Power System Operation and Control

Control of Generation
 Generator Allocation

A typical control area contains many generators
 the individual outputs must be set according to economics

the solution of the economic dispatch must be coupled to the
generation control system

the input consist of the total generation required for the area
 in order to satisfy the load demand and maintain contractual power
flows across the tie lines

the output is the power distribution across the outputs of all the
generators within the control area
 continuously varying system load demand

a particular total generation value will not exist for a very long
time

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 2
 Generator Allocation

Economic generator control
 it is impossible to simply specify a total generation, calculate
the economic dispatch schedule, and give the control system
the output schedule for each generator

unless such a calculation can be made very quickly

for digital control system it is desirable to perform the economic
dispatch calculation at intervals of 1 to 15 minutes
 independent of the calculation schedule

the allocation of generation must be made instantly whenever
the required area total generation changes

the allocation control of generation must run continuously

a rule must be provided to indicate the generation allocation for
values of total generation other than that used in the economic
dispatch
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 3
 Generator Allocation

The allocation of individual generators over a range of total
generation values
 accomplished using base points and participation factors

for period k, the economic dispatch sets the base-point
generation values for the total generation value measured
at the start of the period

the base-point generation for the ith unit, Pi base is the most
economic output for the particular total generation value

the participation factor, pfi, sets the rate of change of the ith
unit’s power output with respect to a change in total generation

the base points and participation factors are used as follows
Pi scheluded (t ) = Pi base (k ) + pf i ⋅ ∆Ptotal (t )
∆Ptotal (t ) = Pactual (t ) − ∑ P (k ) i base
i∈all gen

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 4
 Generator Allocation

Base points and participation factors
 participation factors are determined from a generator’s cost
function

dFi/dPi = Fi′

assume that both the first and second
derivatives exist for the cost function

the change in the system’s incremental
cost as a function of the change in ∆λ
power output on the ith generator λ0
( )
∆λi = ∆λsystem ≅ Fi′′ Pi 0 ⋅ ∆Pi
∆Pi

the change in system incremental cost
P i0 Pi
equaling the unit’s incremental cost is
Relationship of ∆λ and ∆Pi
true for all generating units
∆λ ∆λ ∆λ
= ∆P1 , = ∆P2 , L = ∆PN
F1′′ F2′′ FN′′
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 5
 Generator Allocation

Base points and participation factors
 the total change in generation must equal the change in the
total system demand, and is the sum of all the individual unit
changes
∆PD = ∆P1 + ∆P2 + L + ∆PN
1
= ∆λ ⋅ ∑
i∈all gen Fi ′′

 the participation factor for each generating unit is then found

as 1
∆Pi Fi′′
pf i = =
∆PD 1
∑
i∈all gen Fi ′′

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 6
 Generator Allocation

Example
 Consider a three generator system

the cost functions for the three generators
F1 (P1 ) = 561 + 7.92 P1 + 0.001562 P12
F2 (P2 ) = 310 + 7.85P2 + 0.00194 P22
F3 (P3 ) = 78 + 7.97 P3 + 0.00482 P32

an economic dispatch has been conducted for a
total load demand of 850 MW
 the system’s incremental cost is $ 9.148 / MWh
 the dispatch is: P1 = 393.2 MW, P2 = 334.6 MW, &
P3 = 122.2 MW

calculate the participation factors for the current dispatch,
and calculate the dispatch for a new total load of 900 MW

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 7
 Generator Allocation

Example
 participation factors
pf1 =
∆P1
=
(0.003124)
=
320.10
−1
= 0.47
∆PD (0.003124) + (0.00388) + (0.00964)
−1 −1 −1
681.57
∆P2 (0.00388)
−1
pf 2 = = = 0.38
∆PD 681.57
∆P (0.00964)
−1
pf 3 = 3 = = 0.15
∆PD 681.57
 new dispatch
∆PD = 900 − 850 = 50
P1 = P1 base + pf1 ⋅ ∆PD = 393.2 + (0.47 )(50) = 416.7
P2 = 334.6 + (0.38)(50) = 353.6
P3 = 122.2 + (0.15)(50) = 129.7

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 8
 Generator Control

Automatic generator control implementation
 the AGC schemes are usually centrally located at a control
center

system measurements, taken at the major substations, other
information and data are telemetered to the control center
 unit megawatt power output for each committed generating unit
 megawatt power flow over each tie line to neighboring systems
 system frequency

control actions are determined in a digital computer

control signals are transmitted to the generation units at remote
generation stations over the same communication channels
 raise / lower pulse signals change a generating unit’s load
reference point up or down

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 9
 Generator Control

Automatic generator control implementation
 the basic reset control loop for a generating unit
consists of an integrator with gain K

the integrator insures that the steady-state
control error goes to zero
 the scheduled power value is the control input

a function of the system frequency deviation,
net interchange error, and the unit’s deviation
from its scheduled economic output

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 10
 Generator Control

Automatic generator control implementation
 the basic generating unit’s power output control loop

+ K 1 1 ∆Pmech
Pi sch Σ load ref 1 + s TGi 1 + s TCHi output
s
_ set point
governor and prime mover

 implementation via telemetry

raise/lower request raise/lower request

control control
governor
∆Pmech
Pi sch logic logic
and
telemetry telemetry prime mover output
master remote
station station

at control center at generating plant

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 11
 Generator Control

The AGC calculation
 the input to the AGC combines the inputs of the various tie-
flows errors with the frequency deviation

the resultang is the area control error
fmeasured +
Σ B2 _
_
fstandard
Σ PACE
Ptie-1 _
+
+ +
Ptie-2 Σ Σ
+ _
Ptie-n
Psch. net interchange

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 12
 Generator Control

The AGC calculation
 the control must also drive the generating units to obey the
economic dispatch in addition to pushing the frequency and tie
flow errors to zero

the sum of the unit output errors is added to the ACE to form a
composite error signal

the generation allocation calculation is placed between the ACE
and the governor control / unit control loop

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 13
 Generator Control

Automatic generator control implementation
 a typical layout
ACE Generation Allocation Logic Unit Control Logic
f
+ + ε unit 1 raise/lower governor
_ std pf1 Σ Σ control logic
and
_ prime mover
+
fmeas Σ + ∆Pgen1

governor
+ + +
Σ Σ Σ
B raise/lower
pf1 control logic
and
_ _ _ prime mover
+ ∆Pgen2

_ Σ
K
s governor
+ +
Σ Σ
raise/lower
_ pf1 control logic
and
Ptie-i + _ prime mover
+ ∆Pgen3
+
Ptie-j Σ Σ Pbase Σ ++ + +
Ptie-k _
+
Psch int
+
Pbase-1 Pbase-2 Pbase-3 Σ
Σ ε unit i

© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 14
 Generator Control

Automatic generator control implementation
 good design requirements

the ACE signal should be kept moderate in size
 the ACE is influenced by random load variations
 the standard deviation of the ACE should be small

the ACE should not be allowed to drift
 the integral of the ACE should span an appropriate,
but small time period
 drift has the effect of creating system time errors or
inadvertent interchange errors

the control action should be kept to a minimum
 many errors are simple random load changes that
should not cause any control action
 chasing these random variations only wears out the
unit’s speed-changing hardware
© 2002, 2004 Florida State University EEL 6266 Power System Operation and Control 15