Modes of Heat Transfer

•  Conduction & convection require a temperature

difference across a medium (the interactions of atoms/
molecules)
•  Radiation transport can occur across a vacuum
Exercise 3
What are the heat transfer rates for each mode of heat transfer?

Conduction

Convection

Radiation
Heat Transfer Rates – Conduction
•  One-Dimensional, Steady conduction across a Plane Wall
of Constant Thermal Conductivity

1-D
approximation dT
q" = −k∇T q"= −k
dx

dT T2 − T1
q!!x = −k = −k
€ dx € L
T1 − T2
→ q""x = k
L
Heat ALWAYS flows downhill – 2nd Law!

heat rate (W): qx = q"x" ⋅ A

Heat Transfer Rates – Conduction Example
What are the steady state heat flux and the heat rate through a 1 m × 1 m sheet of
1 mm thick aluminum if the temperature on one side is 65 °C and the other side is
room temperature?
Heat Transfer Rates – Convection
Convection directly related to flow over a surface and development of
velocity and thermal boundary layers

sign convention
Ts > T∞ →
q" is positive (to fluid)

Ts < T∞ →
q" is negative (from fluid)

Newton’s Law of Cooling: heat transfer

€ is proportional to the
temperature difference
q"∝ (Ts − T∞ ) → q"= h (Ts − T∞ )
Constant of Proportionality: heat transfer coefficient, h
Typical Convection Coefficients

What is h? Depends on the fluid dynamics!

Flow Process h (W/m2-K)

buoyancy-driven gas ~1-25 (100-101)
(free/natural)
liquid ~50-1000 (101-103)
forced gas ~25-250 (101-102)
(pressure-driven, etc.)
liquid ~100-20000 (102-104)
boiling/condensation phase change ~2500-100000 (103-105)
Heat Transfer Rates – Convection Example
What are the heat flux and the heat rate from a 1 m × 1 m sheet of aluminum to a 1
m/s air flow if the temperature of the aluminum sheet is 65 °C and the air is at room
temperature?
Heat Transfer Rates – Radiation
•  Radiation typically involves two processes
–  emission from the surface è radiation
–  absorption from the surroundings è irradiation

Energy Outflow: Emission

E b = σTs4 blackbody emissive power (the perfect emitter)

E = εσTs4 emissive power of a real surface (heat flux out)

ε emissivity (correction factor for real surfaces)

Energy Inflow: Absorption

G incident radiative power from surroundings (irradiation [W/m2])

Gabs = αG absorbed incident radiation (heat flux in)

0 ≤ ε ≤1
α absorptivity (correction factor for real surfaces) 0 ≤ α ≤1
Heat Transfer Rates – Radiation Simplification
Special case: surface exposed to large surroundings of uniform
temperature
•  approximate surroundings as a black body

irradiation from surroundings

G = σTs4
net radiative heat flux from surface

" = εσTs4 − αG = εσTs4 − ασTsur

q"rad 4

€
= εσ (Ts4 − Tsur
4
) assuming: α = ε

For this special case (α = ε), radiative heat transfer can be approximated by
an effective heat transfer coefficient
" = hr (Ts − Tsur )
q"rad
€
hr = εσ (Ts + Tsur )(Ts2 + Tsur
2
)
Heat Transfer Rates – Radiation Example
What are the net heat flux and the heat rate from a 1 m × 1 m sheet of aluminum if
the temperature of the aluminum sheet is 65 °C and the temperature of a facing
aluminum sheet is at room temperature? (Assume ε = 0.75 and α = 0.25 for the
hotter sheet and a perfect blackbody for the colder sheet)
 Conservation of Energy: Fundamental Law
First law of thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy
dE ˙
= Qin − W˙ out
dt heat transfer across boundary
& mass transfer across
Heat transfer perspective: for a Volume boundary (advection)

€ E˙ gen time basis

dE˙ storage ˙
E˙ storage = = E in − E˙ out + E˙ gen
E˙ in E storage E˙ out dt
€
time interval
ΔE˙ storage = E in − E out + E gen Work!
€
Heat transfer perspective: for a Surface
€
time instant
E˙ in € E˙ out E˙ in = E˙ out

€ €
Conservation of Energy: More Details
Conservation of energy is an important tool in heat transfer analysis, often
providing the basis for determining the temperature of a system.

rate of volumetric energy storage (think heat capacity,

E˙ storage capacitor) [W]

E˙ gen rate of volumetric thermal energy generation (Joule heating,

fusion) [W] è work to the system

E˙ in , E˙ out rate of energy transfer across a “surface” or “boundary” heat

transfer (conduction, convection/advection, radiation) [W]
How to Determine Temperature
•  choose the appropriate time basis for 1st law (steady state/
transient)
•  identify relevant energy transport (heat transfer modes),
generation and/or storage terms
•  write the governing form of the conservation of energy
requirement
•  substitute appropriate expressions for terms of the energy
equation
•  solve for the unknown quantity
Energy Balance Example
Consider a carton of milk taken from the fridge (41°F or 5°C) and placed on the
counter on a warm summer day (86°F or 30°C).
(a)  Estimate the heat rate to the carton of milk and the heat delivered to the carton
of milk over time (10 s, 1 min, 5 min).
(b)  Estimate the temperature of the milk after it has been sitting on the counter for 5
min.
Energy Balance Example
Consider the roof of a make-shift garage made from galvanized steal. One of the
things about galvanized steel is that its emissivity does not equal its absorptivity,
especially of solar radiation (ε ≈ 0.1, αsolar ≈ 0.65). Let’s consider a sunny, spring
day with an air temperature of 86°F (30°C). Would the neighborhood cat be able to
walk across the roof?