Example 7.3. Consider a nonempty set X with the discrete metric d(x, y) = 1
if x 6= y and d(x, y) if x = y. Then an open ball Br (x) is equal to {x} if r ≤ 1.
Consequently, every subset A of X is open.
Example 7.5. Let Y be a subset of (X, d). Then (Y, d) is a metric subspace
of X. If x ∈ Y and r > 0, then an open ball BY (x, r) in (Y, d) is equal to
BY (x, r) = BX (x, r)∩Y where BX (x, r) stands for an open ball in X. Now consider
a subset A of Y . Then, in view of
S the above proposition,
S A is open in (Y, d) if and
only if either A is empty
S or A = BY (x, rx ) = Y ∩ BX (x, rx ) = Y ∩ U where we
have abbreviated U = BX (x, rx ). Since U is open in X, it follows that A ⊂ Y is
open in (Y, d) if and only if A = Y ∩ U for some open set U in (X, d).
Example 7.6. two metric spaces (X1 , d1 ) and (X2 , d2 ), and let X = X1 × X2
and
d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = max{d1 (x1 , x2 ), d2 (y1 , y2 )}.
S S
S BX ((x, y), r) = BX1 (x, r) × BX2 (y, r) and BX ((x, y), r) = ( BX1 (x, r)) ×
Since
( BX2 (y, r), it follows that a subset A1 × A2 is open in X if and only if A1 is open
in X1 and A2 is open in X2 .
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(i) ∅, X ∈ T .
S
(ii) If Ai ∈ T , i ∈ J, then i∈J Ai ∈ T .
T
(iii) If A1 , . . . , An T , then nk=1 Ak ∈ T .
Proof.
T The part (ii) is a consequence of the above proposition. To see (iii), let x ∈
1≤k≤n Ak , then there are numbers rk > T 0 such that Brk (x) ⊂ Ak for 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
Set r = min{r1 , . . . , rn }. Then Br (x) ⊂ 1≤k≤n Ak .
showing that B(y, c) ⊂ (B(x, r))c . Since this holds for any y 6∈ B(x, r), (B(x, r))c
is open.
Example 7.10. Let (Y, d) be a metric subset of (X, d) and let K ⊂ Y . Then K
is closed in (Y, d) if Y \ K is open in (Y, d). By Example 7.5, Y \ K = Y ∩ U where
U is an open subset of (X, d). Hence, using deMorgan’s laws, F = Y \ (Y \ F ) =
Y \ (Y ∩ U ) = (Y \ Y ) ∪ (Y \ U ) = Y \ U = Y ∩ (X \ U ) = Y ∩ F where F = X \ U
is closed in (X, d). Consequently, K is closed in (Y, d) if and only if K = Y ∩ F .
From deMorgan’s laws and Proposition 7.7 we deduce the following propo-
sition.
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Proof. Assume that F is closed and that (xn ) is a sequence of points belonging
to F and converging to x ∈ X. We claim that x ∈ F . Arguing by contradiction,
we assume that x ∈ F c . Since F c is open, there is rx > 0 such that Brx (x) ⊂ F c .
Then, since xn ∈ F , d(xn , x) ≥ rx , contradicting that d(xn , x) → 0. Conversely,
assume that every convergent sequence (xn ) such that xn ∈ F converges to a point
in F but F is not closed. Then F c is not open. Hence there is x ∈ F c such that for
every r > 0, Br (x) ∩ F 6= ∅. In particular, taking for r numbers 1/n for n ≥ 1, we
find points xn ∈ F such that d(xn , x) < 1/n. Hence the sequence (xn ) converges
to x and x 6∈ F , contradiction.
The set of all interior points of a set A is called the interior of A, written
int (A) or A◦ , the set of all adherent points of A s called the closure of
A, written cl (A) or A, the set of all boundary points of A is called the
boundary of A, written as ∂A.
Example 7.14. Consider an open ball Br (x0 ). Then every point x ∈ Br (x0 ) is an
interior point of Br (x). Hence Br (x0 )◦ = Br (x0 ). A point x satisfying d(x0 , x) > r,
is an exterior point of A. Every point x ∈ X such that d(x, x0 ) = r is a boundary
point of Br (x0 ) so that ∂Br (x0 ) = {x| d(x0 , x) = r}. A point x is an adherent
point of Br (x0 ) if either x ∈ Br (x0 ) or d(x0 , x) = r. Hence Br (x0 ) ⊂ B r (x0 ). The
closed ball B r (x0 is not necessarily equal to Br (x0 ). To see this consider X = R
equipped with the discrete metric d. If r = 1, then B1 (0) = {0} and B1 (0) = {0}
while B 1 (0) = R.
(iii) A ⊂ A.
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(iv) A is closed if and only if A = A.
(v) ∂A = A ∩ X \ A.
Proof. (ii) Assume that A is open. By (i), A◦ ⊂ A and we have to show that
A ⊂ A◦ . If x ∈ A, then Brx (x) ⊂ A for some rx since A is open. Hence x is an
interior point of A, implying that x ∈ A◦ . Conversely, assume that A = A◦ . This
means that If x ∈ A, then x is an interior point of A so that Brx (x) ⊂ A for some
rx . Since x is arbitrary point of A, it follows that A is open.
(iv) Let A be closed. Then Ac is open and if x ∈ Ac , then there is rx > 0 such that
Brx (x) ⊂ Ac implying that x is not an adherent point of A. Hence A ⊆ A. By (i),
A ⊂ A so that A = A. Conversely, pick x ∈ Ac . Since A = A, the point x is not
an adherent point of A and so, Brx (x) ∩ A = ∅. Hence Brx (x) ⊂ Ac and x is an
interior point of Ac . Since x is an arbitrary point of Ac , Ac is open and hence A is
closed in X.
Continuous Functions
The definition of continuity of functions between metric spaces is the ε − δ
definition of calculus.
Definition 7.16. Let (X, d) and (Y, ρ) be metric spaces and let f : X → Y
be a function. The function f is said to be continuous at the point x0 ∈ X
if the following holds: for every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all
x∈X
if d(x, x0 ) < δ, then ρ(f (x), f (x0 )) < ε.
The function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at each point of
X.
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Proof. Suppose that f is continuous at x0 and let xn → x0 . We will prove that
f (xn ) → f (x0 ). Let ε > 0 be given. By the definition of continuity at x0 , there
exists δ > 0 such that for all x ∈ X,
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