9/12/18 ENEN 621 Groundwater Hydrology

Lectures ~ 4 - 6

Topics to be Covered
II. Flow Dynamics
A. Darcy's Law
B. Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability
C. Limitations of Darcy's Law
D. Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity

Review - key concepts

1. Soil moisture zones; definitions of soil moisture, specific retention, specific yield,
effective porosity

2. Porosity, specific retention, specific yield as a function of grain size

3. Concept of hydraulic head; using piezometers to determine flow direction

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II. Flow Dynamics

A. Darcy's Law

1. Not really a law but an empirical equation based on observations

2. Darcy’s experiment - See Fig. 2.1 F&C

a. Specific discharge = Darcy velocity = superficial velocity [L/t]

Q
q=
A

Q = volumetric flow rate [L3/t]

A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow direction [L2]

Δh
q=K (Darcy’s Law in algebraic form)
Δl

K = hydraulic conductivity [L/t]

Δh
= hydraulic gradient [dimensionless]
Δl
or
dh
q=-K (Darcy’s “Law” in differential eqn form, 1D)
dx

dh
- = J = hydraulic gradient [dimensionless]
dx

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b. Mean pore velocity = average linear velocity [L/t]

q
v=
ne

c. Limitations

(1) Valid for slow flow (no fluid acceleration) - a linear relation between q
and J

(2) For fast flow conditions, need to modify equation

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B. Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability -

1. Definitions

a. K = hydraulic conductivity (“coefficient of permeability” = old term)

kρg
K= [L/t]
µ
or

kg
K = [L/t]
ν

à K is dependent on fluid, solid medium properties

k = permeability = specific permeability = intrinsic permeability [L2]

à k is dependent on solid medium properties only

1 darcy = 10-8 cm2

(units of permeability used by petroleum engineers)

r = fluid density [M/L3] = f(T, p, C)

Example units for water at 20˚C: r = 0.998 g/cm3

g = acceleration due to gravity [L/t2] = 981 cm/s2

µ = fluid dynamic viscosity [M/L-t] = f(T, p, C)

Example units for water at 20˚C: µ =1.002 cP = 1.002 x 10-2g/cm-sec

cP = centipoise

n = µ/ r = fluid kinematic viscosity [L2/t] = f(T, p, C)

Example units for water at 20˚C: n =1.004 cSt = 1.004 x 10-2 cm2/sec
cSt = centistokes

b. See Tables 2.2 and 2.3 in F&C

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 c. Example calculation of K

k = 1.0 x 10-8 cm2 (silty sand)

T = 20˚ C
µ = 1.002 centipoise = 1.002 x 10-2 g/cm-sec
r = 0.998 g/cm3

kρg (1.0x10 −8 cm2 )(0.998g / cm3 )(981 cm / sec 2 )

K = =
µ 1.002 x10 −2 g / cm − sec

= 9.8 x 10-4 cm/sec

2. Relationship between hydraulic conductivity and grain-size distribution

a. Grain size distribution

Example from Wolf (1988)

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a. General relationship

Cd 2ρg
K=
µ

k = Cd2

C depends on the size and packing of soil grains (related to porosity)

b. Empirical formulas (examples)

(1) Hazen (1911)

K= A(d10 )2

K = hydraulic conductivity [cm/sec]

d10 = grain size diameter at which 10% by weight of soil particles are
finer and 90% are coarser

A = 1.0 for K in [cm/sec] and d10 in [mm]

Formula seems to work best for porous media where n = 0.40

(2) Krumbein and Monk (1942)

−1.31σ I
k = 760(GMd )2 e

k = intrinsic permeability [darcies]

dn = grain size diameter at which n% by weight of soil particles are

finer and (100-n)% are coarser

φ n = − log2 (d n ) => 2−φ n = d n

GMd = geometric mean grain diameter [mm] converted from

φ16 + φ50 + φ84

Md= geometric mean in phi units ≈
3
Md= -log2(GMd) => 2−M d = GMd

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 sI = inclusive standard deviation
φ − φ84 φ5 − φ95
= 16 +
4 6.6

(3) Kozeny-Carmen (see Bear 1972, p. 166)

n 3 dm2
k=
(1 − n)2 180

k = intrinsic permeability [L2]

dm = representative grain size [L], (e.g., d50= median grain size)

n = total porosity

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3. Measurement of hydraulic conductivity/permeability in the laboratory

a. Perform grain size analysis and relate grain size to k or K by an empirical

formula

b. Permeameter measurements - see Figure 8.18 in F&C

(1) Constant-head permeameter (F&C Ch 8; ASTM, 1994)

-- Use deaired water maintained at a constant temperature and constant

dissolved solids concentration

-- Maintain constant head reservoirs and constant Q

-- Measure head at two points, using manometers, separated by distance

∆x

-- Record temperature of water

-- Record volumetric flowrate using stop watch and graduated cylinder

-- Calculate K by inverting Darcy’s Law:

QΔx
K=
AΔh

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 -- Typically many measurements are made using various flow rates;
q vs J is plotted; K is the slope (Ref: Hornberger et al., 1998)

-- To evaluate variability of K along a column, can employ multiple-

port permeameter set up . (Reference: Wolf et al., 1991)

q = K1 J1 = K2 J2 = K3 J3 … Kn Jn Measure q, Jn; solve for Kn

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(2) Falling-head permeameter -see Figure 8.18b in F&C

Reference: Todd (1980)

-- Best for low-permeability materials (silts, clays)

-- Head measured in tube of cross-sectional area a is allowed to fall from

H0 to H1 during time t

Diameter of tube of x-sec a:

-- Approx. diameter of permeameter for coarse sand

--1/10 diameter of permeameter for fine silt

-- Time for head decline from H0 to H0H1 should be equal to the

decline from H0H1 to H1; if not, need to test for leaks or
entrapped air (determine H0H1 from repeat tests and marking on
tube of x-sec a)

-- From solving the appropriate 1D boundary-value problem,

aL ⎛ H0 ⎞
K= ln⎜ ⎟ or equivalently
At ⎝ H1 ⎠
"#
H1 = H0 exp − 𝑡
$%

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II. Flow Dynamics

C. Limitations of Darcy's Law

qd
1. Darcy’s Law is valid for Re = < 1−10
ν

where Re = Reynolds Number = ratio of inertial to viscous forces

d = representative length scale of the smallest channels of the porous

medium (e.g., mean grain diameter); not easy to measure

For Re < 1- 10, Darcy’s Law holds. The flow is linear and laminar with
viscous forces predominant.

In the transition region, the flow is still laminar but inertial forces govern
flow.

Flow starts to become nonlinear.

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2. Reynolds Number criterion based on a length scale of k

(Use this version of Reynolds number for the homework)

q k
Re k = < 0.01 for Darcy’s Law to be valid and the flow to be linear
ν
and laminar

µ
ν= = kinematic viscosity
ρ

3. A nonlinear form of Darcy’s Law to correct for nonlinear flow

Reference: Ward (1964)

⎛ q2 ⎞ q
ρ⎜ ⎟ + µ = ρgJ , C = 2 for granular materials
⎝ kC ⎠ k

Solving for q,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ kρg ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ µ ⎥ ⎢ K ⎥
q =⎢ ⎥J =⎢ J
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎥
⎢⎜ q k + 1⎟⎥ ⎢⎜ q k + 1⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ νC ⎟⎥ ⎢⎜ νC
⎠⎦ ⎣⎝
⎟⎥
⎠⎦

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D. Heterogeneity and anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity

1. Definitions

Heterogeneity: variations in K throughout space within a geologic formation

(“heterogeneous porous medium”)

Homogeneity: no variations in K over space (uniform size glass beads in a

tank) (“homogeneous porous medium”)

Anisotropy: Variation in K with measurement direction at any given point in

a geologic formation (“anisotropic porous medium”)

Isotropy: No variation in K with measurement direction (“isotropic porous

medium”)

2. Evidence for heterogeneity

a. Photographs of road cuts and pits

(1) Figures 3.15, 3.18 from Bouwer (1978) - sand and gravel pit near
Phoenix (fluvial deposits)

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(2) Figure 3 from Leblanc et al (1991)- Cape Cod sand and gravel glacial
outwash aquifer

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 (3) Geologic section facies map from Columbus, Mississippi Air Force
Base (Rehfeldt et al, 1992)

b. Quantification of variability of hydraulic conductivity via local-scale

measurements - e.g., Cape Cod site

Figure 1 from LeBlanc et al. (1991) showing site plan

Figure 4 from Hess et al. (1992) showing vertical variability and

variability across sections

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c. Distribution of hydraulic conductivity (local-scale measurements)

If many “point” samples of K are obtained, there are numerous examples

in the literature to show that in many cases, a histogram of the point
values plots as a log-normal distribution

(The ln-transformed values plot as a normal distribution)

E.g., see Figure 3 from Hess et al. for Cape Cod

See that lnK looks normally distributed

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 Therefore consider K as a log-normally distributed random variable, with

Probability density function

1 ⎡−(ln K − ln K)2 ⎤
f K (K) = exp⎢ ⎥
Kσ ln K 2π ⎢⎣ 2σ2ln K ⎥⎦

where ln K = mean of lnK data

σ2ln K = variance of lnK data ( σ ln K = standard deviation of lnK
data)

See figure for log-normal vs. normal distributions.

Taking advantage of this way to view the data, the more heterogeneous the
formation, the greater will be the variance ( σ2ln K ) around the mean lnK ( ln K ).

=> The variance of the lnK distribution is a way to quantify the degree of
heterogeneity of an aquifer.

=> Typical range of values for sand and gravel aquifers

0.25 < σ2ln K < 4.6

glacial outwash sand gravelly aquifer

(Cape Cod) (Columbus)
(small amount of (very heterogeneous)
heterogeneity)

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References

ASTM Standard D 2434 - 68, Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils
(Constant Head). Reapproved 1994.

Boggs et al, 1992. Field Study of Dispersion in a Heterogeneous Aquifer1. Overview and
Site Description. Water Resources Research. 28 (12): 3281-3291.

Bower, H. 1978. Groundwater Hydrology. McGraw Hill

Brown, G.O. 2002. Henry Darcy and the Making of a Law. Water Resources Research,
38(7), 1106, 10.1029/2001WR000727.

Hazen, A. A discussion of “Dams on sand foundations” by A.C. Koenig, Trans. Am.

Soc. Civ. Eng., 73, 199 - 1911.

Hess, K. M., Wolf, S. H., Celia, M. A. , 1992. Large-scale natural gradient tracer test in
sand and gravel, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 3, Hydraulic conductivity variability and
calculated macrodispersivities, Water Resour. Res., Vol. 28 , No. 8 , pp. 2011-2027.

Hornberger. G., J.P. Raffensperger. P.L. Wiberg, and K.N. Eshleman. 1978. Elements of
Physical Hydrology. Johns Hopkins University Press.

LeBlanc, D. R., Garabedian, S. P., Hess, K. M., Gelhar, L. W., Quadri, R. D.,
Stollenwerk, K. G., Wood, W. W. , 1991. Large-scale natural gradient tracer test in sand
and gravel, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 1, Experimental design and observed tracer
movement, Water Resour. Res. ,Vol. 27 , No. 5 , pp. 895-910.

Koltermann, C. E. and Gorelick, S. M. 1995. Fractional packing model for hydraulic

conductivity derived from sediment mixtures, Water Resour. Res., Vol. 31(12): 3283-
3298.

Krombein, W.C., and G.D. Monk, 1942. Permeability as a function of size parameters of
unconsolidated sand. American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Tech
Pub. 1492, 1-11.

Rehfeldt, K. R., J. M. Boggs, and L. W. Gelhar. 1992. Field Study of Dispersion in a

Heterogeneous Aquifer, 3. Geostatistical Analysis of Hydraulic Conductivity, Water
Resources Research, 28(12), 3309-3324.

Todd, D.K. 1980. Groundwater Hydrology, 2nd Ed. Wiley.

Ward, J. C. 1964. Turbulent flow in porous media. ASCE J Hyd. Div., 90(HY5): 1- 12.

Wolf, S. H. 1988. Spatial variability of hydraulic conductivity in a sand

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and gravel aquifer, Eng. thesis, 118 pp., Dep. of Civ. Eng., Mass. Inst. of
Technol., Cambridge.

Wolf, S.H., 1991. Evaluation of Hydraulic Conductivities Calculated from Multiport-

Permeameter Measurements. Groundwater, 29(4), 516-525.

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