Method A earned higher test scores than students who received Method B) are likely to apply to
the population.
The physical sciences have achieved prominence arnong the academic disciplines
because of their deinonstrated ability to discover highly generalizablelaws that explain
featurcs of physical reality. The social sciences and allied professional disciplines such as
education have not achieved the saine level of respect and authority because their ability to
discover general laws retnains in doubt. If one subscribes to the assumption of postpositivist
epistclnology that Incaning is elnbcdded in local, immediate contexts, it folloxvs that
generalizations about features of social reality necessarily will be difficult and tentative. The
positivist assumption or an objective, relatively constant social reality leads to the more
optimistic view that general laws governing social reality can be discovered.
28. Crosby, A. W. (1997). The measure of realio•: Quantification and Western society. 1250—1600. Cambridge: Cambridge
Univel sit! Press.
29. Ibid.. p. 28.
30. Ibid.. p. 228.
31. De Soto. H. (2000). The ofcapital: capitalism triunzp/zs in the Illest and fails everyudzere else. New hOrk: Basic Books.
As applied to our example, Wartofsky's analysis raises the question of whether class size
and student off-task-behavior are features of the social environment that can be quantified.
but that are not particularly significant for understanding how classrooms work and what
makes them work well or poorly as arenas for instruction.
Postpositivist epistemology raises another concern about quantification. The
operational definition of class size as a count of the average number of students enrolled
in a class over the course of a school year assumes that values of this variable have the
same meaning across classrooms. Postpositivist researchers, however, would question this
assumption. Two teachers both may have 25 enrolled students. In Teacher A's class,
though, some of these students may have behavior disorders and may have been assigned
to the teacher without her consent. In Teacher B's class, all the students may be able
learners, whose presence in class the teacher welcomes. Thus, the number 25 has two
different meanings in these situations. For Teacher A, 25 represents an oppressive
teaching situation, whereas for Teacher B, 25 represents a comfortable teaching situation.
If researchers conduct an investigation to determine whether increases in class size make
instruction more difficult, they may be misled because a particular value of the
variable class size may not have the same meaning for the teachers in all the classes
having that value.
21
Explanation is a major goal of scientific inquiry. As researchers, we want to know not only
what happened, but why. Also, we want to understand the consequences of alterations in the
social environment. That is, we want to understand the causal connections among social
phenomena. For example, what factors cause some students to do well in reading or others to
do poorly? 'What are the effects of learning to read well or poorly?
34. For a more complete explanation of scientific realism, see: House, E. R. (1991), Realism in research.
Educational
Researcher. 20(6), 2—9. 25.
structures that can interact to produce the observed eflect. The goal of inquiry. according to
scientific realists. is (0 discover how these causal structures work
As applied to education and other social science disciplines, scientific realisln
postulates that the real causes of human behavior are underlying causal structures.
23
Discovering what these structures are is difficult because they may or may not have
observable effects in particular situations. For example. suppose a teacher thinks
about how to react to a student who is inattentive. He considers various alternatives
and. in (he end, rejects (henn all- "There is no observable behavior that tells the
researcher what causal entities might have been at work. Examples of possible
entitieS might be: the teacher's decision-Inaking process in such situations, the
teacher's store of knowledge about consequences of past responses to student
inattention, the interpersonal dynarnics of this particular classroom, and the
teacher's knowledge of the student's home environrnenr and academic performance-
Each of these is a potential causal structure that can interact with the other causal
structures to produce an effect. Because of the complexity or possible interactions,
researchers will not be able to tnake precise predictions of human behavior. They
only will be able to determine trends and probabilities. The various research
traditions that have developed in qualitative inquiry particularly well suited for
discovering what these causal structures might be in educa(ional environments. In
fact. research traditions such as structuralism and cognitive psychology (both
discussed in Chapter 15) make explicit reference to structures that underlie behavior
and influence it.
To sununarize. positivist epistemology assumes a mechanistic causality among social
"objects." Postpositivist episternology assumes that individuals' interpretations of
situalions cause them to take certain actions. Scientific realism assumes that there are
multiple layers of causal •structures. which are real objects that in teract with each other to
cause people to take certain actions or, in some cases, to take no action.