Concrete 21

20 Stress-Strain Relationships for Cnncrctc and Stvcl

The curve indicates that the compressive strength of concrete is reduced in
the presence of shear stress, This action may, for example, influence the
strength of concrete in the compression zone of beams and columns when
shear is present.
Triaxial Compressive Stress Behavior
The strength and ductility of concrete are greatly increased under conditions
of triaxial compression. Richart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown 21.1 found the
following relationship for the strength of concrete cylinders loaded axially
to failure while subjected to confining f1uid pressure
was held constant while the axial compressive stress was increased to failure
and the axial strains measured. The tests were carried out over short-term
periods. It is evident that an increase in lateral pressure brings very significant
increases in ductility. as well as strength. This effect is due to the lateral,.
pressure that confines the~oIH;ret~,a.l.!Q,n:Ju~estj1~ t~n<Jency for internal
cra~~},~lg and I ulumei~lCJ:<,:.\!g;jWiLpJ.:iQLtO fail un:.
2. t.3 Concrete Confinement by Reinforcement
In practice. concrete may be confined by transverse reinforcement, commonly
in the form 01' closely spaced steel spirals or hoops. In this case, at low levels

r, = l, + 4.lj; (2.3)
ofstress ill the concrete, the transverse reinforcement is hardly stressed; hence
the concrete is unconfined. The concrete becomes confined when at stresses
where .1';, = axial compressive strength of confined specimen approaching the uniaxial strength, the transverse strains become very high
f:. = uniaxial compressive strength of unconfined specimen because of prugrcsxi vc intcrnul crack ing and the concrete bears out against
I, = lateral confining pressure the transverse reinforcement, which then applies a confining reaction to the
concrete. Thus the transverse reinforcement provides passive confinement.
Other tests by Balmer 2 . 14 have given values for the lateral stress coefficient
Tests by many investigators have shown that confinement by transverse
which range between 4.5 and 7.0 with an average value of 5.6, rather than the
rcinforccmen t can considerably improve the stress-strain characteristics
4.1 found by Richart et al. The high values for the coefficient occurred at low
of concrete at high strains. Richart et a1 2 . 1 5 found, for example. that Eq. 2.3,
lateral pressures.
for the st rength of concrete confined by fluid pressure. applies approximately
Figure 2.11 gives the axial stress-strain curves obtained by Richart et a 12 . 1 3
to concrete confined by circular spirals. Figure 2.12 shows stress-strain
for triaxial compression tests conducted on concrete cylinders. The cylinders
curves obtained from three sets of concrete cylinders confined by circular
were confined laterally by fluid pressure, For each curve the Iluid pressure
spirals tested by Iycngarct a1. 2 . 16 Each set was for a different unconfined
strength of concrete. The increase in strength and ductility with content of
20

16
-
j

- /V
V
.....- - --;...
4090 PSI
(28.2 N/mm') I - -

I I
--

-
11201

(100)
confining steel is very significant. Tests have demonstrated that circular
spirals confine concrete much more effectively than rectangular or square
hoops. In Fig. 2. U we have load-strain curves from concrete prisms tested
by Bertcro and l-clippa 2 17 which contained various amounts of square tics.
~E
E
Z 12
-
V
._- 2010 psi

'1
(13.9 I N/mlll'l
I t
.--::C
1801
The effect of the different transverse steel contents on the ductility is quite
appreciable. but the effect on strength is much smaller.
The reason for the considerable difference between the confinement by
~
c 1/ V circular steel spirals and confinement by rectangular or square steel hoops is
~
Q
:;;;
8
f-
~.
/ v:: 1090 psi'"l-1 Confining fluid pressure
(7,52 N/ m m 2 1
- (60)
illustrated in Fig. 2.14. Circular spirals, because of their shape, are in axial
fI
",'

~
hoop tension and provide a continuous confining pressure around the
1 1
en _I- 550 psi I ,I (40) circumference. which at large transverse strains approximates fluid confine-
I 13,79 N/mm 2 )
4
Unconfined concrete strength t;: = r-
3660 psi , ..- 1201
(25,2 N/mm' I
ment. As a rule, however. square hoops can apply only confining reactions
ncar the corners of the hoops because the pressure of the concrete against
the sides of the hoops tends to bend the sides outwards, as in Fig. 2.14.
o I I I
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0,06 0.07 Therefore a considerable portion of the concrete cross section may be
unconfined. Because of internal arching between the corners, the concrete is
Strain, in/inlmm/mml
confined effect ively only in the corners and the central region of the section.
Fig. 2.1 t. Axial stress-strain curves from triaxial compression tests on concrete cylinders. 2,1.'
22 Stress-Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steel Concrete 23

50

~ r-....
40 - /'
V :
!f -~ ~
r-- ~rch3()
- (60001 o/// Unconfined

/
/
R '< ~
concrete

§ 30
1/
t>
~
'\.
<, rlJt..\
~\
II "\1
~~ "'7$ I
E -
/ r~ .......... ~ ~ r-- r-.- (4000)

-, ~~
E :"\ ~
--
f) v . . . . ~
Z
~.

~
Vl
20

r~ \' ~ol °0
I,,? ~ ~6~
r--. :---
-
60-
Fig. 2.14.
spiral.
Coruiucmem bv squurc hllnps and circular spirals. (a) Square hoop. (h) Circular

.~ <, - ( 2000)

10
OQ

\ ~
~ Nevertheless, sq uarc confining steel does produce a significant increase in
'"
0 I 60
ductility, and some enhancement of strength has been observed by many
Spiral pitch beside each
curve in millimeters in vestigators.
11mm "0.04 in) It is evident from Figs. 2.12 and 2.13 that confinement by transverse
o 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 reinforcement has little effect on the stress-strain curve until the uniaxial
Average strain over a 200 mm (7.9 in) gauge length strength of the concrete is approached. The shape of the stress-strain curve
at high strains is a function or many variables,
,
the major ones being
I · ' ,
the
Fig. 2.12. Stress-strain curves for concrete cylinders 150 mm (5.9 in) diameter oy .100 111m following: ,I 'I - . / ' " /.;
(11.8 in) high. confined by circular spl"lis from 6.5 trim (0.26 in) diameter mild 'teel bar' 1<,
1. The ratio of the volume oftransverse steel to the volume otthe concrete
core, because a high transverse steel content will mean a high transverse
confining pressure.
200
2. The yield strength of the transverse steel, because this gives an upper
Specimens without 1800i
limit to the confining pressure.
longitudinal reinforcement 3. The ratio of the spacing of the transverse steel to the dimensions of the
150 I I concrete core, because a smaller spacing leads to more effective confinement,
z " f6 in 14.76 mml ties at 1~ in (38.1 rnm) centers 16001 as illustrated in Fig. 2.15. The concrete is confined by arching of the concrete
~

bet ween the transverse bars and if the spacing is large it is evident that a large
I,
~
Q.

-'"
-. I
u· 100 f-I__-\-+~_---':''i~ volume of the concrete cannot be confined and may spall away.
'"
.2
-, II , ..... ,_~ i'1001
4. The ratio of the diameter of the transverse bar to the unsupported
.~
x "h.' --. ----. I length of transverse bars in the case of rectangular stirrups or hoops, because
ff-----+--'~r'~-"I-f==t=1 ::.::..-~
~
50 a larger bar diameter leads to more effective confinement. This effect is
- ------l.,----
Plain ,---
I zoo:
illustrated in Fig. 2.14. Transverse bars of small diameter will act merely as
I i
~; in 14.76 mm) ties a12~ in (63.5 mm) C',~ ties between the corners because the tlexural stiffness of the hoop bar is
0 small ami the hoops bow outward rather than effectively confining the
0 0.005 00 J 0.015 0.02 0025 003
concrete in the regions between the corners. With a larger transverse bar
Average strain over C:l 6 in (l52 mm) gauge length
diameter to unsupported length ratio, the area of concrete effectively confined
Fig. 2.13. Axial loud-strain curves for ,,: In (11)8 nun) square concrete prism. lIith various will be larger because of t he greater flexural stiffness of the hoop side. In the
contents of square tics.' I ' case of a circular spiral this variable has no significance: given its shape, the
24 Stress-Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steel Concrete 25

from that of the concrete within the transverse steel. The cover concrete

,
generally commences to spall when the unconfined strength is reached,
particularly if the content of transverse steel is high, because the presence of a
large Dumber of transverse bars creates a plane or surface of weakness
between the core and the cover concrete and precipitates spalling. Thus for
high transverse steel contents the contribution of the cover concrete at high
strains should he ignored. The cover concrete could be assumed to have the
characteristics of unconfined concrete up to an assumed spalling strain and
to make no contribution at higher strains. If the transverse steel content is low,
the cover concrete will tend to spall less readily and will tend to act more
with the confined core. Some account could be taken of the cover concrete
at high strums In that case.

t
Some proposals for the strength and duetility of concrete confined by \
.reli1forccment .Ire discussed below. Jt
.
COIICI'ete Confined by Circular Spirals
Assuming that the spirals are sufficiently close to apply a ncar-uniform
pressure. the confining pressure may be calculated from the hoop tension
developed by the spiral steel. Figure 2.16 shows a free body of half a spiral
I turn. The lateral pressure on the concrete .I; reaches a maximum when the
spiral reinforcement reaches the yield strength .I;,. If d, is the diameter of the

Fig. 2.15.
t ~ Unconfined
'/'/ concrete t spiral, A,I' is the area of the spiral bar, and s is the pitch of the spiral, equilib-
rium of the forces acting on the half turn of spiral shown in Fig. 2.16 requires
Effect of spacing of transverse steel on efficiency of confinement,
that

spiral will be in axial tension and will apply a uniform radial pressure to the r = 3!~tl__~..:~1'
,_-' I ,_ So-.c-'"
(2.4)
concrete. (~,~.~ttP£ :0;

5. The content and size of longitudinal reinforcement, because this steel Substituting ELI. 2.4 into Eq. 2.3, we see tllat the axial compressive strength
will also confine the concrete. Longitudinal bars are usually of large diameter, of concrete confined by a spiral is
.t.\' A sr
and the ratio of bar diameter to unsupported length is generally such that
the bars can effectively confine the concrete. However, the longitudinal bars
"
.( ,', -
- ("
. (' + o. 2 ---.---
Q
ds (2.5)
must be placed tightly against the transverse steel because the transverse steel "

provides the confining reactions to the longitudinal bars, and if movement

of the longitudinal bars is necessary to bring them into effective contact
with the transverse steel, the efficiency of the confinement will he reduced. --:t--------
6. The strength of the concrete, because low-strength concrete is rather
more ductile than high-strength concrete (see Fig. 2.1).
7. The rate of loading, because the stress-strain characteristics of concrete
I
,I,
are time dependent.
I
Outside the transverse steel the concrete is not confined, and this cover or I
shell concrete can be expected to have stress-strain characteristics different t ~ t.» Fil:.2.16. Confinement or concrete by spiral reinforcement.
26 Stress-Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steel

The increase in ductility of concrete confined by a spiral is also substantial.

Iyengar ct a 12. 1 h and others, ha vc proposed stress-strain rela tionships for
concrete confined by circular spirals based on empirical data obtained from
tests.

Concrete Confined hy Rectangular Hoops

Various investigators have proposed stress-strain relationships for concrete

confined by rectangular hoops. Some of the proposed curves appear in
Fig. 2.17. In Chan's2.1H trilinear curve OAB approximated the curve for L-_J..-_-'- --'----,~tc

unconfined concrete and the shape of BC depended on the' transverse ()

reinforcement. Blume et al 2 14 also adopted a trilinear curve in which 0,4

'approximated the curve for unconfined concrete up to O.R:'!: and /HJC
(sometimes replaced by a single straight line) depended on the content and fc f~
yield stress of the transverse confinement. Baker 2. 20 recommended a para bola
up to a maximum stress dependent on the strain gradient across the section.
~"!',"'~"
t_~T -"------r----
then a horizontal branch to a strain dependent on the strain gradient and the ) -- - - - - --- - -- I;
transverse steel content. Roy and Sozen c. 21 suggested replacing the falling 1
branch with a straight line having a strain at 0.5f;' which was linearly related : :.- - limit
Lower - -
to the transverse steel content. The curve of Soliman and Yu 2 22 consisted I
0,5/;
of a parabola and two straight lines with stresses and strains at the critical : J.'
I
points related to transverse steel content and spacing and the confined area. I
Sargin ct a1 2 , 2 3 have proposed a general equation that gives a continuous Parabola:
iL-_ _- ' - - ' -_ _---,~ t
stress-strain curve related to the content. spacing, and yield strength of the c

transverse steel. the strain gradient across the section, and concrete strength.
(/>I lei
On the basis of the existing experimental evidence, Kent and Park 2.2-1-
have proposed the stress-strain curve in Fig. 2.18 for concrete confined by
rectangular hoops. This suggested relationship combines many of t he features
of the 'previ(~usly proposed curves. The characteristics of the suggested curve
1
are as follows: 1

region AB: I:, ~ 0.002

- ---~--_._+----
; j I
I 1 I
I : :
: I I
(2.6) 1 1 1
1 I I
1 I I
Par abo!a I f I
1 1 I
This ascending part of the curve is represented by a second-degree parabola 1 1 I
'-------'--------l---'---3>- t c L-------------,~<c
and assumes that the confining steel has no effect on the shape of this part
of the curve or the strain at maximum stress. It is also assumed that the (,,) Ie)

maximum stress reached by the confined concrete is the cylinder strength I:. Fig. 2.17. Some rrnrnsed sl rcss-strain curves for concrete confined by rectangular hoops.
There is evidence that rectangular hoops will cause an increase in strength; (iI) Chan? IH and Blume ct aI.' 1<1 (f,) Baker,2,2o (c) Roy and Sozen 2.21 (eI) Soliman and Yu 2,22
see for example, Refs. 2.16, 2.[7. 2.18, 2.22, and 2.23. However, this increase (c) Sargin et aI 2 . , -,

27
2!! Stress-Strain Relationships for ('ollnl'!l' and Sted Concrete 29

f, investigutions.? 21 222 217 One stud y 2 2 2 gave results including the effect
of strain gradient across the section (eccentrically loaded specimens), but
since the effect W,IS nul marked it does not appear in the equations. When
analyzing the results of the three investigations it was assumed that the cover
tan () concrete hadspullcci away hy the time the stress had fallen to 0.5 of the maxi-
Z
1;: mum stress. The confined core was assumed to be inside the center of the hoop
Confined sides, hut it is evident that little error will occur if the confined core is taken
OS f;: concrete as that volume of concrete within the outside of the hoops. This will make a
small allowance for the presence of some cover concrete at high strains.
C
02f~ /J
region CD: I:r ~ 1:2 0 c
(2.11)
t,·
.\ 0002 t 50« e 50c.~· e 2Oc. I, = 0.2t;
Fig.2.t!!. Stress-strain curve tor concrete confined by rectangular hoops, KC'1I1 alld l'"rk 2 .' " This equation accounts for the ability of concrete to sustain some stresses at
'\rrll)f~'-\{~C' \.!t, very large strains.
Figure 2.IY shows the influence of rectangular steel hoops on the stress-
strain curve given by l.qs. 2.6 to 2.11 when the concrete cylinder strength is
may be small, and in Roy and Sozen's tests 2 . 2 1 no increase in strength was
found. The assumed maximum stress of f; will he conservative in most cases.
region Be: 0.002;;;; 1;< ;;;; 1;20< 1.
.1; = I;'[! - Z(Dc - 0.002)J (2.7) 4000 pSi
12113 NII"".'i -
where
0.5
z=--[;50.
- +- - - 3 50h - 0.002
(2.8)
2000 psi
113.8 N "',,/)
(2.9)

(2.10)
L- J..- ...L -l. .....J ...... <

o 0.004 0008 0012

where f:' = concrete cylinder strength in psi (l psi = O.006X9 N/mm ), 2

Ps = ratio of volume of transverse reinforcement to volume of concrete
core measured to outside of hoops, b" = width of confined core measured to
outside of hoops, and Sh = spacing of hoops. The parameter Z defines the
slope of the assumed linear falling branch. The slope of the falling branch is
specified by the strain when the stress has fallen to 0.5f:', as obtained 2.24 from
existing experimental evidence. Equation 2.9 for I;~oll takes into account the
effect of concrete strength on the slope of the falling branch of unconfined
concrete. high-strength concrete being more brittle than low-strength
concrete. Equation 2.10 for 1;~Oh gives the additional ductility due to rect-
angular hoops and was derived from the experimental results of three
Fig. 2.19. Influence "I' qUdnlJly of hoops on stress-strain curve for concrete when .I'J,h" = 0.5
;lndl'; = ~IIIJ() 1"01 1~7.1J :\ 111111')' '"
4000 psi (27.6 N/mrn 2 ) and shh" = 0.5. Clearly there is a great improvement
in the falling branch behavior for small contents of rectangular hoops. but
the improvement becomes progressively less significant as more hoops are
added.
Equations 2.7 to 2.1 () were derived from results from specimens with the
variables in the following ranges: s,,/b = (US to 2.0,1\ = 0,35 to 2.4"", and /;
~.'::
30 Stress-Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steel
mainly in the range 3000 to 4000 psi (20.7 to 27.6 Nyrnm"), although some f:
values were in the range 7800 to 8600 psi (53.8 to 59.3 Nzmm 2).
It is evident that more experimental work is required on confined concrete
specimens to provide more data for statistical analysis and to enable the
inclusion of more variables. In particular, tests on various arrangements of
transverse steel including overlapping hoops, and hoops with supplementary
rl
cross ties, are badly needed. In the meantime the proposed equations for
concrete confined by rectangular hoops can be regarded only as approxima-
tions, but it is believed that they will give reasonable results.
2.1.4 Creep of Concrete
Figure 2.5 indicates that the stress-strain relationship of concrete is a function
of time. Concrete under stress undergoes a gradual increase of strain with
time because of creep deformations of the concrete. The final creep strain may
be several times as large as the initial elastic strain. Generally creep has little
effect on the strength of a structure, but it will cause a redistribution of stress
in reinforced concrete members at the service loads, and lead to an increase
in the service load deflections. Creep deformations arc beneficial in some
cases. For example, concrete stresses due to differential settlement of
structures are reduced by creep. Creep in tension also delays shrinkage
cracking in concrete. The method of calculation of stresses and deformations
due to creep is examined in Chapter 10.
The creep deformation of concrete under constant axial compressive
stress is illustrated in Fig. 2.20. As the figure reveals, the creep proceeds at a
~---Specimen loaded constantlv---"",;,.ii>-i!-E--LOiid removed-""
Permanent
deformation
Elastic
1
deformation
~* ---L-_--;;" ,.
Time
fig. 2.20. Typical creep curve lor concrete with constant axial compressive stress.
Concrete 31
decreasing rate with time. If the load is removed, the elastic strain is im-
mediately recovered. However, this recovered elastic strain is less than the
initial- elastic strain because the elastic modulus increases with age. The
clastic recovery is followed by a creep recovery, which is a small proportion
of the total creep str.un.
Experimental evidence indicates that the creep strain occurring over a
given period is proportional to the applied stress, provided the stress level
is not high. Research evidence is conflicting with respect to the stress level
at which the linearity between creep and applied stress ceases. Some research
indicates loss of linearity at compressive stresses as low as O.~r;.; other data
suggest a value as high as O.5t:. However, the assumption ofa linear relation-
ship between creep strain and applied stress for the usual range of service
load stresses used in structural design results in acceptable accuracy.
The magnitude of creep strain depends on the composition of the concrete,
the environment. and the stress-time history.
The composit ion of concrete may be described in terms of aggregate type
and proportions. cement type and content. water/cement ratio, and additives.
Aggregate type can have a marked effect on creep because of different
absorption and clastic properties of the aggregates. For example, usc of
sandstone aggregates may result in twice the creep strain than for a limestone
aggregate.' 25 Aggregates are volumetrically more stable than the cement
paste; therefore an increase in aggregate content leads to a decrease in creep
strains. An increase in the water/cement ratio and an increase in the cement
content, increases creep. as does high air entrainment.
The environment may be described in terms of humidity and member
shape and size. The ambient relative humidity has a significant influence on
creep. Creep strains are low when the relative humidity is high. Creep is
reduced if water loss from the member is restricted, hence the size and shape
of a member affect the amount of creep that occurs. In addition, since the
outside regions of a large member restricts the water loss from the internal
regions of the member. creep is reduced in large members. The influence
of size and shape of concrete may be represented by the ratio of volume to
surface area, or by an effective thickness.
The stress-time history may be described in terms of age at the stage of
first loading and the time under loading. Loading at an early age causes high
creep strains. With increase in age at first loading, there is a marked decrease
in creep strain. The creep strains increase with duration of loading.
Several empirical methods exist for the calculation of creep strains. The
most widely used methods arc those of ACI Committee 209 2. 26 and of the
CEB-FIP.2.2 7 The methods give the creep coefficient of the concrete C, as a
function of the dependent variables, where C, is the ratio of creep strain to
initial elastic strain. No allowance is made for the type of aggregate in either