Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Features of Monopolistic Competition
9.3 General Approach to Equilibrium
9.3.1 Short-run Equilibrium
9.3.2 Long-run Equilibrium
9.4 Chamberlain’s Approach to Equilibrium
9.4.1 Model 1
9.4.2 Model 2
9.4.3 Model 3
9.5 Selling Costs
9.6 Excess Capacity under Monopolistic Competition
9.7 Criticism of Monopolistic Competition
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Key Words
9.10 Some Useful Books
9.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
9.12 Exercises
9.0 OBJECTIVES
On going through this unit you will :
• understand the monopolistic competitive market structure;
• know the equilibrium of the market structure; and
• appreciate the social aspect of excess capacity creation and optimal
output production.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The earlier units (Perfect Competition) and (Monopoly) dealt with two
‘extreme’ cases of market structure. In reality, there are hardly few markets,
which fit into such kinds of framework. Therefore, in the late 1920’s economists
became increasingly dissatisfied with the use of these market structures as
analytical models of economic behaviour. The assumptions of perfect
competition, mainly the assumption of homogenous products, did not resemble
the real word. Sraffa, Chamberlin and Joan Robinson worked individually to get
some alternatives to fit into the real word. The revolutionary book Chamberlin
introduced a new market structure with the flavour of both competition and
imperfection. He called this new market structure monopolistic competition.
Dg
Df
Dp
X
O X
Fig. 9.1: Group Demand Curve in Monopolistic Competition
In the figure above, Dg is the grouped demand curve and Dp is the
proportionate demand curve (when all the firms charge the same price). Dp is
obtained horizontally dividing Dg by the number of firms.
A firm, however, does not perceive Dp to be its demand curve. If the current
price is P , and quantity is X, then the firm perceives its curve as Df. Note that
Df is more elastic than Dp. It is actually the demand curve of the firm if all of
the rest continue to charge the same price. Df is more elastic because if one
firm reduces it’s prices and others do not, then the firm will be able to sell
more than its market share (given by Dp). Similarly, if a firm charges higher
prices while others do not, it will be able to sell less than what is given by Dp.
In monopolistic competition, there are a large number of firms and therefore
each firm thinks that its price changes will go unnoticed. That is why firms
behave naively.
9.3.1 Short-run Equilibrium
Consider the following figure where Dp and Df are as defined earlier
MC: firm's marginal cost curve
MR:marginal revenue curve corresponding to firm’s perceived demand curve
Consider for time being that all the firms are charging P . Therefore, all firms
have an incentive to charge P* and produce X*. But if all of them attempt to
charge P*, they could sell only X . Thus, the perceived demand curve will
shift to the left to intersect Dp at A. Firms now perceived demand curve is D'f .
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Price and Output The MRf will also shift to the left and profit maximising output-price
Determination - I
combination will change.
MC
P
A
P*
Df
D' f
Dp
X X*
MR ' f
MR f
Fig. 9.2: Short-Run Equilibrium in Monopolistic Competition
The short-run equilibrium for the monopolistically competitive firms is shown
in the following figure. It can be seen that (Xe, Pe) is the equilibrium output
price combination, as MRf = MC holds and the firm is on its perceived
demand curve.
P
SRMC
Pe SRAC
Df
Dp
X
O
Xe
MR f
The short-run super normal profit will attract new firms to the product group
since there is no entry barrier (if in short run firms are incurring loss, they will
quit).
If more firms enter the product group, the proportionate demand curve will
shift to the left and would become steeper. This will continue till all the profit
is wiped out.
The long run equilibrium is depicted in the following figure:
P , AC , MR, MC
LRMC
LRAC
Pe
Df
Dp
X
O Xe
MR f
d
X
O
Fig. 9.5: Product Differentiation and Equilibrium of Firm
3) Demand Curves
While Sraffa first introduced that product differentiation could be a basis for
downward sloping demand curve, Chamberlin suggested that demand is not
determined by the prices alone. Apart from price, the selling activities and the
product itself are the major determinants of demand, according to Chamberlin.
46
Monopolistic
The effect of product differentiation is that the producer has some discretion Competition
in the determination of prices. The producer is not a price taker but she enjoys
some degree of monopoly power.
4) Equilibrium of the Firm
As a result of product differentiation, the demand curve of an individual firm
is negatively sloped. If the firm increases its price, it will lose some of its
customers. However, by reducing price if will attract new customers, who
were customers to other firms.
Since there are large number of firms, if one firm reduces price the loss of
other firms (as they loose customer) will be negligible. Thus, other firms
might be indifferent to price charged by a single firm. The demand curve dd is
drawn on the above assumption that firms would not change or react to
individual firms price decisions.
In short, Chamberlin-firm acts like a monopolist and maximises its profit
equating MR and MC.
Chamberlin developed two different models of equilibrium.
In the first model, the existing firms are in short run equilibrium realising
supranational profits. They do not have any incentive to change their prices.
In the second model, it is assumed that the member of firms in the industry is
optimal and long run equilibrium is achieved by price adjustments.
The third model is a combination of the first two, where long run equilibrium
is achieved by price adjustments by the existing firms and by new entry.
9.4.1 Model 1
We assume that each firm is in short-run equilibrium maximising its profit.
P, C
LMC
LAC
PM B
A C
d'
X
O XM
MR '
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Price and Output dd´: firm’s demand curve
Determination - I
E: equilibrium point given by MR= MC.
PM: price corresponding to MR=MC.
XM: output corresponding to MR = MC
Area PM ACB: total profit
Since there are no entry barriers, new firms will enter and the demand curve
of the individual firm will shift down from dd´. However, the cost curves
would not change due to new entrants. For each entry, there will be a
corresponding shift in demand and for each shift, there will be a price
adjustment. This process will continue till there is supernormal profit. The
supernormal profits will be wiped out when the demand curve of the firms is
tangent to the average cost curve. Consequently, the profits earned will be
normal and there will be no further entries.
P, C
LMC
dE
LAC
PE
d E'
X
O XE MRE
Fig. 9.7: Equilibrium with Normal Profit
9.4.2 Model 2
In this model, it is assumed that the number of firms is such that there is no
supernormal profit. Therefore, there is no entry and exit.
In the model we consider a demand curve labelled DD´ shown in the
following Figure 9.8. The demand curve shows the actual sales of the firm at
each price after accounting for the adjustments in price made by other firms.
DD´ is called ‘share of the market demand curve: DD´ is obtained as a locus
of points of shifting dd´ curves, as competitions also simultaneously charge
their price. DD´ is steeper than dd´ curve (why?). A movement along DD´
shows changes in actual sales of existing firms as all of them adjust their price
simultaneously (and more importantly) identically, with their share remaining
constant. Shift in DD´ is caused by entry and exit of firms.
48
Monopolistic
We start with the non-equilibrium position of a firm (X0, P0). The firm in an Competition
attempt to maximise profit lowers its price to P1 expecting to increase the sell.
However, all the firms adjust to this price change by lowering theirs by the
same proportion. As a result, d1d1´ shifts downward to d2 d2´ and instead of
X 1o , only X1 amount of output is sold (notice that: (X1, P1) is on DD´)
Again, in order to maximise profit, firm reduces its price once more to P2, but
as a consequence of the price adjustment by the others, it could sell only x2
(though wished to sell X10 ). Here we assume that the firm is naive and does
not take lessons from the past. This process ultimately stops when dd´ has
shifted enough to the left to be tangent to the LAC.
P, LAC , LMC D
d1
d2
P0
d3
LMC
P1 LAC
P2
Pe
d '1
d '2
d '3
D'
X
O Xe X '0
X0 X1
X2 MR
Fig. 9.8: Equilibrium in Monopolistic Competition
9.4.3 Model 3
Chamberlin argued that in practice equilibrium is achieved by price
adjustments of existing firms (as in model, 2) as well as new entry (as in
model 1). Equilibrium is stable if the dd´ is tangent to the average cost curve
and expected sales are equal to the actuals (i.e., the dd’ curve cuts the DD´ at
the point of tangency of dd´ and LAC).
We start with the point e1 (see Figure 9.9), where there is abnormal profit.
New firms are alternated until D1D1´ shifts to D3D3´. Some might take e2 as a
long run equilibrium with (P, X) price output combination since only normal
profit is earned these. However, this is not true. Each firm believes d1d1 is its
demand curve and if prices are lowered, output sold goes up and hence profit
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Price and Output will increase. However, each firm having the same incentive to reduce price.
Determination - I
As a result, dd’ slides down and each firm realises a loss instead of profit
P, LAC , LMC
D2 D1
D3
d1 LMC
P e2
d2
C A e1
P'
d3
d1'
LAC
d4
E
P* d 2'
d3'
d 4'
* D2' '
D
3 D 1
X
O X X1 X2 X*
MR
Fig. 9.9: Equilibrium and Normal Profit
For example, see that at position d2d2´. The firm has reduced price to P´ but
others have not done similarly and X1 is produced with a total loss equal to the
shaded area CP’BA. Each firm still believes that it can achieve positive profit
by cutting price. The loss infact increases further as d2d2´ slides down along
D1D1´. The process would end when dd´ becomes tangent to the LAC. This
will happen if the firms produce X*. However, still there are too many firms
and their share is X2 (given by intersection of D3D3´ and d3d3´). Firms in order
to achieve X* (to maximize profit since at X*, MR=MC) reduce price. As a
result, d3 d3 slides down further to the left and with increasing losses. The
firms, which cannot bear this loss, quit D3D3 and move to the right to D2D2.
Exit will continue till d3d3’ becomes tangent to LAC, and D2D2´ cuts d3d3´ at
the point of tangency. The point E is the table equilibrium where (p*, X*) is
the equilibrium price quantity combination. Firms earn normal profit and no
entry or exit takes place.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Suppose there is a monopolistic competition market with 101 firms. The
market demand function is given by
k
Pk = 150 – xk – 0.02 ∑ x i
i =1
i≠k
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k
Monopolistic
∑ xi
i =1
→ all other firms reaction Competition
i≠k
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Price and Output 5) What is the difference between ‘industry’ and ’product group’? Can you
Determination - I
give an example of product group in the context of Indian market?
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52
Monopolistic
∂R Competition
= P or, MR = P
∂X
∂S
From (3) MR = C´ (X) +
∂X
Thus, for profit maximisation marginal revenue with respect to output must be
equal to marginal production cost plus the marginal selling cost.
∂S
From X =
∂P
X may be called MR with respect to price. Thus, MR of a firm with respect to
price must be equal to MSC (marginal selling cost).
The following diagram explains the equilibrium of a firm
D0 D0: Demand curve for selling cost S = S0
D1D1: Demand curve for selling cost S = S1
D2D2: Demand curve for selling cost S = S2
MR0, MR1and MR2 are the marginal revenues for selling cost S0, S1 and S2
respectively. MC is the marginal cost curve.
The second order condition required that MR increases less rapidly than MC
both with respect to output and price
If the firm behaves like a monopolist, its profit maximizing output-price
combination is (Xo, Po), (X1, P1), (X2, P2) for selling cost So, S1 and S2,
respectively (these are obtained by equating MRo, MR1 and MR2 with MC).
P
A'
P'
P0
X
O X0 B B'
Fig. 9.10: Selling Cost and AR
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Price and Output P, C
Determination - I
D2
MC
D1
P2
P1
D0
P0
X
O X0 X1 X2 D0 D1 D2
MR0 MR1 MR2
Fig. 9.11: Equilibrium in Monopolistic Competition with Selling Costs
For each of these combinations, we can determine the profit. Let these be πo,
π1, π2, respectively for S= So, S1and S2
Thus, we can find a functional relationship between profit and selling costs,
viz.,
π = π (S)
If we plot the profit on vertical axis and selling costs on horizontal axis, the
curve will look like the curve given in Figure 9.12.
Clearly, where the vertical difference between π (s) and the 450 line π (S) =S
is maximum,
i.e., π (S) – S
or, R – C (X) – S(X)
or, P.X – C (X) – S(X)
gives the optimum level of selling cost.
Thus, the optimum selling cost (S*) is obtained when the slope of π (S) is
equal to unity.
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Monopolistic
Competition
Gross profit
net profit
45°
S
O S*
Fig. 9.12: Relationship between Profit and Selling Costs
SRAC1
SRAC2
PE
DD
X
O XE XM X1
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Price and Output Ideal output or the optimum output is associated with the minimum point of
Determination - I
the LRAC curve. The excess capacity is the difference between the optimal
output and the actual output attained by the firm in the long-run.
As Cassels argues, excess capacity in monopolistic competition could be
divided into two components. This is shown in figure 9.13:
OX1: Ideal or optimal output as it corresponds to minimum point of LRAC
curve
OXE: Long-run equilibrium output in a monopolistic competitive market
SRAC1: Short-run average cost curve corresponding to optimal plant for
output OXE
SRAC2: Short-run average cost curve corresponding optimal plant for output
OX1
Excess capacity is X E X1, which could be decomposed as
i) XM X1: due to not building the technically optimal plant
ii) XEXM: due to not operating the plant at the minimum point of the average
cost
Chamberlin, however, defended the high cost of output under monopolistic
competition with the shield of the product differentiation. According to him,
people may be willing to pay for the differentiation. Thus, the ideal output is
not that one corresponding to the minimum point of the LRAC curve. Of
course, excessive proliferation of products of different quality is a waste of
society’s resources, but the cost of monotonicity produced by having uniform
products has to be taken into account as well.
Check Your Progress 2
1) What it an ideal output? Why it is ideal?
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2) What is excess capacity? In a monopolistic competitive market, could
there be situation where firms are actually producing more than the ideal
output? Explain.
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3) Is excess capacity socially desirable? How Chamberlin argued in favour
of excess capacity?
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56
Monopolistic
9.7 CRITICISM OF MONOPOLISTIC Competition
COMPETITION
The model of monopolistic competition was received very enthusiastically
and many economists termed it as “Chamberlin revolution” but there were
several serious attacks on this model
The downward sloping demand curves are derived from the assumption of
product differentiation. This is inconsistent with the assumption that cost
curves or demand conditions are the same for all the firms. If the output of
two firms is genuinely different, then the cost per unit of output is not really
comparable. Furthermore, the long run equilibrium of a firm with only normal
profit is logically incorrect. If the firm is providing a unique product and
making supernormal profits as a consequence, other firms can compete away
these profits only by providing the same product.
Another problem created by the introduction of product differentiation is the
difficulty to define the industry or the product group, e.g., tea, coffee, soft
drinks, beer, wine and liquor could form a product group according to
somebody but some others may reject. Thus, in monopolistic competition it is
not very clear where do we draw the line.
Finally, differentiated products are not produced by different firms. One single
firm may produce several differentiated products, which are close substitutes
of each other.
The monopolistic competition market structure is not useful for making any
prediction. Unlike the theories of perfect competition and monopoly, it does
not provide unambiguous predictions of the effect of changes in costs or
demand on the price of the product, size of the plant and the number of firms
operating in the industry.
All these discussions on monopolistic competition, however, do not mean that
it has been useless. For, it did raise a lot of issues previously overlooked
which prompted literature of selling costs, advertising, non price competition
etc.
i≠k
Since at eqm. xi = xk ∀i
∴Pk = 150 – xk – 0.02 (100). x
= 150 – 3 xk
58
Monopolistic
= 90 [Therefore xk = 20] Competition
Πk = 400
2) As in the short run ΠK > 0, new firms will enter the industry
Πk = xk (150 – xk – 0.02 ∑ x ) – 0.5xk2 + 20 xk2 – 270 xk
i =1
i
i ≠k
In eqm. xi= xk
1.5 X 2k – 38xk + 120 + 0.02 (n-1) Xk = 0 …(1)
In the long-run p = LAC
k
or, (150 – Xk – 0.02) ∑
i =1
x k = 0.5 Xk2 – 20 Xk + 1270
i≠k
∂ 2Π k
= 38 – 3XK < 0
∂Π k2
6050
or, n = +1
38
= 160.2 ≅ 161
9.12 EXERCISES
1) Illustrate a monopolistically competitive firm in short-run suffering a
loss. Describe the adjustment procedure in the long-run.
2) Which one between perceived and proportional demand curve determines
the firms choice of output and price? Why two must intersect at the
equilibrium point?
3) Is the soft drink market in India an example of monopolistic competition?
If not, give reasons.
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