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7 The fundamentals of Topology

7.1 Open and Closed Sets


Let (X, d) be a metric space.

Definition 7.1. A subset A of (X, d) is called an open set if for every x ∈ A


there exists r = rx > 0 such that Brx (x) ⊂ A.
Example 7.2. The open ball B(x, r) is an open set. Indeed, take any point
y ∈ B(x, r) and set R := r − d(x, y) > 0. If z ∈ B(y, R), then the triangle
inequality

d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) < d(x, y) + R = d(x, y) + [r − d(x, y)] = r

Example 7.3. Consider a nonempty set X with the discrete metric d(x, y) = 1
if x 6= y and d(x, y) if x = y. Then an open ball Br (x) is equal to {x} if r ≤ 1.
Consequently, every subset A of X is open.

Note the following proposition.

Proposition 7.4. A subset A of (X, d) is open if and only if either A is


empty or A is a union of open balls.
Proof. Assume that A is a nonempty open subset of X. ThenSfor every x ∈ A,
there is rx > 0 such that Brx (x) ⊂ A. Consequently, A ⊂ x∈A Brx (x) ⊂ A
proving our claim. Conversely, if A = ∅, then A is trivially open. So, assume that
A 6= ∅ and A is a union of open balls. Then if x ∈ A, there is y and r such that
x ∈ Br (y) and Br (y) is one of the open balls making up the set A. By the above
example there is rx > 0 such that Brx (x) ⊂ Br (y) ⊂ A. 

Example 7.5. Let Y be a subset of (X, d). Then (Y, d) is a metric subspace
of X. If x ∈ Y and r > 0, then an open ball BY (x, r) in (Y, d) is equal to
BY (x, r) = BX (x, r)∩Y where BX (x, r) stands for an open ball in X. Now consider
a subset A of Y . Then, in view of
S the above proposition,
S A is open in (Y, d) if and
only if either A is empty
S or A = BY (x, rx ) = Y ∩ BX (x, rx ) = Y ∩ U where we
have abbreviated U = BX (x, rx ). Since U is open in X, it follows that A ⊂ Y is
open in (Y, d) if and only if A = Y ∩ U for some open set U in (X, d).

Example 7.6. two metric spaces (X1 , d1 ) and (X2 , d2 ), and let X = X1 × X2
and
d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = max{d1 (x1 , x2 ), d2 (y1 , y2 )}.
S S
S BX ((x, y), r) = BX1 (x, r) × BX2 (y, r) and BX ((x, y), r) = ( BX1 (x, r)) ×
Since
( BX2 (y, r), it follows that a subset A1 × A2 is open in X if and only if A1 is open
in X1 and A2 is open in X2 .

Proposition 7.7. Let T be the collection of all open subsets of X. Then

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(i) ∅, X ∈ T .
S
(ii) If Ai ∈ T , i ∈ J, then i∈J Ai ∈ T .
T
(iii) If A1 , . . . , An T , then nk=1 Ak ∈ T .
Proof.
T The part (ii) is a consequence of the above proposition. To see (iii), let x ∈
1≤k≤n Ak , then there are numbers rk > T 0 such that Brk (x) ⊂ Ak for 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
Set r = min{r1 , . . . , rn }. Then Br (x) ⊂ 1≤k≤n Ak . 

Recall that the complement of a subset A of X is defined by Ac = X \ A.

Definition 7.8. A subset F of (X, d) is called a closed set if the complement


F c of F is an open subset of X.
Example 7.9. The closed ball B(x, r) is a closed set. Indeed, if X = B(x, r) and
there is nothing to prove since X c = ∅ is open. If X 6= ∅, take y ∈ X \ B(x, r).
Then ε = d(x, y) − r > 0. If x ∈ B(y, ε), then

d(x, z) ≥ d(x, y) − d(y, z) > d(x, y) − ε = r

showing that B(y, c) ⊂ (B(x, r))c . Since this holds for any y 6∈ B(x, r), (B(x, r))c
is open.

Example 7.10. Let (Y, d) be a metric subset of (X, d) and let K ⊂ Y . Then K
is closed in (Y, d) if Y \ K is open in (Y, d). By Example 7.5, Y \ K = Y ∩ U where
U is an open subset of (X, d). Hence, using deMorgan’s laws, F = Y \ (Y \ F ) =
Y \ (Y ∩ U ) = (Y \ Y ) ∪ (Y \ U ) = Y \ U = Y ∩ (X \ U ) = Y ∩ F where F = X \ U
is closed in (X, d). Consequently, K is closed in (Y, d) if and only if K = Y ∩ F .

From deMorgan’s laws and Proposition 7.7 we deduce the following propo-
sition.

Proposition 7.11. (i) ∅ and X are closed.

(ii) The union of a finite collection of closed sets is closed.

(iii) The intersection of arbitrary collection of closed sets is closed.

Closed sets can be characterized in terms of converging sequences.

Proposition 7.12. A set F ⊂ X is closed if and only if every convergent


sequence (xn ) such that xn ∈ F converges to a point in F .

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Proof. Assume that F is closed and that (xn ) is a sequence of points belonging
to F and converging to x ∈ X. We claim that x ∈ F . Arguing by contradiction,
we assume that x ∈ F c . Since F c is open, there is rx > 0 such that Brx (x) ⊂ F c .
Then, since xn ∈ F , d(xn , x) ≥ rx , contradicting that d(xn , x) → 0. Conversely,
assume that every convergent sequence (xn ) such that xn ∈ F converges to a point
in F but F is not closed. Then F c is not open. Hence there is x ∈ F c such that for
every r > 0, Br (x) ∩ F 6= ∅. In particular, taking for r numbers 1/n for n ≥ 1, we
find points xn ∈ F such that d(xn , x) < 1/n. Hence the sequence (xn ) converges
to x and x 6∈ F , contradiction. 

Interior, Closure, and Boundary


Definition 7.13. Let A be a subset of a metric space (X, d) and let x0 ∈ X.

• x0 is an interior point of A if there exists rx > 0 such that Brx (x) ⊂ A,

• x0 is an exterior point of A if x0 is an interior point of Ac , that is, there


is rx > 0 such that Brx (x) ⊂ Ac .

• x0 is an adherent point of A if x0 is not an interior point of Ac . That is


Br (x) ∩ A 6= ∅ for every r > 0,

• x0 is boundary point of A is it is neither an interior point of A nor an


interior point of Ac . That is, Br (x) ∩ A 6= ∅ and Br (x) ∩ Ac 6= ∅ for
every r > 0for every r > 0

The set of all interior points of a set A is called the interior of A, written
int (A) or A◦ , the set of all adherent points of A s called the closure of
A, written cl (A) or A, the set of all boundary points of A is called the
boundary of A, written as ∂A.
Example 7.14. Consider an open ball Br (x0 ). Then every point x ∈ Br (x0 ) is an
interior point of Br (x). Hence Br (x0 )◦ = Br (x0 ). A point x satisfying d(x0 , x) > r,
is an exterior point of A. Every point x ∈ X such that d(x, x0 ) = r is a boundary
point of Br (x0 ) so that ∂Br (x0 ) = {x| d(x0 , x) = r}. A point x is an adherent
point of Br (x0 ) if either x ∈ Br (x0 ) or d(x0 , x) = r. Hence Br (x0 ) ⊂ B r (x0 ). The
closed ball B r (x0 is not necessarily equal to Br (x0 ). To see this consider X = R
equipped with the discrete metric d. If r = 1, then B1 (0) = {0} and B1 (0) = {0}
while B 1 (0) = R.

Proposition 7.15. (i) A◦ ⊂ A.

(ii) A is open if and only if A = A◦ .

(iii) A ⊂ A.

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(iv) A is closed if and only if A = A.

(v) ∂A = A ∩ X \ A.
Proof. (ii) Assume that A is open. By (i), A◦ ⊂ A and we have to show that
A ⊂ A◦ . If x ∈ A, then Brx (x) ⊂ A for some rx since A is open. Hence x is an
interior point of A, implying that x ∈ A◦ . Conversely, assume that A = A◦ . This
means that If x ∈ A, then x is an interior point of A so that Brx (x) ⊂ A for some
rx . Since x is arbitrary point of A, it follows that A is open.
(iv) Let A be closed. Then Ac is open and if x ∈ Ac , then there is rx > 0 such that
Brx (x) ⊂ Ac implying that x is not an adherent point of A. Hence A ⊆ A. By (i),
A ⊂ A so that A = A. Conversely, pick x ∈ Ac . Since A = A, the point x is not
an adherent point of A and so, Brx (x) ∩ A = ∅. Hence Brx (x) ⊂ Ac and x is an
interior point of Ac . Since x is an arbitrary point of Ac , Ac is open and hence A is
closed in X. 

Continuous Functions
The definition of continuity of functions between metric spaces is the ε − δ
definition of calculus.

Definition 7.16. Let (X, d) and (Y, ρ) be metric spaces and let f : X → Y
be a function. The function f is said to be continuous at the point x0 ∈ X
if the following holds: for every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all
x∈X
if d(x, x0 ) < δ, then ρ(f (x), f (x0 )) < ε.
The function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at each point of
X.

The following proposition rephrases the definition in terms of open balls.

Proposition 7.17. Let f : X → Y be a function between metric spaces


(X, d) and (Y, ρ) and let x0 ∈ X. Then f is continuous at x0 if and only if
for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that

f (Bδ (x0 )) ⊂ Bε (f (x0 )).

Continuity can be expressed in terms of converging sequences as follows.

Theorem 7.18. Let f : X → Y be a function between metric spaces (X, d)


and (Y, ρ) and let x0 ∈ X. Then f is continuous at x0 if and only if for
every sequence (xn ) such that xn → x0 in (X, d), f (xn ) → f (x0 ) in (Y, ρ).

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Proof. Suppose that f is continuous at x0 and let xn → x0 . We will prove that
f (xn ) → f (x0 ). Let ε > 0 be given. By the definition of continuity at x0 , there
exists δ > 0 such that for all x ∈ X,

if d(x, x0 ) < δ, then ρ(f (x), f (x0 )) < ε . (1)

Since xn → x0 , there exists an integer k such that for all n ≥ k,

d(xn , x0 ) < δ. (2)

Combining (1) and (2), we get

ρ(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < ε for all n ≥ k. (3)

Hence f (xn ) → f (x0 ) as required. Conversely, arguing by contradiction assume


that f is not continuous at x0 . To obtain a contradiction we will construct a
sequence (xn ) such that xn → x0 but the sequence {f (xn )} does not converge to
f (x0 ). Since f is not continuous at x0 , there is ε > 0 such that for all δ > 0 there
exists x satisfying d(x, x0 ) < δ and ρ(f (x), f (x0 )) ≥ ε. Then taking δ = 1/n for
n ∈ N, on can choose xn so that d(xn , x0 ) < 1/n and ρ(f (xn ), f (x0 )) ≥ ε. Hence
xn → x0 but the sequence {f (xn )} does not converge to f (x0 ). 

Recall that the preimage f −1 (U ) is defined as f −1 (U ) = {x ∈ X|f (x) ∈ U }


Theorem 7.19. Let f : X → Y be a function from a metric space (X, d)
to (Y, ρ). Then the following are equivalent.
(i) f is continuous.

(ii) f −1 (U ) is open in X for every open subset U of Y .

(iii) f −1 (F ) is closed in X for every closed subset F of Y .


Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii) Suppose f is continuous and U is open in Y . If f −1 (U ) = ∅,
then the claim follows. If f −1 (U ) 6= ∅, let x ∈ f −1 (U ). Then f (x) ∈ U . Since U is
open in Y and f (x) ∈ U , there exists a positive number ε such that Bε (f (x)) ⊂ U .
Since f is continuous, there is δ > 0 such that f (y) ∈ Bε (f (x)) for every y ∈ Bδ (x).
Hence f (Bδ (x)) ⊂ Bε (f (x)). This implies that Bδ (x) ⊂ f −1 (f (Bδ (x))) ⊂ f −1 (U )
showing that f −1 (U ) is open in X.
(ii) =⇒ (iii) Let F be closed in Y . Then F c is open and f −1 (F c ) = (f −1 (F ))c
and since f is continuous it follows that (f −1 (F ))c is open in X. Hence f −1 (F ) is
closed in X as claimed.
(iii) =⇒ (i) Let x ∈ X and let ε > 0. Since (B(f (x), ε))c is closed in Y and since (ii)
holds, the set f −1 (Bε (f (x))c ) is closed in X. Since f −1 (Br (x)c ) = (f −1 (Br (x))c ,
the set f −1 (Br (x)) is open. The point x belongs to f −1 (Bε (f (x))) and so there
exists δ > 0 such that Bδ (x) ⊂ f −1 (Bε (f (x)). This implies that f (Bδ (x)) ⊂
Bε (f (x)), and f is continuous at x. Since x is arbitrary, f is continuous on X. 

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