Enamel vitreus

Cloisonné Plakat Byzantine enamel , Kekaisaran

Bizantium , c. 1100
Keberuntungan Edenhall , sebuah cangkir kaca
enamel abad ke-13 yang dibuat di Suriah atau Mesir

Detail dari hidangan Limoges enamel yang dicat ,

pertengahan abad ke-16, dikaitkan dengan Jean de
Court , Waddesdon Wasiat
Pembunuhan Thomas Becket , detail dari relik di
champlevé enamel , Limoges

Enamel vitreous , juga disebut enamel

porselen , adalah bahan yang dibuat
dengan menggabungkan bubuk kaca ke
substrat dengan menembak, biasanya
antara 750 dan 850 ° C (1,380 dan 1,560
° F). Bubuk meleleh, mengalir, dan
kemudian mengeras menjadi lapisan
vitreus yang halus dan tahan lama . Kata
ini berasal dari bahasa Latin vitreum ,
yang berarti "kaca".
Enamel dapat digunakan pada logam ,
kaca , keramik , batu, atau material apa
saja yang akan tahan terhadap suhu
peleburan. Dalam istilah teknis
enamelware dipecat adalah komposit
berlapis terpadu dari kaca dan bahan lain
(atau lebih banyak kaca). Istilah "enamel"
paling sering dibatasi untuk bekerja pada
logam, yang merupakan subjek dari
artikel ini. Kaca yang diemail juga disebut
"dicat", dan dekorasi berlebih ke tembikar
sering disebut enamel.

Enamelling is an old and widely adopted

technology, for most of its history mainly
used in jewelry and decorative art. Since
the 19th century, enamels have also been
applied to many consumer objects, such
as some cooking vessels, steel sinks,
enamel bathtubs, and stone
countertops.[1] It has also been used on
some appliances, such as dishwashers,
laundry machines, and refrigerators, and
on marker boards and signage.

The term "enamel" has also sometimes

been applied to industrial materials other
than vitreous enamel, such as "enamel"
paint and the polymers coating
"enamelled" wire.

The word enamel comes from the Old

High German word smelzan (to smelt) via
the Old French esmail,[2] or from a Latin
word smaltum, first found in a 9th-
century life of Leo IV.[3] Used as a noun,
"an enamel" is usually a small decorative
object coated with enamel. "Enamelled"
and "enamelling" are the preferred
spellings in British English, while
"enameled" and "enameling" are preferred
in American English.

History

Cina cloisonné enamel pot anggur perunggu, abad

ke-18
The ancient Egyptians applied enamels
to stone objects, pottery, and sometimes
jewellery, although to the last less often
than in contemporaneous cultures in the
Near East. The ancient Greeks, Celts,
Georgians, and Chinese also used
enamel on metal objects.[4]

Enamel was also used to decorate glass

vessels during the Roman period, and
there is evidence of this as early as the
late Republican and early Imperial
periods in the Levant, Egypt, Britain and
around the Black Sea.[5] Enamel powder
could be produced in two ways, either by
powdering coloured glass, or by mixing
colourless glass powder with pigments
such as a metallic oxide.[6]

Designs were either painted freehand or

over the top of outline incisions, and the
technique probably originated in
metalworking.[5] Once painted, enamelled
glass vessels needed to be fired at a
temperature high enough to melt the
applied powder, but low enough that the
vessel itself was not melted.

Production is thought to have come to a

peak in the Claudian period and persisted
for some three hundred years,[5] though
archaeological evidence for this
technique is limited to some forty
vessels or vessel fragments.[5]
Ancient Persians used this method for
colouring and ornamenting the surface
of metals by fusing over it brilliant
colours that are decorated in an intricate
design and called it Meenakari. The
French traveller, Jean Chardin, who
toured Iran during the Safavid reign,
made a reference to an enamel work of
Isfahan, which comprised a pattern of
birds and animals on a floral background
in light blue, green, yellow and red. Gold
has been used traditionally for Meenakari
Jewellery as it holds the enamel better,
lasts longer and its lustre brings out the
colours of the enamels. Silver, a later
introduction, is used for artifacts like
boxes, bowls, spoons, and art pieces
while copper which is used for handicraft
products was introduced only after the
Gold Control Act, which compelled the
Meenakars to look for a material other
than gold, was enforced in India. Initially,
the work of Meenakari often went
unnoticed as this art was traditionally
used as a backing for the famous kundan
or stone-studded jewellery. This also
allowed the wearer to reverse the
jewellery as also promised a special joy
in the secret of the hidden design.[7]

In European art history, enamel was at its

most important in the Middle Ages,
beginning with the Late Romans and then
the Byzantine, who began to use
cloisonné enamel in imitation of
cloisonné inlays of precious stones. The
Byzantine enamel style was widely
adopted by the "barbarian" peoples of
Migration Period northern Europe. The
Byzantines then began to use cloisonné
more freely to create images; this was
also copied in Western Europe. The
champlevé technique was considerably
easier and very widely practiced in the
Romanesque period. In Gothic art the
finest work is in basse-taille and ronde-
bosse techniques, but cheaper
champlevé works continued to be
produced in large numbers for a wider
market.
From either Byzantium or the Islamic
world, the cloisonné technique reached
China in the 13–14th centuries. The first
written reference to cloisonné is in a
book from 1388, where it is called "Dashi
('Muslim') ware".[8] No Chinese pieces
that are clearly from the 14th century are
known; the earliest datable pieces are
from the reign of the Xuande Emperor
(1425–35), which, since they show a full
use of Chinese styles, suggest
considerable experience in the technique.

Cloisonné remained very popular in

China until the 19th century and is still
produced today. The most elaborate and
most highly valued Chinese pieces are
from the early Ming Dynasty, especially
the reigns of the Xuande Emperor and
Jingtai Emperor (1450–57), although
19th century or modern pieces are far
more common.[9] Starting from the mid-
19th century, the Japanese also
produced large quantities of very high
technical quality.[10]

Grey clouds, typical enamel cooking gear from the

Dutch DRU factory, popular in the 1950s
More recently, the bright, jewel-like colors
have made enamel a favoured choice for
jewellery designers, including the Art
Nouveau jewellers, for designers of
bibelots such as the eggs of Peter Carl
Fabergé and the enameled copper boxes
of the Battersea enamellers,[11] and for
artists such as George Stubbs and other
painters of portrait miniatures.

A resurgence in enamel-based art took

place near the end of the 20th century in
the Soviet Union, led by artists like Alexei
Maximov and Leonid Efros. In Australia,
abstract artist Bernard Hesling brought
the style into prominence with his
variously sized steel plates.[12]
Enamel was first applied commercially to
sheet iron and steel in Austria and
Germany in about 1850.[13]
Industrialization increased as the purity
of raw materials increased and costs
decreased. The wet application process
started with the discovery of the use of
clay to suspend frit in water.
Developments that followed during the
20th century include enamelling-grade
steel, cleaned-only surface preparation,
automation, and ongoing improvements
in efficiency, performance, and quality.[14]

Properties
Vitreous enamel can be applied to most
metals. Most modern industrial enamel
is applied to steel in which the carbon
content is controlled to prevent
unwanted reactions at the firing
temperatures. Enamel can also be
applied to gold, silver, copper,
aluminium,[15] stainless steel,[16] and cast
iron.[17]

Vitreous enamel has many useful

properties: it is smooth, hard, chemically
resistant, durable, scratch resistant (5–6
on the Mohs scale), has long-lasting
colour fastness, is easy to clean, and
cannot burn. Enamel is glass, not paint,
so it does not fade under ultraviolet
light.[18] A disadvantage of enamel is a
tendency to crack or shatter when the
substrate is stressed or bent, but modern
enamels are relatively chip- and impact-
resistant because of good thickness
control and coefficients of thermal
expansion well-matched to the metal.

The Buick automobile company was

founded by David Dunbar Buick with
wealth earned by his development of
improved enamelling processes, c. 1887,
for sheet steel and cast iron. Such
enameled ferrous material had, and still
has, many applications: early 20th
century and some modern advertising
signs, interior oven walls, cooking pots,
housing and interior walls of major
kitchen appliances, housing and drums
of clothes washers and dryers, sinks and
cast iron bathtubs, farm storage silos,
and processing equipment such as
chemical reactors and pharmaceutical
process tanks. Structures such as filling
stations, bus stations and Lustron
Houses had walls, ceilings and structural
elements made of enamelled steel.

One of the most widespread modern

uses of enamel is in the production of
quality chalk-boards and marker-boards
(typically called 'blackboards' or
'whiteboards') where the resistance of
enamel to wear and chemicals ensures
that 'ghosting', or unerasable marks, do
not occur, as happens with polymer
boards. Since standard enamelling steel
is magnetically attractive, it may also be
used for magnet boards. Some new
developments in the last ten years
include enamel/non-stick hybrid
coatings, sol-gel functional top-coats for
enamels, enamels with a metallic
appearance, and new easy-to-clean
enamels.[19]

The key ingredient of vitreous enamel is

finely ground glass called frit. Frit for
enamelling steel is typically an alkali
borosilicate glass with a thermal
expansion and glass temperature
suitable for coating steel. Raw materials
are smelted together between 2,100 and
2,650 °F (1,150 and 1,450 °C) into a liquid
glass that is directed out of the furnace
and thermal shocked with either water or
steel rollers into frit.[20]

Colour in enamel is obtained by the

addition of various minerals, often metal
oxides cobalt, praseodymium, iron, or
neodymium. The latter creates delicate
shades ranging from pure violet through
wine-red and warm grey. Enamel can be
transparent, opaque or opalescent
(translucent). Different enamel colours
can be mixed to make a new colour, in
the manner of paint.
There are various types of frit, which may
be applied in sequence. A ground coat is
applied first; it usually contains smelted-
in transition metal oxides such as cobalt,
nickel, copper, manganese, and iron that
facilitate adhesion to the metal. Next,
clear and semi-opaque frits that contain
material for producing colours are
applied.
 View into a glass-lined chemical reactor

Turb-mixer in a glass-lined chemical

reactor

Techniques of artistic
enameling

Old German enamel street sign

Enamelled metal
Basse-taille, from the French word
meaning "low-cut". The surface of
the metal is decorated with a low
relief design which can be seen
through translucent and
transparent enamels. The 14th
century Royal Gold Cup is an
outstanding example.[21]
Grisaille, French term
meaning "in grey", where a
 dark, often blue or black
background is applied, then a
palescent (translucent)
enamel is painted on top,
building up designs in a
monochrome gradient, paler
as the thickness of the layer
of light colour increases.
Champlevé, French for "raised
field", where the surface is carved
out to form pits in which enamel is
fired, leaving the original metal
exposed; the Romanesque
Stavelot Triptych is an example.[22]
Cloisonné, French for "cell", where
thin wires are applied to form
raised barriers, which contain
different areas of (subsequently
applied) enamel. Widely practiced
in Europe, the Middle East and
East Asia.[23]
Plique-à-jour, French for "open to
daylight" where the enamel is
applied in cells, similar to
cloisonné, but with no backing, so
light can shine through the
transparent or translucent enamel.
It has a stained-glass like
appearance; the Mérode Cup is
the surviving medieval
example.[24]
Ronde bosse, French for "in the round",
also known as "encrusted enamel". A
3D type of enamelling where a
sculptural form or wire framework is
completely or partly enamelled, as in
the 15th century Holy Thorn
Reliquary.[25]
En résille (Émail en résille sur verre,
French for 'enamel in a network on
glass,') where enamelled metal is
suspended in glass. The technique
was briefly popular in seventeenth-
century France and was re-discovered
by Margret Craver in 1953. Craver
spent 13 years re-creating the
technique.[26]
Enamelled glass
Enamelled glass, in which a glass
surface is enamelled, and fired to
fuse the glasses.
Painted enamel, a design in enamel is
painted onto a smooth metal surface.
Grisaille and later Limoges enamel are
types of painted enamel.[27] Most
traditional painting on glass, and some
on ceramics, uses what is technically
enamel, but is often described by
terms such as "painted in enamels",
reserving "painted enamel" and
"enamel" as a term for the whole object
for works with a metal base.[28]
Stenciling, where a stencil is placed
over the work and the powdered
enamel is sifted over the top. The
stencil is removed before firing, the
enamel staying in a pattern, slightly
raised.
Sgraffito, where an unfired layer of
enamel is applied over a previously
fired layer of enamel of a contrasting
colour, and then partly removed with a
tool to create the design.
Serigraph, where a silkscreen is used
with 60-70in grade mesh.
Counter enamelling, not strictly a
technique, but a necessary step in
many techniques, is to apply enamel to
 the back of a piece as well –
sandwiching the metal – to create less
tension on the glass so it does not
crack.
Safed chalwan, where jewels are set in
white enamel
See also Japanese shipōyaki
techniques

Traditions
Limoges enamel, made at Limoges,
France, a famous center of vitreous
enamel production. Limoges became
famous for champlevé enamels from
the 12th century onwards, producing
on a large scale, and then from the
15th century retained its lead by
 switching to painted enamel on flat
metal plaques.
Byzantine enamel
Meenakari
Shipōyaki

Industri enamel aplikasi

On sheet steel, a ground coat layer is
applied to create adhesion. The only
surface preparation required for modern
ground coats is degreasing of the steel
with a mildly alkaline solution. White and
coloured second "cover" coats of enamel
are applied over the fired ground coat.
For electrostatic enamels, the coloured
enamel powder can be applied directly
over a thin unfired ground coat "base
coat" layer that is co-fired with the cover
coat in a very efficient two-coat/one-fire
process.

The frit in the ground coat contains

smelted-in cobalt and/or nickel oxide as
well as other transition metal oxides to
catalyse the enamel-steel bonding
reactions. During firing of the enamel at
between 760 to 895 °C (1,400 to
1,643 °F), iron oxide scale first forms on
the steel. The molten enamel dissolves
the iron oxide and precipitates cobalt and
nickel. The iron acts as the anode in an
electrogalvanic reaction in which the iron
is again oxidised, dissolved by the glass,
and oxidised again with the available
cobalt and nickel limiting the reaction.
Finally, the surface becomes roughened
with the glass anchored into the holes.[29]

Membangun cladding
Enamel coatings applied to steel panels
offer protection to the core material
whether cladding road tunnels,
underground stations, building
superstructures or other applications. It
can also be specified as a curtain
walling. Qualities of this structural
material include:[30]

Durable
 Withstands extreme temperatures and
is non-flammable
Long lasting UV, climate and corrosion
resistance
Dirt-repellent and graffiti-proof
Resistant to abrasion and chemicals
Easy cleaning and maintenance

Galeri
Silver, silver gilt and painted enamel
beaker, Burgundian Netherlands, c.
1425–1450, The Cloisters

Th R l G ld C ith b t ill
The Royal Gold Cup with basse-taille
enamels; weight 1.935 kg, British
Museum. Saint Agnes appears to her
friends in a vision.

A freehand enameled painting by Einar

Hakonarson. In the forest, 1989
St. Gregory the Great in painted Limoges
enamel on a copper plaque, by Jacques I
Laudin

Early 13th century Limoges chasse used

to hold holy oils; most were reliquaries.
 y ; q

Medallion of the Death of the Virgin, with

basse-taille enamel
The Dunstable Swan Jewel, a livery
badge in ronde bosse enamel, about
1400. British Museum

Louis George enamel watch dial

Iranian enamel

Limoges? grisaille Stations of the Cross,

Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Avranches
Lihat juga
Ceramic glaze
Franz Ullrich – founder of a German
enamelware factory
Fred Uhl Ball – American enamellist
who created the largest known enamel
mural
Nineveh
Oskar Schindler
Rostov the Great – a city renowned for
its enamel work
Staffordshire Moorlands Pan, a 2nd-
century bronze trulla

Catatan
1. "Remodeling 101: 6 Considerations For
Lava Stone Countertops – Remodelista" .
remodelista.com. 15 December 2016.
2. Campbell, 6
3.  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Enamel".
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
4. Andrews, A.I. Porcelain Enamels, The
Garrard Press: Champaign, IL, 1961 p. 1.
5. Rutti, B., Early Enamelled Glass, in
Roman Glass: two centuries of art and
invention, M. Newby and K. Painter,
Editors. 1991, Society of Antiquaries of
London: London.
6. Gudenrath, W., Enameled Glass
Vessels, 1425 BCE – 1800: The
decorating Process. Journal of Glass
Studies, 2006. 48
7. "The Art of Minakari" . iranreview.org.
8. Sullivan, Michael, The arts of China, 4th
edn, p. 239, University of California Press,
1999, Page 239
9. Sullivan, Michael, The arts of China, 4th
edn, p. 239, University of California Press,
1999, ISBN 0-520-21877-9, ISBN 978-0-
520-21877-2, Google books
10. "Japanese Cloisonné: the Seven
Treasures" . Victoria and Albert Museum.
Archived from the original on 2009-02-
23. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
11. "What is Vitreous Enamel?" .
vea.org.uk.
12. database and e-research tool for art
and design researchers. "Bernard
Hesling :: biography at :: at Design and Art
Australia Online" . Daao.org.au. Retrieved
2013-12-25.
13. Andrews, Andrew Irving, Porcelain
enamels: the preparation, application, and
properties of enamels, Garrard Press,
1961, Page 5
14. Andrews, A.I. Porcelain Enamels, The
Garrard Press: Champaign, IL, 1961 p. 5.
15. Judd, Donald, “Porcelain Enameling
Aluminum: An Overview,” Proceedings of
the 59th Porcelain Enamel Institute
Technical Forum, 45-51 (1997).
16. Sullivan, J.D. and Nelson, F.W.,
"Stainless Steel Requires Special
Enameling Procedures", Proceedings of
the Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical
Forum," 150-155 (1970).
17. Pew, Steve, "The Who, What, Why,
Where, and When of Cast Iron Enameling,"
Advances in Porcelain Enamel
Technology, 177-186, (2010).
18. Fedak, David and Baldwin, Charles, "A
Comparison of Enameled and Stainless
Steel Surfaces," Proceedings of the 67th
Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical
Forum, 45-54 (2005).
19. Gavlenski, Jim and Baldwin, Charles,
"Advanced Porcelain Enamel Coatings
with Novel Properties," Proceedings of the
69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical
Forum, 53-58, (2007).
20. Andrews, A.I. Porcelain Enamels, The
Garrard Press: Champaign, IL, 1961 p.
321-2.
21. Campbell, 7, 33-41
22. Campbell, 7, 17-32
23. Campbell, 6, 10-17
24. Campbell, 38-42
25. Campbell, 7, 42
26. "Craft: Jewelry: Brooch" . Luce
Foundation Center for American Art.
Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Archived from the original on 13 July
2009. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
27. Campbell, 7
28. British Museum collection database,
"Scope note" for the term "enamelled";
other sources use different categories.
29. Feldman, Sid and Baldwin, Charles,
"Surface Tension and Fusion Properties of
Porcelain Enamels," Proceedings of the
69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical
Forum, 1-10 (2008)
30. Vitreous and porcelain enamels —
Characteristics of enamel coatings
applied to steel panels intended for
architecture. Standards Policy and
Strategy Committee. 2008. ISBN 978 0
580 72284 4.

Referensi
 Campbell, Marian. An Introduction to
Medieval Enamels, 1983, HMSO for
V&A Museum, ISBN 0-11-290385-1

Bacaan lebih lanjut

"Collection Highlights: Art in the
Islamic World". Beaker. Smithsonian
Institution: 2013.
Dimand, M. S. "An Enameled-Glass
Bottle of the Mamluk Period".
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Maryon, Herbert (1971). "Enamelling" .
Metalwork and Enamelling (5th ed.).
New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-22702-2.
Papadopoulous, Kiko. "Venetian
Eastern Trade: 11th to 14th Centuries"
 20 January 2012.

Tautan eksternal
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Enamel.

Enamels on jewelry – historical

Enameling Articles and Tutorials at
The Ganoksin Project
Mechanical and Physical Properties of
Vitreous Enamel
Glass on Metal Magazine Online (US)
CIDAE Center of Information and
Difusion of the Art of Enamelling (ES)
EEA European Enamel Authority (EU)
Society of Dutch Enamellers (NL)
 The Enamelist Society (US)
Guild of Enamellers, UK
International Enamellers Institute
Vitreous Enamel Association (UK)

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