Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99

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Industrial Crops and Products

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Polypropylene biocomposites reinforced with softwood, abaca, jute,

and kenaf fibers
A.K. Bledzki a , P. Franciszczak a,∗ , Z. Osman b , M. Elbadawi b
a
West Pomeranian University of Technology Szczecin, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics, Institute of Materials Science, Piastów 19
Avenue, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
b
Institute for Technological Research, National Center for Research, Khartoum, Sudan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The presented research study compares different types of common natural fibers used as a reinforcement
Received 15 October 2014 in plastic composite industry. It contains characterization of each fiber type, its preparation method, and
Received in revised form 2 March 2015 its chemical and physical properties. It follows from a description of the polypropylene biocomposite
Accepted 6 March 2015
manufacturing process and physical properties of the obtained biocomposite materials. The biocom-
posites were manufactured in the same way and have the same matrix-to-fibre content (60/40 wt%).
Keywords:
Therefore, the particular physical and chemical properties of the fibers used as a reinforcement and their
Natural fibers
influence onto mechanical properties of their biocomposites can be evaluated. This approach provides
Polypropylene biocomposites
Physical properties
practical tools of how to tailor the properties of PP biocomposites by simply choosing an adequate fiber
Chemical properties type as a matrix reinforcement. Furthermore, the information regarding: cultivation, price, and availabil-
Mechanical properties ity are compared to give a holistic view for these most common natural fibers for technical applications
Toughness in plastic industry.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction emissions. Besides more favorable eco-balance, than their synthetic

Natural fibers of vegetable origin have been used as a reinforce-
ment in plastic resins and thermoplastics since the very beginning
of this branch of chemical industry. Thermosetting composites
reinforced with cellulose fibers were introduced to the automotive
industry by Ford and DKW in the 1920s of the last century. Nat-
ural fibers were later on surpassed by synthetic fibers on account
of their competitive price, production output, and higher perfor-
mance (Bledzki et al., 2012). Although synthetic fibers excel in these
terms, natural ones have still some unique properties, which may
benefit their composites in some applications. Their most impor-
tant advantages are lower density, vibration dumping, and blunt
fracture. The resistance to creep under load in elevated tempera-
tures can be increased to the same extent as with synthetic fibers.
They reduce also wear of screws and barrels of plastic processing
equipment compared with commonly used glass fibers. Another
issue which turns back attention of the plastic industry toward nat-
ural fibers is the trend toward the application of raw-renewable
resources and concerns on reduction of greenhouse gases and CO2
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 914494173.
E-mail address: piotr.franciszczak@zut.edu.pl (P. Franciszczak).
counterparts, natural fibers as raw-renewable materials may help
to diversify raw resources and are independent from the price of
crude oil. Furthermore, at the end of their life, they can be burned
as a fuel without emitting greenhouse gases (Faruk et al., 2012;
Bledzki and Gassan, 1999; Beier, 2009).
Natural fibers can be produced from different parts of plants
like leafs, bast, stem, bark, or seeds. This process involves harvest-
ing, soaking, brushing, and drying. Their chemical composition,
especially cellulose content and the orientation of fibrils deter-
mines mechanical properties of each fiber type. All natural fibers
for industrial applications have high amounts of cellulose, but the
structure of cellulose microfibrils may vary, resulting in different
tensile strengths and elongations at stress. Also the diameter of a
single fiber is different for each fiber type. The main natural fibers
applied in the plastic industry are: jute, sisal, flax, coir, abaca, kenaf,
and softwood (Faruk et al., 2012; FAO, 2014).
Natural fibers consist of polar lignocellulosic matter, therefore,
in case of the reinforcing process of non-polar polyolefine matri-
ces a coupling agent has to be used. Commonly used anhydride
grafted polyolefine waxes provide a solution, that can be read-
ily applied during plastic processing as compatibilizers. This is
advantageous compared to synthetic fibers, on which an additional
seizing must be applied at the stage of fiber production in order

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.03.013
0926-6690/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
92 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99
to create interphase between matrix and fiber. The polarity of lig-
nocellulose results in hydrophobic nature of natural fibers, so the
drying before processing is essential in order to avoid weaken-
ing of fiber-matrix interface due to vaporizing of water from fiber
at elevated processing temperatures. Attention must be paid also
to keep the processing at possibly low temperatures (200 ◦ C), to
avoid decomposition of lignin, which may result in deterioration
of fibers’ strength. For these reasons, polypropylene is most likely
to be used as an engineering plastic for the manufacture of natural
fiber biocomposites (Faruk et al., 2012; Bledzki and Gassan, 1999).
This paper presents biocomposites reinforced with the most
popular industrial grade natural fibers used in technical appli-
cations. They contain equal fiber to matrix weight ratios,
compatibilizer content and were manufactured and processed in
exactly the same way. This approach enables to give a better insight
into how the physical properties of fibers and their geometry influ-
ence the mechanical properties of their composites. This gives a far
more accurate estimation than mostly provided collations of data
from different overview articles and handbooks.
1.1. Softwood
Wood fibers are divided into two main categories – softwood
and hardwood (fibers derived from respectively – soft conifers
and hard deciduous trees). Softwood is the common name given
to conifers, classified botanically as Gymnosperms, which means
that their seeds are not enclosed in the ovary of the flower. The
main difference in the anatomy of soft and hardwoods is lack of
pores in softwood species. Softwoods have usually bearing in cone
form plants with needle or scale-like evergreen leaves. In compar-
ison to hardwoods, softwoods represent a smaller percentage of
the diversity seen in the structure and morphology. Beyond that
softwoods have a simpler structure than hardwoods, because it
consists of only two types of cell which exhibits little variation. The
basic structural elements of softwood are longitudinal tracheids –
long and slender cells (90%), besides this – transversely oriented
ray parenchyma (10%). The arrangement of tracheids is ordered,
they are placed in neat rows within the trunk. Longitudinal ele-
ments are responsible for all structural support and conduction. The
ray parenchyma ensures conduction and storage in the transverse
direction. Common species of softwoods used in wood–plastic
include pine, spruce, and fir. For the purposes of wood–plastic com-
posite production the wood flour or very short fibers are used.
In most cases, these can be obtained directly from forest product
companies, such as sawmills, limber mills as a byproduct of wood
processing. One exception from the rule is the automotive indus-
try where also long fibers from softwood are used at compression
molding of thermoplastic composites (Bledzki et al., 2002, 2006;
Green et al., 1999; Östman, 1985; Mohanty et al., 2005; Shmulsky
and Jones, 2011).
1.2. Abaca
Abaca is extracted from the leaf sheath around the trunk of
the abaca plant (Musa textilis), which is a species of banana tree
native to the Philippines. Presently, banana fiber is a waste prod-
uct of banana cultivation. Therefore, the manufacturing of fibers for
industrial purposes is possible at the cost of their processing. The
world’s leading abaca fiber producer is the Philippines (57,000 t in
2010), and the second – Ecuador (10,000 t in 2010).
A single fiber has a length up to 3 m. Abaca fiber exhibits great
mechanical strength (it is considered the strongest among natural
fibers) and resistance to saltwater damage and is lustrous and light
beige in color. Even in comparison to its synthetic counterparts (like
nylon), abaca fiber has higher tensile strength and lower elongation.
Abaca is still used in the production of ropes, twines, fishing
lines, and nets, as well as coarse cloth for sacking. It is also used for
abaca clothing, curtains, screens, and furnishing. However, most of
fibers are processed into specialty paper e.g., for tea and coffee bags,
sausage casing paper, currency notes, cigaret filter papers, vacuum
bags, and more. In some applications in automotive industry abaca
fibers have a potential to substitute glass fibers. They have been
used for many years by Daimler–Chrysler in the production of inte-
rior and exterior car parts (FAO, 2014; Bledzki et al., 2006; Koronis
et al., 2013).
1.3. Jute
Jute is the most important plant alongside with cotton that are
cultivated solely for their fibers. Jute fibers are extracted from the
bark of the white jute plant (Corchorus capsularis) and from tossa
jute (C. olitorius) by either biological or chemical retting process. It
is characterized by golden and silky shine and therefore, known as
‘the Golden Fiber’. A single jute fiber has a length ranging from 1
to 4 m. Jute fibers consist mostly of cellulose and lignin. The struc-
ture of a jute fiber has a polygonal section of various sizes, which
results in uneven thickness of fiber cell walls, and this in turn causes
variations in strength.
Jute bast fiber is separated from the pith in a retting process. In
case of water retting, cut jute stalks are placed in ponds for several
weeks. Microbial action in the pond softens the jute fiber and weak-
ens the bonds between the individual fibers and the pith. The fiber
strands are then manually stripped from the jute stick and hung on
racks to dry.
Jute fibre is a good insulator and it has antistatic properties.
Moreover, it is characterized by moderate moisture retention. It is
resistant to microorganisms, but not to chemical and photochem-
ical attack. Due to a high lignin content (up to 20%), jute fibers are
brittle, but strong and have a low extension to break (about 1.5%).
Jute fibers are used in many sectors of industry, like fashion, travel,
luggage, furnishing and in the production of carpets and other floor
coverings, and last but not least as a reinforcement in biocompos-
ites (FAO, 2014; Mohanty et al., 2005; Koronis et al., 2013).
1.4. Kenaf
Kenaf, known also as Hibiscus cannabinus is a plant in the genus
Hibiscus and has about 300 species. It is a warm season annual
fiber crop of the Malvaceae family, which is known for its economic
importance and it is closely related to cotton and okra. It originated
from Africa, but nowadays it is planted in many parts of the world
owing to its low growing requirements. It reaches heights up to 2.4
to 6 m in 5 months. This plant is distinguished by highest carbon
dioxide absorption among other plants (1 t of kenaf absorbs 1.5 t of
atmospheric carbon dioxide).
The fibers in kenaf are situated in the bast (cortical layer) and
core (wood). The bast constitutes 40% of the plant. The single
fibers are 2–6 m long. Kenaf fibers are usually extracted using the
same method as in jute. However, environmental concerns prevent
the retting of kenaf fiber in some countries, therefore, alternative
means of separating the bast from the pith are employed. In dry
separation, which fractures the pith, the kenaf stalk is chopped into
shorter lengths. Subsequently standard screening and air separa-
tion techniques can be used to separate the two different materials.
Commercially, kenaf bast fiber separated this way can be purchased
98% pith-free.
Kenaf fiber has a pale color because it contains less noncellulosic
compounds than e.g., jute. Its fibers are coarse and quite brittle.
It exhibits breaking strength similar to jute (Bledzki et al., 2002;
Mohanty et al., 2005; Koronis et al., 2013).
 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99 93

2. Materials and methods Jute

2.1. Materials
Polypropylene produced by Bassel–Orlen, type HP400R (injec-
tion molding grade homopolymer), was used as the matrix. Its
typical customer applications are furniture and housewares. This
homopolymer exhibits good stiffness and high fluidity of MFR = 25
and MVR = 34 (230 ◦ C/2.16 kg).
A description of industrial grade natural fibers used as a rein-
forcement is provided in Table 3. A matrix-to-fiber weight ratio of
60/40 was used for all biocomposites.
Maleic acid anhydride grafted PP wax (MAH-g-PP) TP Licocene
PP MA 6452 from Clariant, Germany of 3.3 wt% in relation to the
matrix was applied as a compatibilizer between a non-polar matrix
and polar lignocellulosic fibers.
Softwood
Jeluxyl Weho 500 from Jeluxyl, Germany, is a mixture of
pine and fir wood flour. This light yellow powder of bulk den-
sity ∼130 g/l and pH ∼5.5 is obtained by wood milling. Loss
on drying is ∼ 5.5 wt%. Sieve residues on Alpine air draft sieve
are: ∼90% > 75 ␮m; ∼50% > 180 ␮m; and ∼1% > 500 ␮m (Jeluxyl
Weho500, 2014).
Jute fiber cord was obtained from J. Schilgen GmbH & Co., Ems-
detten, Germany. The cord twist number was Nm 3.6/1. The original
fiber length was 3–3.5 m long. The color of fibers is light brown.
Jute fibers were mechanically cut into 2 mm lengths at EKOTEX,
Namysłów, Poland.
Abaca
Musa textilis used to produce the cord was planted in the
Philippines. Manila Cordage was delivered by Rieter Automo-
tive, Heatshields AG, Sevelen, Switzerland. Bundle diameter
150 ± 50 ␮m, density 1.5 g/cm3 , tensile strength ca. 900 MPa
(Kozlowski et al., 2008). The fiber quality according to FIDA (Fiber
Industry Development Authority) is S3. The color of fibers is dark
brown. Abaca fibers were mechanically cut into 2 mm lengths at
EKOTEX, Namysłów, Poland.
Kenaf
Kenaf was planted and its fibers were prepared by water ret-
ting processes at a pilot plant in the farm of Khartoum University,
Sudan. The process used by authors relied on manual decortica-
tion of the bast of outer bark of the freshly harvested stems, which
was subsequently subjected to controlled rotting in water medium

Table 1
Properties of fibers.

Fiber Density Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Tensile strength Young’s modulus Elongation Quotation
[g/ccm] [wt%] [wt%] [wt%] (of single fibre) (of single fibre) [%]
[MPa] [GPa]

Softwood 1.5 40–45 20–30 26–34 70–92 8.9–12.3 ∼1.5 (Bledzki et al., 2002; Green
et al., 1999; Östman, 1985;
Mohanty et al., 2005)
Abaca 1.5 60.8–64 17.5–21 12–15.1 430–1135 9.8–35.1 3.4–11.1 (Koronis et al., 2013;
Baltazar-y-Jimenez et al., 2008;
Munawar et al., 2006; Lewin,
2007)
Jute 1.3–1.45 61–71.5 13.6–20.4 11.8–16 340–470 1.3–42.2 1.15–1.5 (Lewin, 2007; Peponi et al.,
2008; Saha et al., 2010;
Mohanty et al., 2015)
Kenaf 1.19–1.2 31–39 21–21.5 15.9 470–785 25.1 1.75–1.9 (Baltazar-y-Jimenez et al.,
2008; Mohanty et al., 2015;
Mahjoub et al., 2014)

Strengths for abaca, jute, and kenaf are related to single fibre; strength of softwood parallel to grain in dry state.

Table 2
Availability and market information.

Fiber Source Region of grow Yield per year Annual crop Annual Market export Quotation
[t/ha] interval production [Mt] price [USD/t]

Softwood Tree-trunk Europe and North ∼6 60–80 years ∼1750a 350–450 (Personal inquiry at
America JELU-WERK, 2015; The
Statistics Division of the Food
and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, 2015;
Clapham et al., 2003; Maguire
et al., 2005)
Abaca Leaf South-East Asia 0.5–2 90–240 days 0.07 1400–1700 (FAO, 2014; Munawar et al.,
(Philippines) and 2006)
Ecuador
Jute Bast/skin South Asia (India 2 120 days 3.5 500–600 (FAO, 2014; Baltazar-y-Jimenez
and Bangladesh) et al., 2008; The Statistics
Division of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, 2015)
Kenaf Bast/skin North America, 12–22 150–180 days 0.33 700–800 (Munawar et al., 2006; Webber
Asia, and Africa et al., 2002; Chen and Liu,
2010)
a
Relates to all roundwood world production in 2013.
94 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99
Table 3
Reinforcing fibers for PP biocomposites.
Trade name Botanical name
Jeluxyl Weho500 softwood Picea abies and Abies alba
Abaca Musa textilis
Jute Corchorus capsularis
Kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus
for 10 days in open tanks. The degradation of pectins occurring
by microbial action led to fibrillation of lignocellulosic fiber bun-
dles. The separated fibers were washed with fresh water in order to
remove the residues of pectin and decomposed organic materials.
Afterwards they were dried at room temperature. Obtained single
fibers were 1.2–1.5 m long of bright hue containing little amounts
of darker bark residues (Paridah et al., 2011). Kenaf fibers were
mechanically cut into 2 mm lengths at EKOTEX, Namysłów, Poland.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Chemical composition of natural fibers
All chemical compositions of grain by-products were measured
according to the official method PB-02/PS and PB 50/PS which
are in accordance with the analysis of AOAC International (AOAC
methods, 2007). The analytical results were measured twice, their
standard deviation equaled 5%.
2.2.1.1. Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents. Neutral deter-
gent dietary fiber (NDF), acid detergent dietary fiber (ADF), and
acid detergent lignin (ADL) contents were measured using the Van
Soest chemical method with modifications made by McQueen and
Nicholson. The modifications relied on the application of alpha-
amylase, in order to successfully degrade the starch. Dietary fiber
was isolated by means of detergent solutions of acidic and neutral
pH. Hot extractions of samples were carried out. The hemicellulose
fraction was calculated on the basis of the NDF and ADF difference,
while the cellulose fraction was calculated using the difference
between ADF and ADL.
2.2.1.2. Starch contents. The starch content was determined
according to the Polish norm PN-R-64785:1994. This method relies
on the dissolution of a sample material using hydrochloric acid,
and measuring of specific rotation of light in a clear extract using a
polarimeter.
2.2.1.3. Protein contents. The protein content was determined
using the Kjeldahl method, which involves the mineralization
of samples using concentrated sulfuric acid. Subsequently, the
amount of ammonia produced in the reaction is measured. In order
to convert the nitrogen content to the protein content, the factor
6.25 was applied in accordance to the Polish norm PN-EN ISO 20483.
2.2.1.4. Fat contents. The fat content was determined according to
the Polish norm PN-64/A74039 using a method of multiple extrac-
tion of samples with petroleum ether. After the ether evaporated,
the remaining fat was weighed.
2.2.2. Thermal gravimetric analysis
The thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out using
the thermal gravimetric analyzer Q5000 by TA Instruments, USA.
Samples were dried for 2 h at 103 ◦ C in the TGA chamber to evap-
orate all the moisture, and were then heated 5 ◦ C/min. Tests were
performed in an air medium.
2.2.3. Fibre geometry evaluation
The geometry of fibers was measured using a static 2-D
microscopy method which employs a Morphologi G3 device pro-
duced by Malvern, UK. The test samples were prepared in a dry
Supplier
JELU-WERK J. Ehrler GmbH & Co., KG, Ludwigsmühle, Rosenberg, Germany
RIETER Automotive Heatshields AG, Sevelen, Switzerland
J. Schilgen GmbH & Co., Emsdetten, Germany
National Center for Research, Khartoum
powder dispersion to ensure that all particles were separated
from each other. Approximately 120,000 particles were measured
for Weho500 softwood, while 200–300 fibers were measured for
abaca, jute, and kenaf. For each measured particle or fiber the fiber
width, fiber length, and surface area (converted to spherical equiv-
alent volume) was measured. These data were used to calculate
the volumetric average fiber width and volumetric average aspect
ratio.
2.2.4. Processing of biocomposites
2.2.4.1. Compounding. Fibers were dried prior to compounding in
an SLW115 of POL-EKO, Poland – oven with forced convection
(∼16 h at 103 ◦ C, moisture content <0.3 wt%). PP was processed
without drying. The pre-dried fibers were compounded with PP
and MAH-g-PP granulates using a Laborextruder LSM30 manufac-
tured by Leistritz, Germany (counter-rotating, tightly intermeshing
twin-screw extruder, L/D = 23, D = 34 mm). The extruded strand was
cooled in a water bath, and pelletized. The materials were com-
pounded at temperatures ranging from 170 to 200 ◦ C, and at 40 rpm.
The processing method ensured a good fiber distribution and an
even fiber-to-matrix ratio, as is visible in the results of density mea-
surements and small deviations in the mechanical properties for
each manufactured type of biocomposite material.
2.2.4.2. Injection molding. Composite granulate was dried prior to
injection molding in an SLW115 of POL-EKO, Poland – oven with
forced convection (∼16 h at 103 ◦ C, moisture content <0.3 wt%).
The standard test specimens manufactured according to EN ISO
178 were injection molded using an ALLROUNDER 270S 350-100
produced by ARBURG, Germany, (clamping force 350 kN, screw
diameter 25 mm, L/D = 20) and provided by PRACHT GROUP Com-
pany. The molds adhere to EN ISO 294-1, type B. The barrel
temperatures were 165–200 ◦ C from the feed zone to the noz-
zle. The injection pressure was limited to 800 bars at a constant
injection speed of 20 ccm/s, resulting in actual injection pressures
ranging from 450 to 700 bars depending on the fiber type. Compos-
ite granulate was kept in the integrated TORO-systems TR–Dry-Jet
15 (GfK Thomas Jakob und Robert Krämer GbR, Germany), in
the constantly predried hot air flow of 103 ◦ C and was consecu-
tively automatically conveyed into the injection molding machine’s
feeding zone, during the whole processing in order to avoid any
moisture uptake.
2.2.5. Scanning electron microscopy
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of the frac-
tured Typ B specimens were taken in order to evaluate the quality
of the fiber–matrix interface. The sample fracture surfaces for this
investigation were prepared after notching samples with a razor,
then holding each notched sample for 5 min in liquid nitrogen and
conducting immediate breakage using tongs. A scanning electron
microscope SU-70 of Hitachi, Japan with an emission field gun with
acceleration voltage of 10 kV was used.
2.2.6. Density measurement
The density of the manufactured biocomposites was measured
using the Archimedes method at room temperature on a high accu-
racy scale type AS made by Radwag, Poland, according to EN ISO
 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99 95

1183. Samples were measured in ethanol medium. Weighing was

repeated three times and the average of the measured values was
calculated.

2.2.7. Flexural test

The static mechanical properties of the manufactured test spec-
imens were measured in a flexural test according to EN ISO 178.
The test was carried out on a universal testing machine type 3366,
Instron, UK. The testing parameters were as follows: 1 mm/min for
the estimation of the flexural E-modulus, and 2 mm/min for the
estimation of the tensile strength. The presented values are aver-
aged results of the measurements performed on 10 samples for
each type of biocomposite material.

2.2.8. Notch impact strength

The impact strength was tested using the Izod method accord-
ing to EN ISO 180/A on a Typ B5102 apparatus by Zwick, Germany.
The A-notch was prepared on specimens using a dedicated notching
machine. All biocomposites were tested at room temperature 23 ◦ C
while subject to 50% ± 10 relative humidity. For tests at decreased
temperature the notched samples were kept for 20 h at −40 ◦ C in
the refrigerator ZLN-T 125 of POL-EKO, Poland. Measurement was
conducted within 1 min after taking the samples out of the refrig-
erator. The values presented comprise the averaged results for 10
tests carried out for each type of biocomposite.
2.2.9. Heat deflection temperature
The heat deflection temperature (HDT) analysis was conducted
on a Vicat-HDT analyzer manufactured by Donserv, Poland, accord-
ing to EN ISO 75-1. The specimens were analyzed using a bending
force of 1.8 MPa, a heating rate of 2 ◦ C/min, and the HDT was mea-
sured at a fixed elongation of 2 mm.
2.2.10. Brightness measurement
The injection molded samples were scanned using a standard
Officejet Pro 8600, HP, USA. The allowance for coloration change
was taken by subtraction of scanned white background. Coloration
was averaged for 1 cm2 using GIMP software. Three samples were
taken for averaging values for each biocomposite material. The
results were presented after calculating the average of the RGB
color model values.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Chemical composition of natural fibers
Fig. 1. Chemical composition of fibers.
for thermo-oxidation, which is by ca. 25 ◦ C higher than that of soft-
wood. Higher thermal stability is related directly to a high fraction
of cellulose and low contents of lignin, fats, pectines, and proteins.
The higher stability of jute may also enable its use in the processing
of some polyamide biocomposites.
3.3. Fiber geometry evaluation
The measurement of fiber geometry was oriented onto inves-
tigation of fiber diameter and aspect ratio. The measurement
principle is based on a two-dimensional picture of each fiber
which is then transformed into a pixel view that can undergo
calculations. One of the most important parameters is the spher-
ical equivalent of volume occupied by each measured particle.
It is useful for reckoning of other parameters in regard to the
volumetric average instead of the quantitative average, which is
more adequate to real influence onto composite properties. In
Fig. 3 the volumes occupied by subsequent fiber width fractions
are presented. The measurement proved the softwood microfibers
(Weho500) have the lowest aspect ratio and in fact consist of a
mixture of fibrous and non-fibrous flake shaped particles. Jute
fibers in contrast, have the smallest diameters and therefore, the

Fig. 1 shows the chemical composition of the four investigated

natural fibers. Abaca, jute, and kenaf have high contents of cellulose
of about 70 wt%. On the other hand, the softwood has ca. 55 wt% of
cellulose and higher lignin content.
One may conclude that the water retting process applied only
for Kenaf, although environmental friendly was the least efficient
method to remove all low molecular compounds like proteins,
pectines, fat, and waxes. Nevertheless, these residues are kept
below 5 wt%, so in later experiments it has been proven that it is
a sufficient way to obtain valuable reinforcing fibers, which still
exhibit good mechanical properties thanks to their high content of
cellulose and low content of lignin.

3.2. Thermal gravimetric analysis of fibers

The thermal stability was investigated for all types of natu-

ral fibers in air medium. In Fig. 2 the end of curves corresponds
to weight loss of up to 1 wt%. This distinctly shows the start of
decomposition, which may occur during compounding and injec-
tion molding. At this value jute fibers exhibited the best resistance Fig. 2. TGA curves of fibers in air medium.
96 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99

Fig. 3. Volumetric average fiber diameter (VAD) and volumetric average fiber ratio (VAR).

highest aspect ratio. Abaca fibers proved to be the thickest beyond
of all investigated fibers. These two crucial parameters translate
later into the mechanical parameters of their biocomposites.
Although different types of fibers may be damaged in a different
way and consequently shorten to a varying extent during com-
pounding and injection molding, the mechanical properties of all
four types of biocomposites bear out the geometrical differences
of these fibers. Thus, it may be concluded that the aspect ratios of
jute, abaca, and kenaf were deteriorated in the same extent.
the whole fracture surface. Jute single fibers appear to be tougher
as they are separated parallel one from another. Kenaf fiber bun-
dles are the toughest ones as mostly their fractures appear only at
their ends and single fibers are kept together. The softwood flour
Weho500 have fibrous particles scattered in the PP matrix. The frac-
ture is even and adhesion of Weho500 is good. Due to the structure

3.4. Scanning electron microscopy–interface properties

The microstructures obtained by SEM are presented in Fig. 4.

It is visible that in all investigated samples there are no evident
pull-outs and particles and fibers are mostly well embedded in
the matrix. The composite fractures do not exhibit a very well
developed surface. This observation leads to the conclusion that all
reinforcing fibers have relatively good adhesion to the PP matrix
owing to the compatibilising effect of MAH-g-PP wax. Different
geometry of all the types of fibers used as a reinforcement is explicit.
Abaca, jute, and kenaf have distinctive fiber bundles. Their geome-
try is round for jute and kenaf, but some of abaca are also flattened
and of ellipsoid cross-section. SEM micorgraphs also confirm the
investigation made using static 2-D image analysis, that abaca fiber
bundles are from twice to thrice thicker than those of jute and kenaf.
It can be seen that the fracture of these three different types of
fibers varies which is influenced by different mechanical proper-
ties and geometry of each fiber type. Abaca single fibers in bundles Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of manufactured PP biocomposites at 100× and 250×
seem to be brittle as their bundles break sharply perpendicularly to magnification.
 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99
Fig. 5. Flexural stress–strain curves of PP biocomposites.
of wood these particles have no lumens like bast, stem, and leaf
fibers.
3.5. Density of biocomposites
Natural fibers and softwood consist mainly of lignocellulose
matter, thus, their density is similar. Accordingly, all manufac-
tured biocomposites reinforced with the fibers have shown density
values in nearly the same range of 1.05–1.065 g/cm3 . In contrast,
the density of polypropylene reinforced with glass fibers (PP–GF)
ranges between 1.03–1.22 g/cm3 for standard fiber concentrations
of 20–40 wt% (Altech, 2014). The small density of natural fiber
biocomposites compared to standard PP–GF is one of their most
favorable features and is essential in the applications concerned
with weight reduction.
3.6. Mechanical properties
3.6.1. Flexural test
The material stress–strain curves were evaluated in flexural
tests. Fig. 5 shows the results obtained after averaging of the 10
specimen curves for each biocomposite. All types of reinforcement
changed the material characteristics from elastic to tough and rigid.
Fig. 6. Flexural strength and flexural moduli of PP biocomposites.
97
This is valuable in most engineering applications for composites,
where high stiffness and strength is necessary. It can be concluded
from the graph that strength and modulus of fibers, as well as their
geometry significantly influence the mechanical properties of their
biocomposites. It is a well known fact that another important factor
besides cellulose content is the alignment of cellulose microfibrills
in the fiber bundle which determines its tensile strength (Gassan
et al., 2001). Beside that the higher aspect ratios provide better
matrix-to-fiber stress transfer (Miwa and Horiba, 1994). The only
deviation is observed for the bicomposites reinforced with abaca
fibers which exhibited lower strength than those reinforced with
softwood fibers. It could have been caused by fiber shear and dam-
age during processing. Stiffer and thicker abaca fibers are more
prone to damage than finer softwood fibers.
Fig. 6 illustrates the flexural strengths at yield and E-moduli
(calculated at 0.05–0.25% strain) of biocomposites reinforced with
all four types of fibers. The flexural E-moduli of PP biocomposites
depend on the fiber stiffness, their orientation in the material and
the volume content in the biocomposite. The results have shown
that at 60/40 wt% matrix-to-fiber ratio an almost 4-fold increase
Fig. 7. Notch impact strength of PP biocomposites in Izod test performed in room
temperature and at −40 ◦ C.
98 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99
Fig. 8. Heat deflection temperature of PP biocomposite.
of the material E-modulus can be achieved with softwood fibers,
while kenaf fibers can provide up to a 6-fold gain.
The results for flexural strength measurements have shown
that regarding PP matrix this parameter can be doubled applying
standard softwood and improved by the factor 2.45 by reinforc-
ing it with kenaf fibers. This surpassed even jute fibers, which are
considered to have the best properties among natural technical
fibers. The high performance of kenaf is attributable to the high
content of crystalline cellulose and probably owing to the favorable
orientation of its microfibrills. These good mechanical properties
were achieved although it contains the highest amount of residues
(Fig. 1). The results for PP biocomposites reinforced with jute fibers
are by about 10 MPa higher than those obtained in the previous
research conducted by Bledzki et al. (2007).
3.6.2. Notch impact strength
The crack propagation resistance evaluated in the notch Izod
test, is dependent on tensile strength of fibers, their aspect ratio,
and thickness, as well as their adhesion to matrix (Fu and Lauke,
1997). From the results presented in Fig. 7 it can be concluded that
softwood fibers and particles are too short to efficiently hinder
crack propagation. At room temperature jute increased tough-
ness 1.75-fold, while kenaf around twice. The best improvement
was achieved for reinforcement with abaca fibers which equaled
2.75 of matrix impact strength. Abaca fibers possessed the high-
est diameter among the applied fibers, which was twice that of
jute (Figs. 3 and 4). This gives a ca. two times greater cross-section,
which translates into twice greater forces needed to rupture the
fiber assuming their similar ultimate tensile strengths (Table 1). The
fracture of whole fiber bundles might lead to the greater absorp-
tion of fracture energy of the whole biocomposite (Fig. 4), which
resulted in a distinct improvement in the absorption of impact
energy. At −40 ◦ C the improvement of toughness was increased
twice for jute and kenaf fibers and thrice for abaca fibers.
3.7. Heat deflection temperature
The creep under loading at higher temperatures (Fig. 8) was
significantly decreased by reinforcement with fibers. The heat
deflection temperature was increased by the factor of two for soft-
wood and abaca. For jute and kenaf this parameter was further
improved for ca. 20 ◦ C. The HDT parameter of short-fiber bio-
composites is mainly influenced by fiber loading and fiber–matrix
Fig. 9. Brightness of PP biocomposites.
interface strength. The latter factor is also strongly related to the
geometry of fibers and particularly their aspect ratio.
3.8. Brightness
The brightness measurement results are presented in Fig. 9. The
coloration of the biocomposite material is mostly dependent on
raw fiber hue, which is a result of their chemical composition. The
biocomposites reinforced with jute, the darkest of all the investi-
gated fibers, have also shown the darkest coloration. As opposed
to the brightest softwood and softwood reinforced biocomposites.
The brightness parameter is important in household and furniture
parts were only a bright raw composite material enables it further
in-melt coloration with pigments.
4. Conclusions
This paper comprises a research study of four types of natu-
ral fibers that are most commonly used in the plastic industry. It
contains thorough characteristics of fibers and their polypropylene
biocomposites. Both matrix and natural lignocellulosic fibers pro-
vided the lightweight aspect of the manufactured biocomposites.
Although most natural fibers have a similar chemical composition,
due to the different alignment of cellulose microfibrills in a sin-
gle fiber and different geometry of a fiber bundle, their mechanical
properties can vary distinctively between one another.
Obtained results:
- Kenaf fibers gave outstanding strengths for their biocomposites.
- Abaca fibers gave the best improvement of impact resistance.
- Jute fibers are the most temperature stable among investigated
fibers.
- Wood microfibers can provide relatively good strength at low
expense.
From the results, it can be concluded that the properties of
biocomposites are influenced mainly by the mechanical proper-
ties and geometry of fibers. Higher aspect ratios ensure better
matrix-to-fibre stress transfer which results in better strength of
the biocomposite. The heat deflection temperature is also better
at higher aspect ratios of fibers. The situation is slightly different
for impact strength when except for aspect ratios, thicker fibers can
induce fiber pull-out effect or fracturing of their bundles can absorb
 A.K. Bledzki et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 70 (2015) 91–99
impact energy, which in turn can increase the fracture toughness
of a biocomposite to a greater extent. The presented differences in
the physical properties of natural fiber types can be smartly used
for tailoring of the properties of their thermoplastic biocompos-
ites. Furthermore, the use of different fiber combinations in one
matrix (hybrid composite) may accurately meet the requirements
of particular applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their appreciation to JELU-
WERK for softwood flour and HSH Chemie, Poland for the
compatibilizer of Clariant Masterbatches. The authors would also
like to thank a partner company Prachtgroup for the Arburg All-
rounder 270S 350-100 injection molding machine and to EKOTEX
for cutting the fibers.
The study was conducted within the Polish–German project
“Agro4Comp – manufacturing of micro-fibers from grain by-
products for the reinforcement of thermoplastic and thermosetting
composites” co-funded by the National Centre for Research and
Development in Poland (NCBiR) and Bundesministerium fuer Bil-
dung und Forschung in Germany.
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