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Faculty ID, Faculty Name, Faculty Hire Date, and Course

Codethus we canrecord the details of any faculty member
who teaches at least one course, but wecannot record the
details of a newly-hired faculty member who has not yet
beenassigned to teach any courses except by setting the
Course Code to null. Thisphenomenon is known as an
insertion anomaly
.
•
There are circumstances in which the deletion of data
representing certain factsnecessitates the deletion of data
representing completely different facts. The"Faculty and Their
Courses" table described in the previous example suffers
fromthis type of anomaly, for if a faculty member temporarily
ceases to be assigned toany courses, we must delete the last of
the records on which that faculty member appears, effectively
also deleting the faculty member. This phenomenon is knownas
a
deletion anomaly
34

35
 Mapping Constraints
An E-R scheme may define certain constraints to which the
contents of a database mustconform.
•
Mapping Cardinalities:
express the number of entities to which another entitycan be
associated via a relationship. For binary relationship sets
between entitysets A and B, the mapping cardinality must be
one of:1.
One-to-one
: An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B, andan
entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A. (Figure
2.3)2.
One-to-many
: An entity in A is associated with any number in B. Anentity in
B is associated with at most one entity in A. (Figure 2.4)3.
Many-to-one
: An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B.An
entity in B is associated with any number in A. (Figure 2.5)4.
Many-to-many
: Entities in A and B are associated with any number fromeach
other. (Figure 2.6)The appropriate mapping cardinality for a
particular relationship set depends onthe real world being
modeled. (Think about the
CustAcct
relationship...)
•
Existence Dependencies:
if the existence of entity X depends on the existence of entity Y,
then X is said to be
existence dependent
on Y. (Or we say that Y is the
dominant
entity and X is the
subordinate
entity.)For example,o C o n s i d e r
account
and
transaction
entity sets, and a relationship
log
 between them.o This is one-to-many from account
to transaction.o I f a n
account
entity is deleted, its associated
transaction
entities must alsobe deleted.o T h u s
account
is dominant and
transaction
is subordinate.
ER diagram
36
(ER diagram)
Entity relationship
diagram
is a graphical representation of a data model of an application.
It actsas the basis for mapping theapplication to the
relational database
37
 The Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram.
One of the key techniques in
ER
modeling is to document theentity and relationship types in
a graphical form called, Entity-Relationship (
ER
)
diagram
. Figure 2 is atypical
ER

diagram
 . The entity types such as EMP and PROJ are depicted as
rectangular boxes, and therelationship types such as WORK-
FOR are depicted as a diamond-shaped box. The value sets
(domains)such as EMP#, NAME, and PHONE are depicted as
circles, while attributes are the “mappings” from entityand
relationships types to the value sets. The cardinality
information of relationship is also expressed. Forexample, the
“1” or “N” on the lines between the entity types
and relationship types indicated the upperlimit of the entities of
that entity type participating in that relationships.
Fig. 2.
An Entity-Relationship (
ER
)
Diagram
ER Model is based on Strong Mathematical Foundations.
The
ER
model is based on (1) Set Theory,(2) Mathematical Relations,
(3) Modern Algebra, (4) Logic, and (5) Lattice Theory. A formal
definition of the entity and relationship concepts can be found
in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.
Formal Definitions of Entity and Relationship Concepts
Significant Differences between the ER model and
the Relational
Model
.
There are several differencesbetween the
ER
model and the Relational Model:
ER
Model uses the Mathematical Relation Construct to Express
the Relationships between Entities.
Therelational model and the
ER
model both use the mathematical structure called Cartesian
product. In someway, both models look the same – both use the
mathematical structure that utilizes the Cartesian product
of something. As can be seen in Figure 3, a relationship in the
ER
model is defined as an ordered tuple of
38
“entities.” In the relational model, a Cartesian product of data
“domains” is a “relation,” while in the
ER
model a Cartesian product of “entities” is a “relationships.” In
other words, in the relational model themathematical relation
construct is used to express the “structure of data values,”
while in the
ER
model thesame construct is used to express the “structure of
entities.”
ER
Model Contains More Semantic Information than the Relational
Model.
By the original definition of relation by Codd, any table is a
relation. There is very little in the semantics of what a relation
is or shouldbe. The
 ER
model adds the semantics of data to a data structure. Several
years later, Codd developed adata model called RM/T, which
incorporated some of the concepts of the
ER
model.
ER
Model has Explicit Linkage between Entities.
As can be seen in Figures 2 and 4, the linkage betweenentities
is explicit in the
ER
model while in the relational model is implicit. In addition, the
cardinalityinformation is explicit in the
ER
model, and some of the cardinality information is not captured
in therelational model
Object-Oriented (OO) Analysis Techniques are Partically Based
on the ER Concepts
It is commonly acknowledged that one major component of the
object-oriented (OO) analysis techniquesare based on the
ER
concepts. However, the “relationship” concept in the OO
analysis techniques are stillhierarchy-oriented and not yet
equal to the general relationship concept advocated in the
ER
model. It isnoticeable in the past few years that the OO analysis
techniques are moving toward the direction of adopting a more
general relationship concept.
4.4 Data Mining is a Way to Discover Hidden Relationships
Many of you have heard about data mining. If you think deeply
about what the data mining actually does,you will see the
linkage between data mining and the
ER
model. What is data mining? What does the datamining really is
doing? In our view, it is a discovery of “hidden relationships”
between data entities. Therelationships exist already, and we
need to discover them and then take advantage of them. This
isdifferent from conventional database design in which
the database designers identify the relationships. Indata
mining, algorithms instead of humans are used to discover the
hidden relationship
 An ERD is a model that identifies the concepts or entities that exist in
asystem and the relationships between those entities. An ERD is often
used as a way tovisualize a relational database: each entity represents
a database table, and therelationship lines represent the keys in one
table that point to specific records in relatedtables. ERDs may also be
more abstract, not necessarily capturing every table neededwithin a
database, but serving to
diagram
the major concepts and relationships. ThisERD is of the latter type,
intended to present an abstract, theoretical view of the majorentities
and relationships needed for management of e-resources. It may assist
thedatabase design process for an ERM system, but does not identify
every table that wouldbe necessary for an e-resource management
database.This ERD should be examined in close consultation with other
components of the
Report of the DLF Electronic Resource Management Initiative
, especially Appendix D (DataElement Dictionary) and Appendix E (Data
Structure). The ERD presents a visualrepresentation of e-resource
management concepts and the relationships between them.The Data
Element Dictionary identifies and defines the individual data elements
that ane-resource management system must contain and manage, but
leaves the relationshipbetween the elements to be inferred by the
reader. The Data Structure associates each

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