1 Eratosthenes’ measurement of the Earth’s radius in

2 a middle lab session

3
4
5 A. R. Mota1, J. M. B. Lopes dos Santos1
6 1
CFP e Departamento de Física e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do
7 Porto, Porto P-4169-007, Portugal
8
9 E-mail: anaritalopesmota@gmail.com
10
11 (Received ####; accepted ####)
12
13
14 Abstract
15 In this article we describe a middle school lab session designed to explore and understand the Eratosthenes' method for
16 determining the Earth radius. The lab session is divided into six lab stations completely independent, though related,
17 each one with different apparatuses / materials.
18 The stations are diversified and range from simple tasks, like simulations or simple measurements to tasks that involve a
19 higher cognitive ability. The lab session includes several physical contents, such as the Earth movements (rotation,
20 translation and precession) and its consequences: variation of temperature, shadows length during the day, Sun rays
21 inclination, time zones and seasons.
22
23
24 Keywords: Earth movements (rotation, translation and precession), shadows length, Sun rays inclination, time zones,
25 seasons, Eratosthenes, Earth radius.
26
27
28 Resumen [Times New Roman 10]
29
30 Carefully review the wording of the abstract in Spanish. [Times New Roman 9]

31 Palabras clave: Up to three keywords should be supplied. Example: Conceptual errors on force, Physics Education
32 Include PACS numbers, Classical Mechanics teaching. [Times New Roman 9]
33
34 PACS: Insert at least 3 PACS classification numbers that are best suited. Example: 01.30.Os, 01.40.–d, 45.20.D–
35 Review: http://www.aip.org/pacs/pacs2010/individuals/pacs2010_regular_edition/reg00.htm#01. [Times New Roman
36 9] ISSN 1870-9095.
37
38
39 I. INTRODUCTION 61 shadow. He measued the angle of the Sun rays in that
40 62 conditions, and according to Kleomedes, Eratosthenes
41 The Eratosthenes’ measurement of Earth’s radius is one 63 obtained 7º 12' (1/50th of a circle, e. g. 7.2º).
42 of the most popular and fantastic experiences in the history 64 Observing a map of ancient Egypt is relatively easy to
43 of Science. Over the decades, it has always been admired 65 see that Syene is closer to the Tropic of Cancer and
44 not only because of its apparent simplicity but also due to 66 Alexandria and Syene lay apparently on a direct north-
45 the different domains of knowledge that it involves: 67 south line.
46 Geography, Mathematics and Physics. 68 At that time, the distance from Alexandria to Syene was
47 In spite of some of the measurements involved in this 69 known to be about 5000 stadia. Eratosthenes' original
48 experience being subject to several inaccuracies, is 70 writings on the measurement of the Earth were lost,
49 remarkable the procedure and the final result, closer to the 71 although legend has it that he had someone walk from the
50 correct one. 72 two towns. It is hard to know for sure what corresponds
51 Unfortunately, students are not always aware of this 73 exactly the unit stadia. Despite the controversy discussion
52 historical treasure; probably perhaps teachers have 74 about the ancient units1, it is more or less consensual that
53 difficulties in its adaptation to the level they teach. 75 one stadia would correspond to one-tenth statute mile1. In
54 Let’s remember the story: Eratosthenes had heard that in 76 this case, 5000 stades would correspond at 500 miles (about
55 the summer solstice (the longest day of the year), at noon, 77 804.6 km).
56 the Sun was straight above the town called Syene (modern 78 The Fig. 1 and the geometric principle that opposite
57 Aswan). The travelers reported that a vertical pole cast no 79 interior angles of two parallel lines are the same help us to
58 shadow at that time in that town. 80 understand how Eratosthenes has determined the Earth
59 In Alexandria, where Eratosthenes lived, he observed 81 radius. Thus, the angle subtended by the arc between Syene
60 that in the same day, at the same time, the Sun cast a 82 and Alexandria at the earth’s center is the same as the angle

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 A. R. Mota, J. M. B. Lopes dos Santos
1 of the Sun rays inclination at Alexandria (angular deviation 46 TABLE I. Contents and lab stations for the first lesson.
2 of the sun from the vertical direction in the Alexandria 47
3 surface). Moreover, once the distance between Alexandria Lesson Contents Lab stations
4 and Syene is 1/50 of the circumference of the Earth, we can Earth’s movements;
5 readily deduce: 1
6 1
Variation of temperature;
7 r!
804600 " 50 (1) 2
2! Time zones
8
48
49 TABLE II. Contents and lab stations for the second lesson.
50
Lesson Contents Lab stations
Sun’s rays’ inclination
1
Shadow’s length during the
day; 2
1
Seasons (introduction) 3

The radius of the Earth by 4

Eratosthenes

9 51
10 FIGURE 1. The calculation of the earth radius by Eratosthenes 52 Altogether the session had six lab stations that we will
11 53 describe, after explaining the concept of this model.
12 Clearly, this method was based on a proportion relating 54
13 the difference between the latitudes of two locations and 55 III. LAB STATIONS
14 their terrestrial distance apart2. Moreover, it was developed 56
15 on the assumption that the Earth is spherical and that the 57 Laboratory activities play a central role in the learning
16 Sun is so far away that its rays can be taken as parallel. 58 of physics regardless of the educational level3. However,
17 Nowadays we know that this straightforward 59 despite their proven advantages, teachers avoid them
18 methodology contais some false assumptions and flaws. 60 (preferring demonstrations) because they require a
19 However, it is important to stress that Eratosthenes did not 61 significant amount of material, take a long time to prepare
20 have an accurate knowledge of geographical positions, so 62 and to implement.
21 any measurement given by him is conditioned even before 63 In this model, the classroom / laboratory is divided,
22 any type of result. 64 usually, into few experimental stations, each one with
23 Eratosthenes assumed erroneously that Syene was 65 different apparatuses / materials and students, divided in
24 exactly on the Tropic of Cancer and indeed it is 37 miles to 66 groups of three or four, travel from station to station with a
25 the north of the Tropic. He believed also that Syene and 67 pre-defined time frame.
26 Alexandria were on the same meridian. In fact, Syene is 68 The lab stations must be independent because each
27 about 3º east of Alexandria. 69 group has its own sequence.
28 Moreover, the true distance between Alexandria and 70 The stations may be diversified and can range from
29 Syene is 453 miles and not 500 previously mentioned by 71 simple tasks (such as simple measurements) to tasks that
30 Eratosthenes and the difference of latitude between them is 72 involve a higher cognitive ability, like testing hypotheses,
31 7º7’, rather than 7º12’ as he had concluded. 73 constructing explanatory models from observations or
32 74 solving open-ended problems.
33 II. Procedure 75 At every station, students also have to answer some
34 76 theoretical questions from a worksheet: the lab worksheet.
35 It was designed a middle school lab session, specifically 77 The teacher serves as a supervisor, being aware of the
36 for the 7th grade, to explore and understand this historical 78 students’ difficulties, monitoring the discussions within
37 experience. The lab session was held along two lessons, 79 groups and thus providing a personalized learning.
38 each one lasting 90 min. 80 The lab stations have many advantages when compared
39 Each lesson was divided in a lecture session and a lab 81 with typical lab sessions; a reduction of the material
40 session. The contents for each lesson are in Table I and II. 82 requirements, a formative assessment, a better work flow
41 The lab session was designed around an interactive 83 from students and a higher motivation.
42 model of laboratory classes that combine hands-on- 84 The higher variety of experiments and the possibility to
43 activities in an active learning environment: the lab stations. 85 develop different types of abilities, like conceptual and
44 86 quantitative understandings of physics principles and
45 87 science process abilities also contribute for the advantages

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 Eratosthenes’ measurement of the Earth’s radius in a middle lab session
1 of this type of sessions. Note that this type of sessions is 46 size globes (Fig. 4) to simulate the three movements
2 adaptable to any syllabus and can provide a personalized 47 learned (rotation, translation and precession) with their
3 learning. 48 peers. Then, they simulated the three movements in the
4 All the material is stored in kits properly identified to 49 teacher’s presence, for assessment. In the second part of the
5 facilitate the subsequent use, so teachers spend less time in 50 lab, the students made a prediction time in some
6 preparing and storing the material. In each kit, the material 51 international locations (taking Lisbon time as reference)
7 is organized by lab station (Fig. 2). 52 with the help of a normal size globe and a time zones map.
53

8
9
10 FIGURE 2. Kit with the material required, organized by lab
11 station
12 54
55
13 The lab session presented can be easily constructed by 56 FIGURE 4. Picture of the Lab station 2 (1st lesson).
14 teachers with few and low-cost materials. All of the lab 57
15 stations lasting 10 min. 58 Here are the questions and instructions:
16 59
17 A. LAB STATION 1 (1st LESSON) 60 1. Indicate the Earth movements and simulate them for
18 61 your teacher.
19 The first two lab stations were implemented in the first 62 2. If it is the teatime in London, the famous Big Ben strikes
20 lesson, after the lecture session. An overhead projector was 63 5 p.m.. What time is it in Paris?
21 available; in order to represent the Sun. There were also a 64 3. If it is 10 a.m. in Lisbon, what time is it in...
22 thermometer, a globe and some flags indicating several 65 a) ... London?
23 countries (Fig. 3). 66 b) … Azores?
24 67 c) ... Brussels?
68 4. In 2008, the Olympic Games were held in Beijing. The
69 Portuguese triathlon champion and five-times champion of
70 Europe, Vanessa Fernandes, held its race at 10 a.m. (local
71 time). What time was in Lisbon when Vanessa started the
72 race?
73
74 C. LAB STATION 1 (2nd LESSON)
75 This lab station was designed to study in a real situation
25 76 context the shadows length during the day. The overhead
26 77 projector represented the sun and a small stick (made by
27 FIGURE 3. Picture of the Lab station 1 (1st lesson). 78 rubber) was placed on the globe, in Portugal (Fig. 5).
28 79 More specifically, the questions and instructions given
29 The questions and instructions related to this station are 80 were:
30 described as following: 81
31 82
32 1. Look at the flags in the earth globe. In which countries
33 is day time?
34 2. In which country did the sunset occurred first?
35 3. In which country did the sunrise occurred first?
36 4. Indicate the cardinal points (north, south, east, west) of
37 each country represented, in relation to Portugal.
38 5. Measure the temperature of a country where it is still
39 day time and of another country where it is night. What
83
40 conclusions can you draw? 84
41 85 FIGURE 5. Picture of the Lab station 1 (2nd lesson).
42 B. LAB STATION 2 (1st LESSON) 86
43 87 1. Put the small stick (made by rubber) in Portugal. Turn
44 This station is related with the Earth movements and 88 on the overhead projector to simulate the sunrise in
45 time zones. The students had at their disposal many small 89 Portugal.
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 A. R. Mota, J. M. B. Lopes dos Santos
1 2. How does shadow length changes during the day?
2 (Simulate with the globe)
3 3. If you are facing your shadow when its length is
4 minimal, which is the cardinal point that you see ...
5 a) in front of you?
6 b) behind you?
7 c) on your right?
8 d) on your left?
9
10
11 D. LAB STATION 2 (2nd LESSON)
12 50
13 The concept of shadow and its main features is studied
51
52 FIGURE 7. Picture of the Lab station 3 (2nd lesson).
14 in this station. Here, the students explored the size of a 53
15 shadow by moving an object closer or farther to the light 54 More specifically the questions and instructions were:
16 bulb and, as the source has an appreciable size, they could 55
17 see the two distinct regions of a shadow; one of full- 56 1. In which situation the square takes more energy?
18 shadow, called the umbra, the other of half-shadow, called 57 2. In which situation the sheet takes more energy?
19 the penumbra (the penumbra doesn't have a uniform 58 3. In which situation there is a higher inclination of the
20 shadow density, but rather a gradient). 59 rays emitted by the flashlight? Justify.
21 At the end, the students must draw a geometrical sketch 60 4. Which situation can represent the summer? Justify.
22 where they have to identify the two regions. This station 61 5. You have two globes in two situations (A and B) and a
23 was designed thinking in the next lessons where the 62 flashlight in a stand. Turn on the flashlight and see the
24 students would learn the eclipses. Here are the questions 63 illuminated area in each case. Focus your attention in
25 and instructions in the lab worksheet: 64 the same region, for instance, Portugal.
26 65 a) In which case was less energy per area?
27 1. Why do shadows appear? 66 b) Which situation can represent the summer?
28 2. Explore the size of a shadow by moving an object closer or 67
29 farther to the light bulb. What conclusions can you draw?
30 3. Make a geometrical sketch where you can identify the umbra
31 and the penumbra.
32

68
69
70 FIGURE 8. This picture shows the globe representing the
71 summer.
33 72
34
35 FIGURE 6. Picture of the Lab station 2 (2nd lesson). 73
36 74 F. LAB STATION 4 (2nd LESSON)
37 75
38 E. LAB STATION 3 (2nd LESSON) 76 The Eratosthenes' method for determining the Earth
39 77 radius is studied in this lab station. Is advised to talk about
40 The second lesson here presented preceded the study of 78 this experience in the lecture session, preferably after the
41 the seasons. Thus, it was intended that students study the 79 concept of Sunrays inclination. The Fig. 1 must be
42 Sun rays inclination before having any formal instruction 80 presented previously as well as the geometrical exploration.
43 about this subject. To explore this idea, a flashlight and a 81 In their workstation, students had a globe, an ancient
44 paper sheet with a square drawn on it were available. The 82 Egypt map and a protractor.
45 main goal was that students recognized by their own 83 In the beginning of this station, the students read a text
46 experience that since they raise the inclination, the same 84 with the experience described. Then, they had to answer the
47 energy is distributed over a larger area. Thus, the greater 85 following questions and carry out some instructions:
48 the slope, the lower the energy per unit area focused. 86
49

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 Eratosthenes’ measurement of the Earth’s radius in a middle lab session
37 The lab stations were crucial to make students
38 understand not only the Eratosthenes' method for
39 determining the Earth radius, but mostly to deal with daily
40 problems by observing and touching, being aware of some
41 particular physical details.
42 Undoubtedly, there is a gap between seeing and
43 understanding, although, it will depend on how laboratory
44 lesson is staged and intellectual activity is organized around
1 45 the experiment4. At this rate, the lab stations were not
2 46 independent hands-on activities; all of the steps were
3 FIGURE 9. Picture of the Lab station 4 (2nd lesson). 47 important ingredients designed in a reasoning line of
4 48 questioning.
5 1. Explain the absence of shadow in Syene in that specific 49 The presented pedagogical approach to the
6 day. 50 Eratosthenes’ measurement of the Earth’s radius help
7 2. With a flashlight illuminate the city of Syene in order to 51 students to construct gradually their knowledge by
8 demonstrate the summer solstice. 52 themselves, but, it is necessary that this type of teaching
9 53 strategy continue with other subjects during the all year.
10 54 The assessment was an important tool of this lab
55 session. The teacher could see in the lab all the discussions
56 within groups and intervene with more questions, in order
57 to promote conceptual change and a reasoning learning.
58 The lab worksheet was also evaluated, so the teacher could
59 make aware of the main students’ difficulties.
60 The students enjoyed this session and felt more
61 motivated. However, they argued a short time for doing
62 each one of the labs. In some cases, they asked more time
11 63 in order to make some demonstrations slower and to have
12 64 more discussion within group. The answers, according to
13 FIGURE 10. Picture of a student answering the question 2. 65 the students, would be more complete and consolidated.
14 66
15 3. In a regular day (not in summer solstice), Syene and 67
16 Alexandria have shadows. Will they be of the same size? 68 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
17 4. If the Earth were flat, the shadows length in Syene and 69
18 Alexandria, at the same time, be the same? 70 This work was supported by the European Union,
19 5. In the following diagram there is a representation of the 71 program POCI 2010 through project Ciência Viva PVI/252.
20 experience of Eratosthenes. In this diagram... 72
21 73
22 74 REFERENCES
75
76 [1] Engels, D., The Length of Eratosthenes’ Stade, The
77 American Journal of Philology 106, 298-311 (1985).
78 [2] Dutka, J., Eratosthenes' measurement of the earth
79 reconsidered, Archive for History of Exact Sciences 46, 55-
80 66 (1993).
81 [3] E. Etkina, A. Karelina, M. Ruibal-Villasenor, How long
23 82 does it take? A study of student acquisition of scientific
24
25 FIGURE 11. Diagram from the question 5 83 abilities, Phys. Rev. ST Phys. Educ. Res., 4(2), 0201108
26 84 (2008).
27 a) … draw the sun ray. 85 [4] Viennot, L., Teaching Physics (Kluwer Academic
28 b) … find the angle between the Sun and the vertical 86 Publishers, Dordrecht, 2003).
29 direction. 87
30 6. Calculate the Earth radius through this experience. 88
31
32 VI. CONCLUSIONS
33
34 The methodology implemented in this session allowed
35 students an active learning and a reasoning understanding
36 of some important physical concepts.

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