12/6/18
Chapter 14: The Expansive Realm of Islam
I. Introduction
632 CE prophet Muhammad visited home city of Mecca bc he was exiled from Medina
Haji: holy pilgrimage to Mecca becomes special occasion
Islam: means submission- obedience to rule & will of Allah- only deity recognized in
strictly monotheistic Islamic religion
Muslim: one who has submitted
Attracted many followers & had poli/social significance
Islamic society orig reflected nomadic/mercantile Arabian society but over time Muslim
conquerors adopted Persian techniques of gov /finance to administer their lands
Muslims didn’t invent new Islamic society, but blended Arab, Persian, Greek & India
Many lands became part of dar al-Islam house of Islam (lands under Islamic rule)
II. A Prophet and His World
Islam started in Arabian peninsula & it reflected social/cultural conditions of society
Nomads like Bedouin migrated thru deserts & org themselves into clan groups
Cooperation w/ kin = survival in harsh enviro, so they dev strong sense of loyalty to their
clans= common interests
Arabia = lots of trade = lots of cultural transfusion
A. Muhammad and His Message
Born to family of merchants in Mecca; Muhammad ibn Abdullah lost both parents at 6
Worked for/married rich Khadija (widow) helped him gain prominence- NOT ELITE
He was a merchant & met ppl w/ diff religions/cultures
Most Arabs rec many gods, goddesses, demons & nature spirits
By Muhammad’s time, many Arabs converted to Christianity
Muhammad understood Judaism & Christianity
610 CE- Muhammad has spiritual experience that tells him there’s only 1 true deity-
Allah “God” ruled universe, idolatry of other gods = wickedness & Allah would soon
bring judgement to world- rewarding righteousness & punishing wickedness
o His visions were delivered by Gabriel (also recog by Jews/Christians as God’s
messenger) who told him to spread faith
Shared views of Judaism, Christianity & Zoroastrianism but he didn’t intend to blend
them together to create a new religion
Originally spread his visions orally, but as Islamic community grew, followers wrote
texts of his teachings to form Quran (“recitation”)
o Quran communicates Muhammad’s understanding of Allah & his relation to world &
serves as definitive authority for Islamic religious doctrine & social org
hadith: includes sayings/doings of Muhammad; less authoritative than Quran
hadith was about Muhammad but Quran is about God
B. Muhammad’s Migration to Medina
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12/6/18
Popularity of Muhammad’s preaching = religious conflicts w/ ruling elites at Mecca
Monotheistic Islam offended polytheistic Arabs bc it disparaged long-recog deities
Mecca’s ruling elites (wealthiest merchants) felt their position threatened bc Muhammad
denounced greed as moral wickedness that Allah would punish
Muhammad’s attack on idolatry = econ threat to ppl who owned from deities’ shrines that
attracted merchants & pilgrims to Mecca
o Ka’ba was a big black cube rock that = $$
These factors led to Mecca’s ruling elites persecuting Muhammad & his followers
They fled to Abyssinia but Muhammad stayed in Mecca until 622 CE when he fled to
Yathrib; Muslims called Medina “the city”/ “the city of the prophet”
Hijra: Muhammad’s move to Medina is starting point of official Islamic calendar
Muhammad org his followers into cohesive commun called umma “community of
faithful” & have it a legal/social code
He fought enemies w/ his ppl, provided relief for less fortunate & grew econ
Accepted authority of earlier Jewish/Christian prophets (Abraham, Moses & Jesus) but
felt that he was the last prophet & carried the most complete message of God
o Held Hebrew scriptures & Christian New Testament in high esteem
o Accepted predecessors monotheism: Allah was same omnipotent, omniscient,
omnipresent & exclusive deity
C. The Establishment of Islam in Arabia
Muhammad & his followers felt Mecca was home & in 630 they conquered Mecca &
forced elites to adopt faith; imposed gov dedicated to Allah
o Destroyed pagan shrines except Ka’ba & replaced them w/ mosques (buildings sought
to instill sense of sacredness & community where Muslims gathered for prayers)
o Denied that Ka’ba was for a deity & instead kept it as symbol of Mecca’s greatness
Muhammad launched campaigns against other towns & Bedouin clans by
Muhammad’s death in 632, brought most of Arabia under their control
Muhammad’s faith/leadership shaped values & dev of Islamic community
Five Pillars of Islam:
o Muslims must acknowledge Allah as only god & Muhammad as his prophet
o They must prey to Allah daily while facing Mecca
o They must observe a fast during daylight hours of month of Ramadan
o They must contribute alms for relief of weak & poor
o In honor of Muhammad’s visits to Mecca (629/632), those who are physically &
financially able must undertake the hajj & make at least 1 pilgrimage to Mecca
Islam has gen many schools/sects, each w/ it’s own legal, social & doctrinal features
5 Pillars of Islam is powerful framework that bound umma into cohesive commun of faith
Some Muslims have taken jihad (struggle) as obligation for faithful
o One def: jihad imposes spiritual/moral obligations on Muslims to struggle against
ignorance & unbelief by spreading Islam & seeking converts
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o 2nd def: involves physical struggle obliging Muslims to wage war against unbelievers
who threaten Islam (MANY DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS)
Sharia: Islamic holy law emerged AFTER Muhammad & offered guidance on proper
behavior in almost every aspect of life (marriage, fam life, inheritance, slavery, business,
poli authority in dar al-Islam, crime & commercial relationships)
Drew it’s inspirations from Quran & early accounts of Muhammad’s life/teachings
Sharia made Islam more than religious doctrine dev new way of life w/ social/ethical
values derived from Islamic religious principles
III. The Expansion of Islam
Muhammad made no provision for successor after his death
Serious division within umma concerning choosing new leader
Many towns & Bedouin clans that recently converted used Muhammad’s death to renounce
Islam, reassert their ind & break free from Mecca’s control
Islamic commun expanded military that had poli/cultural influence beyond Arabia these
conquests laid foundation for rapid growth of Islamic society
A. The Early Caliphs and the Umayyad Dynasty
Muhammad was “seal of prophets” so no one could succeed him
After his death, his advisors elected Abu Bakr (nice man who was close friend &
devoted disciple) to serve as caliph- deputy
Abu & later caliphs led umma as lieutenants/subs for Muhammad
Abu was head of state for Islamic comm, chief judge, religious leader & mili commander
Umma was aggressive against towns & Bedouin clans that renounced Islam & within
year compelled them to recognize Islam/rule of caliph
Mili less powerful than Byzantine/Sasanids but attacked at weak time (internal issues)
Muslims seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine & most of Meso from Sasanids (633-637CE)
640s- Byzantine Egpy & north Africa; 711- Hindu kingdom of Sind in nw India; 711-
717- nw Africa & crossed Strait of Gibraltar, most of Iberian peninsula & threatened
Frankish Gaul; mid 8th century- LARGE Islamic empire
Expansion= problems w/ choosing caliphs
o After Muhammad’s death, powerful Arab clan leaders chose among themselves to
appoint 1st 4 caliphs
o Poli ambitions, personal diff & clan loyalties complicated things & disputes led to
factions/parties withing Islamic comm
o Shia Sect: largest & most important alts to majority faith (Sunni Islam)
o Originated as part supporting Ali & his descendants but he was assassinated
o Shias were persecuted but survived by adopting diff doctrines/rituals
o Sunnis (“traditionalists”) who accepted legitimacy of prior caliphs
o Shias observed holy days to honor martyrs & leaders to their cause, taught that
descendants of Ali were infallible, sinless & divinely appt to rule
o Advanced interpretations of Quran; had support from ppl who opposed Sunni policies
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After Ali’s death, Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE) temp solved succession issue
Umayyads were most prom of Meccan merchant clans & rep/network of alliances helped
them bring stability to Islamic comm
Est capital at Damascus- thriving commercial center in Syria- location = better
communication w/ vast & expanding empire
Umayyads favored Arabs bc they ruled as dar-al-Islam conquerors & their policies
reflected Arab mili aristocracy
Appt elite Arabs as govs & admin of conquered lands & distrib $$ among this priv class
Angers other ethnic/religious groups in empire; Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, Buddhists
& Indians, Persians, Mesopotamians, Greeks, Egyptians & nomadic Berbers in n. Africa
Arabs mostly allowed ppl to observe diff religions but had special head tax jizya on
nonconverts; converts didn’t get any privileges
Policies caused deep resentment & led to restiveness against Umayyad rule
8th cent- caliphs alienate from Arabs; have lux lifestyle instead of caring about umma
o Scandalized devout Muslims by casual attitudes toward Islam; Shia resisted caliphs
B. The Abbasid Dynasty
Rebellion in Persia ended Umayyad dynasty
Abu al-Abbas: rebellion leader; descendant of Muhammad’s uncle
o Sunni Arab but allied w/ Shias & non-Arab Muslims (converts sw Asia)
o Prom supporters were Persian converts who resented Umayyad’s preferences to Arabs
740s- Abbas’ party rejected Umayyad auth & controlled Persia/Meso
750- Abbas’ army defeated Umayyads in massive battle; then invited remaining
Umayyads to banquet to reconcile their diffs
o His troops arrested Umayyads & killed them; annihilating clan
Abbas founded Abbasid dynasty- main auth in dar al-Islam until Mongols in 1258 CE
DIFFERENCES B/W ABBASID & UMAYYAD
Abbasid state more cosmo & rulers didn’t favor Arab mili aristo; Arabs continued to play
large role in gov but Persians, Egyptians, Mesopotamians etc also had power & $$
NOT conquerors
o Sparred w/ Byzantine empire, freq w/ CA nomads & 751- defeated Chinese army at
Talas River imp bc ended expansion of China’s Tang dynasty into CA & allowed
spread of Islam among Turkish ppl
Dar al-Islam as whole grew during Abbasid era but caliphs didn’t rlly contribute
o 9/10th cent- autonomous Islamic forces from Tunisia had naval expeditions thru Medi,
conquered Crete, Sicily & Balearic Islands; territories in Cyprus, Rhodes, Sardinia,
Corsica, s Italy & s France
Abbasids happy w/ admin empire they inherited
Had gov that could admin diverse realm & relied heavily on Persian techniques
Central auth came from Baghdad court that Abbasids built
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o Baghdad was round city protected by 3 walls & at heart was caliph’s green-domed
palace, which gave out instructions for rest of realm
o In provinces, govs rep caliphs & implemented his poli/$$ policies
Ulama- learned officials “ppl w/ religious knowledge” & quadis “judges” set moral
standards in local comms & resolved disputes
o Weren’t priests- Islam doesn’t recog priests as distinct class of religious specialists
o Had formal edu; studied Quran & sharia
Ulama- pious scholars who sought to dev pub policy w/ Quran/sharia
Quadis- heard cases at law & made decisions based on Quran/sharia
Became v influential to ensure widespread observance of Islamic values
Caliphs kept standing armies & est bur ministries for taxation, coinage & postal services
High point of Abbasids was during reign of Harun al-Rashid (786-809)
Abbasids lost some distant provinces but were still strong enough to have reliable tax
revenues from most parts of empire
$$$= Baghdad center of banking, commerce, crafts & indust prod, metro w/ large pop
Harun liberally sup artists/writers & gave lux gifts to them
o Disturb $$ to poor/common classe by tossing coins on Baghdad streets; sent elephant
to Charlemagne (Carolingian empire of w EU)
After Harun’s reign, empire declined
The civil war between Haren Sons damage the Abbasids & succession disputes follow
Provincial Govs took adv of disorder in rolling house & acted ind of caliphs
o Built up local basis of power or seceded from Abbasid instead of implem imperial pol
Uprisings & peasant rebellions sup by dissenting sects & heretical mmts weekend empire
Result- caliphs became useless before Mongols ended Dynasty in 1258
945- members of Persian noble fam controlled Baghdad & est their clan as power
Later, Saljuq Turks- CA nomads controlled Baghdad (also attacked Byzantines)
Response to rebellions by peasants & provincial gov- Baghdad autho allied w/ Turks who
entered realm & converted to Islam
Mid 11th cent- Turks controlled empire; 1050s- took control of Baghdad; extended
control of Syria, Palestine & Anatolia
Retained Abbasid caliphs as nominal sovereigns until arrival of the Mongols
o Saljuq sultan “ruler” was true source of power in empire
IV. Economy and Society of the Early Islamic World
Dar al-Islam peasants were agric & merch/ manuf sup urban econ
Creation of large empires hard econ implications
Umayyads & Abbasids created zone of trade, exchange & communic from India to Iberia
Converse stimulated econ in countryside & cities
A. New Crops, Agricultural Experimentation, and Urban Growth
As soldiers, diplos & merch traveled, encount plants, animals & agric new techniques
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o Introduced useful crops to new regions
Most imp were staple crops like sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum, wheat,
spinach, artichokes, eggplants, oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons,
mangoes, cotton, indigo & henna
New crops = very diet & more food bc of longer growing season
o Hot/dry summers in Islamic world but transplanted crops grew well in heat so ppl
could farm year-round
Cotton was based for textile indust & indigo/henna = dyes for textile manuf
Travel/commun encour experimentation w/ agric methods
Famers focused on dirty methods, fertilization, crop rotation wrote manuals
All of this means more prod agric soc, which leads to population growth
Cities were imp centers of indust prod of textiles, pottery, glassware, leather, iron & steel
New industry was paper manuf- started in China and spread it when Arab forces defeated
army at Talas River & took prisoners skilled in paper prod
Paper = admin/commercial records & dissemination of books/treatises in ^^ quantities
B. The Formation of a Hemisphere Trading Zone
From the early days Islamic society drew prosperity from commerce- Muhammad
During Abbasids, elab trade networks link all of Islamic world
Muslim conquerors brought CA trading cities into Islamic world after overrunning
Sasanid empire; made it possible for merchants to trade over Silk roads
o Merchants could take adv of roads built during classical era
Umayyad and Abbasid roads wer routes for mili & admin officials traveling thru Islam
Roads were also good for missionaries and pilgrims and made travel efficient/quick
o Eating chips and Muslim rulers imported ice from Syria to Cairo
Overland trade = camel caravan; could into your harsh conditions better than horses or
donkeys; use a saddle to carry heavy loads
As camel trans ^^, IW & CA built caravanserais- offered lodging for merchants & food,
water & care for animals
Nautical tech innov = ^ maritime trade- Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea & Indian O
Arab & Persian borrowed compass from Chinese; lateen sail (triangular sale that ^^
ship’s maneuverability) from Asia; borrowed astrolabe- instrument to calculate latitude
Persian merchant- Ramisht of Siraf made lots of $$ & spent it on pious reasons
Banking stim econ; islam make bank of the Abbasid conducted busi on larger scale &
provided more extensive range of services than before
Lent $$ to entrepreneurs & served as brokers for investments & exch diff currencies
Sakk: branches that honored letters of credit “check”
o Merch could draw letters of credit in 1 city & cash them in another & could settle
accounts w/ distant business partners w/o dealing cash
Increased trade enabled entrepreneurs to refine methods of org
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Islamic law provided security for entrep by recog certain busi org
o Abbasid entrepreneurs pooled resources in group investments; distrib their risks &
absorb losses; if several groups of investors did this, they spread their risks even more
Org as simple investment for active roles in busi ventures
Prosperity of Islamic Spain: al-Andalus shows effects of long distance trade during
Abbasid era
Most of Iberian peninsula fell to Muslim Berber conq from n Africa
Allies of Umayyad, govs of al-Andalus refused to recog Abbasid dynasty
o 8th cent: styled themselves as caliphs in their own right rather than Abbasid govs
Despite poli/diplo tensions, al-Andalus participated actively in commercial life
Imported crops = more food = better diet = thriving businesses
Córdoba had free Islamic schools, library & large mosque
C. The Changing Status of Women
Patriarchal society existed before Muhammad but air woman had more rights than
woman from other lands
o Legally inherit prop, divorce husbands on own & engage in business ventures
Quran somewhat ^^ women’s security
o Outlawed female infanticide & provided that dowries went directly to brides not men
o Four trade woman as honorable indiv NOT property & = to men before Allah
Muhammad’s kindness to his wives was example
Quran & sharia still reinforced male dom; recog descent thru male line
Taught men to treat women w/ sensitivity but could have multiple wives like
Muhammad; women could only have 1 husband
Quran & sharia set up relig/legal foundation for patriarchal soc
Expansion into patriarchal soc = more patriarchy
Veiling- sign of modesty/upper-class discourages attention from other men
When Muslim Arabs conq Meso, Persia & eastern Medi lands, they adopted practice
^^ emphasis on male auth in Islamic law reflected influence of strongly hierarchical &
patriarchal socs of Meso, Persia & eastern Medi lands
V. Islamic Values and Cultural Exchanges
Muslim missionaries spread Islam
A. The Formation of an Islamic Cultural Tradition
Civil & criminal law in sharia gave cult unity for vastly diff lands of Islamic world
o Didn’t erase diffs but est common cult foundation that fac dealings b/w most ppl
Popular level- ulama, quadis & missionaries help bridge diffs
o Brought values of Quran/Sharia to ppl living far from birthplace of Islam
Formal edu instit helped promote Islam’s values; mosques maintain schools that provided
elementary edu & relig instruction
o Some wealthy Muslims est schools & provided endowments for their support
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Madrasas: instit of higher edu
o Sup by Muslim rulers bc they wanted to recruit lit and edu ppl that understood Islamic
theology/law for admin positions
Inexpensive paper = ^^ ability to teach students and disseminate their views
Sufis: most effective mystic Islamic missionaries
o Didn’t deny Islamic doctrine but felt formal religious teachings weren’t meaningful
o Worked to deepen their spiritual awareness; led pious/ascetic lives
o Some devoted to helping poor; some gave up belongings to be beggars
o Many sought mystical, ecstatic union w/ Allah, relying on rousing sermons, passionate
singing, or spirited dancing to bring them to high emotional state
Muslim theologians sometimes mistrusted them; thought they were stupid
Sufis became more popular in Muslim socs because of piety, devotion & eagerness to
minister to needs of other ppl
Al-Ghazali (1058-1111): most imp early Sufi who argued that human reason was too
frail to understand Allah’s nature so couldn’t explain world’s mysteries
o Needed guidance from Quran to appreciate uniqueness/power of Allah
o Philosophy & human reasoning were vain pursuits that lead to confusion
Sufis were effective bc emphasized devotion to Allah above mastery of doctrine
sometimes encourage ppl to revere a lot in own ways even if methods weren’t in Quran
Tol cont observance of pre-Islamic customs
Kindness, holiness, tolerance & charismatic appeal
Made hajj more attractive by est stops on way to Mecca to ensure safety of pilgrims
o Pilgrims helped spread Islam to all parts of Islamic world
B. Islam and the Cultural Traditions of Persia, India, and Greece
Muslims of Arab ancestry interacted w/ ppl from other cult traditions
During dynasties, large Numbers of ppl converted to Islam & brought their elements of
their inherited cult traditions into Islamic Society
Persian traditions deeply influenced Islamic poli/cult leaders
Used Persian admin techniques & ideas of Persian kinship
Arabic served as lang of relig, theology, philosophy & law but Persian was main lang of
lit, poetry, history & poli reflection
Indian math, science & med interested Arab/Persian Muslims- had states in n India
Adopted Hindi numerals & EU ppl called them Arabic numerals later
Hindi # let Muslim scholars dev adv math (alg, trig, geometry); simplified bookkeeping
for merch
Advanced math enabled precise astronomical calculations
Medical knowledge created treatments for specific illnesses & antidotes for poison
Muslims did not like Indian religion
Muslims admired Greek philosophy, science & med
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o Focused on Aristotle; Ibn Rushd (1126-1198) qadi who followed Aristotle on finding
pure understanding of world
o His work was taught in schools and universities; called Averroes
Greek math gave solid reasoning for alg/geometry & sup astro dev
Muslims combined all these categories to further their own understanding