Eur. .I. Mech.

A/Solids I7 (1998) 789-806

0 Elsevier, Paris

Three-dimensional model for solids undergoing

stress-induced phase transformations

Angela C. Souzaa, EdgarN. Mamiya b, NestorZouain a*

a Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 21945970, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
b Universidade de Brasilia, 70910-900, BrasMa, DF, Brazil

(Received 12 August 1997; revised and accepted 27 March 1998)

Abstract - A phenomenological model describing the mechanical behavior of polycrystalline solids undergoing stress-induced phase
transformations is presented in the setting of three-dimensional (3-D) media. The model, which is developed within the framework of Generalized
Standatd Materials, has been built on a few basic assumptions, namely an admissibility condition for thermodynamic forces and a locking
constraint for phase transformations. The macroscopic kinematic consequences of stress-induced phase transformations are described by a tensor
named transformation strain. Numerical integrations of the resulting set of equations show that many features of shape memory alloys obtained by
certain authors for Cu-Al-Zn-Mn alloys under non-proportional loadings can be qualitatively described by the present model. 0 Elsevier, Paris
plasticity I pseudoelasticity / shape memory effect

1. Introduction

Shapememory alloys (SMAs) are materials which, after being subjectedto a severeapparentlyplastic
deformation,can recovertheir original shapeunder a limited increasein temperature.Such uniquemechanical
behavioris associatedwith stress-induced phasetransformationsfrom twinned to detwinnedmartensite(during
the ‘plastic’ deformation)and from detwinnedmartensiteto austenite(during shaperecovery).Representative
materialsexhibiting shapememory includeNiTi, CuZnAl, CuAlNi and AuCd alloys. Sincethe early sixties this
class of materialshas been consideredfor the design of pipe couplings,fasteners,clamps, ‘smart’ structures,
advancedcomposites,force actuatorsandheatengines(seee.g. reviewson varioususesin Wayman(1980)and
Duering et al. (1990)).Experimentalcharacterizationof NiTi SMAs was conductedby Miyazaki et al. (1981),
Mukherjeeet al. (1985),Leo et al. (1993),Tobushiet al. (1993, 1995)andLin et al. (1996a,b), amongstothers.
A carefulexperimentalstudyof the shapememoryeffect in NiTi alloys was presentedby Shawand Kyriakides
(1995), who addressedquestionsconcerninglocal versusaveragemeasuresof strains,spuriousmeasurements
of residual strains and dependenceof the heat transfer conditions on the stress-straincurves. Most of the
experimentalresultsin the literaturewereperformedon wires, which cannotlead to a completecharacterization
of the mechanicalbehaviorof SMAs in the settingof three-dimensional(3-D) media. Someexceptionsinclude
a very interestingpaperby Sittner et al. (1995),wherecombinedtensionandtorsionexperimentswith thin-wall
specimensof Cu-Al-Zn-Mn polycrystallineshapememory alloy were performedat constantroom temperature
associatedwith pseudoelasticbehavior.A numberof researchershave beeninterestedin proposingmodels for
the mechanicalbehaviorof SMAs. In the settingof elastic materials,Ericksen (1975)describeddiscontinuous
strain fields - in associationwith coexistingphases- by consideringnonmonotonousstress-strainrelations.

* Correspondence and reprints

790 A.C. Souza et al.

Falk (1980) proposed a polynomial free energy for monocrystalline SMAs. An alternative &scfiption for
the free energy function (based on piecewise quadratic polynomials) has been proposed by Fu et al. (1993).
Abeyaratne and Knowles (1988, 1990, 1992) proposed kinetic laws for the motion of phase interfaces together
with thermodynamic admissibility rules for phase transformation processes. Other fundamental researches in the
area have been conducted by James (1979), Abeyaratne (1983), Gurtin (1983), Ball and James (1987), Silling
(1988a, b), Abeyaratne et al. (1994) amongst others. In the setting of 3-D media, Bondaryev and Wayman
(1988) proposed a phenomenological model inspired by the classical plasticity theory, extending the study
reported by Bertram (1982). Fremond (1987, 1996) considered non-differentiable convex potentials (including
indicator functions for constraints) in the description of the macroscopic behavior of shape memory alloys.
Sun and Hwang (1994) derived their macroscopic model for polycrystalline SMAs from a description of the
phenomenon at the microscopic level. Patoor et al. (1994) defined the transformation strain and the free energy
at the single-crystal level and by using the self-consistent micromechanics method obtained the polycrystalline
transformation response. The 3-D equations presented by Graesser and Cozzarelli (1994) express the growth of
inelastic strains in a rate-type formulation similar to that of viscoplastic laws. Another interesting 3-D model
has been presented by Leclercq and Lexcellent (1996); Auricchio and Taylor (1997) have proposed a model
in the setting of large deformations.
In the present work, we propose a model which can describes the main features of polycrystalline shape memory
materials in the setting of 3-D media. It has been conceived within the framework of Generalized Standard
Materials (see Quoc Son, 1973; or Maugin, 1992), where internal variables are defined to describe the phase
transformation processes. As a consequence, the model at hand can be shown to present thermodynamically
consistent behavior in the sense that eventual energy dissipation is necessarily positive. Non-proportional
processes and associated phase transformations may be considered in our model.
The paper is presented as follows: Section 2 provides a brief description of pseudoelastic and shape memory
phenomena. The proposed mechanical model is introduced in Section 3: we define a symmetric and deviatoric
tensor, termed transformation strain, which describes the kinematic consequences of the average detwinning
process observed during phase transformation. In the sequence, we propose a potential for the Hehnholtz free
energy and a pseudo-potential of dissipation, from which the constitutive relations as well as the flow rule are
derived. Numerical implementation of the resulting equations is discussed in Section 4, while some numerical
results are reported in Section 5. These results show that the qualitative features of SMAs can be described
by the proposed model. In particular, a qualitative comparison with experimental results reported by Sinner
et al. (1995) for non-proportional loadings is described in this section. Finally, some concluding remarks are
addressed in Section 6.

2. Pseudoelasticity and shape memory effect

Shape memory alloys display different mechanical behavior at low and high temperatures. The pseudoelasticity
or superelasticity is associated with phase transformation between austenite and martensite upon stress at constant
room temperature. For the simple case of a uniaxial tensile test, a brief explanation follows: within a neighborhood
of the origin in the stress-strain space (line AB in figure la), the material assumes its parent phase (austenite
or twinned martensite) which presents an elastic behavior. If the stress level 0 = 0~ is attained then the
material undergoes a stress-induced direct truns$mnation (BC) to the product phase @twinned martensite).
Kinematically, this fact can be characterized by the development of a transformation strain &T such that the
total strain E and the elastic strain ce are related to each other by E = ce + ET. At C, the transformation strain
attains its limiting value ET = &., the direct transformation is complete and as a consequence further loetding
leads to an elastic behavior of the product phase (CD). If the material is unloaded from D, then elastic behavior
 3-D model for solids undergoing stress-induced phase transformations 791

can be observed (DE). If, at the temperature under consideration, the parameter CL is positive, then as long
as the stress level CT= CL is attained, an inverse rrunsfomzation (from the product phase to the parent one)
takes place. Kinematically this is described by the fact that the transformation strain decreases from & to 0
(EF). Finally, at F we have ET = 0, meaning that the inverse transformation is complete and therefore only
the parent phase is present in the material. If unloading is imposed during the direct transformation process,
say, at B’, then the material behaves elastically along B’E’. The same behavior can be observed if, during the
inverse transformation path EF, the material is reloaded, for instance, at E’. Due to the fact that, whenever a~
is positive, the specimen recovers completely its original shape, back to a stress-free configuration - even after
very large strain levels (up to 8%) - the material is named pseudoelastic or superelastic. Clearly it does not
constitute a true elastic material, since the stress-strain curve is history-dependent.
Close to the state of complete direct transformation, plastic deformation can eventually be observed in
polycrystalline materials, leading to a more complex description of the mechanical behavior of the material
at hand. For the sake of simplicity, we shall not include plastic deformations (in tbe sense of motions of
dislocations) in our study. In addition, the exothermic/endothermic nature of phase transformations will not be
considered either [see Shaw and Kyriakides (1995) for a description of such features in shape memory alloys].
It can be observed from Figure Ia that, during the loading cycle, a hysteresis loop BCEF is defined in
the stress-strain space. From the microscopic point of view, the hysteresis is related to changes in crystalline
orientation, typical of martensitic transformations.
Parameters (TH and (TL depend on the temperature of the material. If the material is subject to a cooling
process, then eventually a~ attains a negative value, as outlined in Figure Ib. If this is the case and we apply
loading processes where typical points B’, C or D in Figure 16 are attained, then residual strains (E or E’) can
be observed after unloading into a stress-free configuration. Now, if the material is heated then eventually the
parameter ~TL attains a positive value. As a consequence, the only admissible configuration under a stress-free
state becomes the strain-free point A in Figure la, and therefore the material undergoes an inverse transformation
process. Consequently, the original shape of the specimen is completely recovered, thereby characterizing the
so-called shape memory effect.
In this sequence, we propose a model for pseudoelastic and shape memory materials in the setting of 3-D
media. Unlike the major studies presented by Abeyaratne and Knowles (1988, 1990, 1992) or Silling (1988a, b),
we do not attempt to describe the interfaces of the phases involved in the transformation processes. Instead, in
our macroscopic approach, our goal is to describe the amount of the product phase as well as the corresponding
residual strain. Further, since we assume randomly distributed orientations of lattices in a polycryst&ne medium,
we do not make a distinction between the many variants of detwinned martensites. Instead, only the kinematic
consequences of phase transformations are described in the model.

A & A E’ E &
(a) high tampcwme ( b ) low tcmpcmtw

Figure 1. a, Pseudoelasticity; b, shape memory effect.

792 A.C. Souza et al.

3. The three-dimensional model

3. I. Preliminaries
Let Sym3 denotethe set of symmetric tensorsfrom R3 to W3.Let Sym3 be the subsetof Sym3 defined
by deviatoric tensors.For the sakeof simplicity, small deformationsare assumedthroughoutthis work, and
only quasi-staticmotions are considered.Let E denotethe classical Zinear strain tensor. The corresponding
deviatoric strain tensor e is defined as

e := E - j!j (b&)1 0)
where I is the identity tensor in R3.
If T denotesthe Cauchy stresstensor, then the deviatoric stress tensor S, work-conjugateto e, and the
mean stress Tm is given by

S:=T-;(trT)I:=T-T,I (2)

Stress-inducedphasetransformationsare relatedto detwinning of the lattice. From the kinematic point of

view, detwinningmanifestsitself mainly througha shearstrain.Therefore,we definea symmetricand deviatoric
transformation strain eT as a measureof averagedetwinning(and henceof phasetransformation)observedin
the material.When eT = 0, we can saythat the materialis in its parentphase(austeniteor twinned martensite),
when lleT/j = &, th e material is in its product phase (detwinnedmartensite),and when 0 < 1leTI] < & a
mixture of both parent and productphasescan be observedin the material. We should note that if & is the
amountof strain associatedwith the detwinnedmartensiticvariant,then eT is relatedto the volumetric fraction
cpof such a variant by )/eTl I = cpQ. In this setting,the transformationstrain can also be interpretedas the
mean strain of the mixture of austenite(or twinned martensitic)and detwinnedmartensitic phases.Note that
information on the preferredorientationof phasetransformationis also includedin this tensorialrepresentation.
The mechanicalmodel presentedin this work is designedwithin the framework of StandardGeneralized
Materials:two convex- but not necessarilydifferentiable- potentialsaredefined,from which the constitutive
relationsand the evolution law for the transformationstrain eT are derived.In order to extendthe conceptof
differentiationto nondifferentiableconvex functions, we make use of the notion of s&differentials (seee.g.
Ekelandand Teman, 1974):if x: U --t R, u H x(u), is a convexfunctional of u E U, thenthe subdifferential
of x, in the setting of U, is given by the set
ax(u) := {H E U; H. (v - u) 5 x(v) - x(u) Vv E U} (3)
The subdifferentialof x(u) is reducedto its gradientwheneverthe functional x is Frechetdifferentiableat u.
3.2. Helmholtz free energy and constitutive relations
Let us consider: (i) the trace of the linear strain tensor E, (ii) the deviatoric strain tensor e, (iii) the
transformationstraineT and (iv) the absolutetemperature8 as the statevariableswhich describethe mechanical
systemof interest.We proposethe following potential for the Helmholtzfree energy

where X and ,Uare the Lame constantsof the material, h is a material parameterrelatedto the hardeningof
the material during phasetransformationand TM(@),a positive and monatonicallyincreasingfunction of the
 3-D model for solids undergoingstress-inducedphasetransformations 793

temperature8, is the so-calledMaxwell stress(e.g. Gurtin, 1983).The indicator function I,c, (eT) associated
with the transformationstrain eT is defined as
if lIedI 2 Es
ItJeT) := O
+oo otherwise.
(5)
{

Suchan approachfor the descriptionof saturatedphasetransformationshasalreadybeenadoptedby Fremond

(1987, 1996).
From (4), we can write the following constitutiverelations

Tm :=
-3!-
a(tr&)
(tre,e,eT,O) = X + $ trE (6-a)
( >

XE-d,,~(t~~,e,e~,~)=S-(~~(~)~((e~Il+he~ +W&d) (6-C)

71E -%Il(t~~,e,eri-,@= -~w(~>IIwII. (6-d)
Equation (6-a) describesthe mean stresscorrespondingto changesin the volume of the material. Equa-
tion (6-b) is analogousto the stress-strainrelation usually consideredin classicalinfinitesimal elastoplasticity.
The trunsfonnationstressX is the work-conjugateto the transformationstraineT. Since the subdifferentialsin
(6-c) were consideredin the setting of symmetric and deviatorictensors,the thermodynamicforce X is also a
symmetric and deviatorictensorial quantity. We considerthat X is the driving force for phasetransformation
processes,and in this contextwe can interpretthe term 7~ (0) al [eT1I + h eT + a 4. (eT) as the ‘back-stress’
which definesthe ‘origin’ of the elastic domain.Finally, q is the density of entropy.
If eT = 0, then we have: dl(oTl(eT=o = {H E Sym3; l[Hll 5 l}, and consequently$ay concludefrom
(6-c) that the transformationstressX remainsundetermined.In this case,the phasetransformationprocessis
governedby Proposition 1, describedin Section 3.4.
Gn the other hand,if 0 < IleTll 5 &, then al[eTII = & and hence(6-c) becomesreducedto

eT
x=s-(T~(e)+h((eT(l+y)-
Iled
(7)
where
y=O ifO< ((eT((<& and Y 2 0 if lledl = Ss (8)
The constitutiverelation (6-c) is not definedfor lleT/ I > &; a I,c,(er) is empty.
3.3. Pseudo-potential of dissipation and evolution law for eT

In the sequence,an evolution law for the transformationstrain eT is proposed.In this sense,let us define
the so-calledpseudo-potentialof dissipation, given by

‘$(bT) := R jlbTj\ (9)

where R is a positive material parameterwhich can be interpretedas the radius of the elastic domain. The
following complementarylaw is associatedwith the functional (9)

x E &#+T)= Rd ll&‘ll
794 A.C. Souza et al.

Here again we find that for &T # 0, the function ([I$([ is differentiable and hence d(J+I(
= _I.f2- Therefore,
IpII
the transformation stress X has magnitude R and is directed toward 6~. On the other hand, w enever 6:~ = 0,
the function )\6T\) is not differentiable and as a consequence the thermodynamic force X belongs to the
subdifferential Rd(l~+~ljit~=~ := {H E Sglm3; ((HII _< R}. The set valued nature of the transformation stress
X during elastic processes (6~ = 0) implies, from (6-c), that S can attain a set of values which corresponds
to the elastic domain of the material.
A more convenient way to express the relation between X and 6~ can be obtained from the complementary
pseudo-potential of dissipation
C)*(x) := sup {x * i?T - I}
h”
= W’ {(llxll - R, ll’+ll~
6T (11)
0 if Ilxll I R
= I&X) :=
i +co otherwise.
Differentiation of (11) leads to the following flow rule
eT E acj*(x) = NE(X)* (12)
For IlX([ < R we have JR(X) = 0 and hence 6~ E 81~(X) = 0 (elastic behavior). Relation (12) is
not defined for llX]l > R (where IR(X) = +oo), and this is consistent with the fact that, from (lfl), the
transformation stress X is confined within a ball of radius R. Finally, for IlXfl = R, the flow nrle (12)
becomes reduced to
kT=(& (20 (13)
Therefore, the evolution law (12) can be restated equivalently as
c
(14-a)

M-J (14-b)
f(X) := l\Xll - R 5 0 (14-c)
cf(X) =o (14-d)

Relation (14-d) ensures that, while f(X) < 0 (i.e. llXl/ < R), we must have < = 0, which implies from
(14-a) that &T = 0, and hence the material behaves elastically. On the other hand, phase transformation (i.e.
c > 0) requires from (14-d) that f(X) = 0 (i.e. I IX(( = R).
Since we are designing the model within the framework of Generalized Standard M@erials, it can be shown
that convexity and positiveness of 4(&T), together with the fact that this potential is null at the origin, ensure
thermodynamic consistency of the proposed model in the sense that the Clausius-Duhem statement of the
Second Law is satisfied.
Indeed, dissipation is given by
D:=T.P-?j;(tre,e,eT,6)-sB-~.V6r
 3-D model for solids undergoingstress-inducedphasetransformations 795

where constitutive relations (6) were considered,togetherwith the flow rule (14) and Fourier’s law for heat
conduction: q = -kV8, k > 0.
3.4. Nucleation of the product phase
When the only phasepresentin the material is the parentone (eT = 0), the transformationstressX cannot
be determinedfrom the constitutiverelation (6-c). As a consequence,it is not possibleto determinethrough
the analysisof (12) or (14) whethernucleationof the productphasetakesplace or not. The propositiongiven
below, basedon continuity arguments,providesthe answer.
RegardingProposition1, If eT = 0, then phasetransformationtakesplace only if

Moreover, when the product phasenucleates,the thermodynamicforce X is given by:

For proof regardingthe above,let us considera mechanicalprocess,startingfrom eT = 0, with &T # 0. Since

IIS-XII = w(O)+hlJeTII hoIds f or eT in a neighborhoodof 0, it follows by continuitythat 11
S - Xl 1= 7~ (13)
holds at the beginingof the processunderconsideration.Therefore,if phasetransformationis expectedto occur
when oT = 0, then we must have
llSll= IIS- X + XII i IIS- XII + IIXII= n&J>+ R (18)
due to the fact that, from (14-c) and (14-d), phasetransformationrequiresIlX(( = R. Strict inequality holds
in the expressionaboveif S - X and X do not point in the same direction. If this were the case,however,
kT # 0 pointing toward X, as requiredby the flow rule, would lead to a transformationstrain @Tvery close
to the direction of the final X when integratedin a sufficiently short process.This would be inconsistent
with the fact that, in view of (7), the integratedt?T shouldpoint toward S - X. Such inconsistencyis clearly
removedwhen equality in (18) is consideredinstead,which correspondsto the caseof S - X, X andtherefore
S pointing toward the same direction.
3.5. Criteria for elastic behavior and phase transformation
The mechanical model defined by potentials (4) and (1l), togetherwith the correspondingconstitutive
relations (6), evolution law (12) or (14) and nucleationcriterion expressedby Proposition 1, can predict the
following situations
i) Elastic behavior
i?T = 0 (1%
for
oT = 0 and \lSll < TM(~) + R (X undetermined) (20)
or
eT#O ad lIXIl<R (21)
ii) Phasetransformation(proportionaland nonproportionalloading)
796 A.C. Souza et al.

for (nucleation)

eT = 0, )/s/t = w(@ + R and X=R&, (23)

or
0 < llerll < &., X = S - (cw(~> + h IleTll)fi and IIXII = R (24)
iii) Saturatedphase transformation

for
lleTII=&s, X=S-(w(@> +hlledl+~)f&, ~20 and IlXll=R (26)

The constraint&T . eT = 0 in (25) arisesfrom the condition IleT/\’ = 0 which imposesthe constraintthat
the material is not experiencingany changein phaseproportions.
Figure 2 illustratesa numberof the featuresof the mechanicalmodel.The parentphaseis associatedwith the
horizontalregion ubcd. Mixtures of phasesare relatedto the surfacecdef and the productphaseis represented
by the horizontalregion efgh. Point c correspondsto the nucleationof the productphase,since I/X/j = R and
((S - X(1 = TM(~). Phasetransformationstake place only along the line c$ where IIX(l = R. For 11”~(( # 0,
elasticpathsaredefinedby horizontallines on surfacecd@ Saturatedphasetransformationsare representedby
pathson line fg. The horizontalregion efgh containselastic processesexceptobviously thoseon fg.

Figure 2. Admissible paths for elastic behavior and phase transformations.

4. Numerical aspects

In what follows, we presentthe numerical aspectsrelatedto the discretizationin time of the proposedset
of constitutiverelations.We note that nonhomogeneousfields have not beenconsideredand as a conse@ence,
spatial discretizationis not addressedhere.
 3-D model for solids undergoing stress-induced phase transformations 797

4.1. Discretization in time

A backward Euler scheme is now adopted for the integration of the mechanical model under consideration.
Consequently, expressions (6) for the constitutive relations, together with the flow rule (14) become

(Zn)n+l=
sn+l = 2p(e,+1- eTn+l) (27-b)
eTn+l
X n+l -S
- n+l- (Q4(e>
+ h lleTn+iII+ %+I) (27-c)
lleTn+lll
Yn+l 2 0, (27-d)

eTn+l =eTn + AC (27-e)

ll2ll
IkTn+lii 5 ES (27-f)
AC 2 0 (27-g)
f(Xn+l) := JJXn+lJI - R I 0 (27-h)
AC f(Xn+l) = 0 (27-i)

for eTn+l # 0, where subscripts n and n + 1 refer respectively to time instants t, and tn+l, while A< := t At.

4.2. Return mapping

In the present study, we consider a Return Mapping algorithm for the integration of expressions (27), inspired
from developments presented by Simo and Taylor (1985, 1986) within the context of infinitesimal plasticity.
Basically, the algorithm consists of: (i) computing a trial state under the assumption that the material behaves
elastically, (ii) determining whether the computed trial state is actually elastic, and (iii) projecting the state
variables so as to verify all the constraints imposed by the problem if the trial state is not elastic.
We consider here that the mechanical loading upon the material is imposed through a prescribed strain
&n+l. The algorithm initially computes a trial state (SE?:, XFf; ) where an elastic behavior is assumed by
making et,TEi, = eTn-
Let us initially consider that 0 < IleT, (I < &. In this case, we have

(28-a)

xtrial _ @aI
n+l - n+l - ( TM(~) + h jle~~~l (28-b)

From (21), it follows that elastic behavior is expected from the material if the following condition is verified

IlX:,‘tp:llI R for 0 < llerrnll< Fs (29)

For the specific case of I?Tn = 0, the trial force XK$ cannot be computed from (28-b). Nevertheless, Sz’j
still can be computed from (28-a). Further, we know from (20) that elastic behavior of the parent phase is
associated with the condition

IlS~~~II 5 TM(~) + R for eTn = 0 (30)

798 A.C. Souza et al.

Finally, the case for which 1)eTn (( = & has to be considered. Here, the step is elastic whenever there
exists y > 0 such that

(31)

In order to verify the existence of y 2 0, we notice that the expression in (31) describes a tensor varying on
the half of a straight line, parametrized by a positive y. It clearly suffices to consider the closest point projection
of the origin onto such a set and then compare its norm with the material parameter R, i.e.

llffll := IIf3 +?nlI 5 R for /leT.ll = Is (32)

where

and
+:=<-S-n> (34)
where < l > accounts for the positive part of (0).
If one of the conditions (29), (30) or (32) holds, then the step is elastic, the trial state is the actual state
at time instant tn+l and hence we can write

(35)

On the other hand, if none of the conditions (29), (30) or (32) is verified, then a phase transformation is
expected to occur and we must compute A( > 0 such that, from the algorithmic expressions (27)

eTn+l = eTn + AC (36-a)

ll?zll
IIXn+lll = R (36-b)
Sn+l = 2P (en+1 - eTn+l) (36-c)
eT n+l
X n+l - Sn+l - hf(4 + h IIeTn+llj +X+1) (36-d)
IbTn+lIl
“ln+l L 0 (36-e)

Additionally, we deduce from (36-a) and (36-b) that

eTn+l - eTn
X n+l
eTn+l - eTn II
(37)
=Rll

We shall next explain a procedure to solve the system of equations (36). First, we assume that
0 < ((eTn+lII < CS. Then, %+l = 0 and we obtain by using (36) and (37) a set of nonlinear equations

eTn+l - eTn
deTn+l) := R - 2P (en+1 - eTn+l) + (Qf(@ i- h lleTn+lII) ,,~~~1:1, = 0 (38)
IbTn+l - eTn\\
which can be solved, for instance, by a Newton-type method.
 3-D model for solids undergoingstress-inducedphasetransformations 799

If the solution of (38) does not verify the assumption(lern+l 11< ES,then yn+r > 0 and (38) must be

=
replacedby an expandedset of nonlinear equations
eTn+l - e2h -

I
2~ (en+1- eTn+d
RII eTn+l - e7hjl
G(eTn+l,Yn+d:= 0 (39)
+ (wf(~> + h lle2h+lll+ +th+d ,1~~~~:1,
llezh+lII - Es
The resulting algorithm is describedas follows
InikdiZatiOns: tn = 0, En = 0, eTn = 0
For each time step
tn+l = tn + At
en+1 = en + Aen+1
eFFil = eTn

21-L(%+I - $Tl,a:l)
striaz
=
n+l

The step is elastic if

eTn = 0 and IlS~$j,‘II 5 TM(~) + R,

or
IleTnll = Is and I@:(( := [I$ + Trill 6 R
where > 7

and thus

or else phase transformution takes place

Find the solution eTn+r of the set of nonlinearequations

eTn+l -f-h
- %(%+I - eTn+i) + (%4(~>+ hlleTn+lII) Il~~~f:ll = Cl
Rll eTn+l - vhll
If the above solution leads to the nonadmissiblesolution jJe~~+lI) > &, then we find the solution
(eT n+r, m+r ) of the expandedset of nonlinearequations
ern+l- e2h- 2p (en+1- ~T~+I) i- (TV(@)-t hQ -k %+I) eTn+l
RIl wn+l - Wnll llcfn+lII =0
IleTn+lll - <s I

sn+l = 2p(en+l- eTn+l)

800 A.C. Souza et al.

5. Numerical results

The numerical results presented in this section illustrate the capabilities of the proposed model as well as the
performance of the corresponding algorithm. First, let us consider a strain-driven uniaxial traction-compression
tensile test. Let us assume that the dependence of the Maxwell stress upon the temperature is given by
rn/r(19) :=< ,L?(6’ - 00) >. The parameter p represents the sensitivity of the Maxwell stress with respect to
temperature, while 190is the temperature below which no twinned martensite is observed.
The following material parameters are considered: E = 70 GPa, u = 0.33, R = 45 MPa, 00 = 253.15’K,
,L3= 7.5 MPaOK-I, h = 500 MPa and & = 0.03. Figure 3 shows the corresponding stress-strain curves at three
distinct temperatures: 285.15 K, 269.15 K and 253.15 K. As expected, hysteresis loops for both traction and
compression are described by the model, and raise of the temperature increases the distance between these loops.

ulea = B5.15 -Lt-

tllaa=269.15 f: -F-

theta= 253.15 K -+-

-0.M -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Figure 3. Symmetric loops under traction-compression tests.

In the sequence, we consider temperature-driven uniaxial tensile tests under prescribed stress levels. Figure 4
shows strain-temperature diagrams corresponding to the following values of prescribed stress: 300, 450 and
600 MPa. The same material properties as in the first example are considered here. In agreement with
experimental observations, the model describes a steep drop in strain during he&ng, which is recovered under
cooling. Further, the magnitude of the prescribed stress determines the position of the hysteresis loop.
In the two cases described above, the pseudoelastic behavior of the model is observed. The shape memory
effect, on the other hand, can be illustrated in the following example (see$gure 5): by considering once more
the same material properties as in the first example, we start the tensile test at 253.15 K, for which the Maxwell
stress 7111 is smaller than the radius R of the elastic domain. Isothermal stress-driven lo&ng, up to 70 MPa
(point C), is imposed, followed by unloading back to a stress-free state, leading to an in&Wic r&i&& strain
 3-D model for solids undergoingstress-inducedphasetransformations 801

o.M!
0.035

0.03

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0 axialsQws=3OO~a +--
axialstress=4MMPa -
-0.005 axialstrfxw=600Wa -

-0.01 1 I , I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
temperature
Figure 4. Thermalloading at constant stress.

axial stress C

axial strain

Figure 5. The shape memory effect.

(point D). In the sequence,the temperatureis increasedup to 259.15 K and, in consequence,the original
strain-freestateis recovered(line EF), thereforecharacterizingthe shapememory effect.
Our next goal is to establisha qualitative comparisonwith experimentalresultsreportedby Sittner et al.
(1995)on Cu-Al-Zn-Mn (Cu: 10 wt%, Al: 5 wt%, Zn: 5 wt%, Mn:) polycrystallinespecimensat constantroom
temperature(285 K) when subjectedto uniaxial traction,uniaxial torsion andcombinedtraction and torsion.
The material parametersusedhere,i.e. E = 30.7 GPa, u = 0.36, R = 73.4 MPa, TM = 131 MPa, h = 9.23
GPa and IS = 0.1 - are chosenso as to fit a stress-strainexperimentalcurve (figure 5 of the aforementioned
802 A.C. Souza et al.

reference) describing a uniaxial traction test. Experimental and numerical results for uniaxial traction are shown
in jigure 6.

Figure 6. Loading-unloading uniaxiaf traction test: numerical simulation and experimental results from Sittner et al. (1995).

For the torsion test, a comparison between the results obtained from our model and the experimental findings
of Sinner et al. (1995) is shown in figure 7.

350

3ou

IS0

100

50

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 o.u25 0.03 0.035 0.04

7. Loading-unloading torsion test: numerical simulation and experimental results from Sittner et al. (1995).

We notice that our model for stress-induced transf&ons, as in s;eCtiun 3, can 178 ce the
main aspects of the experimental results in simple traction and pure s&K However, if ihe slop@ in the tm&on
 3-D model for solids undergoing stress-induced phase transformations 803

test are used in order to identify the material parameters, then the slope in the stress versus strain graph
for pure shear is underestimated, as shown in @figure 7. To overcome this difficulty several modifications or
improvements of the model can be considered. As an example, we show in Jigure 7, together with the results
of the model in Section 3, the curve corresponding to a modified model which includes volumetric phase
transformation strain trek, as explained in the sequence. This modified model is obtained by substituting the
constraint l\Xll 5 R, introduced in (14-c), by

IlXll+ 4Yl I I-2 (40)

where we preserve trX = 0 and introduce y as a thermodynamic force, work-complementary to the volumetric
phase transformation strain treT. The symbol a denotes an additional material parameter. Therefore, we now
have two parameters, h and (Y, to be determined by fitting the slopes, during phase transformation, in the
traction and shear tests. The material parameters used in this modified model are: E = 30.7 GPa, v = 0.36,
R = 85 MPa, TM = 105 MPa, h = 16 GPa , es = 0.1 and (II = 0.7.
The model in Section 3, with the material parameters identified in the traction test, is now applied to simulate
the non-proportional traction-torsion test performed by Sittner et al. (1995). In this test, the specimen is initially
subjected to a stress driven traction, followed by a stress-driven torsion. In the sequence, the traction load is
removed and finally the torsion load is also removed. The loading path is described in figure 8 (ABCDE).
Figures 9-11 show experimental results and the corresponding numerical simulations for the stress path in
Figure 8.

2ul
r D c -

I I I
0 50 100 150 200 ZSO
UiaIslmss

Figure 8. Non-proportional loading path (Sittner et al., 1995).

From the qualitative point of view, most of the features observed in the experiments are reproduced by
the proposed model.

6. Concluding remarks

We propose a new model for the description of pseudoelastic behavior and shape memory effect in the setting
of 3-D media under small deformations. The mechanical model is thermodynamically consistent in the sense
that the Clausius-D&em inequality is automatically verified. One of the characteristics of the model is that
it is based on a few simple assumptions, which can be physically justified. Numerical simuM.ions have been
provided to illustrate qualitatively the capabilities of the model at hand. Further studies should be performed to
804 A.C. Souza et al.

0.015

0.005

0 O.ooj 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

axialstrain
Figure 9. Path followed by strain.

300

250

200

i! 150
ij
100

50
exp?rimW (ABCDE) -
maWmg(abcde) -

‘[A-f Dd, , , /
_ ~~ -
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
axial strain
Figure 10. Axial stress-strain curve.

seekquantitativefitting with experimentalresults.In the specific caseof the differencesobservedin figures 7,

9-11, we could consideramongmany possibilitiesdistinct flow rules for the norm of the transformationstrain
oT (changein the volume fraction) and for its orientation(transformationsamong variants).This is motivated
by the fact that fromJigum 9, we observethat to obtain a betterfitting along the pa& CD, the rateof in
volume fraction of the parentphase(austenite)shouldbe greaterthanthe rate of changein the orientatiottof&e
transformationstraineT. A numberof featuresof stress-induced plme ~~~
nonsymmetricbehaviorobservedexperimentallydur&g tensile-compression tests,ii)
 3-D model for solids undergoingstress-inducedphasetransformations 805

250

2cKl

150

z loo
4

50

0
B=b=e

0. 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

shear strain
Figure 11. Shear stress-strain curve.

during cyclic loads without saturationof the productphase,iii) nonlinearhardeninglaws, iv) rate dependence
of the flow rule, v) exothermic/endotbermicnatureof the phasetransformationprocesses,vi) localization of
strainsandotherphenomenadescribede.g.by ShawandKyriakides(1995).Furtherdevelopmentsof the current
model will be reportedin a future paper.

Acknowledgements

This project was supportedby CNPq (underprojects520564/96-Oand 523386196-6)and by CAPES. Their

support are gratefully acknowledged.

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