has had good experience with most of these pumps,
except rigid-coupled pumps with mechanical seals.
The Sunstrand Corporation manufactures the Sundyne in-line pump designed to
give high heads at relatively low flows. This pump uses a single impeller rotating at
speeds up to 15,000 rpm by using a gear box between the motor and the pump.
Currently, maximum brake horsepower is limited to 400 BHP. This pump will
deliver 1500 feet of head at 400 GPM and about 4000 feet of head at 100 GPM.
By using speed changes and various diffuser and impeller configurations to satisfy a
wide variety of operating conditions, Sunstrand has been able to achieve a high
degree of standardization. This allows rapid delivery of new pumps and replace-
ment parts. The head-capacity curve is usually very flat and drooping with a rapid
falloff at the cutoff point. In some sizes an internal hydraulic instability may cause
vibration at low flows. The manufacturer’s limit for minimum allowable flow should
be considered as it may be higher than for conventional centrifugal pumps. Many
problems have been experienced with these pumps because they have operated at
low flows without having minimum flow protection. The cost of minimum flow
bypass facilities should be taken into account during bid evaluation.
252 Impellers
The shape and size of the fluid channels in the impeller and casing give the liquid
the required velocity, speed and direction. Impellers require more attention to
hydraulic design than mechanical design. This discussion will be limited to mechan-
ical considerations.
Petroleum industry pumps have impellers usually cast of iron, steel, or bronze. The
impellers come from the foundry rough, out of balance, and not strictly alike,
although made from the same patterns. To reduce friction losses, all impeller
surfaces should be as smooth as possible, particularly those of the fluid channels
bounded by the shrouds and vanes. Since the fluid channels are of irregular shape,

the impeller may require more hand work than the remainder of the pump. The
strength of the material used and speed of rotation will limit the maximum safe
diameter of the impeller. This limit is determined by the pump manufacturer.
Impellers can be open or closed type, or an intermediate type, usually referred to as
“open,” which is really a “semi-open” impeller. An open impeller consists of a hub
and several straight or curved vanes. A closed impeller has plates or shrouds on
each side of the vanes in the planes of rotation. The semi-open impeller, as well as
the one usually called an “open” impeller, has a shroud on one side only. This type
of impeller is recommended when the liquid pumped may plug a closed impeller.
These impellers ordinarily are not as efficient as closed impellers.
Impellers are fastened to the shafts in various ways. Some are threaded to the shaft
so that the rotation of the shaft tends to keep them tight. Most are keyed to the shaft
with either a cylindrical or a taper fit and are secured with a nut. Keyed construc-
tion is preferred over screwed, because screwed impellers are more susceptible to
coming loose and causing damage if the pump is run backwards. This is common
during startup, following repairs where the electrical leads were disconnected.
Balancing is the final step in manufacturing an impeller. Until recently, manufac-
turers were content to balance impellers by the static method. To be completely
balanced, however, an impeller should usually be dynamically balanced. While
dynamic balancing is preferred, the extra cost may not be justified for small pumps
and pumps operating at lower speeds. Dynamic balancing should be considered in
the following cases:
• All multi-stage pumps.
• Critical pumps operating at 1700 rpm and above, with impellers 8 inches or
more in diameter.
Some pump specifications call for dynamic balancing of the complete rotating
element after individual balancing of each impeller and balance drum. Except for
large multi-stage pumps, this requirement is expensive and usually unnecessary.
Since elements of the rotating assembly, except the impeller are concentric shapes,
if the impellers are dynamically balanced there is little to cause dynamic unbalance.
Dynamic balancing should be done with a half key for key driven impellers.
253 Wearing Rings

Wearing rings are usually in pairs, one stationary, one rotating. The rotating ring is
attached to the impeller; the stationary ring is concentric with the impeller wearing
ring but seated in the casing. The primary purpose of these rings is to minimize
internal leakage from the discharge back to suction. In well-designed pumps of
moderate size, this leakage is about 5% of the total liquid passed through the
impeller. (See Figure 200-41.) The less the wearing ring clearance, of course, the
less the internal leakage and the higher the pump efficiency. (See Section 231.)
However, wearing ring and pump seizure can result from too close clearances.

Wearing ring trouble may be due to any of the causes listed below. Extra wear ring
clearance may prevent these problems:
1. Distortion of pump case from pipe stresses or from improper warmup proce-
dure, causing contact between the wearing rings.
2. Lodging of hard foreign bodies between wearing rings.
3. Deflection of the shaft, causing contact between the wearing rings.
4. Unbalance in the rotating element.
5. Eccentric fit due to improper machining and/or assembly.
6. Thermal transients which cause loosening of the fit and eventual wear ring
movement.
7. Galling due to improper wear ring material combination.
Be cautious of manufacturers who claim unusually high efficiencies. They achieve
these (claimed) efficiencies by very tight wear-ring clearances. Unfortunately, expe-
rience shows many rubs and seizures occur during run-in of new pumps.
Shaft deflection is due in most cases to unbalance of the rotating element caused by
hydraulic side thrust in the volute, unbalanced impellers, or both.
Important wearing ring material properties include machinability, wear resistance,
gall resistance, corrosion resistance, and thermal expansion. Ring stretch due to
centrifugal forces is also a consideration. Wearing rings are designed with running
clearances and normally do not touch. In many pumps, however, on occasion
wearing rings do come in contact. Continuous heavy contact will likely lead to over-
heating, galling, and seizure. Light occasional contact will not cause serious trouble
if the rings are of non-galling materials that can operate to a limited extent as bear-
ings when lubricated by the stock pumped.
Metallic wearing rings have been used in pumps almost exclusively. Very recently,
non-metallic materials have been installed, usually in combination with a mating
metallic ring. When the mating rings are both metallic, they should be of different
hardnesses and preferably of different materials. A minimum of 50 Brinell hardness
difference is recommended for wearing rings of the same material. Otherwise, the
similar metallic materials may gall and seize. Exceptions to this hardness difference
requirement are mating cast iron rings and mating bronze rings. These materials are
gall resistant.
Figure 200-45 gives wearing ring clearances recommended by API Standard 610.
These clearances are for process pumps operating at temperatures below 350°F with
metallic wearing rings of materials that are non-galling, such as cast iron, bronze,
and 11–13% Chromium steel with adequate hardness difference.
Note For pumps operating above 350°F with metallic rings, an additional
0.002 inch clearance for each 100°F above 350°F should be added to the values
shown in Figure 200-45. Also, add 0.005 inch clearance for pumps with wearing
ring materials with galling tendencies.

Fig. 200-45 API-610 Minimum Wearing Ring Clearance for Metallic Rings Courtesy of the
American Petroleum Institute.
Wearing Ring Diametral
Diameter, in. Clearance, in.
<2 0.010
2.000 – 2.499 0.011
2.500 – 2.999 0.012
3.000 – 3.499 0.014
3.500 – 3.999 0.016
4.000 – 4.999 0.016
5.000 – 5.999 0.017
6.000 – 6.999 0.018
7.000 – 7.999 0.019
8.000 – 8.999 0.020
9.000 – 9.999 0.021
10.000 – 10.999 0.022
11.000 – 11.999 0.023
Note: For non-galling materials and pumps operating below 350°F.
Use of some of the newer non-metallic wear ring materials offers opportunities for
improved reliability, especially in services where frequent startup occurs, dry
running occasionally occurs, or rotor radial deflection is high.
Some of the newer non-metallics in use in pump applications include thermoplas-
tics (PEEK, Torlon, and composites) and metallized graphite. Advantages of these
materials include good wear resistance combined with excellent anti-galling charac-
teristics. Several are self-lubricating. These characteristics often allow new radial
clearances to be set tighter than conventional metallic wear rings. However, careful
consideration needs to given to thermal expansion characteristics of these materials.
In most cases, thermal expansion is anisotropic. This means that the thermal expan-
sion coefficient is different in each direction (along its width, length, and thick-
ness.) Published materials data frequently lists properties in one direction only.
Anisotropic characteristics must be carefully considered when setting wear ring
clearances to avoid heavy contact between mating rings and subsequent ring failure.
Also, the effect of centrifugal stress on wear ring strain (expansion) must be consid-
ered where non-metallic materials are used for impeller wear rings.
Disadvantages of non-metallics include higher material costs (typically 1½ to 3
times that of conventional metallic wear rings), special handling to avoid breakage
during installation, difficulty keeping rings secured in place, and limited tempera-
ture capability. For improved reliability and reduced first cost, the usual choice is to
use non-metallic case wear rings running against a conventional metal impeller wear

ring. Use of proper methods to secure wear rings to pump casings and to pump
impellers is also important to success when using non-metallic wear ring materials.
Thermal properties and temperature limitations of non-metallic materials require
careful consideration as well. Many thermal plastics are limited to temperatures
below 350°F. Materials such as PEEK are suitable up to 500°F. Metallized graphite
is the only material suitable for temperatures above 500°F. Non-metallics may also
have limited dry running capability due to poor thermal conductivity. Finally,
thermal diffusivity differences between non-metallics and metals make non-metal-
lics a poor choice for services where significant process thermal transients are likely
to occur.
254 Shafts and Shaft Sleeves

A shaft must be large enough to transmit the necessary energy to the liquid being
pumped. It must also have strength to resist deflection from hydraulic thrust of the
liquid in the pump case. Horizontal shafts must also be able to carry the weight of
rotating parts. These factors all call for a large shaft diameter consistent with the
strength of material, the distance between the bearings, and the distance from the
bearings to the impeller. However, increasing the diameter may increase the
entrance velocity at the impeller eye and result in more NPSHR. Further, the larger
the shaft diameter, the larger the bearings, stuffing box area and other parts,
resulting in higher pump costs. The desirable design is one which has adequate shaft
stiffness, but not an uneconomically large shaft.
Packing and Shaft Sleeves

The only part of the shaft subject to wear lies in contact with the packing in the
stuffing box. Since the packing must be kept in close contact with the shaft and
sides of the stuffing box, there is rubbing pressure on the shaft which in time will
cause wear. On all but the smallest pumps, the shaft is an expensive part of the
pump, so it is common practice to fit removable sleeves over the shaft in the
packing area. These sleeves may be readily replaced when worn.
A shaft sleeve must be hard, smooth and, often, corrosion-resistant. The sleeve
should prevent leakage between the shaft and the sleeve. The sleeve should extend
beyond the gland so that if leakage does occur, the operator can distinguish leakage
under the sleeve from leakage through the packing. Manufacturers are usually
willing to meet this requirement, and it should rarely be necessary to accept a pump
with a short shaft sleeve.
A gasket is usually provided in the design to prevent leakage between the shaft
sleeve and the shaft. Sometimes a lap joint used in place of a gasket is satisfactory if
given proper care during installation.
Many sleeves in severe services have their wearing surfaces covered with Stellite #1
or Colmonoy, with a hardness of 450 to 500 Brinnell, or covered with tungsten
carbide (Wallex 55).

255 Throat Bushings and Lantern Rings

Throat bushings as shown in Figure 200-46 are mechanical restrictions between the
stuffing box and impeller, installed to raise the pressure in the stuffing box and to
prevent packing from extruding into the pump case.
Throat bushings are desirable because, when wear occurs, they can be replaced
quite easily to renew the clearance between the shaft (or shaft sleeve) and the
stuffing box. From the standpoint of safety and fire prevention, throat bushings must
be so designed that they will not blow out of the stuffing box if the gland fails.
Lantern rings are generally used in packed stuffing boxes to distribute the sealing
and lubricating liquid around the shaft. They are also used for “leak-off” in conjunc-
tion with a throat bushing to reduce the pressure on the packing itself. Both types of
lantern rings are shown in Figure 200-46.
Take special care in packing pumps with lantern rings to make sure that the rings are
properly located opposite their connecting passages. If the lantern ring is displaced,
no sealing or lubricating medium can enter; if the lantern ring is for “leak-off”
purposes, no liquid can leave the pump.
A lantern ring used for “leak-off” in the center of the packing is usually not satisfac-
tory. Bleeding the lantern ring to allow pressure point under these conditions does
not relieve the mechanical compression of the packing, and it may reduce leakage
through the remaining packing to less than that required for proper lubrication.
Fig. 200-46 A Conventional Stuffing Box with Leak-off-type Lantern Ring at the Bottom of the
Box

256 Glands
A pump gland (identified in Figure 200-46) compresses the packing rings in the
stuffing box. Sometimes the term “gland” is used incorrectly to refer to the packing
rings or to the stuffing box in general.
Packing glands can be made in two pieces so they can be removed entirely from the
shaft to provide adequate clearance for working on the packing. In a “quench-type”
or “cowl-type” gland, the outer portion of the gland is made in the form of a hood or
cowl. The gland has a pipe connection on top for a smothering fluid when required
and an open drain on the lower side. The cowl prevents spraying packing drips or
quench liquid out the side of the pump. One-piece glands are also used to retain
mechanical seals (see Section 800).
257 Balance Drums and Bearings

In some multi-stage pumps where the impellers all face in one direction, the axial
thrust is cumulative and may reach very high values. Such pumps could require
excessively large thrust bearings. However, to balance the thrust, these designs
provide a balancing drum which has discharge pressure on one side and a lower
pressure (usually suction pressure) on the other side. The drum area (the cross-
sectional face area) is determined to approximately counter-balance the hydraulic
thrust from the impellers.
Insofar as possible, it is better to face half of the impellers in one direction and half
in the other to provide axial balance without a balancing drum. Balance drums also
reduce the pressure in the stuffing box on the discharge end.
Bearings
Two types of bearings are used on pumps: anti-friction bearings and sleeve (hydro-
dynamic) bearings. The first type includes ball, roller, and needle bearings; the
second type includes radial-sleeve bearings and thrust bearings of the disc and
tilting-pad types.
Ball Bearings
Except for large pumps, ball bearings are used in most pumps. When properly
selected and installed, they are usually satisfactory and can take both radial and
thrust loads. However, in plants with predictive maintenance, anti-friction bearings
give more warning of impending failure than do sleeve bearings. Ball bearings do
permit shorter shafts and less expensive pumps, and they have been so standardized
in uniformity and interchangeability that practically all pump manufacturers have
adopted them for most pumps.
Single and double-row ball bearings are made in various classes of internal clear-
ance. Loose internal fit (AFBMA internal fit class 3) bearings are highly recom-
mended for all single- and double-row ball bearings. This is standard for Company
specifications and in API 610. Pumps in hot services require such bearings because
the inner bearing race may be expanded by heat conducted through the shaft. The
outer race is usually cooler. Expansion of the inner race without equal expansion of

the outer race can squeeze the balls, causing early failure if internal clearance is not
adequate. Cold service pumps can operate equally well on loose clearance bearings;
for standardization and to reduce the chance of putting standard internal clearance
bearings in hot pumps by error, the use of only loose clearance ball bearings is
recommended.
Some single- and double-row ball bearings are made with filling slots cut in the
races so that a maximum number of balls can be inserted. These are called max-type
bearings. Single- and double-row bearings without filling slots in the races have a
lesser number of balls. They are called Conrad or deep-groove-type bearings. Max-
type bearings, because they have more balls, are rated to handle more load (or give
longer life for the same load) as compared to the Conrad-type.
It is doubtful, however, that this theoretically better life is actually realized in prac-
tice. Single-row max-type bearings, especially with loose internal clearance, cannot
handle any appreciable thrust load without the balls hitting the filling slot. For this
reason, single-row bearings with filling slots should not be used.
For double-row max-type bearings, manufacturers claim that the balls will not hit
the filling slots within the allowable thrust rating. Some of the Company’s refin-
eries, on the other hand, believe that filling-slot interference has been the cause of
failures. The manufacturers’ claim is probably true provided the bearings have been
made to the correct tolerances. It is likely, however, that the Conrad-type bearings
can stand higher overloads. More important, bearings usually fail because of
contaminated or inadequate lubricant or are changed out before failure because the
pump is dismantled for other reasons. As a result, there is little or no reason to
specify double-row max-type bearings just because they are rated for a slightly
longer life than the Conrad-type.
For high thrust loads, manufacturers often supply angular-contact-type bearings.
They have the advantage of the maximum number of balls without the disadvantage
of a filling slot. An angular-contact bearing is designed to handle high thrust load in
one direction only. For this reason, angular-contact bearings are usually supplied in
matched pairs to handle thrust in either direction.
Sleeve Bearings and Thrust Bearings

Sleeve bearings are of simple construction, permitting fairly easy reconditioning.
They are easy to lubricate and sudden failures are rare. Consequently, a ball thrust
bearing is sometimes used with sleeve radial bearings. For heavy thrust loads, the
tilting-pad type bearing is required. The tilting-pad type bearing consists of a
rotating disc (keyed to the shaft) with tilting pad/self-adjusting bearing shoes on one
or both sides to take the thrust loads. It is more expensive than a ball thrust bearing
and has the disadvantage of requiring very careful adjustment. It usually requires
external cooling from circulating oil. However, when properly installed and oper-
ated, the tilting-pad type bearing is quite reliable and able to handle larger varia-
tions in thrust load in both directions.

Closures for Bearing Housings

Except for pumps located in clean indoor areas, the bearing housings should be
equipped with special closures where the shafts emerge. Careful sealing of bearing
housings is required to prevent entrance of abrasive material or water, which might
cause rapid bearing failure.
Two common types of closures for bearing housings are lip seals and labyrinth
seals. Lip-type bearing housing seals are standard equipment for general service and
ANSI pumps. Labyrinth seals are standard equipment for API pumps.
Pumps equipped with oil mist lubrication of the bearings should always be provided
with Labyrinth-type bearing housing seals.
258 Base Plates

Base plates are used to supply a support and reference plane from which to accu-
rately line up the pump and driver. The space under the base plate requires filling
with grout to give it rigid support and more mass. Provide holes of adequate size
(4 inches where practical) to facilitate grouting.
Base plates should have a drain lip or a sloping top to catch the drips of both pump
and driver. The lip or top should be well sloped to a liberal drain hole (1-inch
minimum) and tapped for a drain pipe. Base plates are made of either cast iron or
fabricated steel; either is acceptable depending on the specification. Fabricated steel
base plates have tended to replace cast iron base plates because they frequently cost
less to manufacture.
259 Couplings and Coupling Guards

See the General Machinery Manual for additional information on couplings.
Couplings connecting the pump shaft and driver shaft are usually of the flexible
type. A few are rigid, but they are primarily used in vertical pumps. Flexible
couplings are required to permit operation with slight misalignment of the pump and
driver shafts and to isolate axial forces to each respective machine.
Most couplings for horizontal pumps are flexible disc-type, or gear-type. (Of these,
the flexible disc-type is generally preferred for pump drives because it does not
require lubrication.) A Company-wide study of couplings indicated that a primary
cause of coupling failures was lack of lubrication. However, this remains an area of
considerable controversy. For small pumps (less than 50 HP), rubber couplings are
used in several OPCO locations.
Couplings are highly stressed moving parts. Proper alignment is essential as
misalignment adds to the cyclical stresses. Excessive misalignment will cause
fatigue or wear-related failures dependent upon the degree of misalignment.
Flexible disc couplings should have stainless steel discs to resist corrosion. Spacers
are recommended to allow less stringent alignment tolerances and to facilitate
maintenance.

One disadvantage of flexible disc-type couplings is the danger posed from flying
debris when a failure occurs on some older designs. Newer types, such as the Meta-
stream and Thomas 71, prevent the danger of flying debris in the event of a failure.
Spring-grid-type couplings are much more limited in their allowable misalignment
than are the couplings listed above and so usually are not preferred. They do have a
certain amount of resiliency in the spring-grid, which may justify their use when
calculations indicate a need to lower the torsional critical in a reciprocating system.
Limited-end-float couplings are required with motor drivers having sleeve bear-
ings. These are large motors (ordinarily over 250 HP at 3600 rpm) in which the
sleeve bearings are designed to permit the rotor to move axially ¼ to ½ inch. The
limited-end-float coupling keeps the motor sleeve bearings within their axial limits
and lets any electrical thrust from the motor transmit to the pump thrust bearing.
The motor thrust is usually small in comparison with the design load for the pump
thrust bearing. Thomas disc-type couplings are inherently limited-end-float. Gear-
type couplings must have limit stops added.
The allowable end-play of limited-end-float couplings is given in NEMA Specifica-
tion MGI-6.11, as specified in Figure 200-47.
Fig. 200-47 Recommended End-play of Limited-end-float Couplings Per NEMA Specification

MG 1-6.11(1) Courtesy of NEMA
Minimum Motor Max. Coupling
Motor HP Syn. Speed, rpm Rotor End-Play, In. End-Float, In.
125 - 200 3600 1/4 3/32
250 - 450 1800 and less 1/4 3/32
250 - 450 3600 1/2 3/16
500 and larger All Speeds 1/2 3/16
(1) Per NEMA Specification MGI-6.11
Spacer-type couplings have a center section which can be removed without shifting
either the pump or driver. Spacer-type couplings should be specified whenever their
use will permit the removal of a mechanical seal or the disassembly of a pump
without disturbing the alignment of the pump and driver.
A spacer coupling has one other major advantage: it will accept greater actual
misalignment between pump and driver shafts.
Couplings are rated for a maximum amount of misalignment, measured in degrees.
The greater the distance between the hubs, the greater the measured misalignment
can be without exceeding the maximum limit.
This feature will make alignment easier and reduce the chance of vibration or other
alignment related pump problems. Spacer couplings are recommended for all flex-
ible coupling applications.

All couplings should be protected by substantial guards. These are best made of
steel angles and either expanded sheet metal or coarse wire mesh. Guards should
ordinarily be in accordance with the OSHA Safety Orders, which require that the
guard cover the rotating parts to within ½-inch of the pump and driver housings.
Guards should, of course, also comply with any local requirements.
260 Centrifugal Pump Subsystems
261 Special Requirements for Hot Service

Three special design features are needed for hot service: (1) an arrangement that
permits expansion to take place without moving bearings out of line or imposing
undue loads on them; (2) materials suitable for the temperature and resistant to
corrosion and erosion; (3) a design that minimizes leakage or confines it in order to
avoid ignition and hazard to personnel.
The case should be vertically split to allow confined gaskets. It should be supported
as near the center as possible in order to prevent expansion from causing casing and
shaft misalignment. Sometimes the supports are water-cooled. In any case, the
alignment should be adjusted to be correct at the operating temperature. If neces-
sary to support the casing at two points fairly far apart, provision must be made for
one support to move axially either by sliding or by elastic yielding of the support.
(The latter method of taking up case expansion is common in steam turbine
application).
The flexible coupling should be able to absorb adequate axial expansion without
developing excessive end thrust, and it should not deteriorate because of heat.
Lubricating oil to the bearings should be properly cooled, ordinarily with water to
jackets or cooling coils. Tests have been run at Richmond Refinery to determine if
we could safely omit water cooling on pumps handling hot stocks, but we have
found that some cooling is required to prevent excessive lube oil temperature. Some
pumps will require cooling because of high thrust loads regardless of stock tempera-
ture. Since water will usually be required at the mechanical seal area, it takes no
more water and only costs a small amount of piping to run the water through the
bearing jacket first. Some hot-oil pumps may develop extra end thrust from coke
formation, so it is especially necessary to provide a thrust bearing of adequate load-
carrying capacity and to cool it properly.
262 Vertical Turbine Pumps

A vertical turbine pump is a vertical shaft centrifugal pump with a multi-vane
diffuser bowl in which each impeller operates. It may be single-stage, although most
are multi-stage. Usually the pumping element and line-shaft column are suspended
from the discharge head on which the driver is mounted. These pumps are some-
times known as deepwell or turbine-well pumps.

These pumps most commonly are installed in water wells or sumps. Sometimes they
are installed in a barrel with inlet and outlet pipe connections to make a vertical
barrel pump. The latter type is usually used when NPSHA is too low for a hori-
zontal pump. The vertical barrel allows the first stage impeller to be located as low
as necessary to match the NPSHA.
With openline shaft designs, the bowl and line-shaft bearings are lubricated by the
liquid pumped. Bearing wear may be excessive because of grit in the liquid.
Selection of bowl and line-shaft bearing material is important. The most generally
suitable bearing material is high-lead bronze, although it cannot be run dry. Where
bronze may be subject to corrosion, rubber bearings may be satisfactory. Rubber
bearings are often used in water pumps and should be satisfactory provided the
water does not contain hydrocarbons or other chemicals to make the rubber swell,
and provided the rubber is never run dry.
These pumps require special attention to thrust loads. Thrust bearings are normally
in the driver. Factors affecting thrust include:
1. Weight of the rotating assembly.
2. Axial hydraulic thrust of the impeller. Thrust is usually downward; however, at
high flow rates (well beyond peak efficiency) the thrust force may reverse
direction.
3. Suction pressure acting on the area of the shaft.
The design and operation of the pump should be to keep the thrust down so the shaft
will always be in tension. This will minimize shaft whip which would cause exces-
sive bearing and seal wear. If even momentary up-thrust is possible under any
startup, operating, or shutdown condition, the thrust bearing should be designed and
locked to take the up-thrust.
Company experience has been poor with deepwell vertical turbine pumps operating
in excess of 1800 rpm. Line-shaft failures and bearing failures have been excessive.
Impellers for vertical turbine pumps may be semi-open (no shroud on the suction
side) or closed (shroud on the suction side). Open impellers have caused problems
at some deepwell installations because of the difficulty of obtaining the close clear-
ance required between the impeller and the bowl. In one case when the clearance
was set close enough to meet the rating conditions, the shaft stretch allowed the
impellers to rub. Closed impellers, on the other hand, are not usually sensitive to
end clearance. Company specifications recommend closed- type impellers in deep-
well pumps.

270 Maintaining Acceptable Flow Rates for Centrifugal Pumps
271 General
All centrifugal pumps operate best when flow rate exceeds 40–50% of best effi-
ciency flow. Deviation from this range can cause heat buildup, excessive vibration,
damage, and failure. Figure 200-48 shows this operating range (minimum flow and
maximum flow). Operation at or below minimum flow is especially critical for high
speed pumps (such as Sundynes) because vibration can quickly cause gearbox
damage.
Fig. 200-48 Effect of Wear on Pump Performance
Refer to Standard Drawing (GA-G1097-2) in the standard drawing section of this

manual to determine the recommended minimum flows for specific pump selec-
tions. This drawing will usually be conservative.
Several methods of pump control are used to prevent pump operation outside a
preferred range: pressure control, flow control, and less commonly, electronic
control based on electric power consumption. See Figure 200-49 on the page
following and Figure 200-50 for schematics.
Pump controls circulate fluid from pump discharge back to a suction vessel or tank
to maintain a minimum flow rate, or they impose backpressure on a pump to prevent
runout. Runout is defined as operating beyond a pump's maximum recommended
flow rate. Runout is most likely to be a problem when discharge lines are short (no
friction loss) or when pumping into a system with low backpressure (e.g., an empty
tank).

Fig. 200-49 Pressure Control Methods
Operation of a centrifugal pump against a closed block valve can cause over-
heating, vibration, and eventual pump failure, and should be avoided for any signifi-
cant length of time. It is normal operating procedure, however, to start centrifugal
pumps with the discharge block valve “cracked open” (i.e. nearly closed) and the
suction valve wide open. The discharge valve should then be gradually opened as
discharge pressure increases. This promotes quick build-up of pressure and prevents
cavitation, which can cause pump failures.

Fig. 200-50 Effect of Variable Suction Head on Pressure Control
When using a recirculation bypass, never return fluid directly back to pump
suction—this will cause swirling and heating problems which may raise vapor pres-
sure and affect NPSHA. Instead, route the bypass line back to a tank, vessel, or heat
exchanger.
Pressure Control
Common methods of pressure control include using a bypass controlled by one of
the following: a globe valve (or orifice), a mechanical relief valve, a proportional
pressure controller with control valve, or a pressure switch alarm. Self-contained
back-pressure regulators are used to prevent runout. These devices are discussed in
detail:
1. Fixed recirculation through a globe valve (or orifice) (See (a), Figure 200-49.)
A globe valve or orifice is mounted with a pressure indicator in a bypass line
(from pump discharge back to the storage vessel or tank). Proper recirculation
is established by keeping the discharge pressure below that corresponding to
the manufacturer's minimum continuous flow rate. This is usually an inexpen-
sive approach but operating costs may be high due to energy losses across the
valve or orifice. Also, continuous recirculation should be specified at the time
the pump is purchased to insure sufficient capacity for both process and bypass
flow rates. This is the preferred approach for low energy pumps (less than
10 HP).

2. Variable recirculation through a mechanical safety/relief valve (See (b),

Figure 200-49.)
A relief valve is installed to bypass discharge back to a storage tank or vessel.
The set pressure is the pressure corresponding to the manufacturer’s minimum
continuous flow rate. As the discharge pressure rises (and flow decreases), the
relief valve opens, circulating flow back to suction, maintaining the required
minimum flow rate.
Relief valves reseat below their set point and this may not be acceptable. After
it pops, a relief valve may stay open or simmer, even as the pump returns to
operation above minimum flow. A relief valve is therefore not recommended
except for positive displacement pumps, and then not for minimum flow
protection, only pump casing relief protection.
3. Proportional pressure control (See (c), Figure 200-49.)
A pneumatic or electronic pressure controller is used to sense pump discharge
pressure and control a bypass control valve. As discharge pressure rises, pump
flow decreases towards the manufacturer’s recommended minimum. The
controller senses the pressure rise and opens the bypass control valve, main-
taining the flow rate above minimum.
4. Pressure alarm (See (d), Figure 200-49.)
Pressure switches installed in the discharge piping identify high discharge pres-
sures (an indication of low flow), and also low discharge pressure (loss of
prime or surging). Pressure switches are usually inexpensive and can be
connected to an alarm or automatic shutdown of the pump.
5. Back-pressure regulator (See (g), Figure 200-49.)
Runout can be prevented with a backpressure regulator (BPR). BPRs are gener-
ally self-contained and easily field adjustable. Set point changes are made
through spring replacements or by changing spring preload.
When Not to Use Pressure Control

Pressure control is usually cheaper than flow control. However, pressure control
does not work well under the following situations:
1. Pumps with Variable Suction Conditions
If suction pressure changes, the discharge pressure will also change. Thus, if
the suction tank level is high, the discharge pressure will be higher than if the
tank is nearly empty. Figure 200-50 shows this by plotting pump discharge
head vs. flow for high- and low-suction tank conditions. The control valve,
however, tries to maintain a steady pressure. Consequently, the flow rate varies
as the suction pressure varies. In some cases, the flow rate may drop to below
the recommended minimum at very low head conditions. For this reason, pres-
sure controls may be used only when the pump suction pressure is stable, or
when suction pressure variations cannot move the flow rate below the manufac-
turer’s recommended minimum.

2. Pumps With Flat Pump Curves

Pressure control works best when a large change in pressure affects flow. The
opposite occurs with flat pump curves, common for multi-stage pumps. In this
case, using pressure to control flow is inaccurate, because a small pressure
change results in a large change in flow (see Figure 200-51).
Fig. 200-51 Problems with Pressure Control on Flat Pump Curves
3. Pumps in Parallel, Each With a Dissimilar Curve

Dissimilar curves can occur from different pumps or from identical pumps,
when one is worn internally (Figure 200-48). The differences in the perfor-
mance curves can allow one pump to move more liquid than the other, with the
result that one pump may operate below the manufacturer’s recommended
minimum flow rate.
4. Pumps With Drooping Head Curves
A drooping pump curve has a dome at the top of the curve where one differen-
tial head value corresponds to two flow rates (Figure 200-52). The pump may
oscillate between the two flow rates while maintaining the same differential
head. When two or more drooping curve pumps are connected in parallel, one
pump could operate below minimum flow rate while the other operates well out
on its curve.
In the above conditions, flow control is usually the best choice, even though it is
more expensive.

Fig. 200-52 Drooping Pump Curves
272 Power Measurement

Since the majority of our pump/motor power requirements constantly increase from
shutoff to runout conditions, motor KW draw can be used to control pump opera-
tion. The motor will shut down if the pump encounters low flow (KW draw too low)
or high flow (KW draw too high).
There are several reasons why monitoring motor KW is preferred over motor
current for pump low-flow protection.
• KW = (voltage) (amperage) (power factor) (3.5). Except for small changes in
motor efficiency, KW varies directly with load. The equation applies to three
phase power and voltage measured line-to-line.
• Voltage in most electrical distribution systems fluctuates due to changes in
system loading and the reliability of purchased power. Because of this, motor
amperage draw will also vary even with a constant load.
• Power factor rapidly decreases as motor load decreases below 50 or 60 percent
of nameplate rating. As motor load and power factor decrease, amperage draw
will not vary directly with motor load. Current draw at motor loads below 50
percent may not be accurate enough to protect pumps against low-flow
related problems.
At the same time, sensors monitor phase reversal amperage power factor and
voltage fluctuations. Inductive flow controls cost approximately $1000 (1990) for a
460 volt AC, 200 HP, 3-phase device.
These devices suffer some of the same drawbacks as pressure control. Like pres-
sure control, sensing electrical power to control flow is indirect and can be inaccu-
rate.

273 Flow Control Methods

Direct flow measurement and control is typically used to maintain minimum flow
rates and to prevent pump runout. Advantages are:
1. Better accuracy than pressure control because pump flow is measured directly.
2. Flow control is unaffected by fluctuating suction pressure. It is effective on
pumps with flat or drooping curves or parallel pumps with dissimilar perfor-
mance curves.
Flow control usually costs more than pressure control, unless flow is to be measured
for other process reasons.
Methods of flow control include using a bypass with one of the following: a globe
valve (or orifice), an automatic recirculation (ARC) valve, proportional control
using a flowmeter, proportional controller/control valve, or a snap-acting solenoid
valve. Runout can be prevented by either a self-contained (pilot operated)
diaphragm valve or proportional controller/valve arrangement, mounted in the pump
discharge piping.
1. Fixed recirculation through a globe valve (or orifice). See (a), Figure 200-53.
A globe valve or orifice is mounted with or without a meter in a bypass line
from pump discharge back to the storage vessel or tank.
This is an expensive approach. Energy losses occur across the orifice or valve.
Continuous recirculation should be specified when pumps are purchased to
ensure sufficient capacity for both the process flow rate and the bypass flow
rate. If continuous recirculation is added as a retrofit, the pump may tend to
operate too far near the right end of its curve.
Due to the energy costs, this is only recommended for low-energy services (less
than 10 HP).
Note that the globe valve could be completely closed, leaving the pump
unprotected.
2. Automatic Recirculation (ARC) valves. See (b), Figure 200-53.
ARC valves are often used for flow control, primarily with Sundyne high-
speed, integral-gear pumps. These valves discharge a side stream back to
suction when flow falls below the recommended minimum. Because ARC
valves recirculate only when they have to, they minimize energy loss. However,
ARC valves are only available in ANSI classes 150 and 300 and
are costly.
ARC valves are most economical with high bypass flow rates and larger differ-
ential pressures. Under these conditions, recirculation with either a fixed
restriction or globe valve bypass becomes too expensive due to energy losses.
ARC valves can also be used when a pump curve will not allow the additional
flow required to satisfy the process and a fixed-recirculation bypass.

Fig. 200-53 Flow Control Methods

274 Proportional Flow Control

A flow controller receives a signal from a flow sensor/transmitter and positions a
control valve located in the bypass piping. The control valve stays closed as long as
the pump operates above minimum flow. It begins to open at minimum flow and
bypasses just enough to keep the pump running at exactly minimum flow.
This type of proportional control is more expensive than using an ARC valve
because of the instrumentation involved, but may be feasible when a meter run is
already installed for other reasons.
Proportional controls can also be used to prevent runout (see (f), Figure 200-53).
The control valve is mounted in the pump discharge line rather than the recircula-
tion line. The flowmeter/controller senses excess flow and positions the control
valve to reduce flow to an acceptable rate.
On-off control with a flow switch and solenoid valve. See (d), Figure 200-53.
A flow switch in the discharge piping detects low flow and opens a bypass-mounted
solenoid valve. Flow is routed back to suction as long as the process flow rate is low
enough to keep the flow switch tripped. If the bypass line allows too much flow to
be recirculated, a fixed restriction orifice should be installed.
The flow switch opens only when minimum flow occurs, avoiding the potential
problem of operating near the end of the curve and energy losses associated with a
continuous recirculation.
Flow switches can also be used for high and low flow alarms and shutdowns.
275 Self-Contained Flow Control Valves

A self-contained diaphragm valve can be used to prevent runout. This type of valve
works by sensing differential pressure and using this pressure to modulate the posi-
tion of the trim and diaphragm. A disadvantage is that the valve has small diameter
passages that may become plugged with sand and scale. When this happens, the
valve will operate erratically, and can worsen the pumping problems. For this
reason, do not use diaphragm valves in sandy or dirty service (such as on water
wells), or in services that could lead to corrosion or scaling of the internal trim.
Avoid hot services that could lead to failure of the elastomer diaphragms.
Self-contained flow control valves can be used to prevent runout as shown in (e),
Figure 200-53 or can be used in a bypass line back to suction to keep flow above
minimum.
276 Economics of Flow Control

The economics of minimum flow systems depend on the bypass flow rate, differen-
tial head, and the equipment already in place:
1. Fixed-orifice recirculation is inexpensive and probably the best method at low
flow rates and low differential pressures. It uses only a valve or orifice with or

without an indicator, pressure gage or rotameter. However, it constantly wastes

energy across the valve or orifice and can be expensive to operate with high
head pumps or with pumps that require a large minimum flow rate.
2. Flow control through power measurement has the same problems inherent in
pressure control. Except for applications involving very low flow rates and
pressures, this method may be the least expensive. This method is suited for
retrofitting existing equipment because no piping changes are required and
pump operating conditions do not change.
3. On-off bypass control using flow switches and a solenoid valve is simple and
relatively inexpensive. It does not waste energy and does not allow the pump to
operate at the end of its curve.
4. ARC valves and proportional controls are costly. Restrict their use to critical,
unattended, unspared, high-head pumps or pumps with large minimum required
flow rates.

Abstract
This section discusses engineering principles, pump types, application and selection
criteria, and describes two commonly used reciprocating pumps. See Section 1100
for troubleshooting information.
Contents Page

320 Pump Types 300-3
321 Single and Double Acting Pumps
331 Gas (Steam) Driven Pumps
332 Power Pumps
333 Sizing of Suction Lines
334 Selecting a Reciprocating Pump

300 Reciprocating Pumps Pump Manual

A reciprocating pump is a positive displacement machine. It traps a fixed volume of
liquid at near-suction conditions, compresses it to discharge pressure, and pushes it
out the discharge nozzle. The basic principle involved is that a plunger or piston will
displace a quantity of liquid equal to its swept volume. In Figure 300-1, plunger A is
lowered into the container, displacing liquid which flows into container B. The
volume of liquid in container B is equal to the product of the cross-sectional area
of plunger A and the depth of immersion. In a reciprocating pump, the action of
plunger A is accomplished by a reciprocating piston, plunger, or diaphragm.
Fig. 300-1 Reciprocating Pump Principles From Pump Handbook, (1976) Edited by Karassik,
Krutzch, Fraser & Messina. Used with permission from McGraw Hill.
The fluid-handling section of a reciprocating pump is commonly called the liquid

end. The liquid end has a piston or plunger that displaces the fluid being pumped; a
close-fitting cylinder in which the piston travels; and suction and discharge valves
to admit and discharge the pumped fluid. Packing prevents liquid from leaking past
the rod attached to the piston, or, in a plunger pump, past the plunger.
Figure 300-2 depicts the suction stroke of a plunger pump. When the plunger moves
away from the head end of the cylinder, the discharge check valve is held closed by
the higher pressure in the discharge pipe compared to the lower pressure in the
liquid cylinder. This lower pressure in the liquid cylinder also causes the suction
valve to be opened by the higher pressure in the suction line. Fluid then flows into
the cylinder until the plunger reaches the end of its travel.
Figure 300-3 depicts the discharge stroke of a plunger pump. As the plunger moves
toward the head end, the increasing pressure in the cylinder closes the suction valve.
The pressure in the cylinder continues to rise until it exceeds the pressure in the
discharge line and the discharge valve opens, releasing the volume of fluid
displaced by the plunger.

Pump Manual 300 Reciprocating Pumps
Fig. 300-2 Plunger Pump Liquid End During Suction Fig. 300-3 Plunger Pump Liquid End During Discharge
Stroke From Pump Handbook, (1976) Edited Stroke From Pump Handbook, (1976) Edited
by Karassik, Krutzch, Fraser & Messina. by Karassik, Krutzch, Fraser & Messina.
Used with permission from McGraw Hill. Used with permission from McGraw Hill.
Unlike the centrifugal pump, which is a kinetic machine, the reciprocating pump
does not require velocity to achieve pressure. This is one of the reciprocating
pump’s advantages, particularly for abrasive, slurry, and high-viscosity applica-
tions. High pressures can be obtained at low velocities, and fluid capacity varies
directly with pump speed.
The discharge pressure of a reciprocating pump is only that required to force the
desired volume of liquid through the discharge system. Within the constraints of
pump construction, the maximum pressure developed for gas-driven pumps is
limited only by the differential gas pressure available; for crank-driven pumps, the
driver torque is the only limit.
The flow of liquid from a reciprocating pump pulsates, varying both in flow rate and
pressure. As the piston or plunger moves back and forth in the cylinder, alternately
opening and closing the suction and discharge valves, a cyclic pulsation is set up in
the suction and discharge lines of the pump. Figure 300-4 shows the changes in flow
rate as a function of crank angle for duplex, triplex, and quintuplex single-acting
pumps. These changes become less severe as the number of stages increases.
320 Pump Types

There are two types of reciprocating pumps: power pumps and direct-acting
pumps. The driver for a power pump has a rotating shaft such as a motor, engine, or
turbine. Power pumps reciprocate the pumping element with a crank or camshaft.
Direct-acting pumps are driven by pressure from a motive gas. Direct-acting pumps
were originally known as steam pumps because steam was the motive fluid.

Fig. 300-4 Flow Rate Per Stage Permission granted. “Chemical Engineering”,
September 21, 1981.
Reciprocating pumps are typically classified by:

1. Type of drive
a. Direct-acting, gas-driven
b. Crank-driven (power pumps)
2. Cylinder orientation
a. Horizontal
b. Vertical
3. Liquid end arrangement
a. Plunger (outside packing)
b. Piston (inside piston rings and packing on the piston rod)

4. Number of pistons or plungers

a. Simplex
b. Duplex
c. Triplex
d. Quintuplex, etc.
5. Type of action
a. Single-acting (delivers on either forward or backward stroke, not both)
b. Double-acting (delivers on both forward and backward strokes)
Figure 300-5 outlines these classifications. Pumps using reciprocating motion, such
as metering pumps, are not discussed here.
Fig. 300-5 Reciprocating Pump Sub-types Permission granted. “Chemical Engineering”,

September 21, 1981.
321 Single and Double Acting Pumps

Single-acting pumps discharge on either the forward or return stroke of the piston or
plunger; every cycle of the pump displaces only one volume of liquid. In double-
acting pumps, liquid is discharged on both the forward and return stroke of the
piston. Plunger pumps are only single-acting; piston pumps can be either single- or
double-acting. Figure 300-6 illustrates this pump action.
Simplex, Duplex, and Multiplex Pumps

The terms simplex, duplex, and multiplex refer to the number of piston-and-rod
assemblies in a pump. Simplex pumps have one piston-and-rod assembly; duplex
pumps have two; multiplex pumps have three or more.

Fig. 300-6 Typical Single- and Double-acting Pumps Courtesy of The Hydraulic Institute
Double-Acting Cylinder Pump
Vertical Single-Acting Plunger Power Pump
Horizontal Single-Acting Plunger Power Pump
Horizontal Double-Acting Piston Power Pump

This section discusses selection of reciprocating pumps. With the accompanying
Pump Applications Guidelines, it will allow an individual to select pumps for most
services.
There is normally little problem in choosing between the two basic types of pumps,
direct-acting gas driven pumps and crank-driven power pumps. Gas driven pumps,
once the workhorse of the industry, are generally limited to utility functions by the
availability of compressed gas such as steam, air, or field gas. Power pumps, which
are motor, turbine, or engine driven, are available in a wide spectrum of capacities
and heads.

331 Gas (Steam) Driven Pumps

Gas-driven pumps are commonly used for sump pump, transfer, low pressure boiler
feed, or relief drum pump-out. Although their speed and capacity are directly
affected by system pressures, gas driven pumps are of particular value when:
1. Electric power is not readily available or is unreliable.
2. A standby pump is required for use during electric power failures.
3. A wide capacity range, easily achieved by varying pump speed, is required.
4. Steam for pumping is available at little or no cost (when, for example, exhaust
steam from pumps is used to heat the pumped product).
Duplex gas pumps are more generally used than simplex because of their larger
capacity, smoother discharge, and simpler valve mechanism. Duplex pumps are also
made in a greater variety of sizes and types than are simplex pumps, which were
developed largely for vacuum or other low-pressure service.
The simplex is usually slightly more efficient than the duplex and has one less set of
packing. Simplex pumps are usually preferable in vacuum or other services where
gas or vapor must be handled. Duplex pumps may “short-stroke” and fail to clear
themselves of vapor. In fact, they may vapor lock and come to a complete stall.
Because the simplex valve mechanism prevents short-stroking, close-clearance
pumps, designed especially to handle gas or vapor, are commonly made only in the
simplex type.
Reciprocating gas pumps range in size from a small 3 × 2.75 × 3-ft pump, rated to
handle 23 gpm water, up to a 25 × 12 × 24-ft pump capable of handling 1150 gpm
with a maximum liquid-end working pressure of 750 psi. Simplex pumps are ordi-
narily not made for capacities over about 500 gpm.
Selection of gas driven pumps requires attention to pump speed as it relates to the
required capacity in any given service. Figure 300-7 shows the maximum recom-
mended piston speeds and corresponding revolutions per minute for direct-acting
gas pumps in various services. This figure represents the manufacturer's recommen-
dation for maximum speed in these services. These speeds are acceptable for
standby or infrequently operated pumps, but should be reduced for pumps in contin-
uous service. For best operation, continuous duty pumps should be sized to run from
50 percent to 75 percent of the maximum speed shown on Figure 300-7.
See Figure 300-8 for additional application guidelines.
Sizing of Steam Cylinders

When possible, steam-cylinder diameters should be selected based on the required
work. Oversizing steam cylinders permits overspeeding the pumps with greatly
increased wear and high maintenance costs. Steam consumption is increased and
there is the possibility of overpressure. If a steam cylinder of the proper size is
selected, overspeeding will be minimized and it will not be necessary to place a
relief valve on the pump discharge.

Fig. 300-7 Maximum Recommended Speed and Capacity of Direct-Acting Gas Pumps
June 1999

300-8
Chevron Corporation
Pump Manual
Fig. 300-8 Reciprocating Pump Application Guidelines

Pump Description Direct Acting Power Plunger Power Piston
Self Priming Y Y Y
Can Run Dry-Short Time Y Y Y
Will Emulsify N N N
Field Alignment Req’d N Y Y
Good for Some Entrained Gas Y Y Y
Good for Abrasives Y N Y
Parallel or Series Recommended P P P
Brgs Lub. (Oil, Grease, Stock) S O O
Coupling Rigid or Flexible N/A F F
Legend:
Y = yes, N = no
P = parallel
O = oil
S = stock
F = flexible
N/A = not applicable
Note: Pumps are commercially available outside the parameters shown. These pumps should be avoided or,
if they are used, special care should be taken to maintain reliability.
On the other hand, steam cylinders should not be too small. An adequate allowance
should be made for tight packing, leaking valves, and other bad service conditions.
Such an adequate allowance will result if steam inlet pressure is taken as the
minimum pressure actually available at the inlet to the pump after making proper
allowance for piping and valve losses, and the mechanical efficiencies given below
are applied.
In general, the tendency is to make the liquid piston too small and the steam piston
too big with the result that the pump has no difficulty in meeting the required pres-
sure, but has to be overspeeded to meet its capacity. If the liquid piston is gener-
ously large, there is no incentive for the operator to overspeed the pump; and, if the
steam cylinder is not too large, it may be impossible to overspeed it.
A formula for estimating the required diameter of the steam-end cylinder is as
follows:
2
2DL Pd – Ps
D s = ---------- × -----------------
E Pi – Pe
(Eq. 300-1)

where:
Ds = Steam piston diameter, inches
DL = Liquid piston diameter, inches
Ps = Pump suction pressure, psig
Pd = Pump discharge pressure, psig
Pi = Steam inlet pressure, psig
Pe = Steam exhaust pressure, psig
E = Mechanical efficiency
Stroke – Inches Approx. Eff.
Up to 6 .60
8 to 12 .70
Above 12 .75
Reduce above efficiencies by 1/10 if viscosity exceeds 4000 SSU or differential
pressure exceeds 300 psi.
Steam Consumption
The steam consumption of a steam-driven reciprocating pump may vary consider-
ably from one pump to another even though they are all identical in design and
under similar service conditions. The steam consumption will be affected by the
mechanical condition of the pump, the accuracy of the valve timing, the tightness of
the packing, etc. Figure 300-9 illustrates how to determine the approximate steam
rate of direct-acting duplex-steam pumps in pounds per hydraulic horsepower hour.
The steam rate of simplex pumps can be obtained by taking about 93% of that
obtained for a duplex pump. Figure 300-10 illustrates the formula with applicable
notes corresponding to Figure 300-9.
A simple direct-acting steam pump cannot take any advantage of expansion of the
steam. Therefore, the steam rate is not materially reduced if steam pressures higher
than about 150 psi are used. Thermodynamically, it is better to take advantage of
expansion above this pressure in other equipment. Exhaust back pressure always
increases the steam rate materially.
Inlet steam pressure is not mentioned in the formula or the graph. The formula
assumes that enough initial steam pressure is available to do the required amount of
work. This will be true if the steam cylinder is of the proper size. Steam pumps are
almost invariably operated with a hand or automatic valve, throttling the inlet steam
to provide the required pressure, and limit or regulate the speed.

Fig. 300-9 Steam Rate of Direct-Acting Duplex Steam Pumps

Fig. 300-10 Steam Rate of Direct-Acting Duplex Steam Pumps (1 of 2)
The following formula is very simple to use and will give a good approximation of the steam consumption of a
simple duplex steam pump in fair mechanical condition. Experience shows that under the most favorable circum-
stances, some pumps do better, but that many with leaky valves or otherwise in poor condition do worse.
Q
S = --------------------- [ P + r ( P b + P′ + 18.5 ) ]
57.5es e v
(Eq. 300-2)
where:
S = Total steam consumed, pounds per hour.
Q = Gallons per minute of liquid pumped.
P = Difference between suction and discharge pressure, in pounds per square inch.
es = Steam efficiency – See table below.
Pb = Back pressure on exhaust pounds per square inch gage.
P´ = Friction m.e.p. referred to steam cylinder in lbs. per sq. in. – See table below.
ev = Volumetric efficiency; usually over .95, and usually taken as 1.0 for rough figures; may be as
low as .5 for pumps in bad condition.
r = cylinder ratio, or ratio of area of the steam cylinder to the liquid cylinder.
Approximate Steam Efficiency and Friction M.E.P.of Duplex Steam Pumps

Stroke of pump 3" 4" 5" 6" 8" 10" 12" 15" 18" 24"
Steam eff., es .35 .375 .39 .40 .425 .45 .475 .50 .525 .55
Friction m.e.p., P´ 31.8 28.8 25.8 23.4 20.4 17.4 15.6 14.4 13.2 11.4
outside packed pumps
Ditto, inside packed pumps 30 27 24 21 18 15 13.5 12 10.5 9
Notes: Simplex steam pumps will ordinarily have a steam efficiency from 7% to 10% higher than given for duplex pumps, largely because
they are built with smaller clearance and do not short-stroke when properly adjusted. The friction m.e.p. can be markedly reduced by
the use of high-class metallic packing.
Superheat. 100° of superheat will reduce steam consumption to 87%; 200° will reduce it to 78% of that shown.

Fig. 300-10 Steam Rate of Direct-Acting Duplex Steam Pumps (2 of 2)

Discussion
The formula given is sound theoretically, and the proper values of es and P´ will give true results. It is based
on the following assumptions:
1. Specific volume of steam in cylinder is
460
---------------------
P s + 18.5
(Eq. 300-3)
cu. ft per lb., which holds well between 25# and 125# (gage).
where: Ps is the available pressure in the steam line.
2. Gage pressure of steam in cylinder at end of stroke equals
1
P s = --P + P′ + P b
r
(Eq. 300-4)
3. Steam efficiency is ratio of displacement of steam cylinder to steam actually used. The low efficiency invari-
ably found is mainly due to the clearance volume which traps steam from the steam pipe to the exhaust pipe
without doing any work, and secondarily, to cylinder condensation. Valve leakage also plays a part. Although
taken as a constant, this efficiency is apt to vary considerably with conditions.
This formula shows the steam consumed, but does not show whether the pump can actually perform the work
or not, either as regards capacity or pressure. The maximum pressure that the pump can put up is
theoretically
P = r ( P s – P b – P′ )
(Eq. 300-5)
However, at least a 25% additional margin of safety is desirable; the working pressure should be no more than
75% of that found above. The proper working capacity of a duplex pump in gallons per minute is
approximately
2
10D L
Q = ---------------
L + 10
(Eq. 300-6)
where:
D = Diameter of liquid end, inches.
L = Length of stroke, inches.

332 Power Pumps

Crank driven power pumps are typically used in high pressure, low-to-moderate
flowrate services on pipelines and in producing field applications such as water-
flood, mud pumps, and gathering systems.
Power pumps are divided into two common types; single-acting plunger and double-
or single-acting piston. Piston pumps are limited to approximately 1500 psig, but
plunger pumps typically go to 6000 psig and have been designed for discharges as
high as 30,000 psig.
Unlike gas-driven reciprocating pump speed, power pump speed is unaffected by
system pressure. Pumps are designed to operate at a constant speed, pressure, and
capacity. If system pressure increases, the power requirement increases proportion-
ately, but the pumping rate does not change.
There are many kinds of crank-driven pumps, but three types are commonly used.
These are the vertical single-acting triplex plunger; horizontal duplex with two
double-acting pistons or pairs of plungers; and the horizontal double-acting triplex
piston. Also available are vertical single-acting pumps with five, seven, or even nine
plungers. Horizontal pumps are also made in the multi-cylinder designs. Piston
pumps are usually less expensive than plunger pumps.
A triplex plunger pump with three-inch diameter plunger and five-inch stroke, oper-
ating at 200 RPM against 1000 psig, has a typical capacity of 250 gpm.
Injection of an external lubricant with an oil lubricator into the stuffing boxes of
both piston and plunger pumps is needed to prolong packing life. Internal packing
and piston rings are not lubricated directly by oil injection.
When suction pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure, a piston pump should
usually be selected, because the plunger’s outside-packed construction generally
permits greater leakage of air and the design of the liquid passages is not suited to
clearing air accumulations.
333 Sizing of Suction Lines

When sizing suction lines for either power or gas-driven pumps, the following
guidelines are recommended:
• Average fluid velocity should not exceed 3 ft/sec and should preferably equal
1 ft/sec.
• Suction pressure should exceed the maximum fluid vapor pressure by at least
3 psi – preferably 5 – to prevent cavitation.
Adequate net positive suction head (NPSH) is the single most important design
parameter for reciprocating pumps. Suction-line flow to a simplex pump changes
from no flow to 100% within approximately the first 40% of the suction stroke. This
means that the liquid in the suction line is accelerated to full velocity in about
0.2 seconds when a pump is operating at 60 strokes per minute. The size, length,

and fluid velocity in the suction line must ensure that NPSHA is sufficient consid-
ering the pulsating flow. Some cases require a suction stabilizer.
Power pumps operate at higher speeds than gas-driven pumps, and have higher
valve velocities (due to limited valve area), and higher valve-spring loads (for fast
action). Consequently, they require a higher NPSH and, with an increase in RPM,
increasing suction line acceleration head. Figure 300-11 gives allowances for accel-
eration head for double-acting duplex power pumps handling water and similar low
viscosity fluids, based on empirical data developed by reciprocating pump suppliers.
Fig. 300-11 Suction Line Liquid Acceleration Head (ft) for Double-Acting Duplex Power Pumps
Suction Line Acceleration Head for Suction Line Length (ft)
Average Suction
Line Velocity (fps) 25 50 75 100
0.5 1.7 3.3 5.0 6.5
1.0 3.3 6.0 59.8 13.0
2.0 6.5 13.0 19.5 26.0
Notes: Refer to Section 130 for a detailed discussion of acceleration head.
1. For triplex pumps, use 57% of the values shown.

2. For single-acting duplex and simplex pumps, use 174% of the values shown.
3. Multiply values given above by the actual RPM divided by 60.
4. Length of line is actual feet, not equivalent length. For pumps with suction stabilizers, length of line equals
10 pipe diameters.
5. Acceleration head is added to the NPSH required by the pump.
6. The NPSH requirement for a reciprocating pump, covering pressure loss from the inlet flange to the cylinder,
is primarily determined by the liquid velocity through the suction valve, the weight of the valve, spring loading
on the valve, and the liquid viscocity.
7. 12-ft NPSH allowance for a reciprocating gas pump is desirable.
8. 8-ft to 10-ft NPSH is sufficient with some slower speed pumps.
9. Special close clearance simplex pumps are available when some vaporization on the suction side may be
expected.
10. For hydrocarbons, use 75% of the values shown.
334 Selecting a Reciprocating Pump

The following steps may be used to select a reciprocating pump. For additional
guidance, see Section 2100.
1. Determine process duty.
2. Calculate liquid properties, if necessary.
3. Determine pipe pressure losses.
4. Calculate the suction head (same as for centrifugal pump).

5. Calculate the discharge head (same as for centrifugal pump).

6. Calculate the total head (same as for centrifugal pump).
7. Convert total head to pressure rise.
8. Calculate the NPSHA.
The expression for calculating the NPSHA for a reciprocating pump is similar
to that for a centrifugal pump except that acceleration head is included. Accel-
eration head is the force required to accelerate the fluid in the suction line. The
NPSHA for a reciprocating pump may be obtained as follows:
NPSHA = h p + h s – h f – h vpa – hacc

(Eq. 300-7)
where:
hp = absolute pressure at suction source, e.g., a vessel (ft)
hs = static suction head (ft)
hf = friction head loss in suction piping including entrance losses (ft)
hvpa = vapor pressure of the fluid at pumping temperature (ft)
hacc = Acceleration head (ft)
(See Section 130 for calculating acceleration head.)
9. Calculate brake horsepower.
BHP = ( GPM × psi ) ⁄ ( 1715 × eff )

(Eq. 300-8)
where:
GPM = Flow Rate in U.S. gallons per minute
psi = total differential pressure (pounds per square inch)
eff = pump efficiency (non-dimensional)
Note Use the following equation to convert head in feet to psi:
psi = h t × SG ⁄ 2.31
(Eq. 300-9)
where:
ht = Total head (ft)
SG = Specific gravity of liquid

10. Select particular pump.

Using the pump manufacturers’ literature and catalogs, select the pump for the
conditions obtained in the calculation. If possible, avoid selecting the largest
piston or plunger size for the pump case. Also avoid pumps which would have
to operate continuously at maximum allowable speed.
11. Consult pump Vendor.
Discuss pump selection with the Vendor for further recommendations and as a
check of the selection procedure.
12. Prepare pump data sheet and specification. See specification for reciprocating
pumps and API Specification 674.

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Pump Description Positive displacement-reciprocating-piston-duplex-direct acting-

gas driven (steam, air or process gas)
Typical Service Relief drum pumpout. Low pressure boiler feed. Water. Sludge.
Sump pump. Transfer.
Typical Pressure/Capacity Range 0–700 psig/0–500gpm
Typical Speed Range 30 to 60 RPM (with piston speeds usually between 50 and
100 FPM)
Construction Features Normal duplex, double acting, simplex available. Normally C. I.

steam and liquid ends with steel or bronze rods & trim
Typical Control Method Speed control by throttling drive gas (steam, air, process gas),
usually manual
Advantages Self priming. Will operate at very low speeds. High efficiency.
Minimizes liquid emulsification. Handles viscous stocks. No elec-
trical power is required. Suitable for unattended remote installations
Disadvantages Pump speed is affected by system pressure. Subject to vapor lock

with low NPSH available. Will stall with too-high system back
pressure. Pulsating flow can affect sensitive instrumentation
downstream
Specification API 674. See also PMP-PC-1081 in this manual.
Data Sheet API 674, Appendix A. See also PMP-PC-1081 in this manual.

Fig. 300-12 Duplex, Direct-acting, Gas-driven, Piston Reciprocating Pump
Part Part Part

No. Name of Part No. Name of part No. Name of Part
1 Steam Cylinder 10 Valve Rod 19 Valve Cover

2 Steam Cylinder Head 11 Valve Rod Lever 20 Valve Stem
3 Steam Piston 12 Liquid End Piston Rod 21 Valve Spring
4 Steam Piston Rings 13 Gland 22 Valve
5 Steam End Piston Rod 14 Gland Bushing 23 Valve Seat
6 Condensate Drain 15 Stuffing Box
7 Steam Chest 16 Liquid Piston
8 Slide Valve 17 Liquid Piston Rings
9 Valve Rod Adjustment Nut 18 Cylinder Liner

Pump Description Positive displacement-reciprocating-plunger (power pump)
Typical Service High pressure/low flow. Gathering systems/pipeline. Waterflood.

Drawing rig. Mud pumps. Well workover.
Typical Pressure/Capacity Range 500–6000 psi/10–600 gpm
Typical Speed Range 0–450 RPM
Construction Features Vertical configurations available up to 200 HP. Available in duplex

through nonuplex, although triplex is most common. Crank driven
with motor, turbined with gearbox, or engine drivers. Steel liquid
end. Cast iron and steel power end. Self-contained lubrication
system.
Typical Control Method Variable speed or flow bypass
Advantages Higher pressures available than with piston pumps (up to 30,000
psi). Self-priming. Constant delivery at high efficiency over wide
pressure range. Minimum fluid emulsification. Handles viscous
stocks. Can run dry for a limited time.
Disadvantages and Limitations Pulsing flow. Low capacity. High first cost and maintenance cost.
Low tolerance for abrasives. Subject to vapor lock at low suction
pressure with high vapor pressure stock.
Specification API 674. See also PMP-PC-1081 in this manual.
Data Sheet API 674, Appendix A. See also PMP-PC-1081 in this manual.

Fig. 300-13 Reciprocating Plunger Power Pump Copyright 1995 Ingersoll Dresser Pumps. Worthington is a
trademark of Ingersoll Dresser Pump Company

400 Rotary Pumps
Abstract
This section discusses engineering principles, pump types, mechanical features, and
system considerations for rotary pumps. A checklist for troubleshooting rotary
pump problems is included in Section 1100.
Contents Page

411 Slip
412 Volumetric Efficiency
413 Mechanical Efficiency
414 Suction Conditions
420 Pump Types and Mechanical Features 400-4
421 Screw Pumps
422 Gear Pumps
423 Eccentric-Rotor-Vane Pumps
440 Rotary Pump Descriptions 400-12
450 System Considerations 400-22
451 Relief Valves
452 Drivers
453 Instrumentation and Control
454 Strainers
455 Lubrication Before Start-Up

400 Rotary Pumps Pump Manual

Rotary pumps are positive displacement pumps, but unlike reciprocating pumps,
have relatively steady, non-pulsating flow. Rotation of the rotor(s) within the casing
traps pockets of liquid at suction conditions, elevates the fluid pressure, and then
pushes the fluid out the discharge.
Like other positive displacement pumps, the capacity of a rotary pump is directly
proportional to pump speed. Regardless of capacity or pump speed, the discharge
pressure of a rotary pump is that required to force the fluid through the discharge
system. The discharge pressure is limited only by the mechanical design of the
pump casing, or by the fluid viscosity and torque capability of the driver.
411 Slip
The actual capacity of a rotary pump is less than the calculated theoretical capacity.
The theoretical capacity is reduced by recirculation back through the clearances
between the rotor(s) and casing. The recirculated fluid is termed “slip”. Thus, the
delivered capacity (Q) is calculated:
Q = Qt - S
(Eq. 400-1)
where:
Qt = theoretical capacity
S = slip
Rotary pump capacity is reduced (i.e., slip is increased) by:
1. Decreasing viscosity
2. Increasing differential pressure
3. Increasing internal clearances between rotating and stationary parts
4. Decreasing pump speed
412 Volumetric Efficiency

The amount of slip is usually characterized by manufacturers as volumetric effi-
ciency. The volumetric efficiency of a rotary pump (Ev) is:
Ev = Q/Qt = (Qt - S)/Qt

(Eq. 400-2)
The volumetric efficiency of the pump, which is a function of pump speed,
viscosity, and differential pressure, impacts pump sizing and selection. The volu-
metric efficiency is one component of the pump’s overall efficiency. Other factors
include heating losses from fluid friction, mechanical losses in the bearings, and
drag due to viscosity.

Pump Manual 400 Rotary Pumps
413 Mechanical Efficiency

The overall mechanical efficiency (Em) is:
Em = (HHP/HP) × 100
(Eq. 400-3)
where:
HP = Input Horsepower
HHP = Hydraulic Horsepower = (Q)(DP)/1715
Q = Flow in gpm
DP = Differential Pressure in psi
The overall mechanical efficiency of rotary pumps generally ranges from 60% to
70%. It may be as high as 80% for a pump with low slip and very favorable condi-
tions, or as low as 50% under unfavorable conditions.
The rotary pump curve in Figure 400-1 shows the efficiencies and capacities
discussed above, with the resultant horsepowers. Pump speed and fluid viscosity are
assumed constant. Similar curves could be drawn as a function of speed or viscosity.
The “output horsepower” shown in the curve is equivalent to hydraulic horsepower
described above.
Fig. 400-1 Rotary Pump Curve From Pumps, Types Selection, Installation, Operation and
Maintenance by Kristal and Annett; 2nd Ed. (1953). Used with permission from
McGraw Hill.
414 Suction Conditions

Suction conditions have a great effect on performance. It is important to completely
fill the moving cavities of the pump to ensure quiet and efficient operation. The
more viscous the fluid, the greater the resistance to flow. Therefore, the rate of

filling the moving cavities is slower for higher viscosity fluids. Also, if the cavities
are moving too fast they will not fill completely. Pump speed must then be limited
to satisfy the effect of high viscosity and the NPSHA.
NPSHA for rotary pumps is calculated in the same way as centrifugal pumps (refer
to Section 220). NPSHR is sometimes reported by rotary pump manufacturers as
MSLA, maximum suction lift available. To convert to NPSHR:
NPSHR = (Inlet Vessel Pressure) - MSLA
The MSLA reported by a manufacturer should not be exceeded. This is the same as
saying NPSHA must be greater than NPSHR. A margin of at least 3 psi between
NPSHA and NPSHR is recommended.
Rotary pumps can handle fluids with dissolved or entrained gases. The gas expands
in proportion to the absolute pressure at the pump inlet and will displace an equal
volume of liquid. This must be taken into account when specifying liquid capacity.
If the fluid pumped is compressible, such as a mixture of oil and air, the volume
within each closure is reduced as it comes in contact with the discharge pressure.
This produces pressure pulsations, the intensity and frequency of which depend on
the discharge pressure, the number of closures formed per revolution, and the speed
of rotation. Under some conditions, the pressure pulsations are of high magnitude
and can cause damage to piping and fittings or even the pump, and will almost
certainly be accompanied by undesirable noise.
The effects of dissolved gas may be reduced by lowering the suction lift through
relocating the pump, increasing the suction line size, or changing the piping
arrangement.
Remember that there is a difference between entrained or dissolved gas and the
liquid vapor. Adequate NPSHA of the liquid must still be maintained for accept-
able performance, even though the pump may be specified to handle entrained or
dissolved gas.
An important characteristic of rotary pumps is their ability to handle wide viscosity
variations and very high viscosity fluids. They can handle a viscosity range from 35
to 1,000,000 SSU (2 to 225,000 centistokes), but are normally applied in the
100 to 250,000 SSU (20 to 50,000 centistokes) range.
Figure 400-2 illustrates the solubility of air in oil.
420 Pump Types and Mechanical Features

Rotary pumps are of three general types: screw pumps, gear pumps, and eccentric-
rotor pumps. There are several variations of each.

Fig. 400-2 Solubility of Air in Oil From Pumps, Types Selection, Installation, Operation and
Maintenance by Kristal and Annett; 2nd Ed. (1953). Used with permission from
McGraw Hill.
421 Screw Pumps

Screw pumps are the most common type of rotary pump found in the petroleum
industry. Figure 400-3 shows three sub-types of screw pumps: three-screw, two-
screw, and single-screw.
Fig. 400-3 Screw Pump Sub-Types
The three-screw pump, built by Delaval (IMO) and Alweiller, has three screws that
rotate within the stator or casing. The casing supports the rotors along their entire
length, and functions as a bearing journal. The rotors, stator, and mating teeth
between rotors are all lubricated by the process fluid. Because of this, the three-
screw is referred to as the “internal bearing” version of the screw-pump type. The
center screw, or power rotor, is coupled to the driver and drives the other two
screws, called idlers. A major advantage of the three-screw pump is that it requires
only one mechanical seal.

The two-screw pump is similar to the three screw, but the two screws are designed
with greater internal clearance so they rarely contact the stator. External timing
gears prevent tooth contact between screws. The screws are supported by anti-fric-
tion bearings for precise alignment of the rotors. The bearings can be mounted inter-
nally or externally. In the external bearing version, the timing gears and bearings are
mounted in external oil-lubricated housings. The shafts protrude through the casing
in four locations, making four mechanical seals (or packing boxes)
necessary.
An advantage of the external-bearing two-screw over the three-screw or internal-
bearing two-screw pump is that it is less susceptible to wear in services with
suspended solids; the trade-off is higher cost. The external-bearing version can also
be considered for services with lower viscosities and lubricating capability. Neither
the internal-bearing two- nor three-screw pump should be applied in services with
suspended solids.
The single-screw, built by Moyno and Alweiller, consists of a single screw rotating
in a rubber or elastomer stator. The pump is also referred to as a “progressive
cavity” pump. The single-screw is a slow-speed pump and is physically large for
the amount of fluid pumped. It can tolerate small amounts of solids and dissolved
gas in the pumped fluid and is often chosen for that reason.
422 Gear Pumps

Gear pumps are commonly found in heavy-fuel, lube-oil, and crude-oil services.
They generally cost less than screw pumps, but have a shorter life. There are three
general sub-types, with variations: (1) external gear, (2) internal gear, and (3) eccen-
tric rotor pumps. Figure 400-4 shows external gear and internal gear pumps.
The external-gear pump consists of two counter-rotating gears, one driving and the
other an idler. The gear-forms used include spur, herringbone, helical (or spiral), and
Heliquad.
Fig. 400-4 Gear Pump Sub-Types

The rotors of external-gear pumps are supported by anti-friction bearings. The

bearing can be internally or externally mounted. Internal-bearing versions can only
be applied to clean lubricating fluids. External-bearing versions can be applied in
slightly less favorable services, but require four mechanical seals. The more
complex helical and heliquad gear-forms are provided with timing gears to prevent
tooth contact. Some herringbone versions also have timing gears.
The internal-gear pump is a reliable, inexpensive pump.
The outer gear of this pump rotates concentrically in the casing and is coupled to the
driver. The inner gear is eccentrically mounted and is an idler. The crescent is
stationary and seals the tooth cavities between suction and discharge. Internal gear
pumps are usually used only in clean services, but material options are available
which make them more suitable for services with some suspended solids than
internal-bearing, external-gear, and two-screw pumps, or three-screw pumps.
The lobe pump is used infrequently in petroleum industries. Lobe pumps come in
two- and three-lobe versions, the latter of which is shown in Figure 400-4. Lobe
pumps operate like gear pumps except the fluid is delivered to the discharge in a
smaller number of larger quantities.
423 Eccentric-Rotor-Vane Pumps

Eccentric-rotor pumps are available in several intriguing designs, few of which
have any practical value in the petroleum industries.
The sliding-vane pump is the more common version of the eccentric-rotor type. It
consists of an eccentrically rotating drum with radial slots which house sliding
vanes. The vanes form and seal the fluid cavities that shrink and elevate the fluid
pressure as the drum rotates. Sliding-vane pumps are inexpensive and unreliable due
to frictional wear and vane breakage.
The various other types of eccentric-rotor pumps are classified as rotary pumps, but
are not true rotaries because they convert rotational movement to reciprocating
movement, much like the cam-and-piston pump shown in Figure 400-5. Pumps of
this type are usually applied to hydraulic fluid (power fluid) services.
Fig. 400-5 Eccentric Rotor Pumps and Vane Pumps


The guidelines below, in addition to the applications chart (Figure 400-6), can be
used to help select the appropriate type of rotary pump. It is assumed that a rotary
pump has been selected rather than centrifugal or reciprocating pumps.
1. Screw Pumps - General Often the only type available for higher pressures or larger capacities. Usually
more expensive but will generally have a longer pump life than gear pumps.
– Three-Screw The most common screw-pump type and usually the first choice in screw
pumps. Considered the standard pump for lube-oil and seal-oil circulation
for major machinery trains, barge unloading and pipeline services. Also
the standard pump for fuel-oil delivery to burners. Occasionally used in
resid process services. Discharge pressures to 3000 psig and capacities to
1000 gpm. Can be directly coupled to the driver.
– Two-Screw Usually more expensive than the three-screw. Available in capacities
exceeding the range of three-screw pumps. Often applied in fuel oil, crude
oil, and asphalt transfer services, especially at marine and rail terminals.
Also occasionally used in resid process services. Discharge pressure to
1500 psig and capacity to 5000 gpm. Can handle lower viscosities than
three-screw types.
– Single-Screw Seldom the appropriate choice for any application because of low reli-
ability. Occasionally applied to fluids with entrained solids, water treating,
and oil sludge handling services. In such a service the pump would be run
at low speed and would have a rubber stator to minimize erosion. May find
one applied to a non-newtonian or other shear sensitive fluid. Discharge
pressure to 200 psig and capacity to 450 gpm.
2. Gear Pumps - General Generally less expensive than screw pumps, and used when an inexpen-
sive short-life pump can be tolerated. Also used in intermittent services.
– External-gear The “multi-purpose” rotary pump. Used in clean lubricating services. Some-
times used as an expendable pump in non-lubricating services because of
low cost. Discharge pressures to 700 psig and capacity to 600 gpm.
– Internal-gear Usually less expensive than external-gear pumps, and usually the first
choice in a gear pump. Occasionally applied in non-lubricating or slightly
solid-bearing fluid services. Discharge pressure to 200 psig and capacity to
150 gpm. A special design exists for pressures up to 1000 psig, for filtered
liquids and power fluid services. Smaller sizes can be directly coupled to
driver, but usually require a gear or belt drive.
– Lobe Not very common. May be found in services that might emulsify from
liquid shearing. In such a service the pump would run at a very slow speed
to prevent agitation.
3. Eccentric-Rotor-Vane Inexpensive, but wears excessively on all but the cleanest lubricating stocks.
Seldom used. May be applied in services where the pump may need to
handle entrained or dissolved gas. Also may be applied in services with
moderate-vacuum suction conditions. Discharge pressures to 200 psig.
– Cam and Piston Used in power fluids (hydraulics) services. Some special designs are
applied to higher vacuum services.

Fig. 400-6 Pump Application Chart for Rotary Pumps

Two-
Screw Ext. Gear Ext. Gear
Three- w/Ext. Single- w/Int. w/Ext. Internal
Pump Description Screw Bearing Screw Brngs. Brngs. Gear
Diff. Pressure Range (PSI) 3000 1500 200 700 700 200
Flow Range (GPM) 1000 5000 450 600 600 150
Max. Temp. (F) 500 500 180 250 250 250
Horsepower Range (HP) 800 2000 800 400 400 40
Speed Range (RPM) 3600 1800 800 1800 1800 1800
Viscocity Range (SSU) 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 250,000 250,000 250,000
Variable Viscocity N Y M N M N
Relative Cost to (#) 3 5 4 2 3 1
Purchase
Relative Cost to Install (#) 3 4 2 2 3 1
Relative Cost to Main- (#) 4 3 5 2 3 1
tain
Self Priming Y Y M Y Y Y
Can Run Dry – Short Time N M N N M N
Will Emulsify M N N N N M
Field Alignment Required Y Y Y Y Y Y
Good for Some Entrained Gas Y M Y Y Y M
Good for Abrasives N N Y N N M
Parallel or Series Recommended P P P P P P
Bearings Lub. (Oil, Grease, Stock) S O S, G S O S
Coupling Rigid or Flexible F F F F F F
Legend: Y = Yes, N = No, M = Marginal, # = Relative Number (1-5, 1 is best), N/A = Not Applicable
Notes: 1. Pumps are commercially available ouside the parameters shown. Pumps with values outside the parameters should be avoided or
special care should be taken to maintain their reliability.
2. Rotary pumps are, by nature, self priming. However, they require liquid in the pump in order to lubricate internal parts.
The following can be further used to help select the appropriate rotary pump for the
service types listed:
Clean Services - All rotary pumps will perform well with clean stock that lubri-
cates (i.e., viscosity greater than 35 SSU). In general, screw pumps can be directly
coupled to the driver and are more efficient at high pressures, high flow rates, and
high viscosities than gear pumps. They are also more expensive. Gear pumps are
competitive in the lower flow, lower pressure applications and usually require gear
or belt drive arrangements.

Dirty Service - The single-screw should be the only pump considered for handling
stock with significant solids such as abrasive slurries, sewage, or sludge. An alter-
native for intermittent low pressure situations is use of a small, inexpensive internal-
gear pump which can be replaced as needed. The use of external timing gears in
two-screw pumps helps to maintain clearances between screws and case, so they can
tolerate fine, low-hardness contaminants. Another alternative in low flow services
might be an air driven diaphragm pump.
Lubrication and Hydraulic Systems - Normally, three-screw pumps are used in
this service. With clean, lubricating stock their continuous operation is reliable and
extended. Three-screw pumps perform best at high pressures with a clean, fixed
viscosity stock, where external bearings are not required.
High Pressures - Screw pumps are better suited than gear pumps in services
exceeding 400–500 psig. They have a higher mechanical efficiency at higher pres-
sures because of greater volumetric efficiency. However, at low pressures their
mechanical efficiency is lower than gear pumps because of the greater friction
losses due to larger internal surface areas. Higher pressures are possible with three-
screw pumps than two-screw.
High Viscosity - Two-screw pumps are more versatile than gear or three-screw in
handling stocks with variable viscosity. The most common two-screw pumps use
external timing gears and bearings, which make them more expensive than three-
screw pumps.
Self Priming - All rotary pumps can operate with considerable dissolved or
entrained gas in the stock pumped without losing suction. Continuous handling of
appreciable quantities of vapor along with liquid, especially under cavitating condi-
tions, can cause excessive noise and vibration and contribute to rapid wear.
Typically, screw pumps provide greater suction lift than gear pumps, and three-
screw pumps are better than two-screw.
Vacuum Service - Rotary pumps lubricated by special oils are often used in
vacuum services to pump air or other gases or vapors. Low-vapor-pressure oils are
used to lubricate the pumps and seal the clearance spaces. Liquid-ring vacuum
pumps are also available.
Non-Pulsating Flow - Typically, screw pumps provide smoother fluid discharge
than gear pumps. Three-screw pumps are better than two-screw.
Drive Arrangement - Typically, gear pumps and single screw pumps operate at
slow speeds which require belt or gear drives. Three-screw and two-screw pumps
almost always operate at motor speed, eliminating the need for a belt or gear drive.
Emulsifying Affect - All types are less likely than centrifugal to promote stock
emulsification. The lower the speed, the better.
Running Dry - These pumps are unforgiving if run dry; they fail quickly. Twin
screw and twin gear (with external gears/bearings) can tolerate running dry slightly
better than others.

(This page reserved for future use.)

440 Rotary Pump Descriptions

This section describes five rotary pumps.
Pump Description Positive Displacement – Three Screw – Rotary
Typical Service Heavy fuel oil; crude oil; asphalt. Lubricating stocks up to
1,000,000 SSU (225,000 cs). Lube oil, oil transfer services.
Typical Head/Capacity Range 50–3000 psig/0–1000 GPM
Speed Range 200–3600 RPM
Construction Features Driven rotor drives 2 idler rotors. Generally double-ended to

balance thrust in larger pumps. Steel case in hydrocarbon
service/C.I. or steel rotors. One bearing needed to center rotors.
One stuffing box or head seal. Close internal clearances
(0.005 inch – 0.015 inch).
Typical Control Method Variable speed or flow bypass.
Advantages Quieter, more efficient, smoother flow than gear pumps at high
pressures. Self priming. Non-pulsing flow. Will not emulsify. Will
pass vapors. Fewer seals and bearings than double screw pumps.
Constant capacity over wide range of pressures with high effi-
ciency. Can be mounted vertically and horizontally.
Disadvantages and Limitations More expensive than most gear pumps. Poor with non-lubricating
stock, abrasives or corrosive stock. Cannot run dry. Lower toler-
ance for abrasives than reciprocating pumps.
Specification API 676 (Special Purpose only). See also PMP-PC-458 in this
manual.
Data Sheet API 676, Appendix A (Special Purpose only).

Fig. 400-7 Three-Screw Rotary Pump Courtesy of IMO Industries: Pump Division

Pump Description Positive Displacement – Two-screw – External Bearings – Rotary
Typical Service Heavy fuel oil; crude oil; pipeline; unloading; asphalt. Lubricating
stocks to 1,000,000 SSU (225,000 cs).
Construction Features Driven rotor meshes with idler rotor and both are driven by timing
gears. Generally double-end to balance thrust in larger pumps. Four
stuffing boxes or mechanical seals. Steel case in hydrocarbon
service/C.I. or steel rotors. Externally lubricated timing gears and
bearings. Close internal clearances (0.005 inch - 0.015 inch).
Advantages Quieter, more efficient, smoother flow than gear pumps. Higher pres-
sures. Self priming. Non-pulsing flow. Will not emulsify. Will pass
vapors. Constant capacity over wide range of pressures with high
efficiency.
Disadvantages and Limitations More expensive than single screw, three-screw, or gear pumps. Poor
with non-lubricating or corrosive stock or abrasives. Cannot run dry.
Lower tolerance for abrasives than reciprocating pumps. Lower
mechanical efficiency than gear pumps at low pressures.
manual.
Data Sheet API 676, Appendix A (Special Purpose only)

Fig. 400-8 Two-Screw External Bearings Rotary Pump Courtesy of IMO Industries: Pump Division

Pump Description Positive Displacement – Single-screw (Progressive Cavity) –

Rotary
Typical Service Viscous crude or stock with suspended solids or abrasives; sludge;
services with wide variations in viscosity.
Construction Features Steel rotor in C.I. Soft teflon, Buna N, or cast iron stator; steel in
hydrocarbon service.
Advantages Self priming. Will pass solids and vapor. Usually less expensive
than two-screw pumps. Can remove rotor with pump in the line.
Uniform, non-pulsing discharge. Will not emulsify stock. Less
expensive than reciprocating pumps. Can handle non-newtonian or
shear sensitive fluids. Can be mounted horizontally or vertically.
Disadvantages and Limitations Less reliable than other positive displacement pumps. Cannot run
dry. Uses large amount of floor space for amount of fluid pumped.
Expensive to maintain and unreliable. Stator materials must be
inert to the fluid in order to prevent sei-zure.
manual.

Fig. 400-9 Single-Screw Rotary Pump (Progressive Cavity) Courtesy of Moyno Industrial Pumps, a Division of
Robbins & Myers

Pump Description Positive Displacement – External Gear – Rotary
Typical Service Low pressure, low capacity lubricating stocks. Pipelines - wet crude
or stocks. Lubrication and hydraulic oil systems. Air, gas, or vapor
vacuum service.
Speed Range 300/1800 RPM
Construction Features Can be external bearing or internal. Carbon steel case for
hydrocarbon service/steel, bronze, C.I. gears. Can be packed or with
mechanical seals. Close internal clearances (0.005 inch – 0.015
inch).
Advantages Self priming. Constant delivery at high efficiency over wide range
of pressures. Minimizes fluid emulsification.
Disadvantages and Limitations Cannot handle external forces from piping. Cannot run dry. Pumped
fluid must provide lubrication. Low tolerance for abrasives. Can
have high maintenance cost. Usually has four stuffing boxes.
manual.

Fig. 400-10 Positive Displacement External Gear Rotary Pump Courtesy of Kinney Vacuum Company, Inc.

Pump Description Positive Displacement – Internal Gear – Rotary
Typical Service High pressure, low capacity lubricating stocks. Pipelines - wet
crude or stocks. Lubrication and hydraulic oil systems. Air, gas,
or vapor vacuum service.
Speed Range 300/1800 RPM
Construction Features Can be external bearing or internal. Carbon steel case for
hydrocarbon service/steel, bronze, CI gears. Can be packed or
with mechanical seals. Close internal clearances (0.005 inch –
0.015 inch).
Advantages Self priming. Constant delivery at high efficiency over wide

range of pressures. Minimizes fluid emulsification. Handles
viscous stocks and two phase flow. Material options available for
suitability in service with some suspended solids.
Disadvantages and Limitations Have no timing gears. More complex machining required than
with external gear pumps.
manual.

Fig. 400-11 Positive Displacement Internal Gear Rotary Pump Courtesy of Viking Pump, Inc.

450 System Considerations
451 Relief Valves

Relief valves are required in the discharge of rotary pumps to prevent over-pres-
sure. Blocking in a rotary pump will cause failure of the weakest element in the
drive train, usually a cracked pump casing. Many rotary pumps can be obtained
with internal “built-in” relief valves. API 676 prohibits use of internal relief valves,
because they are usually unable to protect the pump from overheating in a relief
situation. Separate relief valves are preferred, piped back to the vessel in the inlet
system.
452 Drivers
Rotary pumps are almost always driven by electric motors, geared motors, or belt
driven with motors. Occasionally a rotary pump is driven by a steam turbine, and in
rare cases by an internal-combustion engine.
453 Instrumentation and Control

Capacity control is obtained either by varying the speed of the pump or by recircu-
lating a portion of the discharge. Recirculation is a common method of control, as
rotary pumps are most often operated at constant speed with electric motor drivers.
454 Strainers
Permanent suction strainers should usually be installed to protect rotary pumps from
damage by foreign material. This requirement applies to most rotary pump installa-
tions, except for inexpensive pumps in relatively clean systems where the initial cost
does not justify a strainer to protect the pump. A dirty or plugged strainer may also
cause pump damage by increasing the friction loss in the suction piping and
reducing the NPSHA. A low pressure alarm downstream of the strainer may alle-
viate this problem.
Even though strainers are provided, the suction lines to rotary pumps should be
carefully flushed out before final connection of piping to the pumps.
455 Lubrication Before Start-Up

Because of possible or necessary internal contact, rotary pumps must be lubricated
before being started. When they are installed to handle appreciable quantities of
vapor even for a short time, as in priming, special precautions may be required to
insure proper lubrication before start-up. In self-priming installations for low-
viscosity stocks, rotary pumps should ordinarily be installed at the bottom of a “U”
in the piping which can be filled with liquid to provide lubrication during startup or
if the pump loses suction. In intermittent services, foot valves are also recom-
mended for low-viscosity stocks.

500 Metering Pumps
Abstract
This section covers metering pump principles and application criteria. See Section
1100 for troubleshooting information.
Contents Page

511 General
512 Hydraulic End
513 Proportioning Control
520 Pump Applications 500-5

500 Metering Pumps Pump Manual
511 General
Metering pumps deliver accurate quantities of liquid into a process or system. They
usually handle a small discharge volume (typically between 1 gph and 10 gpm) and
high discharge pressure (up to 30,000 psig). The volume must be infinitely control-
lable between limits and virtually independent of discharge pressure.
Most metering pumps are positive displacement type. They usually are driven by an
electric motor through an integral reduction gear. Air-driven units are common in
producing locations. Proportioning mechanisms are usually integrated with the drive
mechanism.
512 Hydraulic End

Two types of hydraulic ends are most commonly used:
• Packed Plunger Pump
• Diaphragm Pump
Packed Plunger Pump

The packed plunger pump is the basic design from which all hydraulic-end types
originate. Pumping is achieved by reciprocating motion of a plunger, which draws
in and discharges liquid. Check valves in the inlet and discharge lines direct the
flow in the desired direction (double-ball check valves are the most common and are
recommended). Figure 500-1 shows a typical packed plunger pump.
Fig. 500-1 Packed Plunger Pump Courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Pump Manual 500 Metering Pumps
A basic packed plunger pump can deliver up to 30,000 psig with around 1% volu-
metric accuracy. Packed plunger pumps are more suited for high pressures in low-
flow situations than diaphragm pumps. These pumps are also inexpensive and
operate simply. Their disadvantages include the continuous leakage of process fluid
across the plunger packing, which is necessary to cool and lubricate the packing.
They also operate poorly with abrasive fluids.
Diaphragm Pump
Diaphragm pumps provide an effective solution to leakage problems and, to a lesser
extent, abrasive problems. There are two kinds of diaphragm pumps:
• Mechanical Diaphragm Drive
• Hydraulic Diaphragm Drive
Figures 500-2 and 500-3 illustrate the basic principles of each pump.
Fig. 500-2 Mechanical Diaphragm Driver Courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Although mechanical drives are both simple and cheap, they have a short diaphragm
life and are only suitable for very light duty (e.g., automobile fuel pumps). They
will not be discussed further in this manual.
Hydraulic drives may have a single or double diaphragm. A single diaphragm is the
most common and suitable for most services. However, a double diaphragm may be
necessary for extremely toxic services.
Diaphragms are usually made of teflon or stainless steel, but elastomers or elastomer-
coated steel diaphragms are also available. The double diaphragm provides positive
isolation between the process fluid and the drive fluid (hydraulic oil). The
diaphragm interspace may be designed with alarms to alert personnel to contamina-
tion by process fluid (e.g., conductivity) which may indicate outer diaphragm
failure.

Fig. 500-3 Hydraulic Diaphragm Driver Courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.
To prevent diaphragm overstress, relief valves are incorporated into the drive
system. Figure 500-4 illustrates relief-valve principles.
Fig. 500-4 Relief Valve Principles From The Metering Pump Handbook by McCabe,
Lanckton and Dwyer. Incustrial Press, Inc., Copyright 1984. Reprinted with
permission

The hydraulic drive system looks similar to a packed plunger pump. However, it
has a number of advantages over the simple plunger pump:
• The plunger works in an ideal fluid (i.e., good lubricity, clean, etc.).
• The hydraulic drive uses relief valves to avoid diaphragm overstress. This
feature is the equivalent of a discharge pressure cut-off.
• It pumps corrosive and abrasive materials with much lower wear rates and
better reliability than packed plunger pumps.
• Field repairs can be made quickly.
513 Proportioning Control

Most pumps are driven by fixed-speed electric motors. Capacity control is achieved
by adjusting the pump stroke. Pump stroke can be adjusted by using a kinematic
mechanism to vary the stroke or a lost motion device to limit the stroke.
Lost-motion devices are suitable only in small power applications (less than
0.5 HP) because they have a tendency to shock-load the mechanism. Lost motion
devices are either mechanical or hydraulic.
Kinematic mechanisms are preferred for stroke adjustment. Figure 500-5 illustrates
kinematic device operating principles.
520 Pump Applications

Actual pumps may have a combination of features and may be arranged with
hydraulic ends in parallel and/or series. Series pumping is rare but required for high
pressures (greater than 1000 psi, approximately). Parallel operation helps achieve
desired volumes.
One major advantage of parallel operation is that the pulsating flow characteristic of
a single unit can be effectively “smoothed” by carefully phasing the drive for each
liquid end.
Figure 500-6 summarizes metering pump application criteria.

Fig. 500-5 Kinematic Operating Devices for Proportioning Control Courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc.and From The
Metering Pump Handbook by McCabe, Lanckton and Dwyer. Incustrial Press, Inc., Copyright 1984.
Reprinted with permission.

Fig. 500-6 Metering Pump Application Criteria

Liquid End Type Recommended for: Not Recommended for:
Packed Plunger • Very High Discharge Pressure • Corrosive Fluids
• Temperature Over 250°F • Abrasive Fluids
• Low Vapor Pressure Fluids • Applications whose trace
contamination of pumpage with
packing lubricants is not
permitted
Single Diaphragm (hydraulic drive) • Corrosive Fluids • High discharge pressure (>1500
• Applications requiring high psi)
reliability • Temperatures over 175°F
(elastomer diaphragm)
• Over 250°F (teflon diaphragm)
Double Diaphragm • Very Corrosive or hazardous • High discharge pressure (>1000
fluids psi)
• Abrasive fluids
• Duties requiring guaranteed
isolation from drive oil
• Applications requiring early
warning of diaphragm failure

Abstract
This section briefly describes several pump types, including artificial lift pumps
(electric submersible, sucker rod, and hydraulic-turbine pumps), jet pumps, air-
diaphragm pumps, regenerative pumps, and slurry pumps. It also lists references for
more detailed information on electric submersible and sucker rod pumps. Most of
the information on artificial lift pumps is reproduced from the Electric Submersible
Pumps Manual (Chevron USA, Denver).
Contents Page
710 Air-Diaphragm Pumps 700-2

720 Regenerative Turbine or Disk-friction Pumps 700-3
730 Jet Pumps 700-5
731 Performance Variations
740 Slurry Pumps 700-7
750 Artificial Lift Pumps 700-8
751 Electric Submersible Pumps
752 Sucker Rod Pumps
753 Hydraulic-Turbine Driven Pumps
754 Gas Lift Systems
760 Peristaltic Pumps 700-17

700 Miscellaneous Pumps Pump Manual
710 Air-Diaphragm Pumps

Air-Diaphragm Pumps (Figure 700-1) are commonly used in utility and chemical
services. They meet neither ANSI nor API standards and are most often used
because of their portability and ability to run on compressed air.
Fig. 700-1 Cross Section of Air-Diaphragm Pump Courtesy of Wilden Pumps & Engineering Co.
Advantages of air-diaphragm pumps include:

a. Portable and reusable.
b. Operate on compressed air (piping or hose supply).
c. Handle entrained air and solids.
d. Can be run dry without significant damage.
e. Simple and relatively dependable.
f. No shaft seals or packing complications are involved.
g. Non-sparking.
h. Available in corrosion-resistant materials.
i. Self-priming.
j. Low cost.

Pump Manual 700 Miscellaneous Pumps
Disadvantages include:
a. They do not meet normal standards for continuous duty process service.
b. Air-supply valves occasionally become plugged. (These valves require
oil lubrication from a self-contained reservoir. This is normally not a
problem, but the valves do need oil to operate.)
c. Ball-check valves wear and occasionally stick.
d. Limited to relatively low temperatures (approximately 200°F) and pres-
sures (approximately 120 psi).
e. Noisy operation.
720 Regenerative Turbine or Disk-friction Pumps

Disk-friction pumps are frequently called regenerative turbine-type pumps by manu-
facturers. They are also sometimes called Westco pumps, which was the name used
by one of the earliest manufacturers of this type of pump. The designation “turbine
type” is frequently confusing and not at all descriptive of the principle of operation
involved.
Externally, a disk-friction pump appears similar to a centrifugal pump, but the prin-
ciple of operation is quite different. Figure 700-2 shows several internal views of a
typical disk-friction pump. The pump consists basically of an impeller wheel or
disk, with vanes on the periphery, rotating in a concentric case. The case provides
an open passage around the impeller except at the cut-off point between the
discharge and suction nozzles. Liquid enters the pump at the periphery of the
impeller and is carried by the friction of the rotating impeller to the discharge port.
The cut-off point between the discharge and the suction is close-fitting to prevent
excessive internal leakage. Also, the plates on each side of the impeller must be
close-fitting to prevent excessive leakage along the sides of the impeller. A pump
usually contains several impellers.
The characteristics of disk-friction pumps make them principally suited for rela-
tively low capacities at medium-high heads. Figure 700-3 shows a typical perfor-
mance curve for a disk-friction pump at 1750 RPM. Such pumps are made in
capacities up to 150 gpm or more, but ordinarily these are not economical compared
to centrifugal pumps at capacities above 15 or 20 gpm.
Figure 700-3 shows that the total head falls off rapidly as capacity is increased.
Maximum brake horsepower is required at shutoff, with the horsepower dropping as
capacity is increased. Frequently, drivers are not sized for shutoff, but a relief valve
is installed to prevent overloading at low flow rates.
As might be expected, the efficiencies of disk-friction pumps are never very high,
but for small capacity applications they are often more effective than centrifugal
pumps. For example, the efficiency illustrated in Figure 700-3 at 6 gpm for 170 ft-
head is about 35%. The efficiency of a centrifugal pump for this rating would be
about 15%.

Fig. 700-2 Cross Section of Disk-Friction Pump From Pumps for Chemical Processing by
J.T. McGuire, Marcel Dekker, Inc. Copyright 1990. Reprinted with permission.
One advantage of the disk-friction pump over the centrifugal pump is that the disk-
friction pump can handle up to about 20% by volume of vapor along with the liquid
pumped. Disk-friction pumps are also self-priming, provided the case is filled with
liquid to act as a seal.
Disk-friction pumps are ordinarily used in clean, non-viscous services at flow rates
less than 20 gpm. For low flow rates, disk-friction pumps cost less than centrifugal
pumps of comparable capacity.
The efficiency of the pump falls rapidly as the close clearances between the rotating
disk and the case are increased by wear. Sand, mill-scale, or similar foreign parti-
cles in the liquid pumped may expand the clearances to a point where satisfactory
operation can no longer be obtained. This is the primary weakness of the disk-fric-
tion pump and has significantly reduced its application. Disk-friction pumps are best
used for condensate return or small boiler feed services or for LPG loading where
the liquids are usually clean.

Fig. 700-3 Typical Performance Curve From Pumps for Chemical Processing by J.T.
McGuire, Marcel Dekker, Inc. Copyright 1990. Reprinted with permission.
730 Jet Pumps

A jet pump (Figure 700-4) produces a high-velocity jet of almost any fluid to pump
another fluid by entrainment with pressure recovery in a diffuser. The theory of jet
pump operation can be found in most engineering handbooks and therefore is not
presented in this manual. Since the performance of jet pumps is developed empiri-
cally from manufacturers’ tests, application of jet pumps to specific services is
usually a matter of clearly stating the requirements to be met.
Jet pumps are usually less efficient than other pumping devices and require a source
of high-pressure fluid for operation. This considerably limits their range of
application.
Jet pumps are primarily used to produce and maintain a vacuum by removing vapors
from a closed system. In this service they are usually called “ejectors.” Ordinarily,
steam provides the motive power. Jets for this purpose are frequently combined
with condensing equipment, and the entire system is purchased as a unit. Steam jets
are occasionally used for boiler feed water injectors where small

Fig. 700-4 Typical Jet Pumps (Ejectors) Courtesy of Schutte & Koerting Division, Ketema, Inc.
capacities are involved. Because jet pumps have no moving parts, they are some-
times used to dewater sumps, especially where gritty or dirty liquids are handled.
Jet pumps are sometimes used for mixing liquids in a vessel. Some of the contents
are pumped back into the vessel through a submerged jet designed to entrain and
circulate the rest of the tank.
731 Performance Variations

Jets function properly over a relatively narrow range of deviation from designed
operating conditions. The effects of deviations can best be determined by jet
suppliers or from performance curves as applied to the specific service in question.
The following characteristics generally apply to steam jets in vacuum pumping
service:
a. Increasing motive steam pressure increases the flow of motive steam and
usually (but not necessarily) the pumping capacity. If motive steam pres-
sure is reduced, the opposite applies. If it is reduced too far, the jet
discharge will start to pulsate and suction may be lost.
b. If the pressure into which the jet pump discharges is higher than design,
pumping capacity (and thus vacuum) will decrease and suction may
be lost.

c. Wet motive steam may impair performance; the extent of impairment

depends on the volume of liquid. Wet steam will cause increased erosion in
the jet nozzle and diffuser. Erosion is the common cause of poor
performance.
740 Slurry Pumps

Slurry pump applications are exercises in exceptions and special cases. Slurry pump
engineering is a defensive practice of preparing for maintenance rather than
preventing it. Therefore, when selecting a slurry pump you should: 1) evaluate
pumping conditions carefully, 2) gather complete data about available pumps,
3) select the best pump for the application, and 4) be prepared for “excessive”
maintenance.
You should consider all of the following slurry characteristics. In addition, pump
engineers need to know how much the parameters will vary during operation, and,
what has worked best before in a similar service. Slurry fluid characteristics are as
follows:
• Capacity
• Suction pressure and NPSHA
• Differential pressure (head)
• % slurry by mass and volume
• Temperature
• Fluid corrosiveness to metals and elastomers
• Type and hardness of particulate material
• Size range and % breakdown of particulate material
• Tendency of particulates to agglomerate
• Shaft sealing requirements
• Clean sealing fluid availability
• Reliability requirements
Positive displacement progressive cavity type pumps have been most frequently
selected for slurry services in both the upstream and downstream sides of the
Company. This is because they lend themselves well to broad ranges of moderate
discharge pressures, flows below 100 gpm, and slurry percentages. Originally
designed for sewage sludge services, they usually are not optimally designed for the
oil and chemical industries.
Progressive cavities, like all slurry pumps, have finite lives. The manufacturer's
emphasis is on quick disassembly and parts sales rather than precision design.
Beyond progressive cavities, very few other types of positive displacement pumps
have worked satisfactorily in slurries. One notable exception is Chevron Chemical's
phosphate rock slurry pipeline between Vernal, Utah and Rock Springs, Wyoming.
It uses specially designed piston pumps to supply the high-discharge pressures.

Centrifugal pumps are often the best selection for slurry services with flows above
50-100 gpm and heads below 150 feet, particularly with non-hazardous fluids.
Impeller speed/erosion relationships usually limit higher-head designs. The mining
industry employs a broad range of rubber lined centrifugal pumps which should be
considered for water slurries. Several pump companies supply horizontal and
vertical centrifugals to the cement and paint industries which resist wear with hard-
ened iron materials.
There are applications such as 750°F FCC bottoms pumps which demand features
of both slurry pumps and high-temperature API 710 designs. Lawrence Pump
Company has adequately addressed these demanding requirements. Their pumps
have been demonstrated at the Richmond Refinery.
750 Artificial Lift Pumps

Throughout a well’s producing life, reservoir pressure may be insufficient, and arti-
ficial lift may be required to maintain or increase production. The four major
methods for artificially lifting a well fluid include:
1. Electric Submersible Pumping
2. Sucker Rod Pumping
3. Hydraulic-turbine Pumping
4. Gas Lift
Each method has advantages and disadvantages when compared to each other.
Figure 700-5 defines the capability of each lift method under different operating
conditions. Selection of any method must be based on the well and reservoir
characteristics.
Fig. 700-5 Lift Methods

Operating Sucker Rod Hydraulic Electric Gas
Condition Pumps Pumps Pumps Lift
Scale Good Fair Poor Fair
Sand Fair Fair Poor Excellent
High Volume Poor Good Excellent Excellent
Flexibility Good Excellent Poor Good
Wax Fair Good Good Poor
Corrosion Good Good Fair Good
High Entrained Gas Fair Fair Fair Excellent
Deviated Well Poor Good Fair Excellent
Depth Fair Good Good Good
Simple Design Yes No No No

The following characteristics should be considered when choosing an artificial lift

system.
• Name and location of well and its proximity to other wells
• Reservoir data
• Bottom-hole pressure and productivity index
• Oil and water production
• Gas/oil ratio
• Depth of lift required
• Casing size, condition, and single or multiple completion
• Type and condition of existing lift equipment, if any
• Operating problems, such as scale paraffin, corrosion, etc.
• Availability of service, parts, and personnel familiar with the system
• Availability and cost of gas and/or electricity
• Degree of automation desired
• Ability of the system to meet changing production conditions, if required
• Safety
• Investment and operating costs
The most important selection criterion for an artificial lift system is to find the
system that will deplete the well most economically.
751 Electric Submersible Pumps

There are two types or designs for electric submersible pumps (ESP). One is
designed for oil or water production in downhole well installations. The other is
primarily a shallow-water well pump.
The downhole ESP (Figure 700-6) is common in oil field production. Typical
manufacturers are TRW/REDA, Centrilift-Hughes, and Oil Dynamics, Inc. ESPs
consist of four major sections:
1. Submersible motor and cable
2. Seal section
3. Pump (sometimes supplied with gas separator)
4. Topside transformer and electrical controls and instrumentation
These units run at 3600 RPM; each motor/transformer set is matched. The setting
depth, cable selection, and power rating of the motor determine the required topside
voltage and transformer rating. This is unique in every installation. The setting
depth can be as much as 13,000 feet and produce flows between 200 and
20,000 BPD. Motors are usually less than 200 HP.
The pump, seal section, motor, and tubing are designed to fit inside standard casing
sizes. Motors and pumps may be 5¼ inch or 7 inch diameter. Due to the restriction
in diameter, motors may be 20 or 30 feet long and pumps may have up to

Fig. 700-6 Electrical Submersible Pump System Courtesy of the “Oil & Gas Journal”.
Reprinted with permission.
400 stages. This also restricts the allowable diameter of the shaft, typically about
one inch.
The reliability of these pumps decreases as well temperature, deviation, and horse-
power increase. The average run life is between one and two years.
The advantages of an electric submersible pump system are:
a. Economically produce high volumes of fluid.
b. Work well in locations with minimal surface area, such as offshore
platforms.
c. Low initial cost.
d. Use a single tubing string and vent gas through the annulus.

The disadvantages of an electric submersible pump system are:

a. Poor flexibility in lifting unexpected, rapidly changing, or low-volume
production.
b. The electric power supply cable is affected by depth, corrosion, tempera-
ture, or handling, which can cause cable failures.
c. For wells with gas in addition to liquid, the electric submersible pump
must have good gas separation for efficient pumping.
d. Abrasives, wax, or scale decrease the ESP run life. (This is true for all
downhole pumps.)
e. Relatively poor reliability.
f. The inherent low efficiency of a centrifugal pump makes the overall effi-
ciency of ESPs poor.
g. Pulling and repair costs are high.
For more information on ESPs, refer to “Electric Submersible Pumps,” from
Chevron USA, Northern Region (Denver), or refer to one of the following:
API RP-11R Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible Pump Installations.
API RP-115 Recommended Practice for Operation Maintenance and Trouble-
shooting Electric Submersible Pump Installations.
Handbook for Oilfield Subsurface Electrically Driven Pumps. Centrilift-Hughes,
Inc. 200 W. Stuart Roosa Drive, Claremore, OK, 74017.
Shallow-water well pumps are very different from downhole ESPs. They are not
specifically designed for deep well installations and never used in oil production.
However, they are used in seawater lift services and other shallow, cool water
services. Shallow-water well pumps consist of a submersible motor and pump. The
seal is built into the motor; the pump does not require one. The electrical support
systems are standard and do not require special voltages or dedicated transformers.
The pump and motor are packaged by the pump manufacturer. Typical manufac-
turers of this type of submersible motor are TRW/Plueger, Hayward-Tyler, and
Byron-Jackson. The motors are larger in diameter, up to 14 inches and do not have
the pressure-balancing capabilities of the downhole ESP. The motors are much
shorter in length, usually about 10 feet and are capable of up to 700 HP. These
motors normally operate at 1800 RPM.
These motors can be installed onto almost anyone's standard vertical turbine pump.
Typical manufacturers of the pump are Goulds, Peerless, Ingersoll-Rand, Bingham,
and Dresser-Worthington.
The shallow well ESP is usually more expensive than the deep well ESP, with little
overlapping coverage between them.

752 Sucker Rod Pumps

Sucker rod (walking beam) pumps are normally limited to downhole applications in
certain producing areas. These systems (Figure 700-7) are designed for lower
producing rates (up to 1,000 BPD) from shallow to moderate well depths (up to
11,500 feet). In a sucker rod pump system, a surface pumping unit converts the
rotary motion of a prime mover (gas engine, electric motor, etc.) into a recipro-
cating action. The reciprocating action is transferred to a positive displacement
pump located downhole.
The advantages of sucker rod lift systems are:
a. They are the oldest and most widely used means of artificial lift,
accounting for 85% of artificial lift in the United States. Consequently,
sucker rod pumps are the best understood artificial lift method.
b. Low initial costs in shallow to moderate depth wells.
c. Flexibility to handle changing production volumes.
d. They use a simple tubing string and vent natural gas through the annulus.
The disadvantages of sucker rod pumping are:
a. Increasing the depth and/or the produced volumes increases the system’s
cost and reduces the system’s production capabilities.
b. Require a pulling unit for running and retrieving the downhole pump or
replacing sucker rods.
c. Subject to wear, fatigue, or corrosion failures.
d. Volumetric efficiency is reduced in wells with high GOR, solids, wax,
H2S, or corrosion.
References
The following references provide detailed information on sucker rod pumps and
their corresponding pumping units.
API RP-11L Recommended Practice for Design Calculations for Sucker Rod
Pumping Systems (Conventional Units)
API BUL-11L4 Bulletin containing Curves for Selecting Beam Pumping Units
API RP-11AR Recommended Practice for Care and Handling of Subsurface Pumps
API RP-11BR Recommended Practice for Care and Handling of Sucker Rods
API SPEC-1B Specification for Oil-Field V-Belting (Includes a design procedure
for power application of V-Belts)
API RP-11G Recommended Practice for Installation and Lubrication of Pumping
Units
API SPEC-11AX Specification for Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps and Fittings

Fig. 700-7 Typical Sucker Rod, or “Walking-Beam” Pump From Pump Handbook, (1976) Edited by Karassik, Krutzch,
Fraser & Messina. Used with permission from McGraw Hill.

API SPEC-11B Specification for Sucker Rods (Pony rods, polished rods, couplings,
and sub-couplings)
API STD-11E Specification for Pumping Units
Rod Pumping Equipment: Surface and Downhole Analysis and Inbal Programs.
Chevron Oil Field Research Co., La Habra, CA. (Analysis of rod pumping system
performance, based on monitoring conditions at surface.)
Artificial Lift Sucker Rod Pumping. Royalty Enterprises, Inc., Garland, Texas. (This
book provides a detailed look at all aspects of sucker rod pumping systems.)
753 Hydraulic-Turbine Driven Pumps

Hydraulic-turbine driven pumps (Figure 700-8) can handle up to 12,000 BPD
production from shallow to deep well depths (up to 17,000 feet). In hydraulic-
turbine driven pump systems, a downhole hydraulic turbine receives its energy by
mean s of a fluid, usually oil or treated water. The power fluid is pumped downhole
by means of a surface pump.
The advantages of this lift system are:
a. Economics for hydraulic pumps improve with depth and produced-volume
requirements.
b. Economical and flexible range in handling changing produced-volume
requirements.
c. The downhole pump can be run in and out of the well by circulation.
d. Work in deviated, directional, or inaccessible well locations.
e. Power fluid (either produced oil or water) can be a treated fluid to provide
heat, chemical, or dilutent.
f. Hydraulic pumps work well in pumping crudes because the crudes are
diluted by the lighter power fluid.
g. When using hydraulic powered pumps, a centrally located pump station
can serve a number of wells.
The disadvantages of hydraulic pumps are:
a. Cannot vent gas with a single tubing string.
b. When used with central station for multi-well system:
– Power fluid requires treatment.
– Long high-pressure lines for power fluid are required.
– Production testing is more difficult.
c. Initial capital costs are high.
d. When oil is used, the power fluid volume required may become very
expensive.

Fig. 700-8 Hydraulic Pump From The Dictionary of Petroleum Exploration, Drilling and
Production by Norman J. Hyne, Courtesy of PennWell Publishing.
e. High maintenance cost.

f. Sonic bottomhole pressure testing can’t be performed on subsurface
completion types. A pressure bomb cannot be run with a reciprocating-
type hydraulic pump. The jet-type hydraulic pump allows pressure bombs
to be run in the chamber at the bottom of the pump.
g. Power requirements are high due to the combined inefficiencies of power
fluid pumps, downhole pumps, and hydraulic turbines.

754 Gas Lift Systems

Gas lifting (Figure 700-9) can lift high volumes of fluid (up to 20,000 BPD on
continuous injection) from moderate to deep well depths (up to 14,000 ft.). In gas
lifting, the reservoir fluids are lifted from the wellbore by injection (intermittent or
continuous) of a high-pressure gas to supplement the reservoir’s energy.
The advantages of gas lifting are:
a. Gas lifting is very economical where gas is readily available at high
pressures.
b. Gas lifting handles changing volumes with economic flexibility.
c. Gas lifting works in low productivity wells with high GOR’s.
d. When using gas lift, abrasive material (sand, etc.) offers fewer problems.
e. Gas lifting works in deviated, directional or small casing wells, or where
surface area is minimal, such as offshore.
f. Gas lift valves are retrievable with wireline, eliminating the need for a
workover rig in some instances.
The disadvantages of gas lifting are:
a. Gas lifting requires a continuous high-pressure gas supply, operating costs
will increase as gas prices do.
b. Gas lifting efficiency generally decreases with lower produced volumes
and shallower depths.
c. Gas lifting cannot pump down a well because hydrostatic pressure from the
produced fluid column is still on the formation.
d. Gas lifting can increase hydrate and paraffin accumulation due to the
cooling effect of gas expansion.
e. Depletion of a low BHP well is difficult with gas lifting.
f. For gas lifting, the casing must be completely intact (without leaks) and
capable of withstanding the lift pressures.

Fig. 700-9 Gas Lift From The Dictionary of Petroleum Exploration, Drilling and Production by
Norman J. Hyne, Courtesy of PennWell Publishing.
760 Peristaltic Pumps

Peristaltic pumps, also called hosepumps (Figure 700-10) are used for pumping
fluids such as waste sludges, lime and cement mortar, adhesives, and shear
sensitive fluids such as latex paints.
Peristaltic pumps are positive displacement pumps. The pumping action results
from alternate compression and relaxation of the hose, which is manufactured of
Buna or natural rubber. The hose is compressed within a circular housing by a rotor
with lubricated shoes that come in direct contact with the outer walls of the hose.
The pumped fluid is in contact only with the inner walls of the hose.
Peristaltic pumps are available in capacities to 300 gpm and pressures to 220 psig.
Advantages of peristaltic pumps include low fluid shear, no seals or packing, no
valves, and dry running. Disadvantages include limited hydraulic range, pulsating
flow, and limited life due to the component life of the hose.

Fig. 700-10 Peristaltic Pump Courtesy of Watson-Marlow/Bredel Pumps

800 Mechanical Seals
Abstract
This section covers the fundamentals of mechanical seals, seal types and support
systems, seal application and selection, and troubleshooting procedures and check-
lists. It briefly discusses packing. Much of this information is reproduced from the
Chevron USA (IMI) Mechanical Seal Manual.
Contents Page
810 General Information 800-3

811 Packing
813 Seal Leakage and Expected Seal Life
814 Recommended Services and Limitations
815 Converting Packed Pumps to Mechanical Seals
816 Seal Gaskets
820 Seal Types 800-9
821 Pusher Seals
822 Bellows Seals
823 Rotating and Stationary Seals
824 Balanced and Unbalanced Seals
825 Cartridge Seals
826 Inside Seals
827 Outside Seals
830 Support Systems 800-14
831 Flushing
832 Seal Flush Piping
833 Flush Plans
834 Quenching

800 Mechanical Seals Pump Manual
835 Cooling
836 Pressurization
840 Dual Mechanical Seals 800-25
841 Introduction
842 Typical Applications For Dual Seals
843 Dual Seal Designs
844 Reliability and Experience
845 Costs
846 Buffer/Barrier Fluid Support Systems
860 Troubleshooting and Failure Analysis 800-55
861 Background
862 Elements of Successful Seal Performance
863 Mechanical Seal Failure Analysis
864 Seal Failure Analysis Checklists

Pump Manual 800 Mechanical Seals
810 General Information
811 Packing
The most common source of trouble in centrifugal pumps is leakage of liquid along
the shaft. The stuffing box with soft packing, shown in Figure 800-1, is used to
prevent this leakage. The conventional stuffing box contains rings of a compress-
ible material such as woven carbon yarn that are held tightly against the shaft by
pressure from a gland. As illustrated in Figure 800-1, a lantern ring is frequently
placed near the center of the packing for introduction of a sealing or lubricating
medium. Usually, a removable throat bushing is positioned at the bottom of the
stuffing box which can be replaced if excessive clearance develops between the
bushing and the shaft. The bushing shown also has a bleed-off connection, used on
multistage pumps to keep the packing near suction pressure. Packing is now consid-
ered obsolete for most applications.
Fig. 800-1 Conventional Stuffing Box

Mechanical shaft seals are frequently used instead of conventional packing and are
standard equipment for most centrifugal pump services. Basically, a mechanical seal
consists of a smooth flat surface mounted on the pump casing and a similar smooth
flat surface of different material rotating with the shaft but held closely against the
casing surface by spring and hydraulic pressure. Figure 800-2 is a cutaway view of a
typical single mechanical seal. Dual seal arrangements are also available (see
Figures 800-19 and 800-20).

Fig. 800-2 Typical Mechanical Seal
For satisfactory seal life the seal faces must be as flat and parallel as possible. The
surfaces are normally lapped to a flatness of one to three light bands (one light band
equals 11.6 millionths of an inch). One of the seal faces is held by a flexible
arrangement (usually springs) that keeps the two surfaces continuously in contact.
Enough pressure is maintained to exclude most foreign particles, but not enough to
exclude lubrication. The spring force also maintains face contact when the pump is
not running.
813 Seal Leakage and Expected Seal Life

Leakage from properly functioning mechanical seals is usually very slight—one or
two drops per minute at the maximum—but most commonly undetectable visually.
If mechanical seals operate satisfactorily when first installed, they will often do so
for a long time. A mechanical seal in continuous duty may be expected to operate
without requiring maintenance for several years and often for much longer. Seals in
intermittent services, as in bulk station plants, often operate for many years without
attention. The leakage that can be tolerated before repairing a seal depends on the
value and/or hazard of the liquid handled.
Mechanical seals are more vulnerable to premature failure when installed in a
system of new piping which has not been thoroughly purged of welding slag, mill
scale, and rust. Any system involving pumping equipment with mechanical seals
should be properly flushed and cleaned before initial operation.
814 Recommended Services and Limitations

In most services, mechanical seals have almost completely replaced packing. They
are particularly recommended for light hydrocarbon services, such as LPG, where
conventional packing has been a source of trouble. They are also highly satisfactory

in most clean hydrocarbon services. They require no adjustment or operator atten-

tion until they begin to leak from excessive wear, and their normal life is consider-
ably longer than for soft packing. Because they are almost drop-tight, mechanical
seals are recommended for hazardous, corrosive, or costly liquids. They are also
preferred where atmospheric contamination must be avoided and where a negligible
level of leakage will reduce fire hazard.
Mechanical seals can be installed on pumps handling liquids containing abrasive
material in appreciable quantities if a separate clean lubricating fluid is injected over
the seal faces to flush the seal chamber so that abrasive material does not contact the
seal. Such flushing streams must be kept in operation whenever the pump is under
pressure, whether running or not. Services where loss of suction would allow the
seals to run dry, such as sump pumps, tank stripping, and similar applications, may
also require an external flush supply.
Mechanical seals are not recommended for stocks that become highly viscous or set
up on cooling unless special care is taken to adequately heat the seal area prior to
startup.
815 Converting Packed Pumps to Mechanical Seals

Consult the pump manufacturer before converting a packed pump to a mechanical
seal. Some older style packed pumps relied on the packing for additional shaft
support. If such a pump is not operating at its design point, the loss of support
around the shaft may result in excessive shaft deflection and radial vibration. When
converting packed pumps to mechanical seals, consider upgrading the pump to the
latest API requirements for shaft stiffness and stuffing box dimensions, by
purchasing a bearing bracket/stuffing box upgrade from the pump manufacturer.
To make the conversion from packing to a mechanical seal, the seal manufacturer
requires the following pump information. The Mechanical Seal Data Sheet in
API 682 may be useful in ordering parts when converting a packed pump to a
mechanical seal.
1. Serial number
2. Model
3. Size
4. RPM
5. Whether the case is split vertically or horizontally
6. Number of packing boxes
7. Shaft OD
8. Sleeve OD
9. Packing box depth
10. Maximum length of cartridge

11. Seal gland bolt circle

12. Number of seal gland bolts and location from 90-degree centerline
13. Size of seal gland studs
14. Relation of flush quench and drain port to vertical centerline
15. First obstruction
16. Whether pump loses suction
17. Whether pump cavitates
Items 6, 7, and 8 are necessary for the seal manufacturer to estimate the cost of the
seal. When the decision has been made to purchase the mechanical seal, the seal
manufacturer should have access to the original equipment manufacturer’s (OEM)
stuffing box drawings, but should fabricate the seal to accurate field dimensions.
Prior to fabricating the seal, it is good practice to compare the two and resolve any
discrepancies.
The end of the stuffing box (Figure 800-3) on an old pump is usually worn or bell-
mouthed from repeated packing replacements. To restore it to its original ID would
require welding and re-boring. It is usually less expensive to increase the OD of the
seal gland registered fit (Figure 800-4) by 1/8-inch over the dimension on the OEM
drawing. The stuffing box can be counterbored to fit the oversize seal gland regis-
tered fit. This practice eliminates a welding repair.
Fig. 800-3 Bell Mouth Stuffing Box Fig. 800-4 Bell Mouth Repair
Items 9 and 11 can be established from the OEM drawings. Item 10 is determined
by the distance between the ends of the drive and driven shaft and must be taken in
the field. The first obstruction (item 15) is the distance between the stuffing box
face and the next object on the shaft, measured toward the bearing housing.
A packed pump will survive some instances of suction loss and cavitation (items 16
and 17), but either of these conditions will shorten mechanical seal life. When a
pump loses suction, the seal cavity empties and the loss of liquid between the seal

faces causes seal failure. Investigate the system for these problems prior to installing
a mechanical seal. If a suction loss problem does exist, it may be overcome with
low-flow or low-pressure instrumentation, which protects both the seal and the
pump. A close-clearance throat bushing and API 682 Flush Plan 32 can be used to
hold a positive pressure in the seal cavity and avoid seal failure during brief periods
of suction loss and cavitation.
816 Seal Gaskets

Leakage under the seal rings is prevented by gaskets. There are many seal gasketing
configurations using various materials, depending on the service. See Figure 800-5.
Fig. 800-5 Rotating Seal Member Gasket
API 682, and the petrochemical industry in general, has standardized on mechan-
ical seals that use only two of the gasket configurations shown in Figure 800-5, the
O-ring and the high temperature (flexible graphite) gasket. The other configurations
are designs that seal manufacturers devised to create successful gasket configura-
tions for Teflon (PTFE). Teflon has improved chemical resistance over many elas-
tomers, but causes corrosion fretting between the rotating seal member gasket and
the shaft sleeve O-ring. The Company has had poor experience with Teflon
secondary seals in any configuration.
When selecting a gasket, service temperature and chemical compatibility are the
predominant factors to consider. API 682 provides guidance for gasket selection
(see Figure 800-6). As shown, the basic gasket material selection for general
services is DuPont Viton. When chemical compatibility or temperature limitations
of Viton become a problem, DuPont Kalrez is recommended. In most hot services
(>300°F) the Standard recommends flexible graphite gaskets.
In common with many engineered components, the material composition and manu-
facturing quality of O-rings varies greatly from one source to another. This is of
particular concern with O-rings because the various elastomers look similar. In the

Fig. 800-6 API 682 Gasket Selections Courtesy of American Petroleum First
Service
Fluid Temperature Gasket Material Material Descriptions
Water <250°F Fluoroelastomer (FKM) DuPont Viton
Sour Water <250°F Perfluorelastomer (FFKM) ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
Caustic <180°F Perfluorelastomer (FFKM) ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
Amines <180°F Amine Resistant ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
Perfluorelastomer (FFKM)
Acids - H2SO4, HCl, H3PO4 <180°F Perfluorelastomer (FFKM) ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
Hydrocarbon 20 to 300°F Fluoroelastomer (FKM) DuPont Viton
Hydrocarbon containing 20 to 300°F Perfluorelastomer (FFKM) ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
H2S or aromatics
Hydrocarbon containing 20 to 300°F Perfluorelastomer (FFKM) ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
caustic
Hydrocarbon containing 20 to 300°F Amine Resistant ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
amines Perfluorelastomer (FFKM)
Hydrocarbon -40 to 20°F Nitrile B. F. Goodrich Hycar, Buna-N
Non-flashing hydro- ≥300 °F Flexible Graphite Union Carbide
carbon (may contain H2S, Grafoil
aromatics, or amines)
Flashing hydrocarbon 300 to 500°F Perfluorelastomer (FFKM) ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
(may contain H2S or
aromatics)
Flashing hydrocarbon 300 to 500°F Amine Resistant ASTM D 1418, such as DuPont Kalrez
containing amines) Perfluorelastomer (FFKM)
past, attempts have been made to create a positive means to identify the different
O-rings such as through color coding. This was largely unsuccessful because there
was no standardization between suppliers and because, in some cases, the colored
material added to the O-rings had a detrimental effect on mechanical properties.
Figure 800-7 shows some of the current fluoroelastomer and perfluorelastomer
grades recommended for mechanical seals. This chart is based on Chevron Products
Company refining experience.
The life of Fluoroelastomer (Viton) O-rings is not appreciably affected by tempera-
tures up to 350°F. Above 350°F, however, the life shortens quite rapidly. Perfluo-
relastomer O-rings are selected for flashing hydrocarbon and water services from
350°F to 450°F (API 682 indicates 300°F to 500°F). Generally, one of the
amine-resistant perfluorelastomer grades such as Kalrez 3018 is selected for
these services. Consult the seal supplier or an O-ring supplier for non-standard
applications.

Fig. 800-7 Fluoroelastomer and Perfluorelastomer Grades

Gasket Material Description/Grade Comments
Fluoroelastomer DuPont Tracer Viton Can be positively identified under
ultra-violet light.
Perfluorelastomer DuPont Kalrez 4079 Greene Tweed Chemraz 505 is the
Greene Tweed Chemraz 505 standard for all services that
require perfluorelastomer gaskets
at El Segundo and Pascagoula
refineries.
Amine resistant Perfluorelastomer DuPont Kalrez 1050LF or 3018 Greene Tweed Chemraz 505 is the
Greene Tweed Chemraz 505 standard for all services that
require pefluorelastomer gaskets
at El Segundo and Pascagoula
refineries
820 Seal Types
821 Pusher Seals

Rotating pusher seals (Figure 800-8) operate as follows: As the rotating seal
member face (F) wears, the springs (D) push the face forward, also causing the
rotating seal member gasket (E) to be pushed forward on the sleeve or shaft. This
gasket, often called the secondary seal, is the seal between the rotating seal member
face and the sleeve or shaft. When the pump is operating, this gasket moves
constantly in an axial direction along the sleeve or shaft. Axial movement takes
place as the seal faces wear, or if the stationary face is not on a true 90-degree angle
to the pump shaft axis, in which case the gasket moves twice per shaft revolution.
The low cost of pusher seals makes them quite popular when the gasketing is not
affected by liquid temperature or chemical compatibility.
Fig. 800-8 Pusher Seal

822 Bellows Seals

In bellows seals (Figures 800-9 and 800-10), the rotating seal face is pushed
towards the stationary face by the combined force of the bellows and liquid pres-
sure. The rotating seal member gasket is located behind the bellows in a position
where it remains totally static. Unlike the pusher seal, the rotating seal member in a
bellows seal cannot hang up on the rotating seal member gasket.
Fig. 800-9 Bellows Seal (Elastometric) Fig. 800-10 Bellows Seal (Metal)
Bellows seals are somewhat pressure limited as compared to pusher seals. The seal
selection guide in API 682 limits selection of bellows seals to a sealing pressure of
250 psig. However, manufacturers generally design bellows for a pressure rating
exceeding 300 psig. Hence, 300 psig is more commonly regarded as the sealing
pressure limit for bellows seal selection.
Bellows seals are generally higher in cost than pusher seals. As a result, they are
generally selected for services where they provide extended life over pusher seals or
where pusher seals will not work. Metal bellows seals are particularly well suited to
high temperature service (350°F to 800°F). A flexible graphite gasket is usually
selected for the secondary sealing element in this temperature range.
Several materials have been used in the manufacture of metal bellows, including
316 SS, AM-350, and various Hastelloy and Inconel grades. The thin cross section
of the metal bellows requires a liquid corrosion rate of less than 2 mils per year.
Also, susceptibility to sulfide cracking, chloride cracking, or hydrogen embrittle-
ment are factors to consider in bellows material selection. The Company has had
poor experience with AM-350 metal bellows. API 682 has standardized on two
metal bellows materials, Hastelloy C for the Type B seal and Inconel 718 for the
Type C seal. These selections are based on industry experience more than on cost.
Cost is really a secondary factor because the money saved by selecting a less expen-
sive bellows is insignificant compared to the cost of a typical seal repair.

Fatigue is also a common failure mode in metal bellows. These failures often occur
in the first or last convolution in the bellows, when loss of lubrication between the
seal faces causes the faces to “grab”, resulting in high cyclic torque loads on the
bellows. It is for this reason that one avoids a metal bellows seal selection for
flashing services or services with an inadequate vapor suppression margin.
Appendix F contains a table of metal bellows failures documented in Chevron
facilities.
823 Rotating and Stationary Seals

Most mechanical seals are of rotating design (see Detail A, Figure 800-11). When a
rotating seal is operating at or above 5000 sfpm (surface feet per minute), some seal
distortion and dynamic balance problems may develop. These are eliminated with
the use of a stationary seal. The flexible seal member becomes the stationary seal
member. The rotating seal member in the stationary seal design is solid and not
subject to distortion or balance problems.
Fig. 800-11 Rotating and Stationary Seals
Stationary seals are most commonly used in pumps and compressors that operate at
high speeds. The stationary design is frequently used in high-temperature metal
bellows seals because they will accept more axial movement of the shaft and
vertical misalignment of the seal endplate. Also, the stationary bellows seal has
more clearance between its inside diameter and the shaft sleeve than does a rotating
seal. This allows better quenching and less seal hang-up from coking. During the
assembly of a rotating seal, the seal endplate that holds the stationary seal member
is often misaligned from a true 90-degree angle to the shaft. This misalignment
requires the rotating seal member face to move back and forth in an axial direction,
twice per shaft revolution. This movement can lead to premature failure of a pusher

seal’s rotating seal member gasket. It will also contribute to corrosion fretting of the
shaft sleeve.
When the misalignment of the seal endplate is excessive (greater than 0.003 inch),
the axial movement of the rotating seal member causes the rotating seal member
face to separate or float away from the stationary seal member face. This results in
excessive face leakage. In a stationary seal, the seal member is flexible, due to its
springs or bellows. Since it does not rotate, this flexibility compensates for the seal
endplate misalignment and allows the stationary seal member face to conform to the
true-running rotating seal member face.
824 Balanced and Unbalanced Seals

Seal cavity pressure on the back of the unbalanced seal member face in Figure 800-12
applies a force to the opposite face. If this force is excessive, the heat generated
between the faces causes the face lubricant film to vaporize. If the back of the seal
member face is reduced in area, the same seal cavity pressure will apply less force to
the opposite face. This is done by removing material from the inside diameter of the
seal member face. The removed material is replaced by a step in the shaft sleeve.
This step is commonly termed the “balance shoulder.” The amount of balance the
manufacturer builds into the seal is determined by the operating conditions and liquid
characteristics.
Some users specify balanced seals for all pressures, speeds, and specific gravities.
This practice aids in parts standardization and is a precaution against installing an
unbalanced seal in a service where it will cause a premature seal failure. All of the
standard seal types in API 682 are balanced.
Off-the-shelf pumps used in low-pressure, low-speed, high specific gravity service
often have unbalanced seals. The added cost and delivery time needed to change the
unbalanced seal to a balanced seal cannot be justified.
Fig. 800-12 Unbalanced and Balanced Seals
825 Cartridge Seals

Cartridge seals (Figure 800-13) are required for all seals in accordance with
API 682. A cartridge seal is a complete seal assembly, including shaft sleeve, that
can be assembled external to the pump. The seal drive set screws are mounted

outside the seal cavity. Cartridge seals are available in all API 682 configurations,
including the dual seal configurations. Cartridge seals have several advantages:
• The cost of a seal repair is lower and less skill is required.
• The entire seal can be assembled in a shop environment where it is more likely
to be done correctly.
• The seal assembly can be given a bench pressure test with air (as required by
API 682) to ensure that the faces and gaskets are assembled correctly and are
functional.
• Cartridge seals can be qualification tested as required by API 682.
• The seal manufacturer has unit responsibility for the seal design.
Cartridge seals are generally recommended for almost all seal installations. Again,
they are required for all seals in accordance with API 682. This includes most
centrifugal and rotary pumps in accordance with API 610 and 676. In some small,
standard, or inexpensive pumps, cartridge seals may not be practical or their incre-
mental cost may not be justified. Also, some small and/or standard pumps are close
coupled or have short coupling spacers which do not allow for sufficient axial space
for installing a cartridge seal.
Fig. 800-13 Cartridge Seal
826 Inside Seals

An inside seal is any seal that is mounted inside the seal cavity. The hydraulic pres-
sure in the seal cavity has a closing effect on the seal face that tends to decrease the
leakage between the faces. Abrasives tend to be thrown away from the faces by
centrifugal force. The majority of mechanical seals are inside mounted.

827 Outside Seals

An outside seal is any seal that is mounted outside the seal cavity. The pressure in
the seal cavity has an opening effect on outside mounted seals. This opening effect,
combined with the centrifugal force of the liquid moving outward between the seal
faces, increases the leakage rate. Abrasives also tend to be centrifuged into the seal
faces, causing increased face wear. Leakage from a catastrophic outside mounted
seal failure will be more pronounced than leakage from the same catastrophic inside
seal failure.
Outside seals are generally not used in any service.
830 Support Systems

Mechanical seals work very well when constantly surrounded by a fluid that is
clean, cool, non-corrosive, and of the right viscosity.
Unfortunately, this seldom happens naturally, so it is often necessary to include a
support system to create a supportive environment for the seal. Usually this involves
some sort of flush to cool, purge, or pressurize the seal chamber and perhaps a
quench to retard the formation of solids on the atmospheric side of the seal faces.
The standard flushing arrangements have numbered flush plans as described and
illustrated in API 682. These plans describe the auxiliary equipment required to
ensure that fluid at the seal faces is maintained at the proper conditions.
Dual seals have buffer or barrier fluid support systems, which are more compli-
cated flush arrangements as required to support the secondary seal. A buffer fluid is
a fluid injected in between dual mechanical seals, at a lower pressure than the
pumped fluid sealing pressure. A barrier fluid is also a fluid injected in between
dual mechanical seals, but at a higher pressure than the pumped fluid sealing pres-
sure. In both cases, the buffer or barrier fluid is injected between the primary and
secondary seals.
831 Flushing
A flush is a small amount of fluid that is introduced into the seal chamber close to
the sealing faces. The flush fluid improves the fluid conditions near the faces.
Usually, the main purpose of the flush is to suppress vapor formation at or near the
faces by heat removal and pressurization.
Guidance for selecting a flush plan is given in Section 850 and in Appendix B of
API 682. The following discussion is intended to provide a better understanding of
how flush systems are designed. This information should enable one to ask the right
questions for selections not covered in the guideline.

832 Seal Flush Piping

Controversy often exists about seal flush piping. Should it be stainless steel? Is seal
welding required? Where should the orifices be? The following recommendations
are a proven approach to seal flush systems.
For LPG or highly toxic services, or for services with pumping temperatures over
450°F, an orifice (for restricting flow to the atmosphere in case of tubing failure)
should be provided at the discharge or suction nozzle connection. This orifice is in
addition to the orifice at the gland plate connection, and must be considered in seal
flush flow calculations. Flush and quench lines should be Type 316 stainless steel
tubing, ¾-inch by 0.095-inch minimum wall thickness or ½-inch by 0.065-inch
minimum wall thickness with stainless steel fittings.
833 Flush Plans

API 682 Flush Plan 01. Pump manufacturers sometimes design pumps for mechan-
ical seal applications that do not have conventional stuffing boxes. The seal cavities
for these pumps are often termed “internal seal cavities.” The internal seal cavity is
a large void directly behind the impeller; it does not have a throat bushing. Elimi-
nating the conventional stuffing box allows this pump to be built shorter with a
more rigid shaft. If this style of pump develops premature seal failure, the lack of a
throat bushing makes it difficult to control the environment in the seal cavity. To
pressure or flush the seal from an exterior source would require changing to a
conventional stuffing box.
Pumps with internal seal cavities should be considered for the following services
only:
1. Liquids with low vapor pressures
2. Nonabrasive liquids
3. Noncorrosive liquids
4. Liquids with good lubricating ability
5. Stable suction heads
6. Flows that are always above the pump's minimum flow
API 682 Flush Plan 02. When the liquid in the seal cavity is too close to its vapor
pressure, this flush plan may succeed in cooling it below its boiling point.
In some older pumps, water circulating through the seal cavity water jackets
removes enough heat from the liquid in the seal cavity to keep the liquid below its
boiling point. Contact the pump manufacturer to establish the efficiency of the
pump's water jacket.
Over time, minerals will plate out and foul the water jacket walls. This fouling will
reduce heat transfer from the seal cavity liquid to the cooling water. The water

jackets should be inspected for fouling during routine plant shutdowns, and chemi-
cally cleaned if necessary. The industry trend is away from water jackets.
Plan 02 is not very efficient at heat removal with pumps that have internal seal cavi-
ties, due to the lack of the throat bushing. The throat bushing acts as a heat barrier
between the cooled liquid in the seal cavity and the hot liquid behind the impeller.
Plan 02 requires that the seal cavity be full of liquid. This requires installing a vent
at the top of the seal cavity.
API 682 Flush Plan 11. The rotation of the mechanical seal in the seal cavity
creates heat. To hold the heat increase to a minimum, the seal cavity is flushed with
liquid from the pump’s discharge. This flow passes through the seal cavity, into the
low-pressure area of the impeller, and out the discharge. The amount of flow is
calculated by the seal or pump manufacturer. If it becomes necessary to field-
calculate the flush rate, the rule of thumb is 0.75 gpm per inch of seal diameter for
non-regulated emission services. For services with regulated emissions, the rule is
1.5 gpm per inch of seal diameter. A distributed seal flush system such as a circum-
ferential or multi-port arrangement is usually required to develop the higher flush
rate.
Plan 11 can be used only when seal cavity pressure is less than discharge pressure.
• In single stage overhung pumps, this requires the impeller to have balance ports
and a back wear ring or pump-out vanes.
• Plan 11 cannot be used in overhung pumps that have been modified to elimi-
nate these features.
An orifice is required in the flush line at the discharge connection for the following
reasons:
1. If the flush tubing fails, the amount of leakage to atmosphere is restricted by the
orifice.
2. The pressure drop from discharge pressure to seal cavity pressure across the
orifice in the gland plate flush port, increases the velocity of the flush liquid.
High velocities in this area can lead to excessive erosion of the seal parts or can
force the seal faces open. Taking a pressure drop through an orifice located at
the flush source will decrease the velocity of the liquid entering the seal cavity.
It is poor practice to use orifices less than 1/8-inch due to the hazard of plug-
ging. If a 1/8-inch orifice is insufficient to produce the desired pressure drop,
use multiple orifices instead of a single orifice of less than 1/8-inch diameter.
The discharge flush also suppresses vaporization of the liquid in the seal cavity.
Installing a close-clearance bushing in the bottom of the seal cavity restricts the
flow from the pump's discharge and raises the seal cavity pressure. This pressure
rise aids in vapor suppression. However, note that reducing the flow may also cause
a reduction in cooling which may cause seal failure due to overheating.
API 682 Flush Plan 12. Flush Plan 12 is identical to Flush Plan 11 except for an
added strainer in the flush line upstream of the orifice. The strainer's purpose is to

trap any foreign material that could plug the orifice. This flush plan is normally not
recommended due to the potential for plugging and the resulting loss of seal flush.
If a strainer or filter must be used in a flush line, one of the following precautions
should be taken:
1. Establish a strainer blowdown schedule.
2. Instrument the flush system to alarm if flush flow is lost.
3. If filters are used, they should be instrumented for a differential pressure
increase across the filter. Filters should be arranged in pairs so a plugged filter
may be cleaned while a clean filter is in service.
API 682 Flush Plan 13. Flush Plan 13 is used when the pressure in the seal cavity
is the same as the pump’s discharge pressure. Pump discharge pressure in the seal
cavity is determined by the pump’s impeller design. An impeller in a single stage
overhung pump that has no balance ports, back wear ring, or back pumpout vanes
will cause the seal cavity to be at discharge pressure. The seal cavity in most
vertical pumps also operates at pump discharge pressure.
A flow of liquid through the seal cavity is required to remove the heat generated by
the seal’s rotation. This flow is created with Flush Plan 13, which allows liquid to
flow from the seal cavity through an orifice and back to the pump's suction. Caution
must be taken when sizing the flush line orifice. If the rate of flush flow is exces-
sive and the seal cavity pressure becomes too close to the vapor pressure of the
liquid in the seal cavity, the liquid film between the seal faces will flash to vapor,
resulting in a lack of seal face lubrication and premature seal failure.
API 682 Flush Plan 21. One method of vapor suppression is to cool the liquid
going to the seal cavity to below the liquid’s boiling point using Flush Plan 21. This
is accomplished by installing a heat exchanger (cooler) in the flush line. The cooler
can use water or air as the cooling medium, depending on the amount of heat
transfer required and the efficiency of the cooler. When it has been determined how
much heat must be removed from the liquid flushing the seal cavity, the cooler
manufacturer can calculate the cooler and flush line orifice size.
This flush plan works well for low temperature gradients across the cooler. With
moderate to high temperature gradients, cooler fouling becomes a problem.
Consider Flush Plan 23 for applications with moderate to high temperature
gradients.
API 682 Flush Plan 22. Flush Plan 22 is the same as Flush Plan 21, with the addi-
tion of a strainer in the flush line. If a strainer is used, precautions must be taken
against plugging.
API 682 Flush Plan 23. If the liquid in the seal cavity is too close to its vapor pres-
sure and flashes to a vapor between the seal faces, the seal will fail prematurely.
One approach to vapor suppression is to cool the liquid in the seal cavity below the
liquid's boiling point. Flush Plan 23 is identical to Flush Plan 02 with the addition of
a flush line, elevated flush cooler and pumping ring. The pumping ring is mounted
in the seal cavity and rotates with the pump shaft, circulating the seal cavity liquid

from the seal cavity through a cooler and back to the seal cavity. Fluid circulation is
also assisted by thermosyphon effect in a properly designed system.
The liquid head developed by the pumping ring is not always sufficient to pump
through an air bubble in the flush line, therefore all air must first be vented from the
flush line. The vent must be located at the highest point in the flush line.
Flush Plan 23 is used mainly to cool seals in boiler feedwater and flashing hydro-
carbon services. Above a temperature of 180°F, water cannot be sealed successfully
with a standard single seal. This is because boiler feedwater is contaminated with
soluble abrasives, namely minerals and boiler compounds. As the pressure of the
film of water between the seal faces drops from seal cavity pressure to atmospheric
pressure, it will flash to a vapor if the temperature between the faces equals or
exceeds 212°F. When this happens the abrasives come out of solution and embed
themselves in the softer of the two faces. The soft face then acts like a grinding
wheel, quickly destroying the opposing seal face. To keep the liquid between the
seal faces below 212°F, it is necessary to cool the seal cavity to 180°F or less.
Once the liquid in the seal cavity has been cooled to 180°F, the amount of heat
transfer required to hold it there is minimal, and cooler fouling is also minimized.
Cooler fouling occurs when minerals from the cooling water plate out on the
cooling water side of the cooler's tube, and is more pronounced when the heat
transfer rate is high.
A drain is required on the shell of the cooler for periodic back flushing of the
cooler's shell side, which also reduces fouling. The temperature of the flush stream
should be monitored with a temperature indicator installed in the flush line between
the seal cavity and the cooler. If the cooler loses its efficiency, it will require
cleaning by chemical or mechanical means. Be careful not restrict flow by over-
instrumenting the flush line.
When the pumped fluid is a hazard to personnel, all pressure indicators used in the
flush system must have block valves and all temperature indicators must have ther-
mowells.
API 682 Flush Plan 31. Mechanical seals are often required to seal liquids that are
contaminated with abrasives that may be detrimental to the seal faces. Seal manu-
facturers occasionally try to remove the abrasives with a cyclone separator
(Figure 800-14). The abrasive contaminated liquid from the pump discharge enters
the cyclone at A. The action of the cyclone forces the abrasives to exit at C and
return to the pump’s suction. The clean fluid exits into the flush line at B.
Cyclone separators are not effective at removing solids that are nearly the same
density as the fluid. API 682 requires the use of long radius and 45° bends in lieu of
90° short radius elbows. Lines must slope up to the cooler at ½-inch per foot,
minimum. API 682 requires that the density of the solid particles is at least two
times the fluid density. The cyclone separator must have a differential pressure of 2
to 10 atmospheres between connections A and B. Also, it will only work properly
when the pressure at connections B and C are at or near the same pressure. This
limits the length of the piping from connection C back to pump suction.

Fig. 800-14 Cyclone Separator
Flush plans involving cyclone separators are generally not recommended for sealing
applications in Chevron facilities. Although they might successfully remove large
particles that cause damage in the seal cavity, cyclone separators have some of the
following problems:
1. To achieve maximum abrasive removal, detailed engineering is required for
orifices in the cyclone system.
2. Abrasives at high velocities erode cyclone orifices, causing efficiency loss.
3. Orifice plugging causes reduction or loss of the seal flush. If the cyclone plugs,
the seal flush flow reverses, flowing from the seal cavity to the pump’s suction.
If the liquid in the seal cavity is near its vapor pressure, the drop in seal cavity
pressure could cause flashing between the seal faces and failure of the seal.
4. The smaller the abrasive particle, the less efficient the cyclone separator. Unfor-
tunately it is the small particles that enter between the seal faces.
API 682 Flush Plan 32. Flush Plan 32 provides for the injection of a clean cool
fluid to the seal from an external source. To allow for flush flow, the pressure of the
injection source must be greater than the pressure in the seal cavity. The injection
source must also be compatible with the liquid being pumped, because it exits via
the pump’s discharge. Flush Plan 32 should be considered for the following
conditions:
1. Sealing liquids that contain abrasives. Injecting a clean cool fluid that is
compatible with the pumped liquid is a straightforward approach to eliminating
abrasives from the seal cavity.
2. Sealing liquids that are hazardous to personnel or violate a pollution standard
if allowed to leak to the atmosphere. An example is a stream with a high
concentration of H2S. Flush Plan 32 isolates the seal cavity from the H2S with a

non-H2S bearing flush stream. If the seal fails catastrophically, the leak to
atmosphere through the seal endplate throttle bushing must be less than the
non-hazardous flush flow to the seal cavity. A close-clearance throttle bushing
in the seal endplate is required to attain this leakage rate.
3. The liquid in the seal cavity is near its boiling point. If the liquid in the seal
cavity is near its boiling point and vaporizes between the seal faces, the seal
will fail prematurely. This can be overcome by injecting a liquid with a low
vapor pressure, and which is compatible with the pumped liquid, into the seal
cavity.
4. Pump suction loss. When a pump loses suction or has problems picking up
suction, the seal fails prematurely from lack of liquid lubrication. Flushing the
seal with Plan 32 provides a constant source of liquid during brief periods of
suction loss.
Flush flow velocities of 10 to 15 feet per second through the seal cavity throat
bushing are necessary to keep the pumped liquid from migrating back into the seal
cavity. When the exterior flush flow rate must be held to a minimum, it is necessary
to install a close-clearance throat bushing to maintain this flow velocity. The flush
flow rate can be controlled with an orifice or with visual flow indicators. Orifice
sizes below 1/8-inch are subject to plugging. Flow meters are desirable because the
operator can visually monitor the flow. API 682 requires the piping arrangement to
include provisions to measure both the flush source pressure and the seal cavity
pressure. All plan 32 systems should include a block valve and check valve to
reduce the possibility of back-flow to the flush source in the event that pressure is
lost at the source. When the pumped liquid is a hazard to personnel, all pressure
indicators used in the flush system must have block valves and all temperature indi-
cators must have thermowells.
Flush Plan 32 often involves the downgrade of higher value fluids to lower value
fluids, process contamination, or creation of additional fluid requiring treatment
(such as sour water). These costs can be quite significant and should be evaluated
before selecting this flush plan. One Chevron refinery determined that their total
downgrade costs for Plan 32 systems exceeded $2MM per year. Eliminating Plan 32
systems became a source of significant operating cost savings for this refinery.
API 682 Flush Plan 41. Flush Plan 41 is designed to remove abrasives and to cool
the flush stream going to the mechanical seal. It is a combination of Flush Plans 11,
21, and 31. When the pumped fluid is a hazard to personnel all pressure indicators
used in the flush system must have block valves and all temperature indicators must
have thermowells.
API 682 Flush Plans 52, 53, and 54. Flush Plan 52 provides for circulation of a
buffer fluid between unpressurized dual seals. Flush plans 53 and 54 provide for
circulation of a barrier fluid between pressurized dual seals. These flush plans and
their support systems are described in more detail in Section 846.
Additional Flush Plans. Old pump installations that have been converted from
packing to mechanical seals occasionally have seal problems caused by pump
suction loss. Figure 800-15 shows two flush plans (A and B) that supply liquid to

the seal during brief periods of suction loss. These flush plans should not be consid-
ered when designing a new pump installation. Properly designed pump installations
warn plant operators in advance of conditions that cause pump suction loss.
Fig. 800-15 Flush Plans
Flush Plan A (Figure 800-15) requires a discharge line with an elevation higher than
the throat bushing in the bottom of the seal cavity. The close-clearance throat
bushing restricts the flow leaving the seal cavity, and allows for a longer retention
time of the liquid gravitating back from the discharge line.
Flush Plan B (Figure 800-15) depicts an external flush that is compatible with
the pump’s liquid stream. Sometimes it is uneconomical to use an external flush
continuously, yet periodic suction loss requires the external flush to be available to
keep a flush flow of liquid going to the seal cavity. Flush Plan B is useful in such
cases.
The external flush in Flush Plan B must have less pressure than the pump’s
discharge, but more pressure than the seal cavity. When the pump is operating at
normal rates, check valve No. 2 is open, check valve No. 1 is closed, and the seal is
flushed from the pump's discharge. When the pump loses suction, the discharge
pressure drops, check valve No. 1 opens, check valve No. 2 closes, and the seal is
flushed from the external source.
834 Quenching
The seal quench shown in Figure 800-16 is used to treat leakage that comes past the
mechanical seal into the atmosphere. The quench port enters the mechanical seal
endplate on the atmospheric side of the seal faces. Fluid injected into the quench
port leaks to the atmosphere through the seal endplate throttle bushing or the seal
endplate drain.

Fig. 800-16 Seal Quench
Water Quenching. When some liquids evaporate, they leave an abrasive crystal
deposit behind (caustic, for example). Crystals forming on the atmospheric side of
the secondary seal stop the secondary and rotating members from moving forward.
This condition is commonly called seal hangup. The seal faces are also damaged by
abrasives and crystals centrifuged between them.
These problems can be avoided by using API 682 Flush (quench) Plan 62 and
quenching the seal with water. The water dilutes the seal leakage and stops the
formation of the crystals. The quench water exits through the seal endplate throttle
bushing or drain.
Maximum quench flow rates should be low enough to keep the quench water from
entering and contaminating the pump bearing housing. Quenches can be used
continuously or intermittantly depending on the situation.
Steam Quenching. When hydrocarbons are sealed at elevated temperatures, coke
forms on the atmospheric side of the seal as a result of normal seal leakage. This
coke formation causes seal hangup and face damage. Steam injected through the
seal endplate quench port per API 682 Flush (quench) Plan 62 aids in stopping the
coke formation by cooling and removing the leakage.
The steam quench is also used to decrease blistering of the carbon seal face. Blis-
tering occurs when sealing viscous fluids such as asphalt, crude and bunker. When
the liquid is warm it penetrates into the face of the carbon seal. If the liquid film
between the seal faces is allowed to cool when the pump is shut down, it becomes
viscous. When the pump is restarted the shear force of the viscous liquid film
between the seal faces generates heat. The heat expands the liquid that has pene-
trated the carbon face. As a result of the liquid expansion small pieces of carbon
raise or break away from the carbon face. These pieces of carbon hold the faces
open and allow excessive leakage. A controlled steam quench keeps the faces warm,
while the pump is out of service.

Quench Rate. The maximum steam quench rate should be low enough to keep the
steam from entering and contaminating the pump bearing housing. The amount of
steam quench should be controlled by a back pressure regulator. Once the back pres-
sure regulator is adjusted to the desired flow, it remains constant. This overcomes
the problem of plant operators continually readjusting the amount of steam flow.
Any pressure regulator comparable to the Fisher Type 95L with the following
construction features can be used: body size, ¼-inch; orifice size, ¼-inch; body
material, cast steel; diaphragm and inner valve seat material, stainless steel;
maximum inlet pressure and temperature, 300 psi, 450°F. Reduced pressure ranges,
2 to 6 psi.
Dry Steam. The problem with steam-quenching high-temperature seals is keeping
the quench dry. When condensate enters the atmosphere side of a seal operating in a
high-temperature service and flashes to steam, the expansion of condensate to steam
opens the seal faces and allows excessive leakage. This produces a popping sound
from the seal endplate.
When installing a steam quench system, insulate the line from the steam source to
the seal end plate. Figure 800-17 is a steam quench piping system that is successful
in high-temperature applications.
Fig. 800-17 Steam Quench Piping System
High-temperature seal leaks can be a fire hazard if the temperature of the liquid
entering the atmosphere is at its flash point. The steam quench isolates and cools the
leakage below its flash point before it enters atmosphere. A close clearance throttle
bushing aids in isolating a hazardous seal leak.

Steam Smothering Ring. Every precaution should be taken against pump fires
when sealing a high-temperature liquid that is near its flash point. The steam
smother ring (Figure 800-18) is an inexpensive tool to prevent igniting a fire when
flammable stock has leaked past the steam quench and the seal endplate throttle
bushing. The valve controlling the steam source to the smothering ring should be
well marked and at a safe distance from the pump’s seal cavity.
Fig. 800-18 Steam Smother Ring
835 Cooling
Seals require very little lubrication. Stocks such as gasoline, propane, and butane
provide sufficient lubrication if they are kept under sufficient pressure and the seal
faces are adequately cooled. Seal face cooling is usually achieved by circulation of
fluid in the mechanical seal chamber. Inadequate cooling causes overheating of the
seal faces, and vaporizing of the stock around the seals, with loss of lubrication and
rapid seal failure. The required flow is normally determined by the seal and pump
manufacturer. Usually, the pumped liquid is the lubricant and coolant. The poorer
the stock’s lubrication qualities and the closer it is to its vapor pressure, the more
important it is to maintain an ample cooling flow.
Stock vaporization at the seal faces is the most common cause of seal failures.
For this reason it is advisable to use a cooler (such as in API 682 Flush Plan 21 or
23) whenever there is a risk of flashing. Keep in mind that many stocks contain a
mixture of compounds; the compound with the highest vapor pressure (lowest
boiling point) must be addressed when designing a cooling system.

Cooling Requirements. Lower temperatures are needed for high vapor pressure
stocks such as light hydrocarbons and ammonia. The amount of cooling needed is
usually specified in terms of vapor pressure rather then temperature.
Light hydrocarbons (0.6 SG and less) and ammonia should be cooled to a tempera-
ture such that the vapor pressure is 50 psi less than the seal chamber pressure. For
other stocks the recommended margin is 25 psi.
836 Pressurization
Cooling is always preferable to pressurization to suppress vaporization at the seal
faces, but cooling is not always feasible. Often one must raise the pressure in the
seal chamber to create the necessary margin between vapor pressure (at seal
chamber temperature) and seal chamber pressure. Follow the same rules outlined
above (i.e., 50 psi for ammonia and light hydrocarbons).
The source of pressure may be from the pump discharge (API Plan 11, 21, etc.) or
from an external source. Usually the throat bushing clearance must be reduced to
create the increased seal chamber pressure. For very close clearances a floating
carbon throat bushing is recommended.
Some locations have used hardened throat bushings, such as Nitronic 60, to reduce
erosion. The hardness must be controlled to prevent galling with the shaft.
840 Dual Mechanical Seals

Although a small percentage of pumps in Chevron facilities have dual mechanical
seals, concerns about poor dual seal reliability are both widespread and justified.
Pressurized dual seals are significantly more troublesome than unpressurized dual
seals, and there are examples of Company experiences where they failed ten to
twenty times during attempted start-ups.
Unpressurized dual seals are being operated with success, but single seals should
always be considered first. A decision to select dual seals should only be made
based on thorough knowledge of their pitfalls.
Readers are particularly cautioned against choosing dual seals just to meet
1000 ppm emission limits or less. Well-designed single seals can easily comply with
1000 ppm limits for Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and Reactive Organic
Gases (ROG).
Single seals are also preferable because:
• They are simpler
• They do not require a buffer or barrier fluid system
• Assembly is less complex
• Operation is easier
• Pumping rings are usually not required

• They are unaffected by pressure reversals

• There is no need to properly handle contaminated and/or hazardous
buffer/barrier fluid when performing maintenance.
841 Introduction
Dual Mechanical Seals
Use of the term “dual” in the phrase dual mechanical seals indicates that there is
more than one seal in a seal chamber at a given shaft sealing location in a machine.
The use of more than two seals in a dual seal is fairly unusual, so the word dual
usually refers to seals with two pairs of seal faces. The term “dual” is consistent
with terminology as defined and used in API 682 and API 610, 8th edition. Two
types of dual mechanical seals are defined in API 682:
• Dual mechanical seal with unpressurized buffer—referred to herein as an
unpressurized dual seal.
The seals are mounted in series in an unpressurized dual seal. Before API 682
was published, this seal configuration was referred to as a tandem seal because
of the way the seals are mounted. Like the riders on a tandem bicycle, both
seals face in the same direction. The buffer fluid is introduced between the two
seals in an unpressurized dual seal at a pressure lower than the seal cavity
pressure.
• Dual mechanical seal with pressurized barrier—referred to herein as a pressur-
ized dual seal.
The seals are generally mounted in series in a standard pressurized dual seal.
As an alternative, the seals can be mounted back-to-back. Before API 682 was
published, this alternate configuration was referred to as a double seal. The
barrier fluid is introduced between the two seals in a pressurized dual seal at a
pressure higher than the seal cavity pressure.
A third type of dual mechanical seal was omitted by the subcommittee that devel-
oped API 682:
• Dual mechanical seal with dry-running secondary seal.
The second seal (mounted in series) is a dry running seal designed to run with a
gas cushion between the faces much like a compressor dry-gas seal. No buffer
or barrier fluid is introduced between the two seals. However, the space may be
vented to a closed system such as a vent or flare header. Also, the seal gland
may include a drain connection to drain the space between the two seals. The
2nd edition of API 682 will probably include requirements for this type of dual
seal due to its popularity as a low emissions seal.

Unpressurized Dual Seals

An unpressurized dual seal is shown in Figure 800-19. The seal closest to the
pumped fluid is generally sealing that fluid. The other seal is normally not in contact
with the pumped fluid.
Fig. 800-19 Dual Mechanical Seal With Unpressurize Buffer (Unpressurized Dual Seal)
Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute
Both sets of seal faces in an unpressurized dual seal need to be supplied with a
generous quantity of fluid in order to work properly. The fluid supplied to the seal
closest to the pumped fluid (the inboard or primary seal) is the pumped fluid itself,
either from the seal cavity or from a positive flush supply as with a single seal. The
fluid supplied to the seal furthest from the pumped fluid (the outboard or secondary
seal) comes from the buffer fluid support system. The buffer fluid support system is
vented to atmosphere or to a closed low-pressure system, hence the name unpressur-
ized buffer.
Both sets of mechanical seal faces in an unpressurized dual seal generate heat. In the
case of the outboard or secondary seal, the buffer fluid must remove the heat. This
requires the buffer fluid to be circulated, which is usually accomplished by a
pumping ring that rotates with the pump shaft (similar to the circulation device for a
plan 23 flush system on a single seal).
In addition to a buffer fluid reservoir and the pumping ring, additional hardware is
needed to provide a complete buffer fluid support system. Refer to Section 846 for a
description of this equipment and for further information on dual seal support
systems.
Unpressurized dual seals are generally selected for one of three reasons:
• To provide a back up seal in case the primary seal fails. Some examples include
a back-up seal to prevent a highly toxic fluid from leaking to atmosphere in the
event of a primary seal failure, or a back-up seal to prevent leakage from a
primary seal failure in a pump installed in a remote unattended location.

• To provide a second seal sealing a separate fluid (from the pumped fluid), to
reduce pumped fluid emissions.
• To alter the operating environment on the atmospheric side of the primary seal,
usually to increase the reliability (extend the life) of the primary seal faces.
More information on dual seal selection and application can be found in Sections
842 and 850.
Pressurized Dual Seals

A standard pressurized dual seal is shown in Figure 800-20. In a pressurized dual
seal both seals normally seal the barrier fluid. This is accomplished by operating the
barrier fluid system at a higher pressure than the pumped fluid sealing pressure.
Barrier fluid that passes between the inboard seal faces mixes with the pumped fluid
and goes out the pump discharge.
Fig. 800-20 Standard Dual Mechanical Seal With Pressurized Barrier (Pressurized Dual
Seal) Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute
On first inspection, the drawings in Figures 800-19 and 800-20 look the same. The
only noticeable difference between the two drawings is the absence of the atmo-
spheric side gland connection in the pressurized dual seal drawing. However, some
subtle differences exist in the standard pressurized dual seal that are not easily
shown in an assembly drawing.
In the standard pressurized dual seal, the mating ring in the inboard seal, and the
outboard seal must be designed to stay in place (not open) in the event that barrier
fluid pressure is lost. This represents a pressure reversal for the inboard seal. When
this occurs, the entire seal is designed to operate as an unpressurized dual seal. The
difference between unpressurized and pressurized dual seals is that the mating ring
in the inboard seal of the pressurized dual seal is balanced differently to accommo-
date pressure reversal.
The barrier fluid supplied to a standard pressurized dual seal must be pressure
regulated to stay within 20–60 psi higher than the pumped fluid sealing pressure
(the seal cavity pressure behind the throat bushing). If the pressure is too low,

unpressurized dual seal operation will result. If the pressure is too high, the inboard
seal will run hot and may fail prematurely.
The design and operation of the standard pressurized dual seal is aimed at solving
the primary reliability problem with the alternate pressurized dual seal
(back-to-back double seal), pressure reversal. Reversal of pressure across the
inboard seal faces in a back-to-back double seal causes the faces to open, and
usually to fail. Also, the barrier fluid reservoir becomes contaminated with the
pumped fluid and overflows through the vent to the collection system (flare).
Hence, loss of barrier fluid pressurization is not acceptable. This serious design flaw
makes it very difficult to operate the double seal through transients, and is the
primary reason why we rarely apply this type of seal in Chevron facilities. An alter-
nate pressurized dual seal (double seal) is shown in Figure 800-21.
Fig. 800-21 Alternate Dual Seal With Pressurized Barrier (Double Seal)

The barrier fluid in a pressurized dual seal support system must be circulated to
remove face generated heat from the seal. The barrier fluid must also be pressurized
to the appropriate operating pressure. These functions can be handled in two ways:
• By pressurizing the vapor space in the reservoir and by circulating the fluid
with a pumping ring. The reservoir can be pressurized by a process connection
or by connecting it to an inert gas system. The fluid-circulation pumping ring is
similar to the circulation device for a plan 23 flush system on a single seal.
• By a barrier fluid circulation pump, that circulates the fluid at the appropriate
pressure.
Refer to Section 846 for a description of the required hardware and for further infor-
mation on barrier fluid support systems.
Buffer and Barrier Fluids

The primary purpose of buffer and barrier fluids is to provide lubrication and
cooling for the seal faces. Intuitively, it might seem like a light lubricating oil would
be an ideal choice for the majority of applications. But testing and experience have
demonstrated that there is more to selecting the right fluid than previously thought.
For example, in seal manufacturer testing, automatic transmission fluid performed
so poorly that it is now not recommended for any application. Similarly, automotive
antifreeze is not recommended because it contains additives that plate-out on the
seal faces and accelerate wear.
Recommended buffer and barrier fluids include water, #2 diesel, glycol/water
mixtures, and some synthetic oils. White mineral oil and single cut paraffinic oil are
not recommended. Some Company locations have reported good results with Royal
Purple BW/IP-22 for extreme temperature conditions. The cost is fairly high
however at about $700 per 55 gallon drum. A more detailed list of recommended
buffer and barrier fluids and their properties follows.
Temperature
Recommended Buffer / Barrier Fluids Range (Deg F)
Kerosene 0 to 275
#2 Diesel -10 to 300
50% Ethylene Glycol / 50% Water -50 to 220
50% Triethylene Glycol / 50% Water -10 to 350
50% Propylene Glycol / 50% Water -20 to 220
Water 32 to 150
Royal Purple BW/IP-22 -60 to 450
Chevron Tegra Synthetic Barrier Fluid -60 to 450
When pressurized dual seals are used, it is important to keep in mind that some of
the barrier fluid will flow into the process fluid, and therefore it may be necessary to
select a fluid that will not create product contamination problems. Normally, the
leakage will be a very small amount ranging from a few drops per day to a few

drops per minute depending on the severity of the sealing conditions. In the event of
an inboard seal failure however, the entire contents of the barrier fluid reservoir may
be discharged into the pumped fluid in a matter of minutes.
When selecting a buffer/barrier fluid, the following factors should be kept in mind:
Viscosity: In general, viscous liquids (even a light lube oil) present more sealing
difficulties than liquids with a viscosity like water.
Heat Capacity: Liquids differ in their ability to absorb heat. It takes less heat
energy to raise the temperature of a given quantity of oil one degree than it takes to
raise the same quantity of water by one degree. Water has a greater “specific heat”
than oil.
Vapor Pressure: The fluid must remain cool enough to prevent flashing at the seal
faces.
Mixing of Barrier Fluid and Pumped Fluid: With pressurized dual seals, the
barrier fluid enters the pumped fluid. With unpressurized dual seals, the pumped
fluid enters the buffer fluid.
Leakage to the Atmosphere: With both unpressurized and pressurized dual seals, a
slight amount of the buffer/barrier fluid will leak past the outboard seal. Fluids
should be selected so that this leakage does not present a hazard or emission
problem.
The Mechanical Seal Data Sheet in API 682 has space for the name, specific
gravity, and vapor pressure of the buffer/barrier fluid. This data should be filled in
by the person specifying the buffer fluid.
Dual Seal With Dry Running Secondary Seal

The dry running gas seal has become a viable and popular selection option as the
secondary (outboard) seal for some dual seal applications. The liquid seal and the
dry running gas seals in a dual seal with dry running secondary are mounted in
series (tandem). The primary (inboard) seal requires a positive flush just like a
single seal. The vapor space between the primary and secondary seals can be vented
and/or drained to atmosphere, or vented and/or drained to a closed system. A seal
support system like a buffer/barrier fluid system is not required.
Applications for dual seals with dry running secondary seals are emerging. As of
this guideline revision date, they have primarily been applied in hydrocarbon
services in locations requiring low emissions. They have also been applied in some
services containing benzene. As of this guideline revision date, the requirements for
purging/venting the vapor space between the primary and secondary seals have not
been standardized. These seals may be purchased in accordance with API 682, but
the first edition of the Standard does not have requirements that address the dry
running gas seal.

842 Typical Applications For Dual Seals

Unpressurized Dual Seals
Figure 800-22 illustrates a typical unpressurized dual seal system. Three common
applications are discussed below:
• A back-up seal is desired
• Environmental regulations require a reduced emissions seal
• The environment on the atmospheric side of the primary seal needs to be
altered.
Fig. 800-22 Unpressurized Dual Seal and Buffer System
Back-up Seal
The secondary (outboard) seal in an unpressurized dual seal provides a back-up seal
in case the primary seal fails. This is desired for personnel safety against toxic or
hazardous fluid leakage, and for some seals in remote unattended locations.
Sometimes plant operators elect to apply unpressurized dual seals because they want
the security of a back-up seal. The unpressurized dual seal has two seals with the
same pressure rating so that if the inboard seal fails, the outboard seal can take its
place.
Some pump installations are remote and run unattended. It could take several hours
for an operator to reach the site. The pump could run for an extended period with a

substantial leak, resulting in product loss and environmental or safety hazards. An

unpressurized dual seal is sometimes used in these applications to provide an indica-
tion of an impending release to atmosphere. For flashing services, this is accom-
plished by installing a pressure switch in the buffer fluid reservoir. When the
inboard seal leaks, the pressure rises and activates the switch, which can trip an
alarm or shut down the unit. For non-flashing services, the reservoir level will rise
when the inboard seal leaks. A high level alarm or shutdown can be tripped with
appropriate instruments installed in the reservoir. When the outboard seal leaks, the
reservoir level falls, and a low level alarm or shutdown can be tripped.
We must exercise caution when unpressurized dual seals have been installed for
back-up service:
• There is a temptation to continue to run the pump after the inner or outer seal
has failed.
• The buffer fluid gradually becomes contaminated with the pumped fluid as the
inboard seal leaks. Depending on the pumped fluid, this may pose a hazard,
either through exposure to a toxic or hazardous fluid or through increased
hydrocarbon emissions.
• Seals will sometimes open in the event of a thrust bearing failure. Since both
seals are in series in an unpressurized dual seal, they would both open and
provide no more protection than a single seal.
A common application of unpressurized dual seals is in LPG services. The primary
concern is that a leaking seal may create a vapor cloud, which could then ignite.
Reduced Emissions
The Federal Government (EPA) has proposed a clean air act limiting hydrocarbon
emissions to 1000 ppm per seal. This is consistent with the current law in Southern
California established by the SCAQMD, known as Rule 1173, which requires “reac-
tive organic gas” (ROG) emissions to be less than 500 ppm per seal. The laws do
not require the use of dual seals.
In addition to the SCAQMD Rule 1173 emission limitation, there is a separate
requirement to install the “Best Available Control Technology” (BACT). BACT
installations are required in Southern California for:
• New installations of pumps in hydrocarbon service
• Pumps being relocated in the plant
• Pumps which are modified to meet new process conditions
• Pumps which fail the Rule 1173 emissions restrictions through periodic inspec-
tion more than 5 times in one year.
BACT is defined by a listing of mechanical options for pump and seal applications.
In order of preference these are:
• Sealless pumps

• Dual seals with a synthetic buffer/barrier fluid

• Dual seals with an organic hydrocarbon buffer/barrier fluid.
BACT does not recognize single mechanical seals as a “Best Available” technology.
At present, BACT is only required in Southern California. However, there is a
Federal Government (EPA) trend to promote the use of “Maximum Achievable
Control Technology” (MACT). This is similar to BACT in application but applies to
all domestic (USA) installations.
Company operations are affected by different environmental agencies, rules and
laws. The majority of Company locations have specific Company employees to
interface with the applicable agencies. Readers are strongly urged to work through
these employees in any matters pertaining to understanding what the laws are, what
they mean, and how we must comply.
Single seals are recommended for use in VOC services, when the Company is given
the choice. It must be emphasized however, that single seals in these services need
to be well engineered in order to work as they should.
Altered Environment
Caustic and crystallizing fluids tend to form solid crystals or deposits on the atmo-
spheric side of single seals as the fluid leaks past the faces. To keep this from occur-
ring, it is necessary to alter the environment on the atmospheric side of the seal
faces by keeping the faces wet. One way to accomplish this is by installing an
unpressurized dual seal. With the unpressurized dual seal, the back side (formerly
the atmospheric side of the single seal) is kept wet by the buffer fluid. Deposits
cannot form and the seal does not fail in the manner described.
Pressurized Dual Seals

There are three common applications for pressurized dual seals:
• Nonlubricating fluids (e.g., supercritical CO2).
• Equipment that may operate dry in the seal area.
• Hazardous services when an external flush fluid is not available.
Pressurized dual seals are not usually a good choice for dirty or abrasive services.
Dry Running Applications

Since pressurized dual seals require a pressurized barrier fluid, they do not depend
on the pumped liquid for lubrication.
Pressurized dual (back-to-back double) seals are standard equipment on top entry
mixers (Figure 800-23) because the liquid in the mixer does not reach the seal. The
buffer fluid system is fairly simple because mixers usually do not rotate fast enough
to generate much seal heat. The system usually consists of a pressurized reservoir
without provision for circulation.
Pressurized dual seals are sometimes useful for pumps that suffer from periods of
dry running caused by suction loss or cavitation. But because many pressurized dual

Fig. 800-23 Top Entry Vessel Mixer
seal systems are inherently troublesome, readers are cautioned against rushing into
their use. It may be possible to correct an existing seal problem due to dry running
condition by using an external (API Plan 32) flush.
Nonlubricating Liquids
Some liquids have virtually no ability to lubricate and yet can still be pumped. An
example of such a liquid is supercritical carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is usually
handled with compressors but sometimes it is pumped. These pumps cannot be
sealed with single mechanical seals.
Pressurized Dual Seals For Hazardous Services

The term hazardous refers to substances that are dangerous when even small
amounts are released to the atmosphere. Probably the best example in our industry
is hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which can be fatal. Hydrofluoric acid is another example.
Other liquids, such as benzene, may not produce immediate symptoms but also
present a recognized health hazard.
Single seals may be the most reliable choice for hazardous services when an
external flush is available. The source of the flush fluid must be extremely reliable
and non-hazardous. In addition, the use of close clearance throat and throttle bush-
ings is recommended.

Numerous disadvantages are associated with pressurized dual seals. Before

selecting a pressurized dual seal for sealing a hazardous fluid, consider the
following facts:
1. Pressurized dual seals have a poor record for reliability. Because of their
inherent complexity, they are difficult to operate and maintain. Repairs are time
consuming, expensive, and usually create greater exposure hazards than occur
when the pump is operating.
2. Pressure reversals can contaminate buffer fluid.
A “pressure reversal” is common in actual practice because of unexpected
increases in pump suction pressure or loss of barrier fluid pressure. When this
occurs, the inner seal may open and the barrier fluid becomes contaminated
with the pumped fluid. Exposure to a contaminated barrier fluid can be just as
dangerous as exposure to the pumped fluid.
Many components of a support system for pressurized dual seals would have to
be disassembled, cleaned, and repaired after the barrier fluid is contaminated.
This results in an increased exposure risk.
3. Barrier fluids gradually become contaminated even when there are no seal fail-
ures or pressure reversals.
Even though the barrier fluid pressure exceeds the process pressure, mixing of
the pumped fluid with the barrier fluid occurs. This illustrates the fact that pres-
surized dual seals do not completely contain the pumped fluid.
Some groups will view dual seals as superior technology and argue that it is irre-
sponsible for a company to use anything but dual seals in hazardous services. One
can easily visualize a scenario in which there is an incident involving loss of life or
creation of a health hazard because of a leak from a pump equipped with a single
mechanical seal. It may be alleged that the company failed to provide the “best
available technology” because they valued profits more than human safety.
Conversely, if dual seals were used, the same (best available technology) argument
might be used to support the Company's position.
The above is by no means intended to suggest that subjective opinions should be put
above what we know to be the most technically safe practice. Our responsibility is
to provide the safest installation.
Pressurized Dual Seals for Dirt or Abrasives?

Many seal suppliers like to promote pressurized dual seals as a solution for services
that contain dirt and/or abrasives. Certain dual seal components are more vulner-
able to failure than the same components of a single seal. For example, when pusher
seals are used in a back-to-back arrangement, the foreign material can collect under
the secondary seal and cause hang-up or leakage. If abrasives are present, they will
be centrifuged against the inside diameter of the two faces. Centrifugal force tends
to drive the particles between the faces and cause accelerated wear.

When engineering a seal for a service with abrasives, consider the following:
• Use a single seal and API Plan 32 flush.
• Use tungsten carbide versus silicon carbide faces if the seal has to be designed
to handle solid particles.
• Use increased closing force to keep particles out.
• Cyclone separators must be carefully engineered. Often they are not successful
at removing the particles that can cause a problem.
• Stationary seals are preferred over rotating seals.
843 Dual Seal Designs

Seal Types
Dual seals can be made up of pusher or bellows seals. Usually both seals are the
same type, but a dual seal could be made up of one pusher and one bellows seal.
Mounting Configurations
Dual seals can be mounted in a rotating or stationary arrangement. In other words,
the flexible element (the bellows assembly or the part that contains the spring or
springs) can rotate with the shaft or it can be mounted in the gland (stationary).
Dual seals can be cartridge mounted. Cartridge design is especially desirable for
dual seals for two reasons:
1. The cartridge design takes much of the confusion out of positioning the seals at
the proper location on the sleeve to insure the right amount of spring or bellows
compression.
2. A bench pressure test (with air, solvent, oil, or water) can often be done without
a special fixture. This test is recommended before installing the cartridge and is
required for seals supplied in accordance with API 682.
Finally, there is also the option of having pressurized dual seals mounted in series or
back-to-back.
Rotating and Stationary Seals

Whether a pump is using single or dual seals, the same points apply concerning the
use of rotating or stationary mounting for the flexible element. Designers seem to
favor rotating seals but this may be due more to tradition and habit than conscious
choice. Stationary seals have an advantage over rotating seals. They don't have to
flex with every revolution due to gland fit (perpendicularity) tolerances, and are a
better choice for high speed applications.
Outside Seals
In some pumps, there may not be enough room in the stuffing box to fit two
mechanical seals. Designers might attempt to utilize outside seals. Outside seals are

not recommended for Company applications and are not in conformance with
requirements of API 682. These are some design deficiencies with outside seals:
• An outside seal may be damaged by an external force. This could include
impact or washing it with high velocity water or cleaner, etc.
• Internal pressure tends to open an outside seal. This decreases the tolerance of
the outside seal to increases in pressure in the buffer fluid.
• An outside seal cannot have a throttle bushing and, therefore, there is no way to
restrict leakage when the seal fails. An outside bellows seal would sling or
spray leakage all around if the bellows failed. Both bellows and pusher types
would sling or spray leakage from between the faces.
Back-to-Back (Double) Seals

The advantages of a back-to-back (double) seals are:
• There is minimum exposure of the seal parts to the liquid being pumped. Most
of the seal hardware is in contact with the barrier fluid.
• They can withstand barrier fluid pressures up to the maximum pressure rating
of the seal.
• It is usually easier to circulate barrier fluid (for cooling) in the immediate area
of the seal faces.
The disadvantages of a back-to-back (double) seals are:
• Pressure reversals can open and damage the inner seal.
• The O-ring inside the flexibly mounted seal face of the inboard seal is exposed
to the process fluid. Unless the process fluid is very clean, the O-ring may
eventually hang up.
• The inboard seal mating ring is often mounted in the bottom of the seal
chamber. If the seal is not a cartridge type, it could be difficult to remove the
mating ring without disassembling the pump.
Buffer/Barrier Fluid Ports

The buffer/barrier fluid ports are the tapped holes in the gland plate or in the seal
chamber through which the fluid enters and exits.
Ideally, ports should be as large as the inside diameter of the piping or tubing
connecting the seal chamber to the reservoir. This is not always possible because of
the size of the pump and gland plate, but very often there is room to enlarge them
beyond what the vendor would ordinarily supply.
The axial location of the ports is just as important as the size. The problem with
using the pump stuffing box lantern ring connection as a flush port is that it may
result in a circulation path that leaves the seal faces in a dead zone where localized
overheating can occur.

To guard against failures from overheating, require that ports be tangential (tangen-
tial ports greatly increase flow rates), as large as practical, and located close to the
interface between the seal faces. Confirm this during drawing review. Also verify
that the system is adequately sized for cooling by reviewing the calculations with
the supplier.
Pumping Rings
Pumping rings circulate the buffer/barrier fluid for seal cooling. Pumping ring
performance is dependent on a variety of factors such as peripheral speed, design,
clearance, direction of rotation, liquid viscosity, and system resistance. The actual
performance of the various designs is discussed in Section 846.
The important points to remember about pumping rings are:
• Pumping rings come in a wide variety of types and some are better than others.
• Designs that rely on maintaining a close clearance with the seal chamber bore
have a history of poor performance.
• If the pumping ring is one that will not pump if it is installed backwards, insist
on a feature that only permits installation in the correct direction.
• Insist on a feature that only permits installation in the correct axial location.
Examples of Dual Seals on the Market

There is a considerable difference between the dual seals available for API pumps
and those for ANSI pumps. Seals for ANSI pumps are available in several “off-the-
shelf” designs which are nicely illustrated and described in vendors bulletins.
ANSI dual seal designs include:
John Crane Type 88
Sealol Type 622
Flowserve (BW/IP) Uniseal II
Flowserve (Durametallic) X 200
Five Star Series 86 and 87
Chesterton 241
There is a significant benefit to using predesigned seals whenever possible because

the vendor has had more opportunities to refine the design based on feedback from
the field.
Unfortunately, Company experience with multiple seals by manufacturer and model
is not well documented. Users are encouraged to develop experience histories at
Company locations and other facilities where similar seals are installed.

Specifying Dual Seals

Dual seals should be of proven design. Proven design is defined as having:
• At least two years successful operating experience under these service
conditions:
– A liquid of similar viscosity, specific gravity, vapor pressure, specific heat,
and lubricating ability.
– Equal or greater temperature, pressure, running speed, and seal size.
• The same design features, such as:
– Face mounting method
– Sleeve design
– Gland plate configuration
– Port sizes and locations
– Drive collar design
– Pumping ring type
– Gasket design
The combination of different pump types, different seal vendors, and different
service conditions makes it difficult to consistently get a dual seal that has a proven
track record for that exact combination. As a result, many of the dual seals we buy
will be to some degree unproven. We can, however, substantially improve our
chances of getting a reliable seal by identifying those design features which work
well and incorporating them into the seals we buy.
844 Reliability and Experience

General
Mechanical equipment reliability is often expressed in mean time between failures
(MTBF). For single seals, the MTBF is considered acceptable at about two years or
more. For dual seals however, there is a wide variation in reports and opinions
concerning “normal” life. In cases where it has been necessary to estimate the
average life for dual seals, the Company has used 8 to 12 months. That is, single
seals in general may be expected to last 2 to 3 times as long as dual seals.
The successful application should take into account the details of the pump design
such as:
• seal chamber size and pressure
• shaft diameter, speed, and deflection
• construction of the pump casing
• overall heat transfer characteristics—liquid temperature, pressure, viscosity,
cleanliness, and vapor pressure all affect seal design.

How Can the User Maximize Reliability?

The collective Company experience with seals is vast. Individuals with extensive
machinery/seal design and field experience should be used as consultants for new
applications.
Every operating facility has a financial incentive to reduce inventory and maximize
interchangeability by standardizing on seals which are proven winners.
The steps that can be taken at the specification, purchasing and commissioning
stages are the same as those given in Company guidelines on quality assurance.
They are:
1. Vendor Prequalification and Seal Selection
2. Comprehensive Specifications
3. Design Review
4. Quality Assurance Checks
5. Testing
6. Pre Start-Up Field Check Out
Vendor Prequalification and Seal Selection

Prior to selecting a seal type or vendor, these questions should be answered:
• Are there other pumps with seals installed which are in identical or similar
service and have a good repair history?
• Are there pump seals of identical size already in stock in-house?
• Is the proposed vendor capable of furnishing the hardware quality, engineering
support, and follow-up necessary for a successful installation?
• Does the facility have maintenance familiarity with the seal being considered.
Company experience with major seal vendors listed in order of seal population is as
follows: John Crane, Flowserve.
Comprehensive Specifications
The Company has Specification PMP-EG-4662 “Mechanical Seals for Centrifugal
and Rotary Pumps,” which is a companion specification to API 682. Users are urged
to include these documents with all dual seal purchases for API 610 and 676 pumps.
Design Review
A design review affords an opportunity to confirm that the vendor understands the
specifications and has performed the necessary calculations required for the
application.

Quality Assurance Checks

This step allows the Company to verify that the hardware is being manufactured and
assembled according to the Company’s and vendor’s requirements.
Testing
It is highly recommended that seals be qualification tested, and that each seal is
given a seal manufacturer (air) test in accordance with EG-4662 and API 682. The
best place to find and correct deficiencies is in the supplier’s facility.
Pre Start-Up Field Check Out

A complete visual inspection for correct location of components and proper piping
hookup should be performed. This is an opportunity to check for leaks, verify opera-
tion of instruments, and, possibly, even circulate buffer fluid and confirm that the
necessary head and flow rate are developed.
Once a system is ready to be put into service, operators should be thoroughly famil-
iarized with the system operation including venting (if required), reservoir pressur-
ization, reservoir filling, and frequency of checking vital signs such as temperature,
pressure, and flow rate. Operators should be taught how the seals and support
system work and what factors cause premature failure.
In addition to formal training, special attention should be given to providing clear,
easy to read, easy to understand operating manuals located where they will be read
and used. In addition, signs should be posted at various places on the pump and
support system with labels, reminders, procedures, and instructions. This is a step
that is easy to overlook and yet it has proven its value over and over again.
845 Costs
Initial cost
Dual seals will cost more than single seals for a given pump and service. There is a
higher initial cost and higher repair costs.
A common rule of thumb is “dual seals cost two to three times as much as single
seals.” This rule only applies to seal hardware.
There are extra costs associated with the installation of dual seals, too. Most systems
need additional piping, electrical, and instrument work. Pressurized dual seal
systems with a barrier fluid pump may require a foundation as well.
Maintenance and Repair Costs

Independent of reliability, dual seals and buffer/barrier fluid systems will also be
more costly to repair just because of their complexity.
Leaking inner seals often allow the buffer/barrier fluid to become contaminated with
the pumped fluid making it necessary to cleanup the system. Draining, dismantling,
cleaning, and flushing the reservoir and piping can easily take four or five mandays
with additional time and expense required to properly dispose of the old fluid. A

repair to a component such as a barrier fluid pump will take two to four mandays,
instrument repairs probably two mandays, system check out and start up another
two mandays.
846 Buffer/Barrier Fluid Support Systems

General
The buffer/barrier fluid support system is an extremely important part of a dual seal
arrangement. It is analogous to a seal life support system since it provides the vital
fluid for lubrication, cooling, and sometimes pressure maintenance. If a dual seal
arrangement is to be reliable, the same degree of care must be exercised in the
design, operation, and maintenance of the support system as with the seals
themselves.
Basic System Descriptions
Nonpressurized Systems (API Plan 52)

An unpressurized reservoir is used when the fluid between the two seals in a dual
seal does not need to be maintained at an elevated pressure. API 682 Flush Plan 52
is defined simply as having an external fluid reservoir that is vented. Figure 800-24
shows a typical plan 52 flush system. This is the support system employed with
unpressurized dual seals. The fluid in the reservoir is called a buffer fluid.
Pressurized Reservoir (API Plan 53)

A pressurized reservoir is used when the fluid between the two seals in a dual seal
needs to be maintained at an elevated pressure. API 682 flush plan 53 is defined
simply as having an external fluid reservoir that is pressurized by an external
source. The reservoir is connected to a supply of pressurizing gas, usually nitrogen.
Figure 800-25 shows a typical plan 53 flush system. This support system is
employed with pressurized dual seals. The fluid in the reservoir is called a barrier
fluid.
Pressurizer/Circulator (API Plan 54)

This system uses a motor driven pump to circulate barrier fluid and to create the
required barrier fluid pressure between the pressurized dual seals. Figure 800-26
shows a typical Plan 54 system. A back pressure regulator, filter, alarms for pres-
sure, flow, and level are typically included.
The advantage of this system is that a high barrier fluid flow rate can be achieved,
which greatly improves the heat removal process and makes this system suitable for
high pressure-velocity (PV) applications.
Packaged Systems versus Custom Engineered Systems

Not all mechanical seal suppliers offer predesigned support systems for dual seals.

Fig. 800-24 Unpressurized Dual Seal Support System, API Plan 52. Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute
The advantage of a predesigned system is that it may be a proven design. Support

systems designed after receipt of order may lack attention to design detail, quality
assurance, and testing, resulting in reliability problems which persist long after
start-up.

Fig. 800-25 Pressurized Dual Seal Support System with Pressurized Reservoir, API Plan 53 Courtesy of the Amer-
ican Petroleum Institute
John Crane and Flowserve build three types of predesigned seal support systems:
pressurizer/circulators, pressurized reservoirs, and nonpressurized reservoirs.
Company experience with any of these units is limited, but reports from users are
favorable.

Fig. 800-26 Typical Double Seal Support System with Non-Pressurized Reservoir, API Plan 54. Courtesy of the
American Petroleum Institute
System Selection
Buffer fluid systems that operate at atmospheric pressure will usually need a reser-
voir and a pumping ring. It is important to note, however, that these systems can still
suffer short seal life due to local overheating at the faces if the flush flow is inade-
quate or if the flush ports are poorly located.

Pressurized dual seals require a system which maintains a pressure between the
seals. In this case there is a choice between the pressurized reservoir and the
pressurizer/ circulator. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages which are
listed here.
Advantages of Pressurized Reservoir:
• Fewer components
• Cost may be lower
Disadvantages of Pressurized Reservoir:
• Usually uses pumping ring (low flush flow rate)
• Filling may be tricky
• Dependent on reliable gas supply
• Gas entrainment in barrier fluid above about 150 psig
• Connections must be kept gas-tight to avoid additional emissions or loss of
pressurizing gas
• Relies on thermosyphon effect for fluid circulation while the pump is not
running
Advantages of Pressurizer/Circulator
• Excellent cooling
• Allows use of low flow alarm
• Easy to fill reservoir
• Buffer fluid can be filtered
• Large reservoir capacity
• Can circulate barrier fluid while sealed pump is down.
• Can serve several pumps
Disadvantages of Pressurizer/Circulator
• Takes up more space
• More components
• May cost more to purchase, maintain, and operate.
• Lower reliabilty
• Seal system is dependent upon a motor driven pump
Operating Pressure
Pressurized dual seals require a pressure between them that is higher than the pres-
sure in the seal chamber. Barrier fluid pressure is usually set at about 25 psi higher
than seal chamber pressure. The seal chamber pressure in many pumps will vary
which may require a higher barrier fluid pressure setting. A low pressure alarm may
have to sense the differential pressure between the seal chamber and the barrier fluid
in order to avoid spurious trips.

There are several variables that designers work with to insure adequate lubrication
of the seal faces. They include spring or bellows stiffness, seal set length, fluid port
size and location, and the face design parameters which include face width, dynamic
stability, and face response to changes in temperature and pressure. Users can
prevent many of these problems from occurring by following a few rules:
• Require proven designs and verify experience whenever possible.
• Require the vendor to show the engineering calculations used in designing the
seal.
• Make comprehensive seal testing a part of the pump test. Require a separate
seal performance test for any seal in a critical service.
• Do not wait until plant start-up to discover problems. Check out the system in
the field as soon as it can be run.
Instruments
Instrument requirements for buffer/barrier fluid systems vary depending on the type
of system and, to some extent, user preferences.
For maximum reliability, the proven equipment approach should be applied to indi-
vidual instruments as well as to packaged systems.
Detecting Unpressurized Dual Seal Failures

Detecting the failure of the outboard seal in an unpressurized dual seal is no
different than failure detection in a single seal because the leakage is visible.
Detecting failure of the inboard (primary) seal, however, depends on the type of
liquid being sealed.
Leakage from a primary seal enters the buffer fluid. If the leakage does not vaporize
in the buffer fluid reservoir, then the liquid level will rise. In this case, a high level
alarm in the buffer fluid reservoir is all that is needed to indicate a primary seal leak.
In a flashing service (such as propane), a primary seal leak will not create an
increased level in the buffer fluid reservoir. In fact, a severe leak will actually cause
the level in the reservoir to decrease and may empty the reservoir completely.
A common method for detecting a primary seal failure (for flashing services) is the
use of a high pressure alarm in the reservoir and a restriction orifice in the reservoir
vent line. The idea is that as inner seal leakage increases, the back pressure against
the orifice will increase and set off the high pressure alarm. The majority of unpres-
surized dual seal alarms for flashing service are configured this way but there are
two problems with this arrangement. First, if the check valve in the vent line sticks
closed, there will be a gradual normal build-up of pressure in the reservoir that will
set off the alarm. Second, if the check valve does not seal properly, a pressure
increase in the relief system may set off the alarm.
The correct setting for the high pressure alarm must be determined in the field based
on the frequency and magnitude of relief system pressure excursions and the reli-
ability of the check valves used in the relief line. The lowest practical setting is most
desirable because higher back pressures will tend to blow the buffer fluid out the

relief line. If this happens, the outboard (secondary) seal may be starved for buffer
fluid.
Company field tests with 1/8" diameter orifices in the relief line (1/16" diameter
orifices had plugging problems) showed significant loss of buffer fluid at back pres-
sures as low as 15 psi with water buffer fluid. If the high pressure alarm and orifice
system proves to be impractical for a particular location, consider one of the
following two options:
1. Install a differential pressure alarm and gage across the orifice in the relief line.
This arrangement will be unaffected by normal pressure build-up due to a stuck
check valve and unaffected by increases in pressure in the relief system. A
differential pressure of 3 to 5 psi across a 1/8" orifice represents enough
leakage to warrant a seal repair in a flashing service.
2. Install a flow switch in the reservoir relief line. The Company has begun to
evaluate a thermal dispersion design in reciprocating compressor packing and
distance piece vent lines with good results so far. One example is the model
12–64 flow switch / monitor by Fluid Components Inc. of San Marcos,
California. It appears to be well-suited to unpressurized dual seal (flashing
service) applications.
Pumping Ring Performance

The pumping ring must be regarded as a critical component of the system. Seals
work best when the liquid circulates vigorously around the seal faces to provide a
high degree of cooling. Pumping rings have trouble doing this for several reasons:
1. None are positive displacement devices so they develop very low head. Seals
work best when the liquid circulates vigorously around the sealed faces to
provide a high degree of cooling.
2. Most are highly dependent on maintaining close tolerances. The importance of
this is frequently overlooked.
3. Some designs are unproven and are installed without design engineering review
or performance testing.
4. The system head curve may not match the pumping ring capability.
5. Pumping rings are very sensitive to the buffer fluid viscosity.
API 682 allows only pumping rings with published performance curves based on
test results.

Before the right mechanical seal, flush plan, and auxiliary flush plan can be
selected, the seal service conditions must be thoroughly understood. API 682
provides guidance on seal selection in the appendices of the Standard. The
Company specification, PMP-EG-4662 also provides some guidance. To do a

complete job of selecting and specifying a seal system requires the user and supplier
to complete the API 682 Mechanical Seal Data Sheet in good faith.
Many larger Chevron facilities have developed local seal service application charts
which give guidance for many routine applications. In the absence of local guide-
lines, a standardized list of mechanical seal selections for the more routine applica-
tions appears in Figure 800-27. These standardized selections are based on the
API 682 selection procedure and Chevron refinery experience.
Fig. 800-27 Chevron Mechanical Seal Selection Guide (1 of 5)

SERVICE CLASS REMARKS
Water/Condensate ANSI pumps are often selected to 275 psig
0-750 psig 0-180°F discharge pressure. ANSI pump seals are not in
Type: Pusher strict conformance to API 682, but can be
API 610 Class: BSAFN purchased using API 682 seal class descriptions.
API 682 Class: B/11/R/xxx (ANSI Pumps)
API 682 Class: A/11/R/xxx (API Pumps)
Flush Plan: 11
Aux Flush Plan: -
Aux. Sealing Device: Fixed Carbon Bushing (ANSI Pumps)
Aux. Sealing Device: Close Clearance Floating Carbon
Throttle Bushing (API Pumps)
BFW
0-1000 psig 0-350°F
Type: Pusher
API 610 Class: BSAFM
API 682 Class: APS/23/R/xxx
Flush Plan: 23
Aux. Flush Plan: -
Throttle Bushing
BFW
0-1000 psig 350-550°F
Type: Pusher
API 610 Class: BSAIM
API 682 Class: AKPS/23/R/xxx
Flush Plan: 23
Aux. Flush Plan: -
Throttle Bushing


Salt Water/Brackish Water/Sea Water Quench with fresh water. All metal parts to be
0-750 psig 0-180°F Alloy 20, minimum. For pumps where the seal
Type: Pusher surface speed exceeds 75 ft/sec, select a
API 610 Class: BSTFN stationary spring seal API 682 class A/11-62/S/xxx.
API 682 Class: A/11-62/R/xxx (API Pumps) ANSI pumps are sometimes selected for salt water
API 682 Class: B/11 62/R/xxx (ANSI Pumps) service. ANSI pump seals are not in strict
Flush Plan: 11 conformance to API 682, but can be purchased
Aux. Flush Plan: 62 using API 682 seal class descriptions.
Aux. Sealing Device: Close Clearance Floating
Carbon Throttle Bushing (API Pumps)
Aux. Sealing Device: Fixed Carbon Throttle Bushing (ANSI
Pumps)
Non-Lethal Sour Water Use flush piping plan 32 with fresh water as an
0-750 psig 0-180°F option. Viton elastomers may give acceptable
Type: Pusher performance for very low H2S concentration or
API 610 Class: BSAIN with Plan 32 fresh water flush.
API 682 Class: AK/11/R/xxx
Flush Piping Plan: 11
Auxiliary Flush Piping Plan: -
Auxiliary Sealing Device: Close Clearance Floating Carbon
Throttle Bushing
Lethal Sour Water Use 50/50 water/propylene glycol buffer fluid. This
0-750 psig 0-180°F is an API 682 arrangement 2 dual seal.
Type: Pusher
API 610 Class: BTTIN
API 682 Class: AK-AKP/11-52/R-R/xxx-xxx
Auxiliary Flush Piping Plan: 52
Auxiliary Sealing Device: -
Corrosive/Acid Use a synthetic hydrocarbon buffer or barrier fluid.
0-250 psig 0-350°F This is an API 682 arrangement 2 or 3 dual seal.
Type: Pusher This seal classification is not applicable to hydrof-
API 610 Class: BTTIN or BDTIN luoric (HF) or nitric acid. All metal parts to be Alloy
API 682 Class: AK-AKP/11-52/R-R/xxx-xxx or AK-AKP/11- 20, minimum. Materials selections for acid duties
53/R-R/xxx-xxx (API Pumps) depend on temperature and acid concentration.
API 682 Class: BK-BKP/11-52/R-R/xxx-xxx or BK-BKP/11- Strong sulfuric acid will attack certain carbon
53/R-R/xxx-xxx (ANSI Pumps) grades. ANSI pumps are sometimes selected for
Flush Piping Plan: 11 acid/corrosive service. ANSI pump seals are not in
Auxiliary Flush Piping Plan: 52 or 53 strict conformance to API 682, but can be
Auxiliary Sealing Device - purchased using API 682 seal class descriptions.


Caustic/Crystallizing Use 50/50 water/propylene glycol buffer fluid. This
0-750 psig 0-350°F is an API 682 arrangement 2 dual seal. ANSI pump
Type: Pusher seals are not in strict conformance to API 682, but
API 610 Class: BTTIN can be purchased using API 682 seal class
API 682 Class: AK-AKP/11-52/R-R/xxx-xxx (API Pumps) descriptions.
API 682 Class: BK-BKP/11-52/R-R/xxx (ANSI Pumps)
Amines Use 50/50 water/propylene glycol buffer fluid. This
0-750 psig 0-350°F is an API 682 arrangement 2 dual seal.
Type: Pusher
API 682 Class: AC-ACP/11-52/R-R/xxx-xxx
Sweet Non-Flashing HC Select perfluorelastomer gaskets if H2S is present
0-750 psig 0-350 oF in the pumped fluid (API 610 class BSAIN).
Type: Pusher
API 610 Class: BSAFN
API 682 Class: A/11/R/xxx
Throttle Bushing
Sweet Non-Flashing HC Quench with steam. Alternative flush piping plans
0-300 psig 350-750°F can be considered in some cases (e.g. Plan 32 for
Type: Stationary Bellows column bottoms services).
API 610 Class: BSARN
API 682 Class: C/11-62/S/xxx
Throttle Bushing
Sour Non-Flashing HC Use a HC based buffer fluid such as diesel or kero-
0-750 psig 0-350°F sene. This is an API 682 arrangement 2 dual seal.
Type: Pusher
API 682 Class: AK-AKP/11-52/R-R/xxx-xxx


Sweet Flashing HC Select perfluorelastomer gaskets if H2S is present
0-750 psig 0-350°F in the pumped fluid (API 610 class BSAIN or
Type: Pusher BSAIM).
API 610 Class: BSAFN or BSAFM
API 682 Class: AP/23/R/xxx or APS/23/R/xxx
Throttle Bushing
Sweet Flashing HC - Low Emissions This seal class is intended for low gravity services
0-750 psig 0-350°F in Company locations where very low emissions
Type: Pusher are mandated (e.g. California). Vent the vapor
API 610 Class: BTTFN space between the primary and secondary seal to
API 682 Class: AP-A/23-61/R-R/xxx-xxx a closed flare/disposal system. Select perfluo-
Flush Piping Plan: 23 relastomer gaskets if H2S is present in the pumped
Auxiliary Flush Piping Plan: 61 fluid (API 610 Class BTTIN). Select flush piping
Auxiliary Sealing Device: Dry Running Seal plan 21 if the seal cavity dimensions do not permit
installation of flush piping plan 23 on the primary
seal.


Benzene/ HC Containing Benzene Use a barrier fluid compatible with the pumped
0-750 psig 0-350°F fluid. This is an API 682 arrangement 3 dual seal.
Type: Pusher Use an alternate flush piping plan (23, 21, or 02) on
API 610 Class: BTTFN the primary seal if an adequate vapor suppression
API 682 Class: A-AP/11-53/R-R/xxx-xxx margin cannot be achieved with flush piping
Flush Piping Plan: 11 plan 11.
General Notes:
1. Revision 3, November 13, 1998.
2. Temperatures indicated in this table are pumped fluid temperature, not seal cavity temperature. Pressures
indicated are seal cavity pressure.
3. Consider using large bore seal chambers in ANSI pumps in Corrosive/Acid and Caustic/Crystallizing services.
4. A flashing service is defined as any service where the fluid vapor pressure is greater than atmospheric pres-
sure at pumping temperature, or the specific gravity is less than 0.6 at pumping temperature. Other factors
such as vapor suppression margin, temperature rise across the pump, etc. could change a service from non-
flashing to flashing.
5. A vapor suppression margin of 50 psi is required for all flashing services, and 25 psi for non-flashing services.
If the required vapor suppression margin does not occur naturally, the following options should be used in
order of preference to attain the required margin:
a. Cooling with flush piping plan 23.
b. Increasing seal cavity pressure using flush piping plan 13 (e.g. no back wear ring or balance holes on the
impeller of a horizontal end suction pump).
c. Increased seal cavity pressure using flush piping plan 11 and a close clearance fixed PEEK throat bushing
supplied by the pump supplier.
d. Increased seal cavity pressure using flush piping plan 11 and a close clearance floating carbon bushing
supplied by the seal supplier.

860 Troubleshooting and Failure Analysis
861 Background
Chevron Product Company’s Integrated Machinery Inspection (IMI) Organization
found that in the Refineries, mechanical-seal failure was a frequent and costly
centrifugal pump problem. The cost of these failures averaged approximately
$5,000 (1987) per repair.
Mechanical seals can run for several years without failure. Although an average seal
life of 6 to 12 months is commonly considered acceptable by some users, a prop-
erly applied and installed seal, operated correctly, should last 5 to 10 years in
normal service, and 1 to 4 years in severe service. In simple terms, seals seldom
wear out. Failures are caused by improper application, maintenance, or operation.
862 Elements of Successful Seal Performance

A mechanical seal has several basic requirements for successful operation:
1. The seal must be properly constructed and installed.
2. The faces must be continuously lubricated by a liquid film. If this liquid
film is lost due to loss of liquid in the pump or vaporization of the liquid
between the faces, extreme heat is generated at the faces (temperatures above
2000°F are not uncommon) and the seal fails.
3. The seal must be protected from abrasives that enter between the seal
faces. Special face materials or flush systems are available to overcome this
problem.
4. The seal materials must be compatible (chemically inert) with the pumped fluid
or external flush fluid.
5. The seal must be protected from leakage deposits on the atmosphere side,
such as coke and crystals that build up under the seal faces. Special quench
systems are available to stop or wash away these deposits.
Although specific causes vary, all seal failures fall into one of the above five
categories.
An informal analysis of 69 pumps (large CUSA refinery, 1980-1986) with exces-
sive seal failures found the following deficiencies.
• Loss of face lubrication 33%
• Bellows cracking caused by chloride or sulfide stress 21%
corrosion (See Appendix F for typical bellows-failure
summary)
• Hostile liquid environment requiring clean exterior 17%
flushes
• Corrosion 13%

• Corrosion fretting (wear) of the sleeve under the 10%

secondary seal
• Coke or crystal build up on the atmosphere side of the 6%
seal under the faces
The analysis above does not include failures due to improper construction and
installation, although these no doubt also contribute to many failures.
863 Mechanical Seal Failure Analysis

The following basic steps are an organized approach to finding the specific cause
for a mechanical seal failure.
A checklist, included at the end of this section, may be helpful in investigating seal
failures.
Step 1. Review Operating Data:

Distributed control system trends and operating logs often give an indication of why
a failure occurred or provide data before and during impending failure. These
resources should be reviewed prior to and up to the time of failure. It is also benefi-
cial to talk to plant operators. They may be able to give an eyewitness account of the
failure and may be aware of process/operating changes that may have occurred
immediately prior to failure.
Step 2. Review the Pump/Seal Maintenance History:

Quite often a mechanical failure of the pump will result in a seal leak. The most
obvious visual evidence in the field is often incorrectly diagnosed by the operator as
seal failure. Such an observation recorded on the work order may lead to confusion
and an incorrect maintenance history.
You may find that you are satisfied with the reliability of the seal and no further
investigation is required. However, if you have determined that the seal has an unac-
ceptable failure frequency, review the repair history for trends. Patterns such as
plant shutdown and startup failures, and equally spaced repetitive failures are
usually design-related.
Random failures are more likely to be plant upsets or people (operator, mainte-
nance) related. If there is no history file available, establish one. This is a necessary
tool for the person that follows up on your observations and recommendations.
Step 3. Inspect the Pump’s Mechanical Condition:

If the thrust bearing failed, axial shaft movement would allow the seal to open. Do
not spend any more time looking at the seal. Concentrate on the cause of the thrust
bearing failure.
If the radial bearing failed, did the bearing failure cause a seal leak or did the seal
failure allow product to enter the radial bearing, causing a bearing failure? To

determine which failure occurred first, you need to broaden your inspection to
include the seal parts. See Step 3.
Inspect the impeller nut for looseness. A loose impeller nut will allow leakage
through the seal faces or under the sleeve.
Inspect the sleeve gasket and gasket faces for damage that is causing leakage.
Inspect for rubs on the impeller wear rings, throat bushing and throttle bushing. If
there is evidence of a rub look for the reason. Did a process upset cause excessive
shaft deflection? Does the pump have a history of excessive cavitation?
Check impeller balance. A foreign object in the impeller may have caused exces-
sive shaft deflection. Also check wear rings for evidence of rubbing.
Step 4. Inspect the Mechanical Seal:

Pusher Seal Design (springs and secondary seal) - Inspect the springs and the
sleeve under the secondary seal. If there is excessive wear to either the secondary
seal, the sleeve or the springs, suspect vertical misalignment of the stationary face or
excessive axial movement of the shaft.
Metal Bellows Seal - Pressure test the bellows for cracks. If the bellows material is
a 300 series stainless suspect sulfide or chloride stress corrosion cracking. Marginal
face lubrication or excessive seal chamber pressure will also cause bellows failure.
This failure will be at the first convolution on either the nose or the drive collar end
of the bellows.
All Seals - Inspect all the metal parts of the seal for corrosion and upgrade mate-
rials as necessary. Gasket deterioration can be from either corrosion or heat. The
effect of heat on an elastomer will be deforming, hardening, cracking or charring.
Inspect the condition of the seal faces. Evenly spaced surface cracks—called heat
checking—on the metallic face is caused by the loss of the lubricating film between
the rotating and stationary face. When the liquid film is lost, the extreme heat gener-
ated causes immediate surface cracking. The liquid film loss is a result of boiling or
flashing and is most common in liquids with high vapor pressure. The liquid boils
because of either a drop in seal chamber pressure or a rise in temperature at the seal
faces.
Causes for a reduction in seal chamber pressure include:
• Pinched suction valve
• Low NPSHA
• Partially plugged suction screen
• Flow rates beyond the pump's best efficiency point
• Excessive throat bushing clearance
Causes for a temperature increase at the seal faces include:
• Temperature increase at the suction source
• Flow reduced below the pumps best efficiency point

• Loss of seal flush

• Excessive seal tension
The remedy for these conditions is to maintain a combination of temperature and
pressure in the seal chamber that suppresses boiling.
“Phonographic” scoring of the hard face is usually caused by abrasives. The abra-
sives embed in the soft face and act as a grinding wheel on the hard face. Abrasives
can be assigned to two categories:
1. Suspended abrasives, such as sand or catalyst fines;
2. Soluble abrasives, such as boiler compounds that form between the seal faces if
the liquid between the faces is allowed to boil.
The accepted approach to sealing suspended abrasives is a combination of hard-face
materials, such as tungsten carbide versus silicon carbide, that won't be scored by
the abrasives that enter between them. API 682 Flush Plan 32 is also used. Plan 32
is the injection of cool clean fluid into the seal chamber. To avoid the formation of
soluble abrasives between the seal faces, control the liquid temperature or pressure
in the seal cavity to suppress boiling.
Step 5. People Involvement:

Be consistent during your investigation. Establish a list of questions prior to
contacting the process engineer, plant operator, or maintenance person. Make
them a part of the solution. Build their confidence and discourage blaming and
finger pointing. Take notes of their comments and compare them for events that
support each other. Evaluate their experience level. Are repair or operating proce-
dures and checklists available? A well-designed system will fail if those who work
with it do not know how to operate or repair it.
Step 6. Documents:
The documents needed to investigate a seal failure are the same documents required
to design the seal. Keep these documents updated to reflect problem investigations
and solutions:
• Liquid characteristics
• Operating conditions
• Plant flow diagrams
• Flush system
• Seal manufacturer
• Seal drawings
• Material list
• Seal part numbers, type and model
• Pump drawings and pump curves

864 Seal Failure Analysis Checklists

After investigating the problem and collecting relevant information, checklists may
be helpful in identifying the cause(s) of the problem and in suggesting possible solu-
tions. The checklists that follow are reprinted from the book Mechanical Seals
(1981, Chevron Research Company).
Note No attempt has been made to update the checklists to make them consistent
with API 682. The checklists still refer to API 610, and the terminology is inconis-
tent with dual seal terminology in API 682. While dated, this information is still
very useful in problem, cause, and solution identification.
The checklists are organized as follows:
Checklist 1
Mechanical Seal Troubleshooting (Symptoms/Causes)
Checklist 2
Causes of Seal Failure (Causes/Solutions)
Checklist 3
Solutions to Causes of Failure

Checklist 1 – Mechanical Seal Troubleshooting

Symptoms Causes
(Each possible cause is defined in Checklist 2)
Intermittent leak (May be accompanied by a popping sound): 1-2-3-4-5-6-9-12-29-51-52-53-57-58-59
Exceeds local environmental emission limits: 1-2-3-4-5-6-9-12-29-51-52-53-57-59
Holds static pressure. Leaks when running: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-12-29-50-51-52-53-57-59
Leaking under the sleeve: 13-14-15-16-17
Leaking between the gland and seal chamber face: 14-16-17
Sleeve fretting (under secondary seal): 8-18-19
Corrosion of metal parts 18
Rubbing: I.D. of throat, throttle bushing or stationary face: 20-21-22-23-24-25-26-56
Rubbing rotating member 20-21-254-25-26-56
Spring wear 8-19
Spring breakage 8-18-19-28
Broken bellows: 1-2-3-4-5-6
Elastomer vulcanized to metal part: 18-29-30-31
Extruded O-ring 18-32-33-34-35
Elastomer (O-ring) deformed: 18-33-34-35-36
Worn drive lugs or pins 8-19-37
Excessive face wear: 1-2-3-4-5-6-9-12-18-29-38-44-49-50-51-52-53-57-59
Wide wear track: 24-25-56
Shiny spots on hard face: 41-42
Chipped carbon. Outside diameter: 1-2-3-4-5-6-9-12-29-31-37-49-50-51-52-53-59
Chipped carbon. Inside diameter: 1-2-3-4-5-6-9-12-29-31-37-40-43-49-50-51-52-53-59
Blisters on the carbon face: 54
Broken carbon: 32-45-55
Eroded carbon: 11
Stationary or rotating face heat check: 1-2-3-4-5-6-9-12-18-29-31-37-49-50-51-52-53-59
Galling of rotating or stationary face: 18
Rotating assembly spun or slipped on shaft or sleeve: 29-32-37-46-47-48
Cartridge seal slid on shaft: 32-46-47-48
Coke or crystal deposits at atmosphere side of seal: 43

Checklist 2 – Causes of Seal Failure

Causes Solutions
(Each solution is defined in Checklist 3)
1. Pump operating too close to shutoff. Increased tempera- 1-2-3-4-5-6-9-12-35
ture is causing liquid to flash at the seal faces.
2. Product temperature is above design temperature. Liquid 1-7-9-12-35
is flashing at the seal faces.
3. Suction pressure is below normal. Lack of vapor suppres- 1-9-11-12-35
sion is allowing the liquid to flash at the seal faces.
4. NPSHA below normal. Lack of vapor suppression is 1-9-10-12-14-15-35
allowing the liquid to flash at the seal faces.
5. Light ends are present and are flashing at the seal faces. 1-9-10-12-35-59
6. Excessive seal tension. Increased face heat is causing 16-17-18-19-20
the liquid to flash at the seal faces.
7. Secondary seal is hanging up causing face separation. 21-22-23-24-25-37-54
8. Stationary face not aligned vertically to the shaft center 25-53
line.
9. Excessive seal cavity pressure. Increased face heat is 1-9-20-26-35
causing the liquid to flash at the seal faces.
10. Flush stream is improperly located. Velocity of the flush is 27
opening the faces.
11. Flush stream is improperly located. Velocity of the flush is 27
eroding the seal.
12. Flush stream is improperly located. Lack of heat removal 12-28
is causing the liquid to flash at the seal faces.
13. Inadequate lap joint between the sleeve shoulder and 32
end of the shaft.
14. Damaged gasket. 42
15. Sleeve not tight against the shaft shoulder. 34
16. Improperly seated gasket. 42
17. Damaged gasket surface. 42
18. Incorrect material selection. 33
19. Excessive axial shaft movement. 38
20. Loose or misaligned backup plate to bearing bracket 39
registered fit.
21. Loose or misaligned gland to seal chamber registered fit. 39
22. Misaligned throttle or throat bushing fit. 39
23. Misaligned mating ring fit. 39
24. Excessive sleeve runout. 39

Checklist 2 – Causes of Seal Failure (continued)

Causes Solutions
25. Excessive shaft runout. 39
26. Insufficient clearance. 39
27. Inadequate bellows welds. 58
28. Bellows or springs are failing from sulfide stress 33
corrosion or chloride stress corrosion cracking.
29. Temperature excursion above normal. 43
30. Incorrect lubrication used during assembly. 40
31. Liquid is flashing at the seal faces and face 1-28-29-30-31-35-41-43-49-50-52-55
temperatures have exceeded design maximum.
32. Seal cavity pressure exceeded design pressure. 41
33. Teflon anti-extrusion backup ring is required. 44
34. O-ring groove measurements exceed design standards. 57
35. Incorrect O-ring size. 57
36. Excessive temperature. 33
37. Torque has increased due to marginal face lubrication or 1-8-9-16-17-18-20-26-29-30-31-43
loss of liquid at the seal faces.
38. Faces are opening allowing abrasives to enter between 45
the faces.
39. Seal chamber pressure is too high and seal face is 46
bowing.
40. Thermal distortion. 1-9-16-17-18-35
41. Mechanical distortion when assembled. 47
42. Improperly lapped face. 48
43. Leakage is coking or crystallizing on the I.D. 24-54
(atmospheric side) of the carbon.
44. Liquid is flashing. Soluble abrasives are coming out of 1-9-16-17-18-20-30-31-35
solution between the faces.
45. Secondary elastomer swelling. 33
46. Inadequate number of set screws. 41
47. Incorrect set screw material. 56
48. Inadequate set screw torque. 41
49. Pump not vented prior to startup. 52
50. Exterior flush is blocked in. 55
51. Fouled flush cooler. 50
52. Fouled seal chamber cooling water jackets. 49

Checklist 2 – Causes of Seal Failure (continued)

Causes Solutions
53. Plugged flush line orifice. 51
54. Fluid that has soaked into the carbon expands on startup 54
causing face damage.
55. Oversized sleeve. 22
56. Excessive shaft deflection. 13
57. Incorrect seal balance ratio. 9
58. Quench steam is wet and is flashing at atmosphere side 54
of seal causing the seal to open.
59. Seal cavity pressure is too close to liquid’s vapor 12-29-30-31-35
pressure.
Checklist 3 – Solutions to Causes of Failure
Solution 1
Provide cooling with one of the following flush plans. Also refer to page 42 of the
API 610 in this manual for details on flush plans.
API 610 Flush Plan 2. When the liquid in the seal cavity is too close to its vapor
pressure, the liquid may be cooled below its boiling point using Plan 2 (see Figure
800-28).
Fig. 800-28 Flush Plan 2 Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute
Water circulating through the seal cavity water jackets removes enough heat from
the liquid in the seal cavity to keep the liquid below its boiling point. Contact the
pump manufacturer to establish the efficiency of the pump’s water jacket.
Over a period of time, minerals will plate out and foul the water jacket walls. This
fouling will reduce heat transfer from the seal cavity liquid to the cooling water. The

water jackets should be inspected for fouling during routine plant shutdowns, and
chemically cleaned, if necessary.
Plan 2 is not very efficient with pumps that are designed with internal seal cavities
due to the lack of the throat bushing. The throat bushing does act as a barrier
between the cooled liquid in the seal cavity and the hot liquid behind the impeller.
When using Plan 2, the seal cavity must be full of liquid which requires installing a
vent at the top of the seal cavity.
sure and flashes to a vapor between the seal faces, the seal will fail prematurely.
One method of vapor suppression is to cool the liquid going to the seal cavity to
below the liquid’s boiling point (see Figure 800-29).
Cooling with Flush Plan 21 is accomplished by installing a heat exchanger (cooler)

in the flush line between the pump's discharge and the seal cavity. The cooler can
use water or air as the cooling medium, depending on the amount of heat transfer
required, and the efficiency of the cooler. When it has been determined how much
heat must be removed, the cooler manufacturer can calculate the cooler and flush
line orifice size.
A maintenance problem that develops with water-cooled flush coolers is fouling of
the cooler's shell side. Minerals plating out on the tube O.D. reduce the efficiency of
the cooler. The return cooling water lines also foul and reduce the flow of cooling
water through the cooler. The return cooling water piping and the shell side of the
cooler should be inspected for fouling during routine plant shutdowns and chemi-
cally cleaned if necessary.
Furthermore, debris commonly becomes trapped in the small passages of these
coolers. A regular program of backflushing these coolers (cooling-water side) has
been helpful in reducing overall failure rates in one large refinery.
sure, and flashes to a vapor between the seal faces, the seal will fail prematurely.
(See Figure 800-30).

One approach to vapor suppression is to cool the liquid in the seal cavity below the
liquids boiling point with Flush Plan 23. Flush Plan 23 is Flush Plan 2 with the
addition of a flush line, flush cooler and pumping ring. The pumping ring (Figure
800-31) is mounted in the seal cavity and rotates with the pump shaft, circulating
the liquid from the seal cavity through a cooler and back to the seal cavity.
Fig. 800-31 Pumping Ring
The liquid head developed by the pumping ring is not always sufficient to pump
through an air bubble in the flush line. This requires venting all air from the flush
line. The vent must be located at the highest point.

Flush Plan 23 is used predominantly to cool boiler feed water seals. Water cannot be
sealed successfully above a temperature of 180°F with a single seal. Boiler feed water
is contaminated with soluble abrasives in the form of minerals or boiler compounds.
As the pressure of the liquid film of water between the seal faces drops from the seal
cavity pressure to atmospheric pressure, it will flash to a vapor if the temperature
between the faces is at or above 212°F. When the liquid film between the faces vapor-
izes, the soluble abrasives come out of solution and embed themselves in the softer of
the two faces. The soft face then acts like a grinding wheel and will quickly destroy
the opposing seal face. To keep the liquid between the seal faces below 212°F, it
becomes necessary to cool the seal cavity to 180°F or less.
When the liquid in the seal cavity has been cooled to 180°F by Flush Plan 23, the
amount of the heat transfer required to hold at 180°F is minimal. This reduces
cooler fouling. Cooling fouling occurs when minerals from the cooling water plate
out on the cooler's tube O.D. and is more pronounced when the heat transfer is high.
A drain is required on the shell of the cooler. Periodic back flushing of the cooler's
shell side will reduce fouling. The temperature of the flush stream should be moni-
tored with a temperature indicator in the flushing line. The T.I. should be installed
upstream of the cooler.
If the cooler loses its efficiency, it will require cleaning by chemical or mechanical
means. (See Figure 800-31.)
API 610 Flush Plan 32. This is the injection of a clean cool fluid to the seal from
an external source. (See Figure 800-32.)
To allow for flush flow, the pressure of the injection source must be greater than the
pressure in the seal cavity. The injection liquid must also be compatible with the
liquid being pumped, because the two get mixed together into the pump product.

Flush Plan 32 is considered for the following conditions:

1. Sealing liquids that contain abrasives. Injecting a clean cool fluid that is
compatible with the pumped liquid is a straightforward approach to eliminating
the abrasives from the seal cavity.
2. Sealing liquids that are hazardous to personnel or violate a pollution stan-
dard if allowed to leak to atmosphere. An example of this is a stream that has
a high concentration of H2S. Flush Plan 32 isolates the seal cavity from the
H2S, with a non-H2S bearing flush stream. If the seal fails catastrophically, the
leak to atmosphere through the seal end plate throttle bushing must be less than
the non-hazardous flush flow to the seal cavity. A close clearance throttle
bushing in the seal end plate is required to restrict this leakage rate.
3. The liquid in the seal cavity is near its boiling point. If the liquid in the seal
cavity is near its boiling point, and vaporizes between the seal faces, the seal
will fail prematurely. This can be overcome by injecting a liquid with a low
vapor pressure, which is compatible with the pumped liquid, into the seal
cavity.
4. Pump Suction Loss. When a pump loses suction or has problems picking up
suction, the seal will fail prematurely from lack of liquid lubrication. Flushing
the seal with Plan 32 will ensure the seal of a constant source of liquid during
these brief periods of suction loss.
Flush flow velocities of 10 to 15 ft. per second through the seal cavity throat
bushing are desired to keep the pumped liquid from migrating back into the seal
cavity. When the exterior flush flow rate must be held to a minimum, it becomes
necessary to install a close clearance throat bushing in the seal cavity to maintain
the flow velocity through the throat bushing. The flush flow rate can be controlled
with an orifice or with visual flow indicators. Orifice sizes below 1/8 inch are
subject to plugging.
Solution 2
Work with operations to achieve operating conditions that allow the pump to operate
at or close to its best efficiency point. This may or may not be possible, depending
on the operational requirements. If not, the pump may need to be resized.
Solution 3
Resize the impeller.
Solution 4
Install a recirculation (bypass) line on flow control.
Solution 5
Install a low flow alarm.
Solution 6
Install a low flow shutdown device.

Solution 7
Work with operations to achieve the original design operating temperatures. Again,
this may, or may not be possible.
Solution 8
Measure the clearance between the sleeve balance shoulder and the back side of the
seal ring nose. If these two shoulders touch when the seal is assembled, the resulting
heavy face load and temperature increase will cause the liquid between the faces to
flash and the seal will fail.
Solution 9
Contact the seal manufacturer and investigate the possibility of redesigning the seal
face to reduce the face heat. This can often be done by changing face area or the
balance ratio.
Solution 10
Increase NPSHA by raising suction pressure, raising liquid level, or reducing line
losses. Reduced NPSHA will lower the pressure in the seal cavity. This reduction in
vapor suppression can cause the liquid between the seal faces to boil. The seal will
fail for lack of face lubrication.
Solution 11
Causes for low suction pressure include operational changes, a plugged strainer or
filter, a partially plugged suction line, or a partially closed suction valve. If any of
these conditions reduce the seal cavity pressure too close to the liquid’s vapor pres-
sure, the liquid between the faces will boil and the seal will fail.
Solution 12
When investigating a mechanical seal failure, where liquid boiling between the seal
faces is suspected as the cause of failure, 20°F should be added to the normal design
temperature. This increase in temperature is caused by liquid shearing and face heat
generated by the rotation of the mechanical seal. It is critical in liquid streams where
the vapor pressure is close to the pump suction pressure.
Solution 13
The major causes of shaft deflection are:
1. Imbalance. This may be an improperly balanced rotating element, a foreign
object stuck in an impeller, or a piece of the impeller broke off.
2. Cavitation. This is usually caused by the operating conditions. Check the
NPSHA and flow to see if they have deviated from the original design
requirements.
3. Design. Some packed pumps use the packing as a support for the rotating
element. If these pumps are converted to seals, the support is lost and shaft
deflection can become a problem.

4. Low Flow. Some pumps (those with Suction Specific Speed >10,000) are espe-
cially vulnerable to operation at low flow rates.
Solution 14
Inspect the low level alarm if one exists. A faulty low level alarm will often lead to
continued operation with low levels.
Solution 15
Calibrate the level control instrumentation. Low levels contribute to a loss of vapor
suppression in the seal cavity. This will allow the liquid between the faces to boil
and damage the seal faces.
Solution 16
The seal may have been overcompressed on assembly. Obtain correct operating
length from seal drawing. Increased seal tension causes increased face heat. The
increased face heat may cause the liquid between the faces to boil and damage the
seal faces.
Solution 17
On impeller hung-between-bearings pumps, temperature-induced shaft growth can
increase the seal tension on the seal opposite the thrust bearing. This increased
tension causes increased face heat. The increased face heat may cause the liquid
between the seal faces to boil and damage the seal faces. If the pump case growth
does not compensate for the shaft growth, the cold setting of the seal opposite the
thrust end must be set to compensate for the shaft growth.
Solution 18
If incorrect springs of excessive length were installed during a repair, the increased
seal tension will cause increased face heat. The increased face heat may boil the
liquid between the seal faces. Loss of the liquid film will damage the faces. Always
reference the seal drawing for the correct part number, or contact the seal supplier
for the correct dimensions taken from the fabrication drawings.
Solution 19
During a repair, incorrect seal faces can be installed in the seal. Either an incorrect
face of excessive length or a reconditioned face that is too short. Both of these
errors will contribute to poor seal reliability. Always reference the seal drawing for
the correct part number, or contact the seal supplier for the correct dimensions taken
from the fabrication drawings.
Solution 20
Seal cavity pressures above the pressure limits of the seal will increase face temper-
atures and boil the liquid between the faces. Loss of this liquid film will damage the
faces. Torque will also increase resulting in damage to the drive mechanism of a
pusher seal. A bellows seal operating in these conditions will often fail the first
bellows convolution on either the nose or drive collar end of the bellows.

Solution 21
An undersized anti-extrusion ring will contribute to seal hang-up. The seal will
usually hold static pressure but will leak on startup prior to reaching full speed.
Solution 22
An oversized sleeve contributes to seal hang-up. The seal may hold static pressure
but leaks on startup prior to reaching operating speed.
The excessive radial pressure the oversized sleeve exerts on the inside of the carbon
seal ring can also cause carbon breakage.
Solution 23
An oversized secondary seal o-ring contributes to seal hang-up. The seal may hold
static pressure but leaks on startup prior to reaching operating speed. O-ring and
O-ring groove dimensions can be found in the Parker O-ring Handbook published
by the Parker Seal Company located in Lexington, Kentucky.
Solution 24
When some liquids evaporate, they leave an abrasive crystal deposit behind.
(Caustic is an example of a liquid which has this characteristic.) When these
deposits build up under the atmospheric side of the seal faces, they contribute to
premature seal failures. Crystals forming on the atmospheric side of the secondary
seal stop the secondary and rotating members from moving forward. This condition
is commonly called seal hang-up. The seal faces are also damaged by abrasives and
crystals that are centrifuged between them.
These problems can be avoided using API 610 Quench Plan 62 and quenching the
seal with water (see Figure 800-33). The water dilutes the seal leakage and stops the
formation of the crystals. The quench water exits through the seal end plate throttle
bushing or drain as shown in Figure 800-34.
Fig. 800-33 Flush Plan 62 Courtesy of the American Fig. 800-34 Seal End Plate Gland
Petroleum Institute

Maximum quench flow rates should be low enough to keep the quench water from
entering and contaminating the pump bearing housing.
Solution 25
Vertical misalignment of a rotating seal’s stationary (mating ring) face can be caused
by the following: The seal cavity face misaligned vertically to the shaft center line;
or the mating ring face misaligned vertically to the gland gasket face. The mating
ring anti-rotation pin is too long and won’t allow the mating ring to seat properly in
gland fit. Any one of these conditions will cause the rotating seal to move forward
and backward twice per revolution. This backward and forward movement causes
excessive face leakage, wear between the secondary seal and the sleeve, spring wear
(flat spots on the side of the spring), and wear to the seal’s drive mechanisms.
Solution 26
Tandem seals are used when the pressure differential across a single seal is above
the seal’s maximum pressure capability. If the impeller-end seal (Figure 800-35)
has a differential capability of 1,000 psi and is required to seal 1,500 psi, the differ-
ential pressure across the seal can be reduced by installing another seal and applying
750 psi between the tandem arrangement. Both seals will now operate with a pres-
sure differential of 750 psi, which is well within their pressure range.
Fig. 800-35 Tandem Seal

Solution 27
The velocity of a seal flush stream impinging on the seal can cause erosion and
premature seal failure. This same jetting action can upset the seal balance and
contribute to excessive face leakage. One correction is to redirect the flush steam so
it does not make contact with the seal. Another and usually an easier method is to
move the flush line orifice further away from the seal. Take the pressure drop and
velocity increase at a point in the flush line where it does not come in contact with
the seal.
Solution 28
One reason for the seal flush is to remove the heat that builds up at the seal faces
and in the seal cavity from the rotation of the seal. A flush that enters the center of
the seal cavity is inefficient at removing heat at the seal faces. The flush should
enter the seal cavity through the gland plate as close to the face intersection as
possible. In high vapor pressure liquids where face flashing is causing seal failure,
the flush exit from the gland can be designed so that it surrounds the seal face to
increase the efficiency of the heat removal.
Solution 29
Flush coolers are used to cool the flush stream to the seal and suppress boiling of
the liquid between the seal faces. As the cooler fouls, it loses its heat transfer ability.
When repairing a seal that utilizes a cooler in its flush stream, always remove the
cooler shell and inspect the cooler for fouling. Chemical clean, hydroblast, sand-
blast or replace the cooler as necessary. Back- flushing is usually inadequate once
the cooler has become fouled.
Solution 30
Boiler feed water pumps are an example of where the seal cavity water jacket is
used to remove heat and suppress boiling of the liquid at the seal faces. If the walls
of the water jacket foul, it loses its heat transfer ability. Always inspect and clean
the seal cavity water jacket for fouling.
Solution 31
Cooling efficiency will decrease as the inlet and outlet cooling water pressure loses
its differential and the flow decreases. There are two reasons for this: either the
return piping is fouling, or additional equipment has been added and the system is
overloaded. If the system is fouled, then clean or replace the piping. If the system is
overloaded, a larger cooler or a system upgrade may be required.
Solution 32
A sleeve-gasket leak will exist between the inside diameter of the sleeve and the
shaft. This type of leak is often mistaken for a seal leak. The shoulder of the sleeve
should be lapped against the shaft shoulder to ensure a good gasket surface. Apply
Prussian blue to one shoulder and rotate it against the other shoulder to ensure full
contact.

Solution 33
Improper material selection is a major cause of mechanical seal failures. Refer to
the Company’s material specification GF-G99876-7 and GD-G99877-7 when
selecting materials. Manufacturers of mechanical seals and elastomers are another
good source because their material manuals cover a wide range of liquids.
Physical changes in the seal parts such as loss of metal, O-ring swelling, and galling
of the seal or mating ring faces are signs of improper material selection.
Swelling of the secondary O-ring will cause seal hang-up and possible carbon seal
ring breakage.
Galling may occur when using a Tungsten-carbide seal ring against a Tungsten
carbide mating ring. (If the seal cavity pressure or the speed of the rotating face is
too great, the face will become damaged.)
Stress corrosion cracking of springs and metal bellows is also a determining factor
in material selection.
AM-350 is a material that is commonly used in manufacturing metal bellows.
AM-350 is susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement or sulfide stress cracking when
the following conditions exist:
1. The liquid being sealed contains 1 to 2 parts per million or more of H2S.
2. The temperature is below 300°F.
3. Moisture (H2O) is present.
Bellows cracking from the atmospheric side of the seal occurs when normal leakage
crosses the seal face and contaminates the atmospheric side of the bellows with
liquid containing H2S. The moisture (H2O) can come from either a steam quench or
from the atmosphere. When the pump is shutdown and allowed to cool below
300°F, the bellows is susceptible to sulfide cracking.
Bellows cracking from the liquid side may occur during a routine column repair.
Columns are usually steam purged and water washed when shutdown and steam
purged prior to starting up. When moisture (H2O) contacts an AM-350 bellows that
is contaminated with any H2S, and the temperature is below 300°F, the bellows is
susceptible to sulfide cracking.
Type 316 stainless steel is another material that is commonly used in the manufac-
turing of metal bellows. When a 316 stainless steel bellows operating in tempera-
tures between 150°F and 300°F comes in contact with moist chlorides, it is
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. A typical example of this is a bellows seal
operating in the upper side cuts of a crude unit fractionation column. The chlorides
going overhead will contact the upper side-cut pump seals. The result is chloride
cracking of the 316 stainless steel seal bellows, or pusher seal springs.
Corrosion cracks in bellows cannot always be found by visual inspection. The cause
of the seal failure will often remain unknown or will be classified as an operating or
maintenance error. When the crack is observed visually or by pressure testing, the

failure is often attributed to fatigue cracking, poor bellows welds, or lack of bellows
strength.
The problem of hydrogen embrittlement or sulfide stress cracking in the AM-350
and chloride stress corrosion cracking in the 316 series stainless bellows can be
overcome with a material change. Neither Inconel X-750, Hastalloy-C, or
Inconel 625 is susceptible to cracking in chlorides or H2S. The type chosen is
determined by cost, availability, or the manufacturer’s preference.
Stress corrosion cracking is quite hard if not impossible to observe with the naked
eye. The Company’s materials lab has established a file on types and causes of
bellows failure throughout Chevron. This history, combined with their expertise and
special equipment, will help establish the cause of the failure.
Solution 34
Under-torquing of the impeller will often allow a leak between the sleeve and shaft
shoulder. The answer to this is to establish torque values and use the necessary tool
that will adapt the torque wrench to the impeller nut.
Solution 35
There is a molecular film of lubricant between the stationary and rotating faces of a
mechanical seal. Vaporization of this lubricant film can lead to an explosive expan-
sion and separation of the faces. The loss of lubricant between the faces will also
cause a rapid rise in face temperature. Face temperatures in excess of 2,000°F have
been observed, the result being heat check and excessive face wear. Either the
temperature rise or the face separation can distress the seal faces to the point of
premature seal failure and possible pump fires.
In order to maintain this film of liquid lubricant between the seal faces, the pressure
differential between the liquid’s vapor pressure at pumping temperature and the seal
cavity pressure should be kept at a minimum of 25 psi for specific gravity heavier
than 0.6 and a minimum of 50 psi for a specific gravity lighter than 0.6. There can
be as little as ½ to 1 pint of liquid surrounding the mechanical seal in the seal cavity.
Liquid shear at the seal faces and around the mechanical seal will cause an increase
in temperature of approximately 20°F plus at the seal faces. The 20°F plus must be
added to the operating temperature when comparing the pressure differential
between the liquid's vapor point and the seal cavity pressure.
Example:
Assume a mechanical seal is to be designed for a pump in reflux service with the
following conditions:
Liquid Propane
Specific Gravity Less than 0.6
Pumping Temperature 110°F
V.P. at Pumping Temperature 220 psia

Suction Pressure 230 psia

Discharge Pressure 485 psia
Seal Cavity Pressure 255 psia
The Seal Cavity Pressure was found by adding 10% of the pump differential to
suction pressure. (This is a common rule-of-thumb for estimation – a pressure gage
is the only reliable way to know for sure.) To find the approximate temperature at
the seal faces, add 20°F to the pumping temperature of 110°F. A Hydrocarbon
Vapor Pressure Chart will show that the vapor pressure of propane at 130°F is
260 psia. The seal cavity pressure of the reflux pump is 255 psia. This lack of vapor
suppression will allow the lubricant film between the seal faces to vaporize. The
seal will produce a high leak rate and an expected seal life of approximately
2 months.
To suppress the vaporization of the liquid film between the seal faces, there must be
a minimum differential of 50 psi between the liquid's vapor point at normal oper-
ating temperature and the seal cavity pressure. This can be achieved by one of the
following methods.
A Hydrocarbon Vapor Pressure Chart shows that the propane in the seal cavity will
be 50 psi below its boiling point if cooled to 85°F. This temperature can be obtained
by installing a seal flush cooler in the pump's seal flush line. Cooling of the liquid in
the seal cavity can also be obtained by dead-ending the seal cavity per API 610
Flush Plan 2. If cooling is not possible, the seal cavity can be pressured to 50 psi
above the liquid vapor point by using the pump's discharge and a close clearance
fixed or floating throat bushing installed in the bottom of the seal cavity. (See Solu-
tion 36.)
Solution 36
The normal throat clearance for most centrifugal pumps is .032 to .062 diametrical
between the seal cavity throat and the shaft sleeve. To maintain cavity pressure,
pumps using mechanical seals sometimes require that this clearance be reduced with
a fixed or floating throat bushing. Using a fixed throat bushing, the standard clear-
ance between the seal cavity throat and the shaft sleeve can be reduced to a clear-
ance of 010 diametrically. Clearances lower than this will result in excessive
bushing wear, caused by shaft deflection or normal misalignment of the pump shaft
through the throat bushing. If it becomes necessary to reduce the throat clearance
below .010, the floating throat bushing will compensate for shaft-to-throat misalign-
ment and, for brief periods, some shaft deflection. (See Figures 800-36A and
800-36B.)
An expander retainer that grips the I.D. of the seal cavity retains multiple springs.
The springs hold the floating throat bushing against the bottom of the seal cavity.
The floating bushing can align itself around the shaft sleeve because of the large
clearance between the O.D. of the floating bushing and the I.D. of the seal cavity.
This type of bushing allows clearance as low as 0.004 diametrically between the

Fig. 800-36 Fixed and Floating Bushing
bushing I.D. and the shaft sleeve. The restriction of the throat clearance for pumps
using mechanical seals becomes necessary under the following conditions:
1. Incompatibility of the pumped liquid with the mechanical seal.
2. Seal cavities operating close to liquid vapor pressure.
When mechanical seal life is reduced because of the incompatibility of the pumped
liquid with the mechanical seal, it is often necessary to inject clean fluid to the seal

cavity. To keep the pumped liquid from migrating back into the seal cavity, while
keeping flush flow rates to a minimum, seal manufacturers recommend flush flow
velocities of 10–15 feet per second at the throat of the seal cavity. This can be
achieved with the reduced clearances of the fixed or floating throat bushing. Contact
the seal manufacturer for recommended clearances.
Most seal cavities operate close to the pump's suction pressure. If the pressure in the
seal cavity is too close to the vapor pressure of the liquid, the heat added by the
rotation of the mechanical seal will cause the liquid to vaporize between the seal
faces and the seal will fail. Vapor suppression can be accomplished by pressurizing
the seal cavity liquid above its boiling point. This is done by installing a close clear-
ance throat bushing in the bottom of the seal cavity and flushing the seal from the
pump's discharge. Caution must be exercised when dealing with vapor suppression
in this fashion. If the flow of liquid through the seal cavity is severely restricted by
the close clearance throat bushing and does not remove the heat generated by the
mechanical seal, the temperature will rise and the liquid between the seal faces will
again reach its vapor point.
Various styles of close clearance floating throat bushings and throttle bushings are
available from seal manufacturers. If long deliveries make them unavailable, they
can be fabricated from the floating bushing drawings (Figures 800-37 and 800-38)
which have proven to be quite successful. Close clearance bushing must be made of
a non-galling material such as carbon.
Solution 37
If the secondary seal o-ring is of the wrong material, it may swell and cause the seal
to hang-up. This hang-up will keep the seal from compensating for axial move-
ment. The result is the faces open and excessive leakage occurs. Reference the
Corporations Material Recommendations for the correct material selection. The
Parker O-Ring Handbook is another source for O-ring material selection. This hand-
book is published by the Parker Seal Company, located in Lexington, Kentucky.
Solution 38
The outer face of the thrust bearing should not be able to move axially in its housing
more than .002 to .004 inches. If this axial movement is excessive, wear between
the secondary seal and the sleeve will occur. Flat spots will form on the side of the
springs from rubbing against the retainer.
Solution 39
If rubbing between the rotating element and the stationary members occurs, suspect
internal misalignment, a bent rotating element, or failed bearings. The corrective
action to failed bearings is to replace them and investigate the cause of the failure if
reliability is a problem. To check the rotating element for straightness, rotate it with
its bearing journals setting on precision V-blocks or rollers. Some shops rotate the
element on precision centers. If the total indicator runout exceeds 0.002 inches,
repair or replace the shaft.
All registered fits must be measured and if the male to female clearance exceed the
manufacturers specification, they must be restored. Excessive register fit clearances

Fig. 800-37 Typical Floating Throat Bushings
contribute to misalignment. Diametric clearance should not exceed 0.002. There are
exceptions that will require less than 0.002.
Not enough clearance at the throttle bushing, throat bushing or in the seal cavity can
also contribute to rubbing. Safe clearances for fixed throttle bushings can be estab-
lished by increasing the clearance to 0.005 greater than the pump’s wear ring
clearance.
If the normal throttle bushing clearance must be reduced to minimize the leakage of
hazardous liquids to the atmosphere, the floating throttle bushing (Figure 800-36B)
should be used.
The center line of the rotating element must be in the center of all the registered fits.
If misalignment exceeds a total indicator runout of 0.002, it must be corrected.
Solution 40
If the secondary seal o-ring is vulcanized to the sleeve, either the wrong material or
the wrong lubricant was used to assemble the seal. If the o-ring is compatible with
the temperature, change the lubricant that is applied between the o-ring and the
sleeve during assembly. Molybdenum Disulfide (Molycoat) has been successfully
used in this area.

Fig. 800-38 Typical Floating Throat Bushings
Solution 41
Axial slippage of a cartridge seal sleeve away from the pressure in the seal cavity
will increase the seal tension. The increased tension will cause face temperatures to
go up. The liquid between the faces will boil and the seal will fail.
The reason the sleeve slides away from the seal cavity pressure is the sleeve has
more area exposed to the pressure than it does to atmosphere. There have been
various solutions to this problem. (1) Add set screws, (2) apply proper set screw
torque, (3) reduce the area of the sleeve exposed to the pressure, and (4) fabricate a
clamp that can be installed on the shaft which will add axial support to the sleeve.
Solution 42
There are various types of gasket designs used in a mechanical seal: o-rings,
wedges, v-rings, u-cups, and flat gaskets. The composition of the gasket can vary
over a wide range of material. Gasket damage is caused by excessive heat, exces-
sive pressure, corrosion, or mechanically. Heat, pressure, and corrosion problems,
will cause a gasket failure after the seal has been running for a while and can be
corrected by upgrading the material. Mechanical damage will usually cause a leak at
startup. Mechanical damage is caused by sharp shoulder corners, improper assembly

techniques, or improperly designed gasket containment area. Solutions to solving

the problem are quite straightforward once the cause of failure is
determined.
Solution 43
Review the operating conditions for temperature excursions that exceed the normal
design temperatures. The increase in temperature can cause the liquid between the
seal faces to boil causing face damage and premature seal failure.
Drive torque loads will also increase when the liquid between the faces is lost,
causing the seal or the mating ring to spin or slip in the seal gland fit.
If the temperature increase is above the temperature limit of the elastomer, it can
cause the elastomer to vulcanize to the shaft.
If the temperature excursions cannot be controlled, the liquid around the seal will
have to be cooled. Use one of the flush plans in Solution 1 of this section.
Solution 44
If excessive pressure in the seal cavity extrudes the o-ring between the sleeve and
the inside diameter of the seal ring, it will lock the seal ring to the sleeve. This is
called seal hang-up. A teflon anti-extrusion ring, sometimes called a back-up ring is
installed between the o-ring and the nose of the seal ring. Its close clearance over
the sleeve will stop the o-ring from extruding under the seal ring.
Solution 45
Abrasives can enter between the seal faces during periods of face separation. Face
separation can occur during the pump startup, shutdown, or from pressure
fluctuations.
Assume one of the seal faces is carbon. During the periods of face separation, the
abrasives that enter between the seal faces will imbed in the carbon. The carbon in
effect will become a grinding wheel against the mating seal face. A straightforward
solution to this problem is injecting a flow of non-abrasive fluid into the seal cavity.
If this method cannot be used, an alternative is to design a mechanical seal with a
face combination of hard materials. These faces are less affected by abrasive wear.
In severe cases, face combinations of Tungsten carbide versus Tungsten carbide or
Tungsten carbide versus Silicon carbide can be used. This hard face combination is
also used when the abrasives are dissolved in the liquid. As the liquid pressure drops
across the seal faces toward atmosphere, it may flash to a vapor somewhere near the
inside diameter of the seal face. If this happens, the dissolved abrasive will solidify
between the seal faces. These hard face combinations have a tendency to gall in
liquids with low specific gravity, poor lubricating ability and liquids that are near
their boiling points. Given the correct operating conditions and liquid characteris-
tics, the seal manufacturer will recommend the correct face combination.
Another approach is to attempt to remove the abrasives from the flush stream. This
is done by installing a cyclone separator in the seal flush line.

Cyclones are very successful in removing the large particles that tend to cause
erosion damage in the seal cavity.
Some of the problems with cyclones are as follows:
1. Detailed engineering is required when orificing the cyclone system to ensure
maximum abrasive removal.
2. Abrasives at high velocities tend to reorifice the cyclone, causing efficiency
loss.
3. Orifice plugging will cause reduction or loss of the seal flush.
4. The smaller the particle size, the less efficient the cyclone separator is. This is
somewhat defeating, for it is the small particles that enter between the seal
faces, and these are the particles not being removed by the cyclone.
Solution 46
Measure the outside diameter of the narrow wear track on the mating ring face. If it
is smaller than the outside diameter of the seal ring, suspect bowing of the seal ring.
When the pressure in the seal chamber bows the seal ring inwards toward atmo-
sphere, the outer edge of the seal ring will prevent the liquid from entering between
the faces and the seal will fail. This is most predominant with carbon faces that have
thin cross sections, operating in high seal chamber pressures. The solution is to
install a seal with a stronger carbon cross section.
Solution 47
Shiny spots on the seal ring can be caused by distortion of the seal gland during
assembly. Seal gland distortion is caused by uneven torquing of the gland bolts, seal
gland or seal chamber gasket faces not flat, and narrow gland gaskets that allow the
gland to bend when the gland bolts are overtightened. Designs that permit full
contact between the gland plate and the seal chamber face are best.
Solution 48
The mating surfaces of the seal ring and the mating ring must be flat. A transparent
quartz optical flat and monochromatic light are required to check face flatness. A
lapping plate is used to produce the flatness required. If the surface inspected with
the optical flat is not flat, it is usually because the lapping plate was not flat or the
hard face was being distorted during lapping. Mechanical Seal Manufacturers
recommend face flatness to be held to three helium light bands. The face flatness is
measured using a helium light shining through an optical flat resting on the piece to
be measured.
Solution 49
Refer to Solution 1, Flush Plan 2, of this section for an explanation of seal chamber
water jacket fouling.

Solution 50
Refer to Solution 1, Flush Plan 21, of this section for an explanation of seal flush
cooler fouling.
Solution 51
The seal flush is used in various configurations to carry heat away from the seal. If
the flush orifice plugs, the temperature increase at the seal faces may cause the
liquid between the faces to boil and the seal will fail.
Solution 52
If the pump is not liquid-packed prior to startup, the seal faces may be damaged
from lack of liquid between the faces.
Solution 53
A mechanical seal is often required to operate in liquids that have corrosion rates
which require teflon gaskets and a stainless steel sleeve. If there is movement
between the teflon gasket and the stainless sleeve or shaft, corrosion fretting will
occur. When using a pusher seal, this occurs where the teflon gasket (Figure 800-39)
contacts the sleeve or shaft. Mechanical problems such as the stationary face not
being square with the shaft, or excessive axial movement of the shaft, cause axial
movement between the rotating seal member gasket and the sleeve or shaft. The
result of the corrosion fretting is damage to the sleeve and a premature leak between
the gasket and the sleeve or shaft.
Fig. 800-39 Pusher Seal

Corrosion fretting can be avoided by using a bellows (non-pusher) seal (Figure

800-40). The rotating seal member gasket “D” is static in a bellows seal. Corrosion
fretting can also be avoided by applying overlays that are corrosion resistant, to the
sleeve area under the rotating seal member gasket. The chrome oxide overlays are
porous; therefore, caution must be used that the bond between the overlays and the
parent metal be resistant to the corrosive liquid.
Fig. 800-40 Bellows Seal
The desired overlay finish is 6 to 8 R.M.S. If these finishes are not achieved, the
rotating seal member gasket will “hang up” and tend to hold the seal faces apart.
Solution 54
When hydrocarbons are sealed at elevated temperatures, a coke formation on the
atmospheric side of the seal will often result from normal seal leakage. This coke
formation will cause seal hang-up and face damage, and will distress the seal to a
premature failure. Steam injected through the seal end plate quench port aids in
stopping the coke formation by cooling the leakage.
The steam quench is also used to decrease blistering of the carbon seal face. Blis-
tering occurs when sealing viscous fluids such as asphalt, crude, and bunker. When
the liquid is warm, it will penetrate into the face of the carbon seal. If the liquid film
between the seal faces is allowed to cool when the pump is shut down, it becomes
viscous. When the pump is restarted, the shear force of the viscous liquid film
between the seal faces generates heat. The heat expands the liquid that has pene-
trated the carbon face. The result of the liquid expansion is small pieces of carbon
raising or breaking away from the carbon face. These pieces of carbon hold the
faces open and allow excessive leakage. A controlled steam quench keeps the faces
warm and the liquid between the faces fluid.

Blister-resistant carbons are available and should be installed if blistering is causing

premature failures.
The maximum steam quench rate should be low enough to keep the steam from
entering and contaminating the pump bearing housing. The amount of steam quench
should be controlled by a back pressure regulator. Once the back pressure regulator
is adjusted to the desired flow, it remains constant. This overcomes the problem of
plant operators continually readjusting the amount of steam flow. Any pressure
regulator that is comparable to the Fisher Type 95L and has the following construc-
tion features can be used. Body size, ¼ inch. Orifice size, ¼ inch. Body material
cast steel. Diaphragm and inner valve seat material, stainless steel. Maximum inlet
pressure and temperature, 300 psi, 450°F. Reduced pressure ranges, 2 to 6 psi.
The problem with steam quenching high-temperature seal applications is keeping
the quench steam dry. When condensate enters the atmospheric side of a seal oper-
ating in a high-temperature service and flashes to steam, the expansion of conden-
sate to steam will open the seal faces and allow for excessive leakage. This will be
heard as a popping sound from the seal end plate.
When installing a steam quench system, insulate the line from the steam source to
the seal end plate. Spend the extra amount necessary to obtain a hot, dry source of
steam. Figure 800-41 is a steam quench piping system that is used successfully in
high-temperature applications.
Fig. 800-41 Steam Quench Piping Systems

Solution 55
Refer to Solution 1, Flush Plan 32, of this section. If the flush is lost while oper-
ating or remained blocked in during a startup that followed a repair, the seal
will fail.
Solution 56
The seal set screw material is usually 300 series stainless. This soft material allows
the tip of the set screw to dull and lose its holding torque. If this is allowing the seal
to slip or rotate, you may want to consider hardened steel set screws. There are
some advantages and disadvantages to steel set screws. The advantage is the hard-
ened tip cuts into the shaft or sleeve and will transmit higher torque loads without
slipping. The disadvantage is the high corrosion rate of steel. If the set screw is
operating in the liquid, its material must be compatible with the liquid. If the set
screw is used in the drive collar of a cartridge seal, which is located in the atmo-
sphere, and leakage or the atmosphere corrodes the hexagon socket the allen wrench
fits into, you won’t be able to loosen the set screws. Since they are hardened, they
cannot be drilled out. A simple cartridge seal repair now becomes a major repair
because the pump will have to be sent to the shop for seal removal.
If steel set screws are used in the cartridge seal drive collar, fill the hexagon socket
area with grease. This may give it some corrosion protection.
Solution 57
If the o-ring is extruding out of its containment area, compare the o-ring and the
o-ring groove dimensions with the recommended design data. O-ring and O-ring
groove dimensions can be found in the Parker O-ring Handbook published by the
Parker Seal Company located in Lexington, Kentucky.
Solution 58
The majority of bellows failures can be attributed to corrosion, stress corrosion
cracking, and fatigue. (See Appendix F.)
Inadequate bellows welds are often erroneously blamed for the bellows failure.
Bellows fabrication techniques developed by the major seal manufacturers have
greatly decreased the problem of poor weld quality. The best approach to estab-
lishing the cause of a bellows failure is to have Chevron’s Materials Laboratory
examine the failed area of the bellows.
Solution 59
Light ends such as butanes, propanes, or ethane that have carried over or are
entrained in the liquid being pumped will cause seal failure if allowed to boil at the
seal faces. An example of this is a gas oil pump in a solvent deasphalting unit. The
gas oil has a low vapor pressure. The propane that is being used as a solvent in the
gas oil has a high-vapor pressure. If allowed to boil at the seal faces, it will cause
premature seal failure.

Checklist for Seal Failure Analysis
1. Pump/seal Maintenance History
Satisfactory seal life? ______ Yes ______ No
Trend Established? Describe
Equally spaced over time? ______
Random ______
History of cavitiation ______ Yes ______ No
2. Mechanical Condition of Pump
Thrust bearing failed? ______ Yes ______ No
Condition of radial bearing?
Impeller nut. ______Loose ______Tight
Sleeve gasket tight? ______ Yes ______ No
Gasket face condition:
Rubs on impeller wear rings?______, throat bushing?______, throttle bushing?______, other_________
Impeller/damage?
Throat bushing clearance exceeds design specification?

Checklist for Seal Failure Analysis (continued)

Yes No
3. Condition of Mechanical Seal
A. Pusher
Springs. Condition: ________________________________________________
Sleeve under secondary seal. Condition: ______________________________
Secondary seal. Condition: _________________________________________
Stationary face anti-rotation pin damaged? ________ ________
B. Metal Bellows:
Pressure test bellows. OK? ________ ________
Bellows material: ________________________________________________
Failure at first convolution? ________ ________
Leaks between face and nose piece fit? ________ ________
C. All Seals
Set Screws:
Loose on shaft? ________ ________
Signs of sliding? ________ ________
Dull drive points? ________ ________
Metal Parts:
Corrosion? ________ ________
Rubs? ________ ________
Gasket Condition:
Heat? ________ ________
Swelling? ________ ________
Chemical Damage? ________ ________
Mechanical Damage? ________ ________
Seal Faces:
Surface cracks? ________ ________
Chipping? Inside diameter ________ ________
Chipping? Outside diameter ________ ________
Blisters? ________ ________
“Phonographic” scoring? ________ ________
“Drive lug” wear? ________ ________
Evidence of generalized heat? ________ ________
Shiny spots? ________ ________
Erosion? ________ ________
Wide or narrow wear track? _____________________________________

Checklist for Seal Failure Analysis (continued)

Yes No
4. Flush System
Flush blocked in? ________ ________
Plugged orifices? ________ ________
Eroded orifices? ________ ________
Property piped? ________ ________
5. Cooling System
Fouled seal chamber water jacket? ________ ________
Fouled flush cooler? ________ ________
Fouled cooling piping? ________ ________
Cooling water manifolded correctly? ________ ________

Fig. 800-42 Reliable Seal Operation

900 Inspection and Testing
Abstract
This section contains information on the purpose of and general practices for
inspecting and testing pumps. It covers several quality-control tests, giving general
guidance on when the respective tests may be cost-effective and appropriate. This
section emphasizes that inspection and testing can significantly increase the cost of
purchased equipment.
Contents Page
910 General Comments 900-2

920 Inspection Visits and Their Purposes 900-2
930 Non-Witnessed, Witnessed, and Observed Tests 900-6
Chevron Corporation 900-1 July 1998

900 Inspection and Testing Pump Manual
910 General Comments

Inspection (which includes witnessed testing) at the point of manufacture is
normally done by the CRTC Quality Assurance (QA) team or by a qualified
inspector who contracts with the QA team to perform the work. The purpose of shop
inspection is to obtain reasonable assurance that the equipment meets specification
and order requirements, displays good workmanship, and is free of significant
defects or damage before it ships.
The degree of inspection varies widely. Small, low-head, single-stage pumps in non-
flammable/non-toxic service usually do not warrant the expense of any shop inspec-
tion at all. A large, multi-stage horizontal centrifugal pump in critical service, on the
other hand, may warrant 12 to 16 inspection visits. Additional visits may be
warranted for inspection at the point of manufacture of the driver, lube oil console,
and/or gearbox.
On large, critical pumps, inspection coverage may also involve the project engineer,
a mechanical equipment specialist, and/or a specialist from the customer’s mainte-
nance organization. Coverage should be agreed upon as early as possible and
communicated to the Vendor. Typically, a project engineer or mechanical equip-
ment specialist (when involved) would cover only the following witness points:
• Pump starts and stops
• Thrust Test
• Performance Test
• NPSH Test
• Mechanical Seal Leakage Test
• String Test (of entire machinery train)
• Dismantle and Inspect After Performance Test
Occasionally, a full-time quality surveillance person is justified to observe the
assembly of very large critical-service pumps. This person would normally be a
specialist from the customer’s maintenance organization. This is only justified when
there is a clearly defined need, or when a representative is available full time on a
large project to follow all the machinery purchases.
The degree of inspection might be reduced with an alliance supplier.
920 Inspection Visits and Their Purposes

The most frequently made inspection visits for pumps, in descending order of occur-
rence, are:
• Final Inspection Prior to Shipment
• Pre-Inspection Meeting
• Witness Hydrostatic Test
• Witness Performance Test
• Other Inspections/Tests
July 1998 900-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual 900 Inspection and Testing
Inspection is usually done by the CRTC QA team or its designated contract

inspector.
Final inspection, or final inspection plus one of the other tests above, will cover
about 80% of all pumps. There are, however, about 17 principal inspection points
that can be considered for a pump. They are listed below in the normal manufac-
turing sequence. The cost of testing is usually added to the purchase cost in a pump
quotation.
1. Pre-Inspection Meeting (All types). Held to review specifications and other
requirements at the point of manufacture to verify there will be compliance.
This visit should always be made unless the value and criticality of the pump
will only support a final inspection visit. The pre-inspection meeting will help
to bring to light and resolve ambiguities that may delay final shipment, or result
in a pump which is not what the user specified.
2. Review of Pump-Casing Fabrication Drawings (All types). (By purchaser’s
inspector prior to start of fabrication.) This visit should always be made for
pumps with fabricated casings (including horizontal barrel pumps and fabri-
cated discharge heads and suction barrels of vertical turbine pumps). The
casings are pressure containing parts, but pump manufacturers frequently use
joint designs and materials that do not meet normal minimum requirements for
pressure vessels or pressure piping (as now required by API 610).
3. Visual Inspection of Fabricated or Cast Casings Before Machining (All
types). This visit should always be made for fabricated casings, even when
sound joint designs are on the fabrication drawings. Welds frequently have
flaws that can be found visually; weld repairs must be made before machining
since some distortion from welding is inevitable. Large cast casings should be
visually inspected prior to machining (when nozzle size exceeds about 18
inches).
4. Non-Destructive Examination (NDE) of Fabricated or Cast Casings (liquid
penetrant, magnetic particle, ultrasonic, radiographic) (All types). Pump
casings are normally accepted on the basis of visual examination and a
successful hydrostatic test. NDE should not be added unless it is clearly
justified by the service conditions, material characteristics, or established
specification requirements. A materials engineer, QA engineer, or both should
be consulted if supplementary NDE is being considered for other reasons. NDE
in itself is frequently inexpensive; it is the resulting repairs to upgrade cast-
ings which have been subjected to NDE that can be very expensive. When
some form of supplementary NDE is specified, an acceptance standard must
always be specified as well. When some form of supplementary NDE is speci-
fied, it should always be witnessed (radiographs interpreted when radiography
is specified) and must be identified as a witness point on the pump data sheet.
(See Section 930 for definitions.)
5. Visual Inspection of Fabricated Baseplates Before Machining (All types).
This visit should be made to ensure proper fabrication of large baseplates (when

driver is over about 250 HP). Weld quality and inadequate weld size have been
problems on large baseplates.
6. Hydrostatic Test (All types). A casing hydrostatic test is virtually always
performed to ensure integrity of the case. Witnessing the test is warranted for
pumps in toxic, hazardous, or flammable service or for alloy casing materials.
7. Parts Inspection Prior to Assembly (All types). Parts are usually not
inspected prior to pump assembly. The purpose, when performed, is to ensure
the parts are dimensionally correct, are of the correct materials, and to catch
any visible defects. Parts inspection might be warranted for some multi-stage
pumps or for very large pumps (nozzle size over about 18 inches). Consult a
mechanical equipment specialist, QA engineer, or both if parts inspection prior
to assembly is being considered. If it is to be done, it should be shown on the
pump data sheet as a witness point.
8. Incremental (Stack) Balancing of Rotor (Centrifugal). This test is to assure a
balanced multistage rotor by correcting imbalance on each component as it is
assembled on the rotor. This test is usually not witnessed. It can require days of
inspector time since the rotor is balanced several times during the course of
assembly. It may be warranted for critical horizontal multi-stage pumps.
Consult a mechanical equipment specialist if incremental balancing is being
considered. If it is to be done, it should be shown on the pump data sheet as a
witness point.
9. Final Balancing of Rotor (Centrifugal and Rotary). This test is usually not
witnessed. It may be warranted for critical horizontal multi-stage pumps in
order to ensure minimum vibration. Consult a machinery specialist if this is
being considered. If it is to be done, it should be shown on the pump data sheet
as a witness point.
10. Thrust Test (Centrifugal). This test is always witnessed. The purpose of this
test is to see if the axial force transmitted by the pump rotor exceeds the design
load capability of the thrust bearing. This is accomplished by installing a load-
cell or equivalent device to measure the thrust while operating the pump at
several points on its curve. The maximum design thrust based on the specified
bearing life must be known before beginning the test. A thrust test is rarely
done but may be justified on some large, horizontal, multi-stage pumps, and on
pumps that have thrust loads that extend the design beyond the Vendor’s normal
experience, and in similar cases.
11. Pump Starts and Stops (Centrifugal). Pump starts and stops are sometimes
specified for pumps that have bushings lubricated by the pumped fluid, to
determine if bushing wear is excessive. This would include horizontal multi-
stage, vertical line-shaft, and some vertical in-line pumps. The justification is
greater for pumps with relatively hard bushing materials that have galling
tendencies. The number of starts and stops (usually 10) must be specified.
Dismantling and inspection after the performance test must be specified to
allow inspection of the bushings for galling or metal transfer.

Pump Manual 900 Inspection and Testing
12. Performance Test (All types). This visit is required if performance of the
pump is critical and significant losses will occur if the pump fails to perform as
required. The visit is recommended for any multi-stage horizontal pump to
verify the pump is satisfactory mechanically and meets performance require-
ments. If it is to be done, it should be shown on the pump data sheet as a
witness point.
All pumps purchased in accordance with API Standard 610 are given a perfor-
mance test, but witness of the performance test, if required, must be specified .
13. NPSH Test (All types). An NPSH test is normally recommended for a centrif-
ugal pump when the margin between NPSHA and NPSHR is within four feet,
for reciprocating pumps when the difference is 3 psi (not feet), or less, and for
rotary pumps when the difference is 4 psi or less. This test verifies that the
quoted NPSHR is met. When an NPSH test is required, it should always be
witnessed. This should be shown on the pump data sheet as a witness point.
14. Dismantle Pump and Inspect Parts After Performance Test (All types). This
is an expensive option, only done routinely for barrel-type horizontal pumps. It
is also done if some form of distress is noticed during the performance test. It
can be considered for all horizontal multi-stage pumps, but there is always the
possibility of reassembly errors that will not show up until job site startup.
Consult a mechanical equipment specialist if this is being considered. If it is to
be done, it should be shown on the pump data sheet as a witness point.
15. String Test of All Job Equipment (All types). A string test is a mechanical
(and sometimes performance) test of all the ordered equipment assembled
together on the job baseplates (driver, gearbox, pump, etc.). The purpose of the
test is to assure all components will operate together without excessive vibra-
tion, or other distress. Note that performance and NPSH tests are done with cali-
brated shop drivers and not on the job baseplate. String tests are usually limited
to multi-stage horizontal pumps in critical services or for locations where re-
work/repair is very difficult. Consult a mechanical equipment specialist if a
string test is being considered. A string test should always be witnessed. If it is
to be done, it should be shown on the pump data sheet as a witness point.
16. Final Inspection (preferably before finish painting, all pump types). This is
the most basic inspection visit. When “shop inspection” is checked on the pump
data sheet but no other witnessed tests are specified, inspection is limited to
final inspection (and a Pre-Inspection Meeting if the value and criticality of the
pump will support its cost). Final inspection includes, but is not limited to:
– Review of equipment against specifications and data sheets line by line.
– Verification of correct pump materials.
– Dimensional check against company-reviewed vendor outline drawings.
– Review of performance curve and test log against performance require-
ments (if either an unwitnessed or witnessed performance test is required).
– Review of hydrostatic test certification and any other data required by the
specification.
– Visual inspection for defects or damage.

17. Final Inspection After Finish Painting (all pump types). This visit (or
several visits) is warranted when sophisticated painting systems are specified
(principally for offshore or coastal applications).
930 Non-Witnessed, Witnessed, and Observed Tests

Inspection and testing of a pump or parts of a pump by the manufacturer may be
non-witnessed, witnessed, or observed:
Non-Witnessed means that the manufacturer does the required test and certifies the
results; the test results are reviewed by the Purchaser’s inspector if the pump is
inspected. Production is not stopped as it is for “witnessed” tests.
Witnessed means that a hold is applied to the production schedule and the test
carried out with the Purchaser’s inspector present. This may result in a double test.
The Vendor will include in his bid an extra cost for witnessing a test.
Observed means that the Purchaser requires advance notification of the test’s
timing. However, the test is performed as scheduled, and if the Purchaser’s inspector
is not present, the Vendor may proceed with the test. A hold is not placed in the
production schedule. Since only one test is scheduled, the Purchaser’s inspector can
expect to be in the factory longer than for a witnessed test, while debugging of the
pump or test stand equipment is done. The Vendor will include an extra cost for
observing a test that is about half the cost of witnessing a test. The differential cost
between observed and witnessed tests can be more than offset by increased
inspector’s time for observed tests; observed tests may also be missed because of
insufficient advance notification by the Vendor. Specifying an observed test is there-
fore not recommended. If a test is important enough to warrant the presence of an
inspector or engineer, a witnessed test should be specified.

1000 Pump Installation
Abstract
This section contains general guidelines and checklists for installation of new
pumps and reinstallation of existing ones.
Contents Page
1010 Introduction 1000-2

1020 Installation Checklist 1000-2
Chevron Corporation 1000-1 January 1991

1000 Pump Installation Pump Manual
1010 Introduction
Although these guidelines focus on new installations, many aspects also apply to
existing installations where equipment has been repaired, rerated, retro- fitted, etc.
Proper pump installation helps ensure trouble-free startup and long term reliability.
If installed improperly, even the best pump can be a source of costly maintenance.
For example, a pump running perfectly in a well-designed installation may experi-
ence many problems if moved to a poorly designed installation. The opposite is
also true. Additionally, an unreliable pump installation can affect plant availability,
even if fully spared. Two fully spared but poor installations never equal a single,
reliable installation.
This section discusses general items that should be considered to ensure reliable
pump installations.
Although the items on the checklist in Section 1020 are simple, it is surprising how
often they are not checked or not properly followed. Typical examples include:
Baseplates improperly grouted. This leads to excessive deflection and vibration,
shortening pump and driver life.
Pump and driver shafts improperly aligned. This shortens bearing, seal, and
coupling life.
Excessive pipe cold-springing. This distorts the pump case and baseplate, short-
ening bearing, seal, and coupling life.
These problems can be expensive. For example, the cost of three or four seal fail-
ures may equal the original pump purchase price. There is a significant economic
incentive to achieve good, reliable pump installations from the start.
1020 Installation Checklist

The attached checklist covers most common onshore and offshore pump installa-
tions. Where appropriate, installation items specific to certain types of pumps are
listed separately. This checklist does not include specific acceptance criteria (align-
ment tolerance, pipe forces, etc.). These criteria should be developed for the
specific application according to the manufacturer's service manual, applicable
industry standards, and local practices.
The following checklist assumes that there are no problems inherent in the equip-
ment. This means that the pump design matches the intended service, materials are
correct, and the pump has been properly manufactured. It also assumes that the
associated process and auxiliary piping system, foundations, and baseplate are prop-
erly designed and built.
January 1991 1000-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual 1000 Pump Installation
Pump Installation Checklist

Initial Date
General - All Pump Types
1. Data Sheets (Pump & Driver)
Drawings:
Properly Completed Data Sheets ________ ________
Pump Cross Section/Performance Curves ________ ________
Shaft Seals/Packing ________ ________
Coupling ________ ________
Auxiliary Systems (lubrication, sealing, cooling) ________ ________
Shop Performance/Mechanical Test Results ________ ________
Service Manual (covering all major pump train components) ________ ________
Safety Instruction Sheets ________ ________
Maintenance History (existing pumps) ________ ________
Performance/Vibration History (existing pumps) ________ ________
Spare Parts List ________ ________
2. Foundations and Grouting

Concrete Foundations:
Concrete properly cured before grouting ________ ________
Concrete surface properly roughened and cleaned ________ ________
Mounting plate metal surface clean/properly painted ________ ________
Mounting plate corners properly rounded ________ ________
Proper grout material/thickness ________ ________
Coupling disconnected before levelling ________ ________
Mounting plate levelled ________ ________
Pump mounting pads horizontal and at same elevation ________ ________
Grout properly cured ________ ________
No hollow areas in grouting ________ ________
Anchor bolts properly tightened ________ ________
Other Foundations:
Mounting plates located at load bearing support beams ________ ________
Shims of non-corrosive material ________ ________
Baseplate/skid properly levelled ________ ________
Bolting properly tightened ________ ________

Pump Installation Checklist (continued)

Initial Date
3. Equipment Condition (Before Installation)
Storage protection requirements met ________ ________
Internal/external cleanliness checked ________ ________
Rust preventative/lubricant compatibility acceptable ________ ________
Baseplate/skid straight and flat ________ ________
Pump feet free of burrs ________ ________
Pump and driver not bolt-bound ________ ________
Nozzle gasket surface finish acceptable ________ ________
Pump and driver rotates freely by hand (no excessive radial or lateral play) ________ ________
Alignment shims (number, material, condition) acceptable ________ ________
Coupling condition acceptable ________ ________
Seal leak free (static or running test) ________ ________
Rotation arrow permanently marked, checked ________ ________
Oil level marked, checked ________ ________
Alignment jack screws ________ ________
4. Process Piping Systems

P&ID Check ________ ________
Proper blinding & tagging suction/discharge lines ________ ________
Suction screen location and orientation correct ________ ________
Check/block/bypass valves location and orientation correct per P&ID ________ ________
Correct gasket design/material installed ________ ________
Relief valves properly set ________ ________
Piping/pump flanges parallel ________ ________
Check for cold spring with indicators ________ ________
Correct piping supports (hot and cold) installed ________ ________
Expansion joints properly adjusted ________ ________
Piping strain acceptable (hot service check) ________ ________
Check ANSI Class on flanges for correct rating ________ ________
Eccentric reducers - flat side up, angled side down ________ ________
Suction piping sloped to prevent vapor traps ________ ________
Piping clean as dictated by installation ________ ________


Initial Date
5. Auxiliary Piping Systems
General:
Piping properly braced ________ ________
Piping cleaned ________ ________
Piping proper size and material ________ ________
Piping properly sealed/socket welded ________ ________
Piping properly traced and insulated ________ ________
Proper thread lubricant used ________ ________
Check instrumentation per any available drawing ________ ________
Seals:
Flush properly connected ________ ________
Flush system orifice/strainer/cyclone separator correctly located ________ ________
Quench properly connected/plugged ________ ________
Vent properly connected/plugged ________ ________
Drain properly connected/plugged ________ ________
Packing:
Lantern ring location/flush connection correct ________ ________
Cooling:
Stuffing box properly connected ________ ________
Lube oil cooler connected ________ ________
Pump pedestals connected (hot services) ________ ________
Lubrication:
Piping properly cleaned/water-free ________ ________
Proper orifices installed (pressure systems) and tagged ________ ________
Housings flushed with correct oil ________ ________
Screwed piping properly assembled (without tape) ________ ________
Oil levels correct ________ ________
No bends/kinks between housing & oiler (purge mist) ________ ________
Oilers properly vented (at bearing cap) ________ ________
Oil sump bottle non-vented (purge mist) ________ ________
Oil sump bottle vented (pure mist) ________ ________
Oil mist fittings - proper sizes ________ ________
Oil mist - check flow ________ ________


Initial Date
Case Vents/Drains:
Vent properly piped ________ ________
Drain properly piped/plugged ________ ________
Warm-up connection properly piped for hot pumps ________ ________
Ports properly connected for Sundyne pumps ________ ________
6. Couplings and Alignments

Alignment shims entirely under each pump foot ________ ________
“Soft foot” checked ________ ________
Avoid spring effect due to an excessive number of shims ________ ________
Correct axial spacing between pump & driver shafts (hot and cold) ________ ________
Axial float of motor driver checked ________ ________
Motor driver properly positioned (limited end float coupling) ________ ________
Proper coupling interference fit ________ ________
Coupling lube holes properly positioned ________ ________
Gear coupling properly greased and gaskets installed ________ ________
Flexible coupling shim packs properly installed ________ ________
Pump/driver cold aligned & bolting properly tightened ________ ________
Coupling hub runout checked ________ ________
Cold alignment to manufacturer's recommended tolerances ________ ________
Hot alignment checked ________ ________
Pump/driver properly dowelled ________ ________
Coupling guard installed ________ ________
7. Miscellaneous
Proper packing installed, gland not cocked ________ ________
Special tools available ________ ________
Driver rotation checked (prior to coupling) ________ ________
Instrumentation, alarms, and shutdown in proper condition ________ ________
Pump/driver properly protected during idle period ________ ________


Initial Date
Other Specific Pump Types
1. Vertical Centrifugal
Curb ring properly leveled and grouted ________ ________
Pump assembly within acceptable vertical deviation (proper lift with axial
setting) ________ ________
2. Rotary Pumps
Internal cleanliness checked ________ ________
Belts and sheaves properly aligned ________ ________
Matched belt sets used ________ ________
Belts properly tensioned ________ ________
Suction strainer cleanliness checked ________ ________
Pressure gage installed before/after strainer ________ ________
Jacket piping properly connected ________ ________
Belt guards installed ________ ________
3. Reciprocating Pumps
Baseplate/foundation bolts retightened ________ ________
Belt and sheaves properly aligned ________ ________
Matched belt sets used ________ ________
Belts properly tensioned ________ ________
Belt guards installed ________ ________
Plunger/piston/packing correct size ________ ________
Rod straightness/runout/surface condition acceptable ________ ________
Packing properly installed and lubricated ________ ________
Packing gland properly adjusted (initial) ________ ________
Correct bladder pressure/fluid level in pulsation dampers ________ ________
Lubricators operating correctly ________ ________

1100 Startup and Troubleshooting
Abstract
This section contains a pump startup checklist and troubleshooting guides. Informa-
tion on troubleshooting mechanical seal problems is included in Section 800.
Although some references are made to vibration problems, the reader is referred to
the CUSA IMI Candidate's Manual or to the “Other References” section in this
manual for more information on troubleshooting those problems.
Contents Page
1110 Startup Checklist 1100-2

1120 Introduction to Troubleshooting 1100-9
1130 Troubleshooting Insufficient Flow/Pressure from Centrifugal
Pumps 1100-12
1140 Procedure for Performance Monitoring Centrifugal Pumps
(“Curving the Pump”) 1100-13
1150 Centrifugal Pump Troubleshooting Checklist 1100-20
1160 Vertical Turbine Pump Troubleshooting Checklist 1100-22
1170 Metering Pump Troubleshooting Checklist 1100-24
1180 Reciprocating Pump Troubleshooting Checklist 1100-27
1190 Rotary Pump Troubleshooting Checklist 1100-30

1100 Startup and Troubleshooting Pump Manual
1110 Startup Checklist

Startup Items for All Pumps
Initials Date
Piping
1. Inspect check valves for correct flow direction. ________ ________
2. Verify that all process and auxiliary piping is free of cold spring at the pump flanges. ________ ________
3. Flush and, where appropriate, chemically clean all process and auxiliary piping
which has been opened or repaired. Verify cleanliness with filters or flange screens. ________ ________
4. Perform thorough leak checks of all welds, flanges, and fittings during any
hydrotests. Do not permit hydrotests against pump mechanical seals unless they
have been rated for the higher pressures. Test with a fluid compatible with the
process whenever possible. Otherwise, thoroughly drain and flush the test fluid. ________ ________
5. Verify that all operational personnel are familiar with the suction and discharge
piping systems as well as control valves. Do the same with all auxiliary piping and
turbine driver steam piping. Personnel should also be familiar with suction-to-
discharge bypass systems and their purposes for startup, low flow, or high pressure
control. ________ ________
6. Prepare a list of piping blinds to be removed prior to startup. Include a signoff
column where operating personnel can certify and document the status of the blinds. ________ ________
7. Open seal flush valve (if equipped). ________ ________
8. Ensure that all drain valves are properly plugged. ________ ________
9. Verify that all auxiliary piping for sealing and flushing is connected to the right ports
at the pump gland. ________ ________
10. Verify all safety tags are removed from system valves and switchgear. ________ ________
11. Inspect suction screen shortly after startup. ________ ________
12. Prime the pump by filling suction line and pump with process fluid and bleeding air to
atmosphere or relief as appropriate. ________ ________
13. Inspect for static (pre-startup) leaks. ________ ________
Instrumentation
1. Verify operating personnel are familiar with all associated processes and auxiliary
instrument systems. Ensure the systems have been sufficiently calibrated, loop
checked, and functionally tested. ________ ________
2. Prepare a list of instrument systems which must be tested on-line. Ensure that test
provisions do not impair personnel safety or machinery reliability. ________ ________
3. Verify that all systems pressure safety relief valves have been tested and set per local
policy. Ensure that relief block valves have been locked open with a locally
accepted method. ________ ________
4. Check vibration systems for proper installation, calibration, and alarm/shutdown
settings. ________ ________
5. Verify Automatic Pump Start (APS) systems are installed and operationally tested. ________ ________

Pump Manual 1100 Startup and Troubleshooting
Initials Date
Shaft Mechanical Seals
1. Review seal-flush plan, function, and operation. ________ ________
2. Leak test the mechanical seal(s) in place at a pressure corresponding to the
maximum design stuffing box pressure. Repair leaks before starting. ________ ________
3. Verify that all auxiliary flushing, quenching, and cooling systems provide flow at the
design pressures, temperatures, and rates. When critical to operational reliability or
safety, insure these auxiliary systems are alarmed and/or have redundant features. ________ ________
4. Bleed and fill the stuffing box with flush fluid prior to starting. (This is particularly
important for vertical pumps and high fluid vapor pressure pumps.) ________ ________
5. Check the following for any external seal-flush cooler: ________ ________
– Open cooling water valves to flush cooler. ________ ________
– Vent-tube side (flush) of cooler at high point for pumping-ring systems, if
non-hazardous. ________ ________
6. Check the following for double seals with external pressurizer/circulator: ________ ________
– Fill reservoir with proper buffer (barrier) fluid. ________ ________
– Start buffer circulating pump. ________ ________
– Set buffer fluid backpressure to a minimum of 25 psi above impeller-side
pressure at inner seal. ________ ________
– Test buffer fluid low pressure, low flow, and low level alarm settings. ________ ________
7. Check the following for double seals with pumping rings: ________ ________
– Fill buffer fluid reservoir with proper fluid. ________ ________
– Vent all air out of buffer system. ________ ________
– Pressurize buffer system to 25 psi above impeller-side pressure at inner seal. ________ ________
– Inspect all buffer pressure connections for leaks. ________ ________
– Test low pressure, low level alarm, and any other alarms. ________ ________
8. Check the following for tandem seals with pumping rings: ________ ________
– Fill buffer fluid reservoir with proper fluid. ________ ________
– Vent all air out of buffer system. ________ ________
– Test buffer fluid high pressure, high level, and low level alarms. ________ ________
9. Verify that all real vent and drain parts are properly connected and/or plugged. ________ ________
10. During startup, note and document all seal leaks, their location, and whether they
appear to be increasing. Generally, any leak requires a repair. Seals rarely “run in”
and stop leaking. ________ ________
11. When required by local regulations, check the running seal for excessive fugitive
hydrocarbon emissions. ________ ________

Initials Date
Shaft Packing
1. Verify the flush supply to the lantern ring, if included, is at adequate pressure. ________ ________
2. Verify that the stuffing box cooling jacket water, if supplied, is flowing. ________ ________
3. Verify that the shaft turns freely to check for over-tightened packing. Once the pump
is running, tighten adjustable packing to a slow drip to ensure adequate lubrication.
Tighten the packing by evenly turning the gland boltnut a quarter turn at a time.
(Avoid initial overtightening of packing materials such as Graphoil. Consult packing
manufacturer recommended tightening procedures for initial run-in.) ________ ________
4. If a pump with self-adjusting packing has a leak greater than a drip, shut down and
replace the packing. ________ ________
Bearings
1. Ensure the bearing housings are clean of grit, sand, metal shavings, or other debris.
Verify that bearing housings and lube oil systems are filled with the proper oil and
filled to the correct level. ________ ________
2. Monitor bearing vibration throughout startup. Do not exceed prescribed danger
levels at any time. Watch for increasing vibration levels as an indicator of deterio-
rating mechanical conditions. ________ ________
3. Observe bearing housing or oil temperatures throughout startup. Do not exceed the
prescribed danger levels any longer than necessary to shut the pump down. On ball
bearing-type pumps, this is best done by measuring the bearing housing tempera-
ture. On pressure lubricated sleeve bearings, use thermocouples to sense the
bearing metal temperature or the exit (outlet) oil temperature. ________ ________
4. Drain an oil sample from the bearing housings to look for signs of dark oil, metallic
debris, or other contamination. Shut down and investigate if contamination is found
after a short period of time. ________ ________
5. Check that oiling rings or slingers provided with ball bearings are rotating and deliv-
ering oil to the bearings. ________ ________
6. Bearing temperature should not exceed 180°F. Do not run water over hot bearings.
Such action is more likely to contaminate the oil with water than it is to cool the
bearing. A hot bearing is a sign of an overload or impending failure. ________ ________
Lubrication Systems
1. Check the following when starting an oil-mist system: ________ ________
– Verify the reservoir is filled with the correct oil and not over filled. ________ ________
– Verify air pressure regulator setting. ________ ________
– Test generator alarm lights. ________ ________
– Test the low pressure, high pressure, low temperature, high temperature, and low
oil level switches. ________ ________
– Verify pressure at the end of the main header is the same as the generator
pressure. ________ ________
– Check for visible signs of mist at the last out-of-service pump on the header. ________ ________

Initials Date
Lubrication Systems (continued)
2. Check the following when starting equipment with pressure lube systems: ________ ________
– Verify reservoir is filled to the proper level with the correct lube-oil. ________ ________
– Check for installed breather, and plug all reservoir drain valves prior to system
run-in. ________ ________
– Check for presence of flow restriction orifices at individual bearings (if required by
Vendor's design). Check for correct sizes at each location. ________ ________
– Run-in lube system prior to initial main machinery operation. Check for leakage.
Watch filter differential pressure, and check for cleanliness as measured by
debris caught in filters or temporary in-line screens. (Refer to API Standard 614
for guidance on Cleanliner Standards.) ________ ________
– Sample lube-oil prior to on-line operation and change if necessary. Replace filter
elements. ________ ________
– Establish cooling water flow to oil coolers. ________ ________
– Check settings of lube heater pressure regulators and relief valves. ________ ________
– Test alarm and shut down switches. ________ ________
– Verify operation of the auxiliary lube pump during main machinery startup, shut-
down, and on low lube pressure. (Shaft-driven main lube pumps that are situated
above the reservoir are usually primed by the auxiliary pump, which requires the
auxiliary pump to be running prior to starting the equipment.) ________ ________
– Check for a minimum lube-oil temperature of 100-110°F prior to main machinery
startup. ________ ________
– During initial on-line operation, check for oil flow at each of the bearing sight
glasses. ________ ________
– Oil temperature rise through bearings should not exceed 50°F when inlet oil
temperature is at or below 110°F. ________ ________
Motor Drivers
1. Verify that all coupling guards are installed and bolted down. ________ ________
2. Ensure motor heaters, if installed, are working when motor is off. ________ ________
3. “Bump” motor to check for correct rotation. Verify that rotation arrow on pump
matches pump drawing or data sheet. ________ ________
4. Determine how many restarts the motor is permitted in one hour's time and follow
those limits. ________ ________
5. Do not frequently push the “Stop” button before motor has reached full speed, partic-
ularly on larger motors. Do not push the “Start” button until motor has coasted to a
complete stop. Such actions may trip or even damage the electrical equip-ment. ________ ________
6. If motor repeatedly trips on start attempts, check: ________ ________
– Process for excessively high flow or pressure demands. (Some centrifugal pumps
can only be started against a nearly closed discharge valve. Many positive
displacement pumps must be started on a suction-to-discharge bypass.) ________ ________

Initials Date
Motor Drivers (continued)
– Improper electrical switchgear relay or circuit breaker settings. ________ ________
– Low system voltage during starting. ________ ________
– Higher-than-design fluid viscosity in the pump. ________ ________
– Mechanical problem such as bad motor or pump bearings or internal rubbing. ________ ________
Steam Turbine Drivers

1. Open drains to remove condensate from turbine casing and steam lines. ________ ________
2. Overspeed test the turbine. ________ ________
3. Run-in carbon rings. ________ ________
4. Open the steam exhaust valve slowly. ________ ________
5. Warm the turbine by cracking open the supply steam block valve or by opening its
warmup bypass. ________ ________
6. Close drain valves when condensate has been purged. ________ ________
7. Draw a sample of bearing oil to visually check for water content. Drain and refill oil if
water is found. ________ ________
8. Open cooling water valves to turbine when provided. ________ ________
9. Open the sealing steam lines, when provided, on both the low and high pressure ends. ________ ________
10. Manually begin turbine rotation up to idle speed by further cracking open the main
steam supply valve. ________ ________
11. Check bearings for oiling ring rotation and listen for rubbing sounds. ________ ________
12. Hand trip the overspeed mechanism to check for proper action. Reset to continue
startup. ________ ________
13. Open the steam block valve completely to allow the turbine to accelerate to governor
control. Check that it is controlling to the desired speed. ________ ________
Startup Checklist For Centrifugal Pumps

1. When required for process safety, drain the pump casing. (One example would be a
hot pump which has recently been steamed out.) ________ ________
2. Verify any external mechanical seal flush supply line is open and flowing. Check for
the prescribed flush pressure or flow. Refer to “shaft mechanical seals” checklist,
this section, for checks on other sealflush plans. ________ ________
3. When supplied, check that cooling water is flowing to bearings, stuffingbox, seal
coolers, gearbox coolers (on Sundynes), and pump supports. ________ ________
4. Ensure that steam is open to pump jackets and piping tracing. Verify that all tracing
steam traps are functioning correctly. ________ ________
5. When provided, open pump warm-up lines to allow pump to reach prescribed starting
temperature. Note that some pumps are warmed through a small hole in the
discharge check or block valves. (Warm-up any pump with operating temperatures
above 350°F.) ________ ________

Initials Date
Startup Checklist For Centrifugal Pumps (continued)
6. Open the pump suction line and vent casing to atmosphere, closed drain system or
relief, as appropriate. ________ ________
7. Verify that the pump minimum flow bypass is open and that any associated control
valves and instrumentation are functioning. (This is particularly important on high
pressure, high horsepower, parallel operation, or high-speed pumps.) When a
minimum flow bypass is not provided, crack open the discharge block valve prior to
starting. ________ ________
8. Vent pump case. ________ ________
9. Start pump with discharge valve cracked, then fully open the discharge valve once
the pump is at speed. ________ ________
10. Do not operate pump more than 15 seconds without discharge pressure. Do not
operate below minimum stable flow. Avoid parallel operation. ________ ________
11. Check for and correct any of the following problems: ________ ________
– High vibration. ________ ________
– Normal discharge pressure and flow. ________ ________
– Cavitation or “pumping marbles” type sounds. (If heard, immediately look for
suction or discharge blockages, excessive flow, low flow, excessively hot fluid, or
low suction vessel level.) ________ ________
– Mechanical seal leaks. Excessive package leakage. ________ ________
– Excessive power required. ________ ________
– Hot bearings. ________ ________
– Grinding or growling type noises typical of metal-to-metal contact. ________ ________
– Lack of oiling or slinger rotation in bearing housings. ________ ________
– Improper lubrication system operation. ________ ________
– Malfunctioning instrumentation. ________ ________
12. High temperature or turbine driven pumps may require hot alignment. If so, pump
should be shut down after a few hours operation to check the alignment and make
adjustments. ________ ________
13. The performance of new, modified, or significantly overhauled pumps should be
checked once the process is stabilized. This will require accurate pressure gages
and flow meters as well as knowledge of the fluid's specific gravity. Motor ammeter
readings are also needed. Refer to Section 1140 of the Pump Manual for test proce-
dures and calculations. ________ ________
Startup Checklist For Vertical Centrifugal Sump Pumps

1. Verify that the sump level float controls are properly set and functional. ________ ________
2. When supplied, check that the bearing flush supply is open and flowing. (Note that
many flush systems are opened with some type of solenoid device when the pump
motor is energized. If so, check for proper operation of the flush controls.) ________ ________
3. When shaft bearings are grease lubricated, inject grease on a prescribed basis
through provided fittings. ________ ________

Initials Date
Startup Checklist For Vertical Centrifugal Sump Pumps (continued)
4. Start pump and check for high vibration. ________ ________
5. If pump cycles on and off frequently, consider repositioning float switches to optimum
levels. ________ ________
6. Evaluate pump performance by observing discharge pressure and time to pump out
the sump. Compare to Vendor's curve. ________ ________
Startup Checklist For Steam-Driven Reciprocating Pumps

1. Check that all linkages have been recently lubricated. ________ ________
2. Verify that the lubricator reservoir is full of the specified oil. Refer to “Shaft Packing”
checklist in this section of the manual for other packing items to be checked. ________ ________
3. Open drains on the steam casing and piping to purge condensate. ________ ________
4. Crack open steam inlet valve to warm casing, leaving the drains slightly open. ________ ________
5. Open suction and discharge valve on pumped fluid side. ________ ________
6. Slowly open the steam inlet valve to desired pumping rate. If pump is on external
control, open block valve completely. ________ ________
7. If pump stalls or relief valves open, check for blockage in the discharge line. ________ ________
8. If the pump chatters, check for restrictions or loss of fluid in the suction system. ________ ________
9. If piping vibration is excessive, adjust speed slightly to avoid resonance. Brace
piping as needed. ________ ________
10. Verify that the lubricator is functioning properly. ________ ________
11. Readjust packing to obtain a slow drip. ________ ________
Startup Checklist For Motor-driven Reciprocating Pumps
1. Verify that the discharge-to-suction relief valve is unblocked. Check tags that the
valve has been tested and set per local policy. Ensure any block valves are locked
open. ________ ________
2. Check that the crankcase oil level is full. ________ ________
3. Ensure that the discharge-to-suction startup bypass line is open. ________ ________
4. Verify that suction/discharge pulsation bottles are fully operational (N2 filled, steam
dome on, etc.). ________ ________
5. When packing lantern rings are provided, ensure the flushlines are open and pressur-
ized. ________ ________
6. When packing lubricators are provided, check that the supply reservoir is filled with
the prescribed oil. ________ ________
7. If supplied with auxiliary lube-oil pump, verify its proper operation and control
settings. ________ ________
8. If variable speed control is provided, slowly bring the pump up to full speed. ________ ________
9. If belt driven, check for proper belt tension and sheave alignment. ________ ________

Initials Date
Startup Checklist For Motor-driven Reciprocating Pumps (continued)
10. Check for and correct any of the following problems: ________ ________
– High vibration of the pump. ________ ________
– Loud chattering or pounding noises indicative of insufficient suction pressure.
(This can be very destructive. Stop the pump immediately.) ________ ________
– Low lube-oil supply pressure or high differential pressure at the filter. ________ ________
– Improper conditions of the motor and the speed changers (gearbox, belt, hydraulic
drive, etc.). ________ ________
– Excessive packing leaks. ________ ________
11. Check for excessive piping vibration. If any, verify that any gas-filled dampers are
properly charged. Brace piping as needed. ________ ________
12. Readjust packing to obtain a slow drip. ________ ________
Startup Checklist For Proportioning Pumps

1. Verify that the crankcase is full of the proper oil. For pumps with the hydraulic
section separate from the crankcase, verify the hydraulic section is also full of the
proper oil. ________ ________
2. Bleed air from hydraulic section between double diaphragms when pump is new or
has been repaired. ________ ________
3. Set the flow adjustment to zero. ________ ________
4. Open the suction valve and bleed the line where possible. ________ ________
5. Check that the discharge-to-suction relief valve is not blocked and has been tested
and set per local policy. For pumps with internal relief in the crankcase or hydraulic
section, verify the relief has been set correctly. ________ ________
6. Open the discharge valve. ________ ________
7. Start pump motor and check for unusual vibration or noises. ________ ________
8. Slowly increase flow setting to the desired level. If pump does not immediately take
suction, allow it running time to purge any residual gas in the system. If it continues
not to pump, shut down and check for valve problems or problems in the inlet system. ________ ________
9. If pump has packing, adjust as required to obtain a slow drip. ________ ________
10. Set pump to automatic flow control, where provided. ________ ________
1120 Introduction to Troubleshooting

General Comments
The following comments may be helpful background to the detailed checklists in
this section, plus those in Section 800:
1. Although machinery (pump) problems can be exceptionally complex, practical
solutions are usually quite simple. Look for the simple cause/solution first.
For example, there are many reasons why a bearing will fail prematurely; some

reasons are quite complicated. Nevertheless, the most likely cause, and the
first you should check, is inadequate lubrication.
2. No machine operates perfectly, or in a perfect environment. Numerous devia-
tions exist in every machine, yet do not surface as operational or maintenance
problems. For example, every machine operates with some imbalance, some
misalignment, some imperfections in construction, etc.
Therefore, when called on to solve a problem that has surfaced, expect to find
several “problems” during the investigation. The job is not to find a deviation
(problem), but to find the deviation, or combination of deviations which are
causing the problem that needs to be corrected. A common error is to stop at
the first deviation from correct operation, assuming it to be the cause. This
leads to wasted time and further efforts in the future.
3. As in any problem-solving effort, one of the most important steps is to define
the problem. For example, problems often surface as “pump won't put out -
repair as necessary.” The pump is overhauled at considerable expense even
though the real problem may simply be a plugged line restricting flow.
4. Many problems with pumps fall into one of the following categories:
a. Broken or worn components in the pump.
b. Broken or worn components in the driver.
c. Control mechanisms out of adjustment.
d. Mechanical components out of adjustment.
e. Problems external to the pump (for example, insufficient flow due to
plugged piping, faulty flow meter, excessive pressure loss, etc.).
Defining the problem in terms of the above categories can often reveal that
there is no problem with the pump at all, or the corrective action will be less
expensive than expected. It's much easier to adjust a turbine governor than to
overhaul a pump. When investigating, look to the less expensive, simpler
causes, first.
5. As implied above, the causes of many pumping problems are often related to
factors outside the pump. This is especially true for the following “problems.”
a. Insufficient flow rate or discharge pressure.
b. Insufficient power or driver “kicking out.”
Problem Solving in General

The following steps are a common problem-solving technique:
1. Define the desired performance.
2. Define the deviation from that performance. This is the real problem.

3. Analyze the cause of the deviation, based on a combination of practical and

technical knowledge.
4. Take corrective action to eliminate the cause.
5. Monitor performance following corrective action.
6. Document the important points and communicate to those who will benefit
from the knowledge gained. Retain in files.
Although the checklists that follow are generally aimed at helping in Step 3, it is
important to remember all the steps. Repetitive problems are usually caused by
failing to complete one of the steps above.
Problem Solving Checklists

The figures and charts in the following sections help identify the cause of common
pump problems:
1130 Troubleshooting Flow Chart for Insufficient Flow or Pressure from
Centrifugal Pumps.
1140 Procedure for Monitoring the Performance of Centrifugal Pumps
(“Curving” the Pump).
1150 Centrifugal Pump Troubleshooting Checklist.
1160 Vertical Turbine Pump Troubleshooting Checklist.
1170 Metering Pump Troubleshooting Checklist.
1180 Reciprocating Pump Troubleshooting Checklist.
1190 Rotary Pump Troubleshooting Checklist.

1130 Troubleshooting Insufficient Flow/Pressure from

Centrifugal Pumps
Fig. 1100-1 Troubleshooting Flowchart for Centrifugal Pumps

1140 Procedure for Performance Monitoring Centrifugal Pumps

(“Curving the Pump”)
Background
This technique determines if pump internals such as wear rings and/or impellers are
worn. This information is useful to: (1) monitor the trend of a pump's performance
over time, or (2) decide if the pump needs to be disassembled and repaired.
Appendix H of this manual is a guideline for testing centrifugal pumps in the
factory. In order to check a pump against its curve, the following fundamentals
should be understood.
1. Density is the weight per unit volume of any liquid. Water weighs 62.4 lbs.
per cubic foot at 60°F. Most petroleum stocks weigh less. A few liquids (e.g.,
caustic) weigh more.
2. Specific Gravity is a comparison of the weight of the liquid to that of water at
60°F. Petroleum has a specific gravity less than one, generally between 0.5 and 0.9.
Another way to express specific gravity is in “Degrees API.” (Water is 10
“Degrees API.”) Note that Degrees API increase while specific gravity
decreases. A conversion formula is shown in the attached “Pump Curve Work-
sheet,” or refer to the specific gravity chart in the Appendix.
3. Effect of Temperature. Calculations use specific gravity at the flow tempera-
ture. Therefore, specific gravity will have to be converted to the value at
pumping temperature. The specific gravity of almost all liquids decreases as
the temperature is raised. For example, a stock with a specific gravity of 0.9 at
60°F may be 0.8 at 340°F. The Appendices include information relating
specific gravities to temperature.
4. Gage and Absolute Pressure. The pressure shown on most pressure gages is
called Gage Pressure, expressed as psig. Gage pressure is the pressure above atmo-
spheric pressure. Absolute pressure is pressure measured above a perfect vacuum.
Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (sea level) above a perfect vacuum, or 14.7 psia.
To convert from psig to psia at sea level, add 14.7 (At other elevations, add the
local atmospheric pressure.)
psia = 14.7 + psig
Pressure below 0 psig is a vacuum. Note that many pumps may have a vacuum
on the suction side.
Figure 1100-2 may help you keep these concepts in mind (assuming standard
atmospheric conditions at sea level).
5. Centrifugal Pump Characteristics. For practical purposes, a centrifugal
pump will put up the same differential head for any liquid. Differential head is
defined as the pressure increase across the pump expressed as feet of liquid

(sometimes referred to as total head). Consider a pump that puts up 100 differ-
ential feet of water. It will also put up 100 feet of any other liquid.
Fig. 1100-2 Absolute and Gage Pressure

Absolute Pressure Gage Pressure
24.7 psia 10.0 psig
14.7 psia 0.0 psig
0.0 psia -14.7 psig
One can think of this as a column of water 100 feet high at the pump's
discharge (assuming the suction is zero). If we change the liquid to propane
and the suction stays the same, the discharge pressure will be a column of
propane 100 feet high, the same as water.
Because water and propane have different specific gravities (propane is
lighter), the pressure at the bottom of each column will be different. The pres-
sure at the bottom of the water column will be greater than at the bottom of the
propane column. Therefore, the discharge pressure in psig will be different for
water and propane. Figure 1100-3 shows that a pressure gage would read
43 psig for water, and 21.5 for propane.
Fig. 1100-3 Centrifugal Pump Characteristics
In an actual pump, the differential head can be obtained by subtracting the

suction pressure from the discharge pressure. (For example, a discharge pres-
sure of 500 psig and a suction pressure of 100 psig will yield a differential
pressure of 400 psi or, 924 feet of head if the fluid is water with SG=1.0).
6. Flow is volume of liquid going through a pipe per unit of time. It can be
expressed in gallons per minute, barrels per hour, or barrels per day. However,
almost every pump curve expresses it in gallons per minute.
Flow is usually measured on an instrument calibrated to read the flow at 60°F,
even when the actual stock temperature is higher. Thus, the recorded flow
must be corrected to actual flow for the pump curve.

Actual Flow =
Recorded Flow × Specific Gravity @ 60°F
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Specific Gravity @ Flow Temp.
7. Viscosity is a measure of “thickness” (a fluids resistance to shear), and is

usually measured in SSU or centistokes. The higher the number, the “thicker”
the stock and the more it resists movement. High viscosity stocks require more
pumping horsepower. The flow and head of a pump are less than they would
be at lower viscosities.
Most pump curves are based on the viscosity of cold water. However, the vendor
who supplies the pump usually draws a new curve that represents the proper
viscosity. If not, you may have to adjust the head-capacity curve down and the
horsepower curve up for significant changes in viscosity (see Section 200).
Performance Monitoring Procedure

The following procedure can be used with the performance monitoring worksheet
to determine the condition of a centrifugal pump:
1. Run a field test. Copy the pump suction and discharge pressure. If possible,
use the same pressure gage to eliminate instrument error or use an accurate
differential pressure gage. Suction pressure is very important to check but often
difficult to obtain.
Ideally, the pump should be tested at 4 points:
a. Best efficiency point (BEP)
b. Some point about 10–25% above BEP
c. Some point about 10–25% below BEP
d. At or near shutoff. If possible, momentarily close the discharge pressure
valve, then record suction and discharge pressure at zero flow. This point
is called “shutoff” head. Do not keep the discharge valve closed more
than a few seconds or you may damage a pump component, especially a
mechanical seal.
2. Record the discharge pressure, suction pressure and flow rate at each test
point. Also record the stock temperature if available. Suction pressure is often
difficult to obtain. Do your best to obtain or estimate an accurate number.
3. Use the worksheet to convert to the units on the pump curve (usually pressure to
feet of head and flow to GPM). Record the other information on the worksheet.
4. Plot the worksheet data on the pump's individual performance curve. If it is
within 10% of the curve, the pump is healthy. If the pump is operating more
than 10% below the curve and the conditions from the flow chart in Section
1130 are satisfied, the pump is probably worn internally and needs an over-
haul. Any uncertainty about the accuracy of flow rate should be noted in the
horizontal direction of the chart, and uncertainties about the accuracy of

specific gravity and pressure measurements should be noted in the vertical

direction (S.G. is proportional to pressure).
Notes
1. It is a good idea to run the “shutoff” head test in addition to the other tests.
Pumps with a plugged suction line or plugged inlet will usually put up the
design shutoff head, but will plot below the curve at increased flow. Doing both
tests could detect a plugged inlet or suction line and avoid a needless repair.
2. If possible, record the amps on motor drivers. Determine if the amps are
greater than normal. This could indicate an unmetered flow, a faulty flow
meter, or internal recirculation.
3. If no suction pressure gage exists, the suction pressure will have to be calcu-
lated. Add the pressure in the suction vessel to the static head (the vertical
distance between the liquid level in the suction vessel and the centerline of the
pump suction flange) and subtract the friction loss in the suction piping.
Suction lines are usually designed with low friction loss.
4. Each pump is designed for one specific application. It has its own individual
performance curve. The most difficult job throughout this entire process may
be to find the correct performance curve. Many pumps are old and their curves
have been lost. To locate the right curve, refer to the Engineering files, or
perhaps the vendor catalog. You may have to request the correct performance
curve from the vendor. Make sure the curve is corrected for viscosity. The
time spent depends, of course, on potential costs involved.
5. Once the correct performance curve is found, make sure the speed and impeller
diameter of the pump are the same as shown on the pump's performance
curve. If not, the curve will have to be adjusted. This can be done from the
old curve once the new speed or new impeller diameter is known. Use the
“Affinity” laws (see Section 200).
Sources of Error
1. An underperforming driver will cause the pump to underperform. While elec-
tric motors normally run at-speed, or not at all, it is not uncommon for a
turbine driver to run at underspeed because of a mechanical problem (in the
turbine or the pump) or because of steam supply problems. A portable tachom-
eter can be used to quickly check driver speed. You should also note motor
rotation, a pump running backward may put up as much as 60% of normal head.
2. An erroneous test or test analysis will produce false conclusions about perfor-
mance. Some common errors are:
a. Mis-estimating suction pressure when no gage is available.
b. Failing to correct the measured flow rate to flow rate at flowing temperature.
c. Using the wrong specific gravity. (If the tester assumed a higher specific
gravity than actual, he would conclude there was a significant performance
problem.)

d. A different size impeller from the original one can cause profound varia-
tion from the original curve because pump head capacity varies as the
square of the impeller size. (Check local records to verify the running
impeller size).
e. A highly viscous fluid will impair pump performance and increase power
required. Viscosities of some hydrocarbons change substantially over wide
temperature swings. This is particularly important if viscosity is above
100 centistokes (water @ 70°F has a viscosity of 1 centistoke).
f. Incorrect flow, pressure, and/or temperature readings will result in an inac-
curate curve. Flow meters may not be correctly calibrated, especially if
recent process changes have been made. PI's and TI's should be replaced
if there is any doubt about their accuracy.
Example
Is the following pump (Figure 1100-4) operating on its curve?
Fig. 1100-4 Pump Curve Diagram
The pump curve in Figure 1100-5 shows one operating point obtained from a field
test and calculated on the example worksheet (Figure 1100-6). Calculations show
the pump at 181 GPM flow and 1204 ft differential head. Plotting this on the curve
shows the pump operating on its performance curve. The pump is “healthy.”
(Figure 1100-7 illustrates a blank Pump Curve Worksheet.)
Fig. 1100-5 Field Test Pump Curve

Fig. 1100-6 Pump Curve Worksheet (Sample)

Fig. 1100-7 Pump Curve Worksheet

1150 Centrifugal Pump Troubleshooting Checklist

Symptoms Possible Causes
(Each number is defined in the list below)
Insufficient capacity delivered 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-13-14-17-19-20-21-23-24-25-26-32-33-34
Insufficient pressure developed 5-11-13-14-17-19-21-22-24-32-34
Pump requires excessive power 12-13-14-15-16-17-20-21-24-27-30-31-32-33-34-35-36-39
Pump overheats and/or seizes 2-4-18-19-30-36-37-38-40
Pump vibrates, cavitates, or is noisy 1-2-3-4-5-9-10-18-20-21-27-28-29-30-31-34-37-38-40-41-42-43-44-
45-46
Pump loses prime 3-5-7-8
Excessive package leakage 27-29-35-36-37-38-39-53
Packing life short 27-29-31-35-36-37-38-39-53
Bearings overheat or wear rapidly 27-40-42-43-44-45-46-47-48-49-50-51-52-54
Mechanical seal problems Refer to Section 800
Possible Causes
Suction Causes System Causes
1. Suction manifolded improperly 11. Speed too low

2. Pump or suction pipe not completely filled with 12. Speed too high
liquid
13. Wrong direction of rotation
3. Suction lift too high
14. Total head of system higher than pump design head
4. Insufficient margin between suction pressure and
15. Total head of system lower than pump design head
vapor pressure
16. Specific gravity of liquid different from design
5. Excess air or gas in liquid
6. Air pocket in suction line 17. Viscosity of liquid differs from design
18. Operation at very low capacity
7. Air leaks into suction line
19. Parallel operation of pumps unsuitable for such
8. Air leaks into pump through stuffing boxes
operation
9. Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged
20. Spare pump's check valve stuck open
10. Suction screens/piping plugged
21. Malfunctioning minimum flow by-pass
22. Lower-than-design specific gravity
23. Plugged discharge piping/valves
24. Malfunctioning pressure or flow indication
25. Fouled heat exchanger downstream

Mechanical Causes
26. Foreign matter in impeller 42. Lack of lubrication

27. Misalignment 43. Improper installation of antifriction bearings
(damage during assembly, incorrect assembly of
28. Foundations not rigid
stacked bearings, use of unmatched bearings as a
29. Shaft bent pair, etc.)
30. Rotating part rubbing on stationary part 44. Dirt in bearings
31. Bearings worn 45. Rusting of bearings due to water in housing (bearing
seals or improper protection while idle for long
32. Wear rings worn periods)
33. Impeller damaged 46. Excessive cooling of water-cooled bearing resulting
34. Defective casing gasket permitting interstate in moisture condensation in the bearing housing
leakage 47. Incorrect oil level (too high/too low)
35. Packing improperly installed 48. Insufficient bearing cooling
36. Incorrect packing for operating conditions 49. Bearings too tight, or excess preload
37. Shaft running off center because of worn bearing 50. Oil ring not functioning
or misalignment
51. Oil mist problems
38. Rotor out of balance results in vibration
52. Improper lubricant
39. Gland too tight resulting in no flow of liquid to
lubricate packing 53. Stuffing box, neck ring, shaft, or packing sleeve worn
40. Excessive thrust caused by mechanical failure 54. Insufficient oil flow (insufficient pressure, wrong
inside the pump or by failure of the hydraulic orifice size, etc)
balancing device, if any
41. Excessive grease or oil in antifriction bearings
housing or lack of cooling, causing excessive
bearing temperature

1160 Vertical Turbine Pump Troubleshooting Checklist

Insufficient Capacity 1-2-8-10-11-13-17-22-23-26
Insufficient Discharge Pressure 1-7-9-11-13-15-22-23-26
Vibration 4-5-6-12-13-14-16-18-19-20-24-25-29-30-31-32
Abnormal Noise 3-6-12-16-19-21-28-30
Power Demand Excessive 11-12-14-16-24-25-27
Mechanical Seal Problems See Section 800
Possible Causes and Solutions

Cause Solution
1. Pump Suction Interrupted (Water Level Below Inlet) Check Sump Level
2. Low Water Level Check Water Level
3. Cavitation Due to Low Submergence Check Submergence
4. Vortex Problem Install Vortex Breaker Shroud
5. Suction or Discharge Recirculation Establish Design Flow
6. Operation Beyond Maximum Capacity Rating Establish Proper Flow Rate
7. Entrained Air Install Separation Chamber
8. Strainer Clogged Inspect and Clean
9. Impeller Plugged Pull Pump and Clean
10. Impeller or Bowl Partially Plugged Pull Pump and Clean
11. Impellers Trimmed Incorrectly Check for Proper Impeller Size
12. Improper Impeller Adjustment Check Installation/Repair Records
13. Impeller Loose Pull Pump and Analyze
14. Impeller Rubbing on Bowl Case Check Lift
15. Wear Rings Worn Inspect During Overhaul
16. Shaft Bent Pull Pump and Analyze
17. Shaft Broken or Unscrewed Pull Pump and Analyze
18. Enclosing Tube Broken Pull Pump and Analyze
19. Bearings Running Dry Provide Lubrication
20. Worn Bearings Pull Pump and Repair
21. Column Bearing Restrainers Broken Pull Pump and Analyze
22. Wrong Rotation Check Rotation
23. Speed Too Slow Check RPM

Cause Solution
24. Speed too High Check RPM

25. Misalignment of Pump Assembly Inspect for Excessive Pipe Strain
26. Leaking Joints Inspect
27. Pumping Sand, Silt, or Foreign Material Check Liquid Pumped
28. Motor Noise Check Sound Level
29. Motor Electrical Imbalance Perform Phase Check
30. Motor Bearing Problems Consult Driver Manual
31. Motor Drive Coupling Out of Balance Inspect
32. Resonance: System Natural Frequency Near Pump Perform Vibration Analysis and Modify and Brace
Speed as Needed

1170 Metering Pump Troubleshooting Checklist

Pump does not start 1-2-3-4-7-8-13-14-33-34-54
Pump starts, no delivery 9-11-12-13-14-35-36-37-60
Pump does not deliver to capacity 4-5-7-8-15-16-18-19-22-25-26-27-34-38-40-41-42-43-55-56-58-60
Capacity falls off 4-15-18-28-29-30-32-34-40-41-43-53-55-56-57-60
Erratic delivery 4-7-16-27-29-31-32-42-53-56-58-60
Loss of prime 9-10-11-12-13-14-15-18-19-25-26-34-35-36-40-41-43-57-60
Noisy liquid end 21-23-24-25-26-27-32-37-55-56-58-60
Noisy mechanical end 17-19-24-33-39-40-44-46-51-55
Noisy piping 10-23-24-25-26-32
Rapid packing, plunger, or piston wear 14-18-19-20-24-28-37-40-41-43-53-57-58-59
Pitted seals and valves 27-29-32-53
Overheated motor 3-6-8-24-31-39-45-54
Pump mechanism running hot 28-31-38-39-45-46-47-50-51-52-54-56-57-58-59
Pump leaking oil 24-46-47-48-50-52
Contamination in crankcase power source 20-38-46-50-58-59

Cause Solution
Power Source
1. Circuit Breaker Open or Fuse Blown Locate Reason for Overload Before Replacing or
Resetting
2. Broken or Disconnected Wire Repair or Replace
3. Improper Wiring Check Wiring Diagrams
4. Incorrect Signal Check Signal Source
5. Motor Speed Too Slow Check Voltage, Frequency, Wiring, and Specifications
6. Motor is Overloaded Check Job Conditions
7. Insufficient Air Supply Repair Compressor; Clean Filters
8. Low Voltage Check and Correct
9. Supply Vessel Empty Fill With Process Liquid
10. Suction Piping Too Long or Too Small Shorten, Increase Size, or Install Accumulator Near
Suction Point
11. Strainer Clogged Clean or Replace

Cause Solution
Supply and Discharge System

12. Suction Pipe Not Submerged Fill Tank or Realign
13. Valves Closed Open Full; Check All Valves in Suction and Discharge
Piping
14. Clogged Piping Clean; Check Product Conditions
15. Insufficient Suction Pressure ‘Raise Supply Tank; Increase Pipe Diameter; Pressurize
Tank
16. Insufficient Discharge Pressure Install a Loop or Back-Pressure Valve
17. Too Much Suction Pressure Lower Supply Tank; Install Back-Pressure Valve
18. Leak in Suction Piping Locate and Repair, If Foot Valve Required, Test for Seal
19. Pump Not Level or Rigid Realign
20. Dirty Environment Clean Immediate Area of Pump; Change Lubricant
21. Extreme Pipe Vibration Shorten Discharge Line; Increase Size; Install Dampener
22. Calibration Incorrect Evaluate Method of Measurement and Measuring Instru-
ments for Possible Error
23. Discharge Line Too Long or Too Small Shorten; Replace; or Install Dampener
24. Discharge Pressure Too High Install Dampener; Remove Restriction; Increase Size of
Piping
25. Surge Chambers or Dampeners Full of liquid Recharge With Gas or Air Liquid
26. Surge Chambers or Dampeners Improperly Charged Check Specifications and Recharge Properly
27. NPSHA Not Sufficient Check and Correct
28. Pump Vapor bound Allow Pump to Operate at Low Pressure Through
Bypass to Eliminate Vapor, or Put in Vent Before Suction
29. Change in Liquid Properties Compare Original Job Conditions to Present Conditions
30. Viscosity Changed or Too High Improve Suction Head; Lower Viscosity; Change
Metering Head and Valve Design
31. Change in Ambient Temperature Relocate Pump; Control Ambient Temperature
32. Process Liquid Vaporizing Check NPSHA; Change Head, Location, Piping,
Temperature as Necessary
Pump Mechanism – Mechanical

33. Coupling Loose or Disconnected Tighten or Replace
34. Check Valve Dirty or Worn Clean or Replace
35. Check Valves Lodged Open by Solids Clean; Inspect; Add Strainer or Slurry Valves
36. Check Valves Stuck Open by Corrosion Clean Guides; Inspect for Wear
37. Prime Lost Check and Reprime
38. Seals Leaking Inspect Seals and Seal Surfaces; Replace Defective Seals
39. Pressure-Relief Valve Set Too High Adjust to Required Pressure Within Pump Design Limits
40. Plunger Loose or Scored Tighten; Repack; If Cylinder Worn, Also Change

Cause Solution
Pump Mechanism – Mechanical (continued)

41. Packing Worn or Hardened Adjust or Change
42. Pressure-Relief Valve Set Too Low Adjust to Required Pressure Within Pump Design Limits
43. Piston Seals Worn or Hardened Change
44. Loose Bearings Adjust or Replace
45. Tight Bearings Adjust or Replace
46. Worn Cams, Rods, or Gears Inspect; Check for Overload; Inspect Bearings
47. Pump Overfilled with Lubricant Check and Adjust Level
48. Defective Seals Replace
49. Plugged Breather or Vent Inspect and Clean
50. Low Lubricant Level Inspect for Leaks and Refill
51. Lubricant Contaminated Inspect for Cause and Change
52. Erosion/Corrosion Check for Dirty Product; Incompatible Materials;
Replace
53. Mechanism Frozen Up Check for Corrosion on Moving Parts
Pump Mechanism – Hydraulic

54. Hydraulic System Underprimed Check for Cause and Reprime
55. Hydraulic Relief and Make-up Valves Functioning Check for Restricted Supply or Discharge, Broken
Diaphragm, Worn Packing, Defective Valves. Do Not
Tighten Beyond Limits of Pump
56. Hydraulic Fluid Level Low Fill to Correct Level
57. Hydraulic Fluid Breaking Down Check Temperature, Pump Load, Restricted Supply
58. Hydraulic Fluid Contaminated Check Filters, Breathers, Seals, Diaphragm
59. Hydraulic System Vapor Locked Check Bleeder, Make-Up Valve, Restricted Supply, and
NPSHA

1180 Reciprocating Pump Troubleshooting Checklist

Failure to deliver rated capacity 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17-18-19-20-21
Liquid not delivered 22-23-24-25-26-27-28
Cavitation 29-30-31-32-33
Leak at cylinder head or valve cover 34-35-36
Water in crankcase 37-38-39-40-41
Oil leak from crankcase 42-43-44-45
Excessive heat in power end 46-47-48-49-50-51-52-53-54-55-56-57-58
Pump overloads driver 59-60-61-62-63-64-65-66-67
Stuffing box leakage 68-69-70-71-72
Stud failure 73-74-75
Excessive valve noise 76-77-78-79
Inlet or discharge line vibration 80-81-82-83-84-85-86-87-88-89
Noisy operation or knocks 90-91-92-93-94-95-96-97-98-99-100-101-102-103-104-
105-106-107-108
Broken shafts, bent, stripped threads, and catastrophic 109-110-111-112-113-114-115-116-117
failures
Packing failure 118-119-120-121-122-123-124-125
Valve failure 126-127-128-129-130-131
Plunger failure 132-133-134-135-136-137-138-139
Causes
1. Air or vapor pocket in inlet line 12. Worn valves and seats
2. Capacity of charge pump less than capacity of power 13. Safety relief valve partially open, or not holding
pump pressure
3. Air or vapor trapped in or above inlet manifold 14. Worn liners, piston rings or plungers
4. Air leak in liquid supply piping system 15. Bypass valve open, or not holding pressure
5. Loose bolts in pump inlet manifold 16. Blown liner gasket
6. Air or gases entrained in liquid 17. NPSHA not sufficient
7. Foreign object holding pump inlet or discharge 18. Liquid bypassing internally
valve(s) open 19. Foreign object blocking liquid passage
8. Incorrect drive ratio 20. Vortex in supply tank
9. Loose belts 21. Insufficient power delivered by motor
10. Incorrect motor or engine speed 22. Pump not primed
11. Loose valve covers or cylinder heads 23. Air or vapor pocket in inlet line

Causes
24. Clogged inlet line 60. Low voltage or other electrical trouble
25. All inlet valves stuck open 61. Trouble with engine, turbine, gear or other related
26. All discharge valves stuck open equipment
27. Loose bolts in pump inlet manifold 62. Excessive discharge line pressure
28. Valve velocities too high 63. Clogged discharge line
29. NPSHA too low 64. Closed or throttled valve in discharge line
30. Liquid not delivered to pump inlet connection 65. Incorrect liner size for application
31. Excessive stuffing box leakage 66. Improper bypass conditions
32. NPSHR too high 67. Overtightened stuffing box glands on adjustable
packing
33. Acceleration head too high
68. Worn packing
34. Operating over recommended pressure
69. Worn rods or plunger
35. Loose cylinder head, valve cover
70. Worn stuffing boxes
36. Damaged gasket.
71. Wrong size or type packing
37. Water condensation
72. Worn O-ring seal (replaceable boxes)
38. Worn seals
73. Excessive discharge pressure
39. Clogged air breather(s)
74. Improper torquing of nuts
40. Worn crankcase packing
75. Shock overload caused by pump pulsations
41. Loose covers
76. Broken or weak valve spring
42. Oil level too high
77. Pump cavitation
43. Work seals
78. Air leak in inlet piping or loose bolts in pump inlet
44. Worn crankcase packing manifold
45. Loose crankcase cover 79. Air trapped above inlet valve
46. Pump operating backward at too low a speed 80. Piping inadequately supported
47. Insufficient oil in power end 81. Inlet line too long or too small in diameter
48. Excessive oil in power end 82. Too many bends in inlet line
49. Incorrect oil viscosity 83. Multiple pump installations operating in parallel
50. Operating in excess of recommended pressure 84. Obstruction under valve(s)
51. Main bearings too tight 85. Packing worn
52. Drive misaligned 86. Operating in excess of recommended pressure or
53. Belts too tight speed
54. Discharge valve of one or more cylinders stuck open 87. Low NPSHA
55. Insufficient cooling 88. Surge chambers or dampers need recharging
56. Pump speed too low 89. Surge chambers or dampers missing
57. Inadequate ventilation 90. Piston or plunger loose
58. Liquid end packing adjusted too tight (adjustable 91. Valve noise amplified
packing only) 92. Pump cavitation
59. Pump speed too high 93. Liquid knock

Causes
94. Air leak in inlet piping 114. Disintegration of worn valves

95. Loose bolts in pump inlet manifold 115. Frozen liquid in liquid end
96. Hydraulic noise in liquid end 116. Air leak in liquid supply system
97. Loose or worn crosshead pins and bushings 117. Loose bolts in pump inlet manifold
98. Loose connecting rod cap bolt(s) 118. Normal wear
99. Worn connecting rod bearings 119. Improper material, wrong packing
100. Worn crosshead 120. Improper lubrication
101. Main bearing end play excessive 121. Adjustable packing - gland too tight
102. Worn gears or chains 122. Dirty liquid
103. Gears or chains out of line 123. Plunger or piston rod misalignment
104. Pump running backward 124. Dirty environment
105. Partial loss of prime 125. Damaged rod or rod coating
106. Pulsations in piping system 126. Normal wear
107. Water in power end crankcase 127. Pump cavitation
108. Poorly supported piping, abrupt turns in piping, 128. Abrasives of foreign matter in fluid
piping misaligned, pipe size too small 129. Incompatibility of valve components to corrosive
109. Startup against closed valve in discharge line. If liquid
valve seats are discovered driven too deeply after 130. Galvanic corrosion
operation of the pump, look for the following pattern
of driven seats, indicative of startup or run against a 131. Incorrect installation – driving on the valve stem,
closed discharge line valve: improper torque on jam nut, valve seat and valve
deck not thoroughly clean and dry when seat
Triple single acting plunger pump: installed
2 inlet and 1 discharge valve seat, or 132. Packing too tight
1 inlet and 2 discharge valve seats 133. Thermal shock (cold water hitting hot ceramic
Quintuplex single acting plunger pump: plunger)
3 inlet and 2 discharge valve seats, or 134. Inlet valve becomes disassembled while pump is
2 inlet and 3 discharge valve seats operating
Duplex double acting piston pump: 135. Stuffing box gland rubbing on plunger due to
improper tightening procedure
2 inlet and 2 discharge valve seats
136. Dirty liquid
110. Low oil level
137. Dirty environment
111. Contaminated oil
138. Wrong packing/packing material
112. Main bearing failure
139. Inadequate flush to lantern ring
113. Piston or plunger striking cylinder head

1190 Rotary Pump Troubleshooting Checklist

No Liquid Delivered 1-2-4-15
Insufficient Capacity 1-3-5-6-9-13-1417
Starts, but Loses Prime 3-4-5-6
Excessive Wear 2-3-7-9-10-11-12-18
Excessive Heat 2-10-11-12
Vibration and Noise 1-2-3-5-6-9-10-11-12-16-19
Excessive Power Demand 8-9-10-11-12-19

Cause Solution
1. Suction Filter or Strainer Clogged Clean Strainer or Filter

2. Pump Running Dry Reprime
3. Insufficient Liquid Supply Look for Suction Restriction or Low Suction Level
4. Suction Piping Not Immersed in Liquid Lengthen Suction Pipe or Raise Liquid Level
5. Liquid Vaporizing in Suction Line Check NPSH.
Check for Restriction in Suction Line
6. Air Leakage Into Suction Piping or Shaft Seal Tighten and Seal all Joints;
Adjust Packing or Repair Mechanical Seal
7. Solids or Dirt in the Liquid Clean System
Install Filtration
8. Liquid More Viscous than Designed For Reduce Pumped Medium Viscosity;
Reduce Pump Speed;
Increase Drive HP
9. Excessive Discharge Pressure Check Relief Valve or By-pass Setting;
Check for Obstruction in Discharge Line
10. Pipe Strain on Pump Casing Disconnect Piping and Check Flange Alignment
11. Coupling, Belt Drive, Chain Drive Out of Alignment Realign
12. Rotating Elements Binding Disassemble and Inspect
13. Internal Parts Wear Inspect and Relace Worn Parts
14. Speed Too Low Check Driver Speed
15. Wrong Direction of Rotation Check and Reverse if Required
16. Coupling Out of Balance Balance
17. Relief Valve Improperly Seated Check and Repair
18. Packing too Tight Readjust or Replace
19. Bent Drive Shaft Repair or Replace

Other References
References – All Pumps

1. Cameron Hydraulics Data. Edited by C. R. Westaway, A. W. Loomis.
(Ingersoll-Rand, 1981).
A compact reference which includes discussion on hydraulics, fluid-flow
data, pipe friction, specific gravity, viscosity, conversions. Not specific to
petrochemicals.
2. Fundamentals and Applications of Centrifugal Pumps for the Practicing
Engineer. Alfred Benaroya. (Petroleum Publishing Company, 1978).
3. Hydraulic Institute Standards. (Hydraulic Institute, 1975).
An authoritative reference covering definitions, testing, applications, hydrau-
lics, materials. Background information with numerous graphics.
4. Pump Application Engineering. Tyler G. Hicks and Theodore W. Edwards.
(McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971).
A basic reference to a broad range of subjects: Covers all pump types
(excluding downhole types), hydraulics, drivers, controls, applications, suction
design, installation, operation, and maintenance.
5. Pump Handbook. Edited by I. J. Karassik, W. C. Krutzch, W. H. Fraser,
J. P. Messina. (McGraw-Hill, 1976).
A basic reference to a broad range of subjects: Covers all pump types
(excluding downhole types), hydraulics, drivers, controls, applications, suction
design installation, operation, and maintenance.
References – Centrifugal Pumps

1. Centrifugal Pump Clinic. I. J. Karassik. (Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1981).
A thorough discussion of centrifugal pump problems and how to avoid or solve
them.
2. Centrifugal Pump Handbook. (Sulzer Brothers Ltd., 1987).
A technically oriented handbook.
3. Centrifugal Pump Problems. S. Yedidia. (Petroleum Publishing Co., 1980).
A thorough, practical treatment of all aspects of centrifugal pump problems.
4. Centrifugal Pumps - Design and Application. V. S. Lobanoff, R. R. Ross. (Gulf
Publishing, 1985).
Chevron Corporation Reference-1 June 1988

Other References Pump Manual
A basic text covering hydraulics, centrifugal pump design and application.

Covers vertical and horizontal pumps. Straightforward, slightly technical.
References – Electrical Submersible Pumps

1. Electrical Submersible Pumps. (Chevron USA, 1984).
A practical manual issued by Central Region (now Northern) to accompany a
course for engineering and field personnel. Covers sizing, auxiliary equipment,
installation, evaluation, maximizing run life, failure analysis. (Material in
Section 600 is reproduced from this manual.)
2. Handbook for Oilfield Subsurface Electrically-Driven Pumps. (Centrilift-
Hughes, Inc.).
3. API RP-11R. Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible Pump
Installations.
4. API RP-115. Recommended Practice for Operations, Maintenance, and
Troubleshooting Electrical Submersible Pump Installations.
References – Sucker-Rod Pumps

1. Artificial Lift Sucker-Rod Pumping. (Royal Enterprises, Inc., 1979).
Provides a detailed look at all aspects of sucker-rod pumping systems.
2. Rod Pumping Equipment: Surface and Downhole Analysis and Inbal
Programs. (Chevron Oil Field Research Co.).
Analysis of rod pumping systems performance based on monitoring conditions
at surface.
3. API RP-11L. Recommended Practice for Design Calculations for Sucker-Rod
Pumping Systems (Conventional Units).
4. API Bul-11L4. Bulletin containing Curves for Selecting Beam Pumping Units.
5. API RP-11AR. Recommended Practices for Care and Handling of Subsurface
Pumps.
6. API RP-11BR. Recommended Practice for Care and Handling of Sucker-Rods.
7. API SPEC-1B. Specification for Oil-Field V-Belting (Includes a design proce-
dure for power application of V-Belts).
8. API RP-11G. Recommended Practice for Installation and Lubrication of
Pumping Units.
9. API SPEC-11AX. Specification for Subsurface Sucker-Rod Pumps and Fittings.
10. API SPEC-11B. Specification for Sucker-Rods (Pony rods, polished rods,
couplings, and sub-couplings).
11. API STD-11E. Specification for Pumping Units.
June 1988 Reference-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual Other References
References – Mechanical Seals

1. Engineered Fluid Sealing. (John Crane, Inc., 1979).
A straightforward manual covering practical aspects of sealing rotating shafts
and gasketed joints. A general, useful reference despite being a manufacturer's
publication.
2. Mechanical Seals. E. Mayer. (Newnes-Butterworths, 1977).
A highly technical, thorough treatment of fundamentals, design, leakage, wear,
and special designs.
3. Mechanical Seals. E. M. Scheel. (Chevron USA, 1986).
A straightforward, practical manual covering basics of mechanical seals,
design, application, materials, and converting packed pumps to mechanical
seals (Much of Section 700 is reproduced from this manual.). Available from
Chevron USA, 742 Bancroft Way, Berkeley, CA, 94710.
References – Metering Pumps

1. Metering Pumps Handbook. R. E. McCabe, P. G. Lanckton, W. V. Dwyer.
(Industrial Press, Inc., 1984).
A basic reference covering all aspects. (Authors affiliated with
Pulsafeeder, Inc.).
2. Metering Pumps - Selection and Application. J. P. Poynton. (Marcel Dekker,
Inc., 1983).
Also a basic reference covering all aspects of metering pumps. (Author affili-
ated with Milton Roy Corp.).
References – Miscellaneous
1. Grouting Handbook. (U. S. Grant Corporation, 1983).
A useful book for understanding grouting basics (Oriented to the publisher's
products.).
2. Practical Machinery Management for Process Plants. H. P. Block,
F. K. Geitner. (Gulf Publishing, 1982).
A thorough, four-volume set covering a broad range: design, repair, reliability
factors, troubleshooting, and failure analysis of all machinery, including pumps.
3. IMI Candidate Manual. Integrated Machinery Inspection Staff. (Chevron USA,
1981).
A straightforward, practical manual outlining the IMI Program. Covers all
aspects of an overall program of machinery reliability in process plants. This
program has been implemented throughout CUSA Manufacturing. Applicable
to all pumps other than downhole, but concepts apply to all pumps.
Chevron Corporation Reference-3 June 1988

Other References Pump Manual
4. Total Alignment. V. R. Dodd. (Petroleum Publishing Co., 1975).

A thorough treatment of alignment fundamentals, ambient and service condi-
tion alignment, and computer alignment.
5. Machinery Reliability Procedures. (Chevron USA, 1986).
A collection of detailed procedures for machinery reliability and repair.
Includes graphics, checklists, and step-by-step procedures for all types of
machinery. Published by the IMI Group, El Segun- do Refinery.
6. Engineering Data Book. (Gas Processors Association, 1987).
A two-volume set containing information on all process equipment. The
section on pumps is simple and concise, covering centrifugal pumps and
hydraulics.
7. Fluid Flow Manual. (Chevron Corporation, 1980).
A practical manual specific to the petroleum industry. Covers fundamentals
and includes numerous charts for calculating hydraulics based on common
fluids (steam, water hydrocarbons).
References – Positive Displacement Pumps

1. Positive Displacement Pumps. (Howell Training Co., 1969).
A two-volume set covering reciprocating and rotary pumps. Although very
basic, may be helpful to entry-level personnel.
2. Reciprocating Pump Manual. J. Cooper, W. K. Lee. (Gasco Pump, Inc.).
A convenient reference covering fundamentals, design and troubleshooting.
Manufacturer's publication.
June 1988 Reference-4 Chevron Corporation

Appendix A. Conversion Tables and Formulas
Chevron Corporation A-1 June 1999

Appendix A Pump Manual
Fig. A-1 Conversion Factors (1 of 4)
June 1999 A-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual Appendix A



Fig. A-2 Conversions, Constants, and Formulas

Fig. A-3 Conversion Factors and Formulas Courtesy of GSPA

Fig. A-4 Conversion Chart: Gallons per Minute to Barrels per Day
Fig. A-5 Decimal and Millimeter Equivalents of Fractions

Fig. A-6 Temperature Conversion Table

Appendix B. Viscosity Data
Chevron Corporation B-1 June 1999

Appendix B Pump Manual
Fig. B-1 Viscosity Conversion Table (1 of 2) Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute
June 1999 B-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual Appendix B
Fig. B-1 Viscosity Conversion Table (2 of 2) Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute

Fig. B-2 Viscosity of Common Liquids (1 of 3) Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute



Fig. B-3 Friction Loss for Viscous Liquids Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute

Fig. B-4 Viscosities of Hydrocarbon Liquids Courtesy of GSPA
June 1999
Appendix B
B-8
Chevron Corporation
Pump Manual
Fig. B-5 Approximate Viscosity–Temperature Relations for Liquid Petroleum Fractions Courtesy of Hydraulic
Institute

Fig. B-6 Viscosity Unit Conversion Chart (1 of 2) Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute

Fig. B-7 Viscosity Unit Conversion Chart (2 of 2) Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute

Appendix C. Vapor Pressures
Chevron Corporation C-1 June 1999

Appendix C Pump Manual
Fig. C-1 Vapor Pressure—Various Liquids (1 of 2) Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc
June 1999 C-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual Appendix C
Fig. C-1 Vapor Pressure—Various Liquids (2 of 2) Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc
Chevron Corporation C-3 June 1999

Fig. C-2 Low-Temperature Vapor Pressures for Light Hydrocarbons (1 of 2) Courtesy of GPSA
June 1999
Appendix C
C-4
Chevron Corporation
Pump Manual
Fig. C-2 Low-Temperature Vapor Pressures for Light Hydrocarbons (2 of 2) Courtesy of GPSA
Chevron Corporation
Pump Manual
C-5
Appendix C
June 1999
Appendix D. Properties of Water
Chevron Corporation D-1 June 1999

Appendix D Pump Manual
Fig. D-1 Properties of Water at Various Temperatures From 32 to 705°F
June 1999 D-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual Appendix D
Fig. D-2 Atmospheric Pressure, Barometer Reading and Boiling Point of Water at Various Altitudes

Fig. D-3 Saturation: Temperatures, Steam Data (1 of 2) Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc.

Pump Manual Appendix D
Fig. D-3 Saturation: Temperatures, Steam Data (2 of 2) Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc.

Fig. D-4 Vapor Pressure—Various Liquids Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc.

Appendix E. Specific Gravities
Chevron Corporation E-1 June 1999

Appendix E Pump Manual
Fig. E-1 Approximate Specific Gravity of Petroleum Fractions Courtesy of GPSA
June 1999 E-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual Appendix E
Fig. E-2 API and Baume Gravity Tables and Weight Factors Courtesy of Goulds Pumps, Inc.
Chevron Corporation E-3 June 1999

Appendix F. Mechanical Seals Bellows Failure
Chevron Corporation F-1 June 1999

Appendix F Pump Manual
Mechanical Seals Bellows Failure (1 of 2)
Fig. F-1
June 1999 F-2 Chevron Corporation
Pump Manual Appendix F
Mechanical Seals Bellows Failure (2 of 2)
Fig. F-1
Chevron Corporation F-3 June 1999
Appendix G. Hardness Tables
Chevron Corporation G-1 June 1999

Appendix G Pump Manual
Fig. G-1 Approximate Conversion Table for Hardness Numbers Obtained by Different Methods*
June 1999 G-2 Chevron Corporation

Appendix H. Factory Test Procedure
H1.0 Scope and Purpose

This factory test procedure is a general guide for testing centrifugal pumps in the
factory. It assumes that the pump has been constructed in accordance with the
purchase specifications. Pump performance can be evaluated from data collected by
the testers using the purchasing standards. Knowledge of the kind of data collected
during performance tests is helpful for using this guideline, but necessary defini-
tions, calculations, and references are included. Also covered briefly are procedures
for conducting cavitation (NPSH) and hydrostatic tests.
H2.0 How to Use

This guideline is a general description of the steps required to judge a pump’s
performance. Each statement is self-explanatory and should be completed or
acknowledged before moving on. It is divided into procedural sections:
I. Preliminary Instructions and Definitions
II. Test Preparations
III. Conduct of Test and Data To Be Recorded
IV. Data Development
V. Other Tests
VI. References
VII. Attachments
The required equations are in the Data Development section or are referenced when
mentioned. A computer program to perform the common calculations is available.
See the Data Development section for instructions.
H3.0 Documents to Have on Hand for Test

• Purchase Order
• Pump Data Sheet (attached to Purchase Order)
• Purchase Specifications (attached to Purchase Order)
• Industry Specifications referenced
Chevron Corporation H-1 June 1999

Appendix H Pump Manual
I. Preliminary Instructions and Definitions

The following information will normally be determined from a pump performance test:
Data Units
Flow Rate gallons per minute (GPM)
Head foot-pounds/pound (feet)
Power Input horsepower (BHP)
Efficiency percent (%)
Speed revolutions per minute (rpm)
Vibration — Velocity inches per second peak (IPS)
— Displacement thousandths of an inch peak-to-peak (mils)
Bearing Oil Temperature degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
Mechanical Seal Leakage Rate drops per minute
Flow Rate is usually measured with orifice or venturi meters, which require unob-
structed flows for specified minimum lengths in the discharge or suction line. These
are connected to either a manometer or differential pressure gage and the readings
are converted to a flow rate using a calibrated chart. Capacity measurements by
change of weight or volume over a specified time period are also reliable.
Head is defined as the energy content per unit weight of fluid. The energy is in foot-
pounds and the unit weight is the pound, resulting in feet as the unit of head. Energy
in a liquid can take the form of pressure, kinetic energy (velocity), or potential
energy in height above a datum point. The datum point is an arbitrary elevation,
usually at the shaft centerline of a horizontal pump or at the inlet eye of the first
stage of a vertical unit. Instruments commonly used are calibrated pressure gages
and manometers. All pressure readings are converted to feet. (See Section IV, Data
Development, for equations.)
Power Input to the pump shaft from the driver is called brake horsepower (BHP). It
may be determined with a transmission dynamometer, torsion dynamometer, strain
gage set-up or with a calibrated motor and wattmeter. The first three devices are
delicate instruments with high degrees of accuracy which should be checked before
and after each test for valid results. The calibrated motor is the most practical and
most often used means of measuring brake horsepower in shop tests. Determine the
current flow (average in each phase winding for a polyphase motor), voltage, and
power factor at the motor terminals. Then using the motor efficiency, horsepower
can be calculated from the equation given in Section IV, Data Development, of this
guideline.
Pump output, water horsepower (WHP) or hydraulic horsepower is proportional to
the capacity (Q), the total head developed (H), and the specific gravity (SG) of the
working fluid. (See equations in Section IV, Data Development.)
June 1999 H-2 Chevron Corporation

Pump Manual Appendix H
Pump Efficiency is the ratio of WHP to BHP. It is always less than 100%, and the
value changes as the pump operating conditions are varied.
Pump Speed (rpm) can be monitored by a tachometer, a revolution counter and
stop watch, or a stroboscopic device with a frequency indicator.
Vibration measurements are usually taken on the pump bearings in both the vertical
and horizontal planes during the shop performance test. The instruments needed are
a seismic vibration pickup, or a proximity probe if available, and the appropriate
readout and analysis equipment.
II. Test Preparation
Test Setup
Proper instrumentation must be available which will allow all required parameters
to be recorded. Make sure that the tester records the manufacturer’s serial number,
type, size, dimensions, and physical conditions of the pump and all associated
equipment (meters, tanks, etc.) to clearly identify the specific units used.
Shop tests will normally be conducted with a calibrated test motor equipped to
determine the pump input horsepower. The job driver cannot be used without the
purchaser’s approval.
The inspector should thoroughly review and understand the test system. Examine
the test setup to verify the adequacy and accuracy of the testing apparatus. Note on
the test data log anything unusual, significant, or questionable in the test system.
Shop gages should be certified accurate to 1/4% of scale, or a calibration curve
should have been prepared within the last 6 months prior to a test. For best accu-
racy, gages should be selected so that the expected readings are 50% to 75% of the
full scale values.
Attached are sketches of a typical horizontal pump performance test setup (Attach-
ment A). The test system may vary somewhat with different pump types, but should
retain the same essential elements. Prior to starting the shop test, be sure to check
for correct direction of rotation.
Special Considerations
Test performance should closely approximate the rated performance. This can
normally be ensured by matching the speed and capacity, and applying the neces-
sary viscosity and specific gravity corrections (see Section IV, Data Development).
Under certain special conditions, the pump test may be performed at a speed other
than rated. This is only allowed with prior consent of the purchaser.
III. Conduct of Test and Data To Be Recorded
General
A suction system booster pump may be used to slow roll the pump under test. This
is done to check to see if the rotor is free rolling before full power is applied.

Purge all air from instruments, case and system, and start with the discharge valve
set to prevent driver overload. No suction valve shall be throttled during pump oper-
ation, except for NPSH tests.
Do not accept shop tests if the mechanical seals show leakage. In packed pumps, the
packing should allow some leakage for packing lubrication. Normally, the job
packing will not be used in shop tests.
In performance tests, the bearing oil temperature must remain within the purchase
order specifications. As a general rule, a pump will be unacceptable if the lube oil
temperature exceeds the lesser of 180°F, or 70°F above ambient. For circulating
lube systems, the maximum differential (T - T ) should not exceed 50°F at the most
adverse specified operating condition. At the beginning and end of a test, record the
bearing oil (in and out if pressure lubricated), suction side water, and ambient air
temperatures. Record the lubrication flow rate, which should be the same as
expected at service conditions.
In some cases, the purchase order may require some minimum seal cavity pressure
(typically 25 psi) above the pumped fluid vapor pressure. The required pressure
difference between suction pressure and stuffing box pressure will be different if the
rated fluid specific gravity is different from the test fluid (water). See Section IV,
Data Development, for instructions on how to calculate the required pressure.
Watch pump shutdown for smoothness. If any irregularity appears (binding, exces-
sive vibrations or sounds) it must be investigated, repaired, and the pump retested.
The pump shall be repaired and retested if any rubs are evident during an open
pump inspection, if such inspection is required in the purchase order. Do not allow
any significant mechanical alterations without retesting the pump.
At the conclusion of the performance test, sign the test log “Witnesses by …” and
date. Obtain a copy of it at that time. Also, ask for a copy of the performance
curve. Most vendors can produce one “while-you-wait.” If not, insist on one within
1 week.
The results of the test at the rated point should be computed and found acceptable
before the test equipment is disassembled, unless specific approval is given by the
purchaser.
Performance Data
Shop performance test data will be taken at a minimum of five flow rates, including
rated (as on pump data sheet), and at least 120% of rated flow. The remaining test
points should be chosen to display the full range of the pump's performance.
Usually readings are also taken at shutoff position (zero flow).
At each flow rate (data point), the inspector must read all instruments and agree
with the values recorded by the technician which will be as a minimum:
• Suction pressure (psig)
• Discharge pressure (psig)
• Flow rate (GPM — may require some conversion)

• Input power (kW — convert to horsepower)

• Speed of pump shaft (rpm)
• Vibration (with filter in and out; any unusual values should be reported to
purchaser)
Rapid fluctuations are short-term oscillations of values on the recording meters in a
single observation. The mean value is to be estimated and recorded, but for shop tests
at near best efficiency, the Hydraulic Institute Standard rapid fluctuation limits are:
Data % of Value
Differential across pump (∆P) ± 2%
Discharge pressure (Pd) ± 2%
Suction pressure (Ps) ± 3%
Rate of flow (Q) ± 2%
Speed (N) ± 0.3%
Power input to pump (BHP) ± 1%
Vibration Data
For pumps with sleeve bearings, shaft vibration measurements should be made with
a proximity probe, or a seismic vibration pickup with a shaft rider. For antifriction
(ball) bearings, a seismic vibration pickup will be used on the bearing housing. The
measurements should be recorded in vertical, horizontal, and axial planes. The
following vibration limits for readings filtered at running speed frequency apply to
API 610 and PMP-EG-983 pumps operating at a rated speed and at ±10% from
rated capacity in shop tests.
Peak-to-Peak Vibration Limits (API Fifth Edition)

Speed (rpm) Antifriction Sleeve Bearings
(inch/second) (mil)
1800 and below 0.2 2.0
3600 0.2 1.75
3600 and above 0.2 Consult API 610
In shop tests, the unfiltered vibration velocity readings should also be measured
with a seismic pickup on the bearing housing. If the values at any operating point
exceed the limits, if any, specified on the purchase order, report the corresponding
frequency and amplitude to a mechanical specialist before accepting the pump. As a
general guide, the unfiltered velocity should not exceed 0.3 inch-per-second (IPS) at
rated capacity, and any other capacity within the normal operating range.

IV. Data Development

The performance curve shall be prepared from the test data log. (See Attachments B
and C for sample test data log and performance curve form.) Check the curve at
rated capacity and compare values of head, efficiency, and brake horsepower with
the design values given on the pump data sheet. These results can vary from the
rated conditions within the following tolerances for shop tests.
API Tolerances at Rated Speed and Rated Capacity (Seventh Edition)

Rated Differential Heat Guaranteed Point (%) Shutoff (%)
0–500 ft –2 + 10
+5 – 10
501–1000 ft –2 +8
+3 –8
Over 1000 ft –2 +5
+2 –5
Rated efficiency – ½ point of efficiency
Rated horsepower +4
NPSHR +0
For rated differential head of 0-500 feet at shutoff position, the value of –10% is
only allowed if, for a specified rising head capacity curve, the test curve at this point
still shows a rising characteristic.
For all non-API shop tested pumps, Hydraulic Institute Standards should apply
(Fourteenth Edition):
At rated head, + 10% of rated capacity, or
At rated capacity, + 5% of rated heads under 500 ft
+ 3% of rated heads above 500 ft
No minus tolerance allowed for capacity, total head, or efficiency at specified
conditions.
Equations commonly used to develop test data are given below
Head (Fluid Energy Content)

1. Pressure (Gage Head - feet): Hg = P × 2.31/SG
2. Kinetic Energy (Velocity Head - feet): Hv = V2/2g = V2/64.4
where:
D = Nominal pipe diameter (inches)
Q = Capacity (GPM)

P = Pressure (psig)
SG = Specific Gravity (SG)
V = Flow Velocity (ft/sec) (V = 0.41 × Q/D2)
3. Potential Energy (Static Head - feet): Z
where:
Z = Upward distance from datum elevation
Total Differential Head (Change in Fluid Energy Content)

H = (Hg + Hv + Z) discharge - (Hg + Hv + Z) suction
Power
Input:
BHP = Volts × Amps × Power Factor × Motor Efficiency 0.5

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- × [ 3 ]
746
(For a single phase motor, remove [ 3 ]0.5 from the above expression.)
or:
Kilowatts × Motor Efficiency

BHP = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.746
Output:
Q ( GPM ) × H ( feet )
WHP = ------------------------------------------------- × Specific Gravity
3960
Efficiency
WHP
E pump = --------------
BHP
Affinity Law Corrections

When a pump is tested with speed or impeller diameter other than rated, values must
be converted to predict actual performance using the affinity laws.
For speed changes (N):
NS
Q S = Q T × -------
N T

2
 N S
H S = H T ×  -------
 N T
3
 N S
BHP S = BHP T ×  -------
 N T
or changes of impeller diameter (D):
DS
Q S = Q T × -------
D T
2
 D S
H S = H T ×  -------
 D T
3
 D S
BHP S = BHP T ×  -------
 D T
where:
S (subscript) = Service
T (subscript) = Test
H = Head (ft)
Q = Capacity (GPM)
BHP = Horsepower
D = Impeller diameter
The customer’s specifications may restrict the use of affinity laws for test data
correction. This is especially true for reductions of impeller diameter. Be sure to
review applicable specifications if impeller machining is required (API 610, Section
4.3.3.4.1, Seventh Edition).
Viscosity Corrections
If the pump is rated for conditions of fluid viscosity significantly different than
the test, the test results must be adjusted to reflect the expected performance. For
viscosity corrections, see Hydraulic Institute Standards, Fourteenth Edition,
pages 112–113.

Seal Cavity Pressure Corrections

To calculate the seal cavity pressure where applicable:
1. From the pump data sheet (purchase order), calculate the minimum seal cavity
pressure required.
Minimum Pressure = Vapor Pressure + Minimum Differential
For example:
Vapor Pressure = 10 psia
Minimum Differential = 25 psi
Minimum Pressure (Pminimum ) = 10 psia + 25 psi = 35 psia
2. Determine the required differential between suction pressure and the seal cavity
pressure by taking the difference in Pminimum and the rated suction pressure.
For example:
Psuction = 20 psia
Pminimum = 35 psia
Suction Pressure and Seal Cavity Pressure Difference = P minimum - Psuction or:
P = 35 psia - 20 psia = 15 psi
Therefore, the difference between suction pressure and seal cavity pressure is
15 psi for rated conditions.
3. The differential pressure for test conditions depends on relative specific gravities.
1.0 ( specific gravity water )

P test = P rated × ----------------------------------------------------------------
SG ( specific gravity rated )
If the rated gravity is 0.5, then
1.0
P test = 15psi × ------- = 30 psi differential for water
0.5
Therefore, the seal cavity pressure should be 30 psi above suction pressure. The
seal cavity pressure should be measured in the stuffing box and not in the seal
recirculation line. The required seal cavity pressure is equal to the test suction
pressure plus the required differential.
V. Other Tests
Cavitation Test
When excessive pump noise, vibration, or unusual impeller eye damage is evident,
cavitation may be responsible. Cavitation occurs when the absolute pressure in the

pump inlet falls below the vapor pressure of the working fluid, and the fluid then
vaporizes rapidly. As these vapor pockets collapse in higher pressure areas, the
pump may be damaged by high resultant forces. And flow and pressure pulsations
will be produced in the discharge line.
The pump manufacturer will specify a head required above the fluid vapor pressure
that is the minimum to prevent cavitation. If this specified Net Positive Suction
Head Required (NPSHR) is to be checked, a test can be made by keeping differen-
tial pressure and capacity constant while the suction pressure is reduced. A drop in
differential head of 3% is an indication that damaging cavitation is present.
For a water NPSH test, the pump should operate without harmful cavitation as long
as the vacuum at the suction flange does not exceed Ps.
Ps = Pb - (2.04 Pv + [(NPSHR - h)] SG/2.311

where:
Ps = Vacuum at the pump suction flange at which NPSH available
equals NPSH required (inches Hg)
Pb = Barometric pressure (inches Hg)
Pv = Absolute vapor pressure (psia)
NPSHR = Net positive suction head required by manufacturer (feet)
h = Suction velocity head (feet)
SG = Specific gravity of water at test conditions
The same relationship should hold for any fluid if the correct vapor pressure and
specific gravity are used. A negative Ps should be interpreted as a positive gage
pressure (in inches Hg).
Hydrostatic Test
A hydrostatic test insures that all parts of the pump can safely withstand their
maximum design pressures without leakage. API 610 pumps are to be subjected to
150% of the maximum design pressure for at least 30 minutes without external
leakage. Multistage horizontal pumps are to be tested segmentally. Auxiliary equip-
ment lines carrying process fluids are to be tested at 150% of design values with a
lower limit of 150 psi. Cooling passages are to be tested at 115 psi.
Non-API pumps shall conform to the Hydraulic Institute Standard and shall with-
stand for at least 5 minutes with no external leakage the greater of:
• 150% of the pressure which would occur in that part of the pump during service
at rated conditions; or
• 125% of the normal pressure in that part at rated speed with the discharge valve
closed.

VI. References
• API 610, Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Service
Available from: American Petroleum Institute
Refining Department
2101 L. Street, NorthWest
Washington, D.C. 20037
• Hydraulic Institute Standards for Centrifugal, Rotary, and Reciprocating Pumps

Available from: Hydraulic Institute 1230
Keith Building
Cleveland, Ohio 44115
VII. Attachments
Sample Test Set-Up Sketch (Figure H-1)
Sample Test Data Log (Figure H-2)
Sample Performance Curve (Figure H-3)

Sample Test Set-Up Sketch
Fig. H-1
Fig. H-2 Sample Test Data Log Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation
Chevron Corporation
Pump Manual
H-13
Appendix H
June 1999
Fig. H-3 Sample Performance Curve Courtesy of Flowserve Corporation
June 1999
Appendix H
H-14
Chevron Corporation
Pump Manual

Chevron Pump Manual

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Manual Sponsor: J. Demetriou / Phone: (510) 242-7210 / E-mail: jdem@chevron.com

Standard Drawings & Forms

50 Using This Manual 50-1

100 General Information 100-1

200 Centrifugal Pumps 200-1

300 Reciprocating Pumps 300-1

400 Rotary Pumps 400-1

500 Metering Pumps 500-1

600 Sealless Pumps (Section not developed)

700 Miscellaneous Pumps 700-1

800 Mechanical Seals 800-1

900 Inspection and Testing 900-1

1000 Pump Installation 1000-1

1100 Startup and Troubleshooting 1100-1

Chevron Corporation June 1999

110 Introduction 100-3

Chevron Corporation 100-1 March 2001

142 Pump Selection Fundamentals

March 2001 100-2 Chevron Corporation

120 Pump Categories

Chevron Corporation 100-3 March 2001

Fig. 100-1 Pump Categories

Fig. 100-2 Pump Categories Courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute (1 of 2)

March 2001 100-4 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 100-2 Pump Categories Courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute (2 of 2)

122 Centrifugal Pumps

Chevron Corporation 100-5 March 2001

ican National Standards Institute) Standard B73.1 (Horizontal End-Suction) or

123 Positive Displacement Pumps

124 Miscellaneous Pumps

March 2001 100-6 Chevron Corporation

130 System Hydraulic Design

132 Overview of the Hydraulic Calculation Sheet, PMP-EF-467

Chevron Corporation 100-7 March 2001

133 PMP-EF-467 Instructions

134 Calculation I (Initial Estimate)

135 Calculation II (Pre-purchase)

March 2001 100-8 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 100-5 Table of Preliminary Estimates for Calculation

1. Enter the Pump Service and Liquid Properties

Fig. 100-6 Example: Pump Service and Liquid Properties

Chevron Corporation 100-11 March 2001

In addition to the effect on fluid properties from alternate service conditions, it is

2. Complete the System Sketch

3. Complete the Pressure Calculations

March 2001 100-12 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 100-7 Example: System Sketch

“Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)”

Chevron Corporation 100-13 March 2001

Fig. 100-8 Example: Pressure Calculations

March 2001 100-14 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 100-15 March 2001

A pulsation damper properly installed with a short, full-size connection to

Chevron Corporation 100-17 March 2001

4 × 1.84 × 360 × 0.066

20 × 0.811 × 360 × 0.066

h a = 3.88 + 8.55 = 12.4ft

March 2001 100-18 Chevron Corporation

e. Enter any “Contingency” on the next line. Overly conservative contingen-

Method A - Quick Estimation

Method B - Detailed Approach

Chevron Corporation 100-19 March 2001

Fig. 100-10 Control Valve Pressure Drop Selection