Compttes Ren
ndus duu 15ème Cong grès Eurropéenn
de Mécaniq
M que dess Sols & de Gééotechnnique
La Gééotechnique des Sols Induréés – Roches T
Tendres
Part 1, 2 and 3
Edited by
y
A
Andreas Anagnosstopoulos
N
National Tech
hnical University of Athens
Mich
hael Pach
hakis
OTM Con
nsulting Eng
gineers SA
and
Christtos Tsatssanifos
P
PANGAEA C
Consulting En
ngineers LTD
D
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Contents
Part 1
1.1. Field Investigations / Investigations In situ 1
Empirical Determination of the Undrained Shear Strength of Very Stiff to (Very) Hard
Cohesive Soils from SPT Tests 61
Détermination empirique de la cohésion non drainée des argiles très raides a très dures, a partir des
essais de Pénétration Standard
C. Plytas, A. Baltzoglou, G. Chlimintzas, G. Anagnostopoulos, A. Kozompolis and
Ch. Koutalia
Facteur d’influence des paramètres de forage 67
Influence Factors of Measuring While Drilling Method
Ph. Reiffsteck
Geophysical Site Characterization of a Volcanic Massif with Combined Surface and Borehole
Seismic Methods 73
Caractérisation géophysiques du site, d’un massif volcanique avec la combinaison des méthodes sismiques
de surface et celle réaliser dans un trou de forage
R. Rocha, N. Cruz, C. Rodrigues and F. Almeida
Investigation of Interdependence of Map and Distract Represented on It at Engineering –
Geological Researches in Construction 79
L’investigation de l’interdépendance de la carte et la localité représenté sur elle aux reconnaissance
du sol de fondation dans la construction
V.S. Shokarev, A.S. Shokarev, A.K Solonetz and A. Zhusupbekov
Stabilization of Gravel Deposits Using Microorganisms 85
La stabilisation des dépôts de gravier à l’aide des microorganismes
W.R.L. van der Star, W.K. van Wijngaarden-van Rossum, L.A. van Paassen,
L.R. van Baalen and G. van Zwieten
Effectiveness of CPT-Based Classification Methods for Identification of Subsoil Stratigraphy 91
Efficacité des méthodes de classification basées sur le CPT pour l’identification de la stratigraphie des sols
M.T. Tumay, Y.H. Karasulu, Z. Młynarek and J. Wierzbicki
Problems Caused by the Presence of Hard Concretions and Lithified Beds in the Subsoil
on the Realisation of Geotechnical Investigations and Infrastructure Projects 99
Problèmes causés par la présence de concrétions dures et d’horizons lithifiés dans le sol lors de
l’exécution de projets d’infrastructure
G. van Alboom, I. Vergauwen, J. Maertens and W. Maekelberg
Cyclic Behaviour of Saturated Sands Subject to Previous Horizontal Shear Stresses 275
Comportement cyclique des sables saturés soumis à des contraintes précédentes de cisaillement horizontal
A. Soriano, H. Patiño, J. González and M. Valderrama
The Effect of Mechanical Remoulding on the Compression and Strength Characteristics of a
Mercia Mudstone 281
L’effet de remaniement mécanique sur les caractéristiques de compression et la force d’un mudstone
Mercia
S.E. Stallebrass and L.J. Seward
An Investigation of the Long-Term Engineering Response of Intact Chalk 287
Étude de l’influence d’un ouvrage de génie civil à long terme sur un calcaire intact
K.J.L. Stone and K.I. Katsaros
Statistical Evaluation of Geotechnical Laboratory Round Robin Tests in Hungary 293
Evaluation statistique des resultats des tests de plusieurs laboratoires géotechniques de la Hongrie
A. Takács and A. Mahler
Engineering Properties of Marls from Small to Large Strains 299
Propriétés mécaniques des marnes de petites à grandes déformations
Th. Tika, P. Kallioglou and St. Elpekos
An Integrated Geotechnical Study of UK Mudrocks 305
Une étude géotechnique intégrée des argilites du Royaume-Uni
S. Wilkinson, A. Brosse, C.H. Fenton, R. Hosseini Kamal, R.J. Jardine and M.R. Coop
The Transitional Behavior of Loosely Compacted Completely Decomposed Granite 311
Le comportement transitoire de granit faiblement compacté complètement décomposé
J.J. Zhang and C.Y. Cheuk
Adhesion Measurements on Conditioned Clays 317
Mesure d’adhésion d’argiles traitées
R. Zumsteg, M. Plötze, A.M. Puzrin, H. Egli and A. Walliser
Classification des sols et des roches à partir d’essais d’expansion cylindrique en haute pression 325
Soil and Rock Classification Based on High Pressure Borehole Expansion Tests
J.P. Baud and M. Gambin
Rock Mass Characterization for Tunnels in Limestone in Copenhagen and Malmö Area 331
Caractérisation de Massifs Rocheux Calcaires pour de Tunnels à Copenhague et dans la Région de Malmö
N. Foged, S. Stabell and B. Foged
Specific Features of Weak Rock Laboratory Testing 337
Les caractèristiques spéciales des essais de laboratoire des roches faibles
J. Frankovská and T. Durmeková
Classification et caractérisation d’une craie blanche sénonienne pour la réalisation de deux
tranchées de grande profondeur 343
Classification and Characterization of an Upper White Chalk for the Construction of Two Deep Railway
Cuts
M. Haghgou
x
Some Basic Trends on the Geotechnical Characteristics of Lisbon Miocene Clays 351
Certaines tendances de base sur les caractéristiques géotechniques des argiles du Miocène de Lisbonne
M. Lopes Laranjo, M. Matos Fernandes and J. Almeida e Sousa
Geotechnical Properties of the Chalk in East London and the Thames Gateway 357
Les propriétés mécaniques de la Craie dans l’est de Londres et la région de Thames Gateway
C.O. Menkiti, A.S. Merritt, C.K. Choy, R.N. Mortimore and M. Black
On the Properties of Cambrian Clay and Sandstones 363
Les caractèristiques de l’argile Cambrien et les pierres calcaires poreuses
M. Mets, J. Miljan and R. Raudsepp
Les “Terres Noires” du Dauphiné, un cas de roche très sensible aux variations climatiques 369
The Dauphiné “Black Marls”: A Very Sensitive Weak Rock
J. Monnet, D. Fabre and M. Zielinski
The Relevance of Lithostratigraphy in the Assessment and Investigation of Engineering Ground
Conditions in UK Mudstones 375
La pertinence du lithostratigraphy dans l’évaluation et la recherche sur les conditions au sol de technologie
en argilite UK
K.J. Northmore, D.C. Entwisle, H.J. Reeves, P.R.N. Hobbs and M.G. Culshaw
A New Concept to Identify and Characterize Active Clays 381
Un concept nouveau d’identifier et caracteriser les argiles actives
A. Stanciu, I. Lungu, L. Ciobanita and M. Aniculaesi
Foundation of a Gravity Dam on Layered Soft Rock. Shear Strength of Bedding Planes in
Laboratory and Large “in situ” Tests 389
Fondations d’un barrage en arc sur des bancs de roc tendre. Resistance en cisaillement des plans de
stratification en laboratoire et essais in situ à grande échelle
E.E. Alonso, N.M. Pinyol and J.A. Pineda
Deformation of Cylindrical Cavities in Cross-Anisotropic Rock 395
Déformation de cavités cylindriques dans la roche anisotrope transverse
A. Blioumi and D. Kolymbas
Re-Assessment of the Shear Strength of the Oligocene Clay from the Buda Area Based on the
Site Investigation of the Metro Line 4 401
Re-évaluation de la résistance au cisaillement de l’argile oligocène de la région de Buda basée sur l’étude
du ligne 4 du métro
Gy. Horváth and B. Móczár
Advances in Tunneling Simulation – A Probabilistic Approach 407
Des progrès dans la simulation des tunnels – une approche probabilistique
M. Huber, P.A. Vermeer, P.M. Stroehle and C. Moormann
Mechanical Behaviour of Disintegrated Rockfill 413
Comportement mécanique d’enrochement désagrégé
K. Kast
xi
Vibrational Reliability of Rigid Structures on Soil with Random Elastic Parameters 419
La fiabilité de vibration de structures rigides sur le sol avec paramètres élastiques aléatoire
M.L. Kholmyansky
Triaxial, DSS, CRS Tests and Numerical Simulations of Soft Soils at River Dike 427
Essais triaxiaux, essais de cisaillement direct, essais de cisaillement à taux constant de déformation,
et simulations numériques de sols mous pour une digue fluviale
H.J. Lengkeek and R. Bouw
Estimation of Geotechnical Properties and Classification of Geotechnical Behaviour in
Tunnelling for Flysch Rock Masses 435
Estimation des propriétés géotechniques et classification du comportement des massifs rocheux du
flysch aux tunnels
V. Marinos, P. Fortsakis and G. Prountzopoulos
Determination of the Physical Parameters of Soil from Pressuremeter Tests 441
Calcul des paramètres physiques des sols à partir des résultats des essais préssiométriques
J. Mecsi
Geotechnical Mapping of the SGGW Campus in Warsaw Applying the Bayesian Approach 447
La cartes géotechniques du Campus SGGW à Varsovie en appliquant de l’approche bayésienne
S. Rabarijoely, K. Garbulewski, J. Rajtar and S. Jabłonowski
Aspects on the Laboratory Frost Heave Testing Procedure 453
Aspects sur la procédure d’essai de laboratoire de soulèvement dû au gel
S. Saarelainen, H. Gustavsson and T. Ono
Propriétés mécaniques d’une marne 459
Mechanical Properties of a Marl
J.F. Serratrice
Stiffness of the Soil Determined from in Situ Testing 465
La raideur du sol déterminé sur des essais en place
Z. Skutnik, M. Bajda and M. Lech
Stiffness of Overconsolidated Hard Sandy Clay Soils 471
La rigidité des argiles dures, sablonneux et surconsolidées
R.P. Thompson, J.M. Belton and A.F. Booer
On the Shear Strength of Weak Rocks 477
Sur la résistance de cisaillement des roches tendres
E. Togrol and F. Kıran
Geotechnical Experiences with Most Clay 481
Expérience de Géotechnique avec Most argile
I. Vaníček
Predicting Shear Strength Mobilization of London Clay 487
Prévision de la mobilization de résistance au cisaillement d’argile de Londres
P.J. Vardanega and M.D. Bolton
Petrographic and Textural Characteristics and Mechanical Behaviour of Sicilian Calcarenites 493
Caractéristiques pétrographiques et structurelles et comportement mécanique des calcarénites de Sicile
M. Zimbardo, N. Nocilla and L. Ercoli
xii
2.3. Unsaturated Hard Soils – Weak Rocks / Sols indurés non saturés – Roches tendres 607
Measuring the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve of Structured and Recomposed Soils 609
Mesure de la courbe caractéristique sol-eau des sols structurés et recomposés
M. Bardanis and S. Grifiza
Modeling the Oedometric Behavior of an Evolving Marl Under Stress and Suction Cycles 615
Modulation du comportement oedometrique de une marne évolutive sur cycles de contrainte et succion
R. Cardoso and E.E. Alonso
Etude experimentale du comportement des sols gonflants sur le site de Ouarzazate. Maroc 621
Experimental Studies in the Behavior of Swelling Soil in Ouarzazate. Morocco
H. Ejjaaouani, V. Shakhirev and J.P. Magnan
A Contribution to Improve the Understanding of Softening in Stiff Overconsolidated Clays and
Marls 629
Une contribution à améliorer la compréhension d’adoucissement dans les argiles surconsolidées rigides et
marnes
M. Maček, B. Pulko and A. Petkovšek
Structure and Collapsibility of Loess Soils in Middle Asia 635
Structure et dégradation des sols de lœss en Asie Moyenne
C. Meier, C. Boley and Y. Zou
In-situ and Laboratory Water Retention Characteristics in a Silty Sand Dyke 641
Détermination in situ et en laboratoire des caractéristiques de rétention en eau d’un sable limoneux
W.F. Morales, P.A. Mayor, S.M. Springman and A. Vogel
Hydro-Mechanical Characterization of Jurassic Marls to Study Load Degradation 647
Caractérisation hydro-mécanique de marnes du Jurassique pour étudier la dégradation résultante du
chargement
J. Muralha, L. Caldeira, R. Cardoso and E. Maranha das Neves
xiv
Part 2
3.1. Shallow Foundations / Fondations superficielles 689
Foundation of a Heavy Loaded Stockyard on Problematic Subsoil: Experience and Two Years
of Measurements 691
Stabilisation d’une aire de stockage sur un sol problématique: retour d’expérience et deux années
d’instrumentalisation
D. Alexiew, C. Moormann and A. Glockner
Strip Footing Behavior on Geotextile Reinforced and Soil Nailing-Stabilized Sand Slope 697
Comportement d’une semelle filante sur une pente de sable renforcée avec géotextile et stabilisée par
clouage
E.A.O. Belqasem Altalhe
An Investigation of a Rock Socketed Pile with an Integral Bearing Plate Founded over Weak
Rock 705
Étude d’une pile avec une plaque encastrée dans une roche molle
S. Arshi and K.J.L. Stone
Comportement d’un matelas de répartition au-dessus d’inclusions rigides et supportant, ou non,
une structure en béton: Méthode analytique de cal-cul 711
Behaviour of a Spreading Layer Above Rigid Inclusions and Supporting, or Not, a Concrete Structure:
Analytical Method of Calcul
P. Berthelot, F. Durand and M. Glandy
Foundation of the Arch Bridge in the Landslide Area of Tsakona, Greece 717
Fondation du pont en arc dans la zone de glissement de terrain de Tsakona, en Grèce
I.F. Fikiris, L. Sotiropoulos and G.T. Dounias
Seismic Bearing Capacity of Strip Footings on Clay Slopes 723
La force portante sismique des semelles filantes sur un talus argileux
K. Georgiadis and E. Chrysouli
Experience of the Unique Building Foundation Design in Conditions of Combined Karst and
Landslide Risk 729
Problèmes du pratique et de la théorie du projet des fondements sur le terrain avec le danger combiné de
karst et de glissement de terre
A.L. Gotman and N.Z. Gotman
Laboratory Tests and Field Measurements Investigating the Stress Strain Behaviour of
Foundations on Hard Soil and Weak Rock 737
Recherche sur le comportement contrainte-déformation de fondations sur le sol dur et rock doux utilisant
des essais de laboratoire et des mesures sur le terrain
E.-D. Hornig and H. Klapperich
Capacité portante des fondations superficielles avec et sans l’hypothèse de superposition 743
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations with and Without the Superposition Assumption
A. Mabrouki, D. Benmeddour, M. Mellas and R. Frank
Experimentally Observed Settlements Beneath Shallow Foundations on Sand 749
Des essais pour observer des tassements sous les fondations superficielles sur du sable
B.T. McMahon and M.D. Bolton
xvi
Case Study: The Design & Performance of a Raft Foundation on Mercia Mudstone 755
Etude de cas: l’étude et la performance d’un radier sur un sol de type ‘Mercia Mudstone’
M. Miller, M. Vaziri and R. Miller
Long-Term Settlement Observations of a Bridge Foundation on Clay of Very High Plasticity 761
Observations en matière d'affaissement à long terme de fondations de pont sur un argile de très haute
plasticité
N. Okkels, L. Bødker and B. Knudsen
Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations Under Highly Eccentric and Inclined Loads 769
La capacité portante des fondations superficielles sous des charges très excentriques et inclinées
V. Papadopoulos and A. Arapakou
Kinematic Interaction Between Retaining Walls and Retained Footings Under Dynamic
Loading 775
Interaction cinématique entre les murs de soutènement et les fondations conservées sous chargement
dynamique
G. Papazafeiropoulos, Y. Tsompanakis and P.N. Psarropoulos
Back-Analysis of a Basement with a Raft Foundation in Overconsolidated Stiff Clay 781
Back analyse d’un sous sol avec un radier en argile raide surconsolidée
A. Pillai, R. Fuentes, P. Ferreira and A. Swain
Fill of the “Terreiro do Trigo” Dockyard in Lisbon over Alluvial and Hard Soils 787
Remblai de la Dock du “Terreiro do Trigo” à Lisbonne sur des Alluvions et de Sols Durs
A. Pinto, R. Tomásio, J. Ravasco and G. Marques
Foundations Under Seismic Loads 793
Fondations sous charges sismiques
S. Prakash and V.K. Puri
Protection of the Cement Plant Facilities Foundations on the Artificial Firm soil Base Effected
by Dynamic Loading (Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Ukraine) 799
Protection de la partie de fondation des unités de l’usine à ciment en République Autonome Crimée
(Ukraine) sur le basement solide artificiel, soumis aux effets dynamiques
G.R. Rozenvasser, V.N. Tokovenko, V.E. Zhigarev, S.V. Malikov and V.E. Symonovych
Execution of Micropiles in an Underground Metro Station Against Buoyancy 805
Exécution des micropieux dans une station de métro dans un cas de sous-pression
R. Thurner, T. Kimpritis and N. Koutavas
Performance Analysis of Piled Raft Foundations in Comparison with Conventional Foundation
Systems by Using Finite Element Method 811
Analyse de la performance des fondations radier sur pieux en comparaison avec les systèmes de bases
classiques en utilisant la méthode des éléments finis
A. Yalcin Dayioglu and M. Incecik
Étude expérimentale et numérique du comportement d’un pieu isolé sous chargement cyclique
axial 819
Experimental and Numerical Analysis of the Cyclic Axial Response of a Single Pile
O. Benzaria, A. Le Kouby and A. Puech
xvii
A New Assessment of Ultimate Unit Friction for Driven Piles in Low to Medium Density Chalk 825
Une nouvelle évaluation de frottement unité ultime de pieux enfoncés en bas à la craie de densité moyenne
T.M. Carrington, G. Li and M.J. Rattley
Interpretation of Axial Load Tests for Bored Piles Penetrating Soft Rocks 831
L’interprétation des essais de capacité portant pour les pieux penetrant dans les roches degradées
R. Ciortan, S. Manea and G. Tsitsas
A New Method for the Evaluation of the Ultimate Load of Piles by Tests Not Carried to Failure 837
Une nouvelle méthode pour l’évaluation de la charge limite des pieux avec des essais qui n’atteignent pas la
rupture
G. Dalerci and R. Bovolenta
A Parametric Study on Pile Drivability for Large Diameter Offshore Monopiles 843
Une étude paramétrique sur la maniabilité de pieux pour de grand diamètre monopiles offshore
P. Doherty, K. Gavin and B. Casey
Barettes Socketed to Bedrock Assesment of Their Load Capacity 849
La capacité verticale de fondations barrette dans les roches
H. Turan Durgunoglu, H. Fatih Kulac, S. Ikiz, M. Sutcuoglu and O. Akcakal
Optimum Loading Specifications for O-cell bi-directional Static Load Testing 855
Caractéristiques optimum pour essai de charge statique bidirectionnel utilisant la cellule d’Osterberg
M.G. England and P.F. Cheesman
Prediction of the Axial Load Response of Open-Ended Pipe Piles in Glacial Soils 861
Prédiction de la réponse de charge axiale des pieux tubulaires ouvertes dans les sols glaciaires
K. Gavin, P. Doherty, J. Bevin and L. Twomey
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static Load Tests and Calculation Principles Provided by
EN 1997-1 867
Capacité portante des pieux à partir des essais de chargement statique et les principes de calcul prévues par
la norme EN 1997-1
K. Gwizdała, A. Krasiński and T. Brzozowski
Flexural Effects in Dynamic Determination of Pile Capacity 873
Effets de flexion dans la détermination dynamique de la capacité portante d’un pieu
A. Holeyman and M. Allani
Offshore Foundation Engineering in Extremely Dense Glacial Tills West of the Shetland Islands 879
Technique de fondations sous-marines pour les tills extrêmement denses situés à l’ouest des Îles de
Shetland
R.J. Jardine, T.R. Aldridge and T.G. Evans
Piled Bridge Abutments on Soft Soils: Physical and 3D Numerical Modelling 885
Les contreforts de ponts à piles sur les sols mous: modélisation physique et 3D numérique
M.K. Kelesoglu and S.M. Springman
Approach for a Deep Construction Pit and a Piled-Raft Foundation in Urban Environment 891
Procédure de projet une profonde fouille et une fondation profonde dans l’environnement urbain
S. Meissner, H. Quick, J. Michael and U. Arslan
Base Resistance of Large Diameter Bored Piles in Soft Rocks 897
Résistance à base de grand diamètre s’ennuie piles dans les roches tendres
J.R. Omer
xviii
Use of Site Won Chalk for the Construction of Steep Geogrid Reinforced Soil Embankments
in the South of England, UK 1131
Utilisation de la craie de Site pour la construction de remblais abrupts renforcés par Géogrilles au Sud de
l’Angleterre
C. Doulala-Rigby and J. Dixon
Load Distribution on the Geosynthetic Reinforcement Within a Piled Embankment 1137
La répartition des charges sur le renfort geosynthetique dans un remblai comprenant des pieux
S.J.M. van Eekelen, H.J. Lodder and A. Bezuijen
Rockfill and Soil-Rock Mixtures in Road Embankments – A Case Study 1143
Enrochements et des mixtures sol-enrochement dans les remblais routiers – une étude de cas
E. Fortunato and L. Caldeira
Studies of Behavior of the Temporary Dam at the Dniester PSPP 1149
Les recherches de la condition de la digue provisoire de Dnestrovsky station électrique hydroaccumulant
V. Galat and V. Taranov
Geotechnical Aspects of Aposelemis Dam in Crete Island 1153
Aspects géotechniques du barrage Aposelemis dans l’île de Crète
I. Karapanagiotis, L. Somakos, A. Gkiolas, S. Lazaridou, Μ. Kavvadas and P. Marinos
Geological and Geotechnical Issues Pertinent to the Construction of Gadouras Dam, Rhodes
Island 1159
Problèmes géologiques et géotechniques pour la construction du barrage Gadouras dans l’île de Rhodes
S. Lazaridou, Μ. Kavvadas, P. Marinos, V. Perleros and L. Somakos
Full Scale Failure Test on a Railway Embankment; Extensive Instrumentation and Real Time
Monitoring 1165
Test de stabilité à pleine échelle sur remblai de chemin de fer; instrumentation extensive et surveillance
en temps reel
J. Mansikkamäki, V. Lehtonen, T. Länsivaara and H. Luomala
Large-Scale Cyclic Triaxial Tests for the Seismic Safety Assessment of a High Earth-Core
Rockfill Dam 1171
Essais triaxiaux cycliques de grand diamètre pour l’évaluation de la sécurité sismique d’une haute digue
en enrochement à noyau d’argile vertical
S. Messerklinger, R. Straubhaar, R.P. Brenner R. Herzog, J. Laue and S.M. Springman
Results of Geotechnical Monitoring for the Erection and Operation of the Tailing Dam at the
Diamond Deposit Named After M.V. Lomonosov 1177
Les résultats du contrôle géotechnique de construction et exploitation de la digue de protection du bassin
à déchets de lavage sur le gisement de diamants nommé après M.V. Lomonosov
A. Nevzorov, V. Koptyev and A. Korshunov
Maximum Relative Density of Clean Sand as a Function of Median Grain Size and
Compaction Energy 1185
Densité relative maximale des sables propres en fonction du diamètre moyen des particules et de l’énergie
de compactage
C.R. Patra, N. Sivakugan, B.M. Das and C. Atalar
Requirements for the Foundation of Gravity Dams in Border-Line Terrains 1191
Réquisits pour les fondations de digues de gravité dans terrains faibles
M. Romana
xxii
End of Construction Failures of Cuttings in Stiff Clayey Marls – A Case from Central Greece 1219
Glissement des talus artificiels en marnes argileuses, immediatement apres leur construction.
Un example en Grèce Centrale
A. Alexandris, A. Paschalidou, E. Griva and M. Kavvadas
Determination of the Stress Strain State of Soil Base for the Structures at Static and Dynamic
Loads 1225
Détermination de l’état de contrainte-déformation de la base au sol des structures sous l’effet de charges
statiques et dynamiques
O. Areshkovych, I. Boyko and V. Sakharov
Landslide in a Shale Slope in Kabylie 1231
Glissement dans un talus schisteux de Kabylie
H. Bendadouche and S. Lazizi
Le cas du glissement de Boulimat 1237
The Case of Boulimat Slide
H. Bendadouche and S. Lazizi
Station d’essais de chutes de blocs dans les Alpes françaises: premiers retours d’expériences 1243
Rock-Falls Test Site in the French Alps: First Feedback
M. Bost, F. Rocher-Lacoste, Y. Goyat, L. Dubois, M. Feregotto and J. Gineys
Shallow Instabilities in Weathered Slopes. Limit Equilibrium Analysis 1249
Instabilités superficielles des pentes dégradées. Analyse d’équilibre limite
A. Da Costa, C. Sagaseta, J. Cañizal and J. Castro
Static and Seismic Stability Analyses of Retaining Walls for Landslide Rehabilitation in
Mogorce 1255
Statique et séismique analyse de stabilité de mur de soutènement pour réhabilitation d’un glissement à
Mogorce
Lj. Dimitrievski, D. Ilievski, D. Dimitrievski and B. Bogoevski
Renforcement d’une falaise littorale en roches tendres en vue de ralentir son érosion 1261
Reinforcement of a Soft Rock Coastal Cliff in Order to Slow Down Its Erosion
M. Fontanel and B. Mazaré
Technique nouvelle pour la réalisation de talus raidis dans la craie altérée 1269
New Technique for the Performance of Steeped Slope Cuts in Weathered Chalk
M. Haghgou and P. Rossi
xxiii
Part 3
4.3. Landslides / Glissements de terrains 1311
Landslide Risk and Climate Change – Economic Assessment of Consequences in the Göta
River Valley 1313
Des risques de glissements de terrain et les changements climatiques – évaluation économique des
conséquences dans la vallée de la rivière Göta
Y. Andersson-Sköld, S. Falemo, P. Suer and T. Grahn
Landslide Affected with an Open Pit Excavation in Flysch Deposit 1319
Glissement de terrain causé par l’excavation d’une fouille dans les couches de flysch
Ž. Arbanas, S. Dugonjić, M. Vivoda and V. Jagodnik
Stabilisation of a Deep-Seated Landslide in Order to Protect an Archaeological Site 1325
Stabilisation d’un glissement de terrain profond afin de protéger un site archéologique
M. Bardanis and S. Cavounidis
Comment construire un immeuble dans un glissement de terrain actif à Monaco 1331
How to Construct a New Building in an Active Landslide in Monaco
F. Blondeau and J. Lavisse
Cost Benefit Analysis of Preventive Measures Against Landslides Due to Climate Change 1337
Analyse coût-efficacité de mesures préventives contre les glissements de terrain dus aux changements
climatiques
J. Fallsvik, V. Svahn, S. Falemo and K. Lundström
Combined Slope Protection Along the Southern Bulgarian Black Sea Coast 1343
Protection combinée des talus le long de la côte bulgare sud de la mer Noire
G. Frangov, H. Zayakova and M. Hamova
A Simplified Numerical Approach for Studying Pile-Landslide Interaction in Hard Soils 1347
Une approche numérique simplifiée pour étudier l’interaction entre pieu et glissements de terrain dans
les sols durs
A. Galli, G. Cocchetti and C. di Prisco
Geotechnical Conditions for E-763 Motorway Construction from Belgrade to South Adriatic
Across the Landslide Umka – Duboko 1353
Conditions géotechniques pour la construction de l’autoroute E-763 de Belgrade jusqu’à l’Adriatique Sud,
à travers le glissement de terrain Umka – Duboko
B. Jelisavac, P. Mitrovic, V. Vujanic, S. Milenkovic and M. Jotic
Scientific Analyses of the Bearing Capacity and the Deformation Behaviour of the
Spinnanchor System for Engineering Practice 1359
Analyse scientifique de la capacité portante et du comportement en déformation du système Spinnanchor
pour sa mise en application
R. Katzenbach and S. Leppla
Investigation and Monitoring of Reactivated Landslides in Flysch 1365
Etude et surveillance des glissements de terrain réactivés dans le flysch
M. Kopecky, M. Ondrasik and M. Sulovska
Landslide Processes in Structurally Unstable Loessial Soils 1371
Les procès d’éboulement sur loess sols instables
S.G. Kushner
xxv
Leakfinder: Infrared Detection of Leaks Through the Walls of Deep Underwater Excavations –
Progresses of an Innovative Detection Method 1447
Leakfinder: Détection par infrarouge de fuites à travers les parois d’une excavation submergée –
Etats d’une méthode de détection innovatrice
G.R.N.G. Colard, O.S. Langhorst and R. Bolhuis
Earth Pressure from the Nearby Buildings on Sheet Pile Walls 1455
Pression des sols provenant des bâtiments voisins sur les murs de palplanches
H. Denver and L. Kellezi
Evaluation of Alternative Methodologies to Minimize Movements of a Diaphragm Wall Close
to Buildings 1461
Évaluation de méthodes alternatives pour minimiser des mouvements d’une paroi moulée près de
bâtiments
C. de Santos, A. Ledesma, A. Lloret and E.E. Alonso
Full-Scale Physical Modeling of Sheet Piles Pressed-in to Hard Soils 1467
Modelage physique en pleine échelle des pilots à rainure enfoncés par impression dans les sols durs
M.P. Doubrovsky, M.B. Poizner and G.N. Meshcheriakov
Soil Nailed Walls – A Parametric Study 1473
Les murs du sol cloué - une étude paramétrique
T.Y. Elkady, A.M. Elleboudy and A.A. Mohamed
Analyse en retour de soutènements butonnés dans les molasses toulousaines 1479
Back-Analysis of Strutted Walls in Toulouse Molasses
F. Emeriault, J. Zghondi and R. Kastner
Deep Excavation with Multi Anchored Diaphragm Wall 1485
Excavation profonde avec un mur de soutènement ancrée plusieurs fois
J. Josifovski, S. Gjorgjevski and M. Jovanovski
Seismic Response of Complex Soil Structure Systems 1491
Réponse sismique de systèmes avec interactions complexes entre sol et structure
S. Kontoe, L. Zdravkovic, D.M. Potts, C.O. Menkiti and R.F. Lennon
Compensation Grouting and Deep Sealing Slabs for the Construction of the New Metro Line
B1 in Rome 1497
Injections de compensation et dalles d’étanchéité profonde pour la construction de la nouvelle ligne B1
de métro à Rome
C. Kummerer, E. Falk, A. Sciotti and G. Saggio
Observations of Anomalies in Diaphragm Walls for Deep Tunnel Excavations 1503
Observations d’anomalies dans des parois moulées utilisées pour la réalisation de tunnels à grande
profondeur
W. Maekelberg, E. De Clercq and J. Maertens
Modelling of a Deep Excavation in a Silty Clay 1509
Modélisation d’une excavation profonde située dans l’argile limoneuse
D. Mašín, J. Boháč and P. Tůma
Excavation over and Around an Operational Railway Tunnel for the Construction of a New
Station of the Athens Metro 1515
Excavation autour d’un tunnel ferroviaire en exploitation pour la construction d’une nouvelle station du
Metro d’Athenes
C. Mavrommati, F. Nakou, N.Boussoulas, I. Miliotis, G. Dimitriou and A. Chrysikopoulou
xxvii
Effect of Wall Stiffness on Ground Deformations Around Deep Excavations in Stiff Clay 1599
Impact de la rigidité des murs sur les déformations du sol aux abord d’une excavation profonde dans de
l’argile raide
L. Zdravkovic, D.M. Potts and S. Kontoe
Back-Analysis Sheds Light on the History of the Acropolis Wall: The Interpretation of a
Permanent Structural Failure 1841
L’analyse rétrograde met en lumière l’histoire du mur de l’Acropole: L’interprétation d’un échec
structurel permanent
D. Egglezos and D. Moullou
In-Situ Tests on the Parthenon Columns for the Assessment of Their Foundation Condition 1847
Essais in-situ sur les colonnes du Parthénon pour l’evaluation de la situation de leurs fondations
D. Egglezos and E.-E. Toumbakari
Dynamic Analysis of San Pedro Cliff at La Alhambra 1853
L’analyse dynamique de la falaise de San Pedro à La Alhambra
J.L. Justo, A. Morales-Esteban, P. Durand, N. Vázquez and E. Justo
Enhanced Geotechnologies for the Protection of World Heritage Properties 1859
Géotechnologies améliorées pour la protection des sites du patrimoine culturel mondial
R. Katzenbach, M. Vogler, S. Kurze and R. Dunaevskiy
Technical Condition of Ukrainian Historical Monument “The Lastochkino Gnezdo” Castle 1865
Conditions techniques de monument historique Ukraine – chateau «Nid d’hirondelle»
P. Kryvosheiev, Iu. Nemchynov, А. Khavkin, Ia. Chervinskiy, А. Bambura, Yu. Kaliukh,
N. Marienkov, I. Zolotariov, V. Kukunaev, B. Popov and M. Rizhiy
Geotechnical Issues of the New Acropolis Museum 1871
Sujets Géotechniques du Nouveau Musée d’Acropole
V. Papadopoulos and A. Anagnostopoulos
Underground Expansion of Drents Museum 1879
Expansion souterrain de Drents Museum
M.G.J.M. Peters and N.P. van Leeuwen
Accurate Monitoring of Displacements by Liquid Level Instrumentation 1887
La mesure précise de déplacements par des capteurs de pression liquide
A.J. van Rietschoten-Rietveld and A.J.G. Schellingerhout
Subject Index I
Author Index XV
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1.1. Field Investigations
Investigations In situ
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 3
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-3
Keywords: Pressuremeter, flexible dilatometer, rock moduli, rock limit pressure, hard soils.
Mots-clés : Pressiomètre, dilatomètre, modules des roches, pression limite des roches, sols raides.
1
Corresponding Author.
4 G. Arsonnet et al. / L’HyperPac 25 MPa comble le vide entre le pressiomètre Ménard
cision sur le module EM imputé à la mesure nécessitant plus le recours au gaz com-
du déplacement par déformations volumé- primé industriel (azote), qui n’est utilisé
trique, soit également en raison de la diffi- que pour les cellules de garde.
culté d’approcher de façon fiable une pres- Dès la mise au point de ce dispositif pour un
sion limite pLM. appareil standard avec des composants électro-
De nombreux utilisateurs de résultats pres- mécaniques, et notamment des capteurs de pres-
siométriques restent cependant demandeurs sion, dans une plage de mesures limitée peu au-
d’une extension significative du domaine dessus de la limitation normative de 5 MPa, il est
d’utilisation du pressiomètre. Ceci notam- apparu que le même principe constructif fonc-
ment en raison de la difficulté à trouver, sur tionnerait à des pressions beaucoup plus élevées.
échantillons carottés une mesure équiva- Pour la construction d’un prototype HyperPac,
lente à la pression limite ; les mesures de l’objectif visé a été une pression de 25 MPa, soit
Rc par exemple perdent leur signification 5 fois la limite des essais normaux, qui a le mé-
pour l’ensemble d’un massif en raison de la rite de correspondre à la fois au domaine de me-
fracturation des roches, que la mesure pres- sures à combler entre essais au pressiomètre et
siométrique prend en compte. essais au dilatomètre, et à un dimensionnement
Des pressiomètres enregistreurs dépourvus des composants mécaniques et électroméca-
du voyant de lecture visuelle (Géospad2 niques industriels éprouvés et fiables.
d’Apagéo) existent maintenant ; ils restent L’utilisation d’un cylindre (fig. 4), celui où
limités à une pression de 15 à 18 MPa, au- circule le piston, largement dimensionné sup-
delà de laquelle la consommation de gaines prime tout risque d’explosion en cas de fuite ou
de sondes standard et surtout de gaz de- rupture d’un composant du système hydraulique,
vient une limitation d’usage. des tubulures ou de la sonde.
La résolution de mesure de déplacement du
3.2 L’apport du pressiomètre automatisé piston motorisé est inférieure à 1 μm, correspon-
(GéoPac) et son évolution en version dant à une mesure théorique de déplacement du
25 MPa (HyperPac) volume de 1.10-3 cm3, soit pour la sonde décrite
(fig. 5) un déplacement moyen de la paroi de
Le principe de ce pressiomètre de génération ré- l’ordre de 3.10-2μm.
cente (article à paraître 3) est d’assurer le pro-
gramme de chargement pressiométrique par un
système volumétrique à piston motorisé, auto-
contrôlé par un dispositif d’asservissement élec-
tronique qui analyse la courbe en cours de cons-
truction, et stabilise les paliers de pression nor-
malisés sans intervention d’un opérateur. Le
pressiomètre est piloté à distance par un ordina-
teur de chantier « durci », la Géobox.
La nécessité de mise en œuvre d’une avance
micrométrique du piston a d’emblée apporté à ce
dispositif :
- une très grande précision des mesures de
volume, déterminées lors des essais pres-
siométriques courants à 2.10-3 cm3
- une stabilisation précise des paliers de
pression du circuit de mesure (selon la
précision des capteurs employés), et ne
3
G. Arsonnet, J.P. Baud, M. Gambin, W. Youssef, Le Figure 4. Pressiomètre auto-contrôlé HyperPac. Schéma
pressiomètre auto-contrôlé Géopac. de principe du volumètre à piston motorisé asservi.
G. Arsonnet et al. / L’HyperPac 25 MPa comble le vide entre le pressiomètre Ménard 7
C’est sur la sonde de mesure (au contact du Calcaire de Beauce, carrière de Roncevaux
forage, et au calibrage de celui-ci, que devait être (45).
portée l’attention. Nous avons utilisé une sonde
monocellulaire de 46 mm de diamètre, avec dif-
férents types de gaines, selon une gamme de ré-
sistances (de dureté 40 à 90 Shore), similaires à
celles des sondes dessinées par Ménard pour son
« pressiomètre 1000 bars » [9].
4
Pour les terrains indurés et même pour les roches, les essai reste aussi essentielle à la qualité de la mesure des mo-
auteurs estiment que la minimisation du délai entre forage et dules que dans les sols meubles.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 9
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-9
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ABSTRACT
In the west part of Albania, near the Adriatic Sea there is a large area of very problematic soils as organic cohesive soils and fine
sands under the ground water table. These soils have high porosity and are under consolidated. This region is characterized by a
big development of motor-ways, industries, costal constructions and tourism.
We would like to present in this papers the laboratory and in-situ tests and studies performed by the laboratory
“A.L.T.E.A&GEOSTUDIO2000” for the determination of the behaviour of these soils under static and seismic loads. We will
also give some recommendations about engineering measures that should be taken for the improvement of these characteristics.
RÉSUMÉ
En occidental part d’Albanie a proximite de l’Adriatik mer se trouve vaste plaine composant de problematique sols tel com-me
sols argileux organique et sable finne dessous de la nappe del eau. Celle sols ont porosite eleve et ils sont non consolide. Cette
zone est caracterise de grande developpement de le industrie, construction portuel, tourisme et routtes. Nous voulont pre-senter
dans Cette materiau les etudes et investigations dans Porto Romano Durres par les essais execute in laboratoire et in situ de la
“A.L.T.E.A&GEOSTUDIO2000” intentionnellement pour determination de la comportement des sols sous chargement sta-tique
et seismique.
1
Corresponding Author.
16 L. Bozo et al. / Laboratory and Field Investigation in Porto Romano Durres
3 3 3
3
4 4 Fig. 2 BH-1
4 4
5 5
5 5
3 GEOTECHNICAL STUDY
Fig.1 Geological section VI-VI
The geotechnical study aims to determine a gene-
The geomorphologic study shows that the site ralized geotechnical model. The first step was the
location has flat relief. The most remarkable geo- performance of laboratory tests for the determi-
logical and geodynamic features identified in the nation of physical and mechanical properties of
area are: soils by analyzing undisturbed samples (1st quali-
Erosion which is visible in the hilly part of ty) taken from the 12 drillings [9], [10], [11],
the zone. [12]. In most of the drillings were encountered 4
Weathering phenomena which is visible on layers; in 2 of them appeared a fifth layer.
the bed-rock formations composed of Mud- The data analysis produced the following ge-
stone and Sandstone. neralized physical properties of soils:
The phenomenon of consolidation of the Table 1
marshy deposits.
The seismic study shows that the site location
is situated in a zone of high seismic activity. The
seismic Micro-Division [1],[2] shows that an
earthquake of magnitude M=6.5-7 can occur,
with high accelerations on the free surface: amax =
0.4g in loose deposits (80-100) m of thickness,
high ground water table, with a spreading speed
of the waves Vs=150m/s. Based on this informa-
tion we can conclude that the soil corresponds to And generalized mechanical properties:
the D or E category according to EuroCode-8.
L. Bozo et al. / Laboratory and Field Investigation in Porto Romano Durres 17
11 m
A
21 m
B
5m
Table 3
100 2
90
80
4
h (m)
70
6
Passing (%)
60
50 ( 0.199, 50) 8
40
30 10
20
10
0
Fig.7 , c and Depth relation
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Diameter (mm)
2.5 m
6 CONCLUSIONS
ABSTRACT
Daugava River is the largest river in Latvia, and it has been developed for hydropower with the construction of dams at three
sites namely Plavinas, Kegums and Riga HPP. In the 1960s the largest of the three hydroelectric power plants - Plavinas Power
Plant, having a considerably higher head than the other two and a relatively large reservoir, was built up. It is built across an an-
cient pre-glacial river channel, which is filled with glacial deposits up to 137 m or more thick.
Since construction of the power plant the properties of these soils and their behaviour are tested and discussed. During 2009
drilling and sampling were performed close to the Plavinas Dam as a scope of the geotechnical investigation for construction of
the additional spillway on the right side of the power plant. Part of the samples was used for testing of soil clasification and me-
chanical properties in Geotechnical laboratory of the University of Latvia. Based on the testing results soils were classified and
their properties described. Testing results were compared to previous findings and geotechnical properties of the soils tested dur-
ing construction of dam. The tested soils are similar to the soils under Plavinas dam concrete structures and detail analysis of the
soil properties helps to explain the long term behavior of the Plavinas dam structures, the possible changes of the soil properties
as a result of the loading and impact of the artesian groundwater pressure.
RÉSUMÉ
Daugava est la plus grande rivière en Lettonie, et il a été développé pour l'hydroélectricité avec la construction de barrages sur
trois sites, à savoir Plavinas, Kegums et Riga PPH. Dans les années 1960, la plus importante des trois centrales hydroélectriques
- Plavinas PPH, ayant une tête considérablement plus élevée que les deux autres et un réservoir relativement important, a été
construite. Il est construit sur un ancien chenal préglaciaires, qui est rempli de dépôts glaciaires jusqu'à 137 m ou plus épais.
Depuis la construction de la centrale électrique, les propriétés de ces sols et leur comportement sont testées et discutées. Au
cours de 2009 de forage et d'échantillonnage ont été réalisés près pour le barrage de Plavinas comme une portée de l'étude
géotechnique pour la construction de l'évacuateur de crues supplémentaire sur le côté droit de la centrale électrique. Partie des
échantillons a été utilisée pour l'essai de classification des sols et des propriétés mécaniques en laboratoire géotechnique de
l'Université de Lettonie. Basé sur les résultats des tests, les sols ont été classés et leurs propriétés décrites. Résultats des tests ont
été comparés aux résultats antérieurs et des propriétés géotechniques des sols testés au cours de la construction du barrage. Les
sols testés sont similaires aux sols sous Plavinas barrage des structures de béton et l'analyse de détail de l'aide les propriétés du
sol pour expliquer le comportement à long terme des structures Plavinas barrage, les éventuelles modifications des propriétés du
sol à la suite du chargement et l'impact de la pression d'eau souterraine artésien.
1
Corresponding Author.
22 S. Dišlere and D. Pāruma / Mechanical Properties of Low Plasticity Clayey Soil
Plavinas HPP is the largest dam in Latvia and The geology and hydrogeology of the Plavinas
Baltic region constructed on Daugava River. The HPP area is complicated. The thickness of the
Daugava River has been developed for hydro- Quaternary deposits is the largest in the buried
power with the construction of the cascade of valley and reaches at least 140 m (the largest re-
dams at three sites upstream Riga City. covered thickness by drill hole is 137 m), while
Plavinas Dam having a head of 40 m was con- smallest thickness is on the slopes of the both
structed 107 km from its entrance to the Baltic banks and in some places of existing Daugava
See. It was designed by Hydroproject Institute, river bed and in reservoir. [1]
Russia. The construction was started on 1961 and The ancient pre-Quaternary river channel is
finished on 1966. There are two dams con- filled by glacial till – soft clayey soil with low
structed downstream of the Plavinas Dam on permeability. It is described in the Russian termi-
Daugava River: Kegums HPP with head of 14 m; nology as high plasticity clayey soil (called
and Riga HPP with head of 18 m (Figure 1).[1] “loam” in some documents) and "low plasticity
clayey soil" (called “sandy loam” in some docu-
ments) (Figure 3).
tion behavior analyses seem to result in shear dis- (ISO/TS 17892-3:2004), incremental loading oe-
tortion settlements that are too large and volume dometer test (ISO/TS 17892-5:2004).
compression settlements that are too small com- Liquid limit and plasticity limit were tested
pared to observed soil-structure behavior. This and rate of porosity calculated using methodol-
may be the main reason for the differences be- ogy described by Lomtadze. [4]
tween the calculated and the observed behavior Grain size distribution was determined using
of the structure. wet sieving method described in ISO/TS 17892-
It is concluded [2] that the reason for these 4:2004.
non-uniform settlements are the additional
stresses originating from both concrete and earth 3.2 Testing results
structures at both ends of the powerhouse.
However differential settlements under the Following testing results will be discussed:
powerhouse structure could be only partly ex- composition of soil, index tests and physical
plained using uniform soil parameters at the all properties, and deformation parameters.
foundation. As it can be seen from cross-section
and continuously noted by powerhouse designer 3.2.1 Classification of soil
the soil in powerhouse foundation is not homo- Composition of the soil was tested using wet
geneous and the main reason of differential set- sieving method. It was found that soil consists of
tlement is mainly caused by changes of the clay 10% gravel (including particles with size
content in the soils of pre-glacial buried valley. >10mm), 25% sand, 32% silt and 33% clay parti-
cles. Following USC classification system such
soils shall be classified as a silt and clay. This re-
3 TESTING OF SOILS sult contradicts to previous assumptions and
should be investigated more detail in future.
During 2009 drilling and sampling were per- However given result corresponds with soil
formed close to the Plavinas Dam as a scope of description in Russian terminology there it is de-
the geotechnical investigation for construction of scribed as high plasticity and low plasticity
the additional spillway on the right bank of Dau- clayey soil. Plasticity index shall be determined
gava River downstream of the Plavinas Dam. in this case.
Part of the samples was used for testing of soil
for index tests and mechanical properties in Geo- 3.2.2 Index properties of soil
technical laboratory of the University of Latvia. Index properties of the soil were tested using
Following geological structure the tested soils are mainly standard methods and methods described
similar to the soils under Plavinas dam concrete by V.D. Lomtadze [4]. The results obtained are
structures and detail analysis of the soil proper- shown in table 1.
ties helps to explain the long term behavior of the Table 1. Soil characteristics
Plavinas dam structures, the possible changes of Characteristic Average Min Max
the soil properties as a result of the loading and
Water content, % 10 7 17
impact of the artesian groundwater pressure. Liquid limit, % 16 15 19
More than 35 undisturbed samples were used Plasticity index, % 3 2 6
for different tests taken from 13 boreholes in It can be defined that tested soil was low plas-
depth interval between 6 and 30 m. ticity clay. There are not found any clear ten-
dency of the variation of the characteristics with
3.1 Testing methods depth or in the investigation area.
Consistency of the tested samples was hard
Mainly standard testing methods were used for
(plastic limit IL < 0) and only 3 of tested samples
determination of the index properties like deter-
were of plastic consistency.
mination of water content (ISO/TS 17892-
1:2004), determination of particle density
24 S. Dišlere and D. Pāruma / Mechanical Properties of Low Plasticity Clayey Soil
ABSTRACT
The paper presents the investigation program and slope stability analysis of an active landslide situated on National road DN 1,
major traffic way in Transylvania, Romania. Slope stability analysis was performed using Geo Fine software, considering circu-
lar or polygonal sliding surfaces and using GFAS software, applying FEM method. The investigation program is continued by a
monitoring program to determine movements on the site and ground water table variation. On the site were placed inclinometers
and piezometers, where the slope stability analysis indicates a lower value of the safety factor than the acceptable one.
RÉSUMÉ
Le papier présent le program d’investigations géotechniques et l’analyse de stabilité des pentes pour un glissement de terre actif,
localise sur la route nationale DN1, route très important en Transylvanie. L’analyse de stabilité des pentes a été réalise en utili-
sant le logiciel Géo Fine, pour des surfaces de glissement circulaire ou polygonal et en utilisant le logiciel GFAS, en utilisant la
méthode d’éléments finit. Le program d’investigation a été continu par un program de surveillance pour déterminer les mouve-
ments sur le site et la variation des tableaux d’eaux souterraines. Inclinomètres et piézomètres ont été placés donc sur le site dans
les lieux ou l'analyse de stabilité indique une valeur inférieure du coefficient de sécurité que celui acceptable
Keywords: Geotechnical investigation program, slope stability, FEM, national road, monitoring program
1
Corresponding Author.
26 V. Farcas et al. / Landslide Stabilization Along a National Road
ing lot collapse and soil mass movements on the covered by a sandy silty clayey complex of
entire area. deluvial origin, Pleistocene as well.
Pleistocene formations are discordant and have
a lower limit consistent with the Pannonian
sedimentary basement up to the base of the slope
areas.
3 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Transylvanian depression is located in central part Figure 2. Site map with borehole and DPSH positions.
of Romania. The landslide is located on the east
of Badeni hill, in the western part of Transylva- The analysis regarding the stratification of the
nian Depression. soil, based on laboratory tests, has the following
From geological point of view, the basement results:
of Transylvanian depression is represented by x (1) Top soil - 0.20m depth
metamorphites belonging to the Bihor Nappe, x (2a) Silt with organic materials (organic ma-
overthrusted by ophiolitic rocks, belonging to the terial-layer 3), soft to medium soft - 3.50m
Transylvanian Nappes of South Apuseni thickness for borehole F101, 3.60m thick-
Mountains and intruded by laramian batholiths. ness for F102, 6.00m thickness for F103 and
The post tectonic evolution of Transylvanian 3.80m thickness for F104.
depression is correlated with the evolution of x (2) Brown silt, medium soft to stiff, up to
Paratethys. Post-tectonic cover, is starting with 10.00m depth.
Senonian sandstones and marls on the north and Based on the laboratory tests the following
west side of the depression, followed by Eocene geotechnical parameters were determined (see
detritic deposits and Miocene sandy marls. Table 1 and Table 2).
In the researched area, the Pannonian is The laboratory tests results shows also that the
considered to be the basement of the sedimentary layer of organic silt has a high swelling potential
complex, being represented by compact marls and U> 100% (active).
sandy marls, of marine origin, that develops both
in the whole wide depressions and in its hills
frame. This formation is covered by Pleistocene
coarse fluvial sediments throughout the
depression but the downhill slopes that are
V. Farcas et al. / Landslide Stabilization Along a National Road 27
Table 1. Physical characteristics for main soil layers The underground water level is directly con-
Bore- Thick- Soil type J Ic nected to the water level from a creek in the area
hole ness (defined [kN/m3] [-] which undercross the road and at some point, 30
[m] layer)
F101 3.70 Organic 18.31 meters downstream the road, it infiltrates into the
0.20-0.50
Silt ground. The same creek is found at the toe of the
6.30 Silty 18.65 slope and is collected by another creek that flows
0.64-0.80
Clay
F102 3.80 Organic 19.21
orthogonal with the possible landslide direction.
0.60-0.70 This fact is considered to be the main disturb-
Silt
6.20 Silty 19.50 ing factor by saturating the underground soil at
0.70-0.90
Clay depths that can cause decreasing of mechanical
F103 6.00 Organic 18.60 characteristics. At the surface of the slope there
0.57-0.67
Silt
4.00 Silty 19.66 are numerous cracks that also allow soil saturation
0.70-0.90 during rainfalls and snow melting.
Clay
F104 3.80 Organic 17.23
-
Silt
6.20 Silty 19.61
Clay
- 5 SLIDING PROBABLE CAUSES
Table 2. Shear strength parameters obtained for direct shear Based on the in-situ investigations and also on the
C-D(consolidated-drained) laboratory tests laboratory tests results, the following conclusions
Bore- Thickness Soil Ik rez/ck rez Ik’/ck’
hole [m] type
were established:
[0/kPa] [0/kPa]
(defined x The results of the laboratory tests show a
layer) stratification, that from the top up to 3.70-
F101 3.70 Organic 10.43/5 6.00m depth is represented by a layer of or-
7.60/14.4
Silt
6.30 Silty 10.56/-
ganic silt from very soft consistency (F101)
17/79 to medium stiff (F102). The top layers are
Clay
F102 3.80 Organic 8.85/6 formed by silty soils with high content of
7/16
Silt organic materials, loose, with e>0.7, that
6.20 Silty 9.40/- also present swelling characteristics
11/77
Clay
F103 6.00 Organic 9.12/6 (U>100%). Due to these properties, infiltra-
- tions from rain waters create a softening
Silt
4.00 Silty 10.40/-
14/45
phenomenon, which will cause an important
Clay decrease of the shearing strength resistance
F104 3.80 Organic 9.20/6
Silt
- values. Dynamic penetration tests (DPSH-B)
6.20 Silty 10.50/- confirm the existence of soft soil layers on
16/85 the top, as shown in the following table:
Clay
x Upstream the road, a longitudinal drain must so to Professor Cosmin Chiorean for providing
be executed to collect the underground wa- GFAS application for slope stability analysis.
ter. A forestation program will help on col- Special acknowledgments to Romanian National
lecting the surface and underground water. Road Companies (CNADNR Bucharest and
DRDP Cluj), for allowing authors to use the in-
formation about the landslide.
8 SLOPE MONITORING PROGRAM
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
The building comprises a 200 metre tall tower and 20 metre deep basement in a densely developed urban area. The tower has a
steel frame closed by glass panels. The vertical loads are transmitted to the ground by six mega-columns and by a core in the
central area. The lateral load restraint is provided by a permanent slab placed according to the top-down method. This paper dis-
cusses the geotechnical issues associated with the project and the ground investigation carried out to assess both the variability of
the underlying soils and the parameters for design. The large amount of information on ground conditions around the site at
shallow depths was integrated with a site-specific investigation that reached depths of 80 metres. Soil parameters were extrapo-
lated from cross-hole tests, which were carried out with two boreholes and from the measurements of the mechanical energy,
pressures and torque (PAPERO tests) during drilling. The groundwater water level was found at approximately 20 metres depth.
The information provided by the ground investigation allowed the design of the retaining wall and the foundation system and the
selection of a construction technique that accounted for the urban context.
RÉSUMÉ
Le bâtiment comprend une tour de 200 mètres de hauteur et une partie enterré de 20 mètres de profondeur dans une zone très ur-
banisée. La tour a une structure à cadres en acier fermés par des baies vitrées. Les charges verticaux sont transmises à travers six
méga-colonnes et par un noyau dans la zone centrale. La condition d’appui latérale est fournie par une dalle permanente installée
selon la méthode ‘tranchée couverte’. Ce document examine les questions géotechniques liées au projet et à la reconnaissance
des sols effectués pour évaluer la variabilité des sols de fondation et les paramètres géotechniques de projet. Le grand nombre
d'information disponibles sur les conditions du sol à faible profondeur autour du site a été intégré avec une campagne de recon-
naissance spécifique atteignant une profondeur de 80 mètres. Les paramètres géotechniques du sol ont été extrapolés à partir des
essais ‘cross-hole’, qui ont été effectués avec deux forages et des mesures d'énergie mécanique, de pression et de couple (essais
PAPERO) pendant le forage. Le niveau de la nappe se trouve à 20 mètres de profondeur environ. L'information obtenue à partir
de la campagne de reconnaissance a été retenue pour le projet du mur de soutènement et du système de fondation et la sélection
d'une technique de construction adaptée au contexte urbain..
Keywords: 200 m high tower ; gravelly soils ; deep excavation ; raft foundation
1
Corresponding Author.
32 A. Gasparre et al. / Intesa-San Paolo Tower in Turin – Geotechnical Issues
area just outside the historical centre of Turin, It- posits of Pleistocene and Pliocene age that in
aly. The site is bounded by a public park to the turn overlay chalk deposits of Miocene age.
west and roads on the other three sides. Over the
majority of the width of the park there is an un-
derground car park extending to about 7 m below
the level of the surrounding ground. The high
speed railway line (RFI) that connects Turin to
Milan runs in an open cut at about 30 m to the
east of the site (Figure 1).
x Six open stand pipe piezometers installed at ity theory and assuming the Poisson’s ratio
the depth around 40 m to monitor the ground ]’=0.15.
water level (G.W.L.) and obtain water sam- Moreover, using the formula by Foti et al [4]
ples for chemical tests. based on Biot [1] poroelasticity theory, the
x One water well to 40m depth used to perform measured Vp and Vs allowed the computation of
short and long term pumping tests. the profile of the in situ void ratio eo. Special at-
tention was devoted to the stiff to very stiff lay-
The design soil profile derived from the site ers of silty clay, encountered within the alluvial
investigation is shown in Figure 2. It includes deposits.
about 2 m of Made Ground, 37 m to 40 m of flu- The oedometer tests carried out on undis-
vial-glacial deposits comprising sandy gravel turbed samples showed that this layer has verti-
with cobbles with different degrees of cementa- cal yield stress ^’vy ranging from 1300 to 1800
tion over alluvial-lacustrine deposits consisting kPa well in excess of the existing overburden ef-
of a succession of dense to very dense layers of fective stress ^’vo. Moreover the oedometer re-
medium to coarse sand and relatively thinner compression curve of this material crossed the
layers of stiff to very stiff silty clays. This last intrinsic compression line ICL as defined by
formation is expected to extend to depths of ap- Burland [2] suggesting that the clay is structured.
proximately 100 m below ground level (bgl).
Based on piezometers readings, the G.W.L.
during the site investigation was encountered at a 3 THE SUBSTRUCTURE SYSTEM
depth of 21 m bgl.
installation of the walls the ground was removed was assumed that the structure applied a uniform
using a top-down method with the permanent pressure to the top of the raft.
second level basement slab, supported on tempo- The results showed that as excavation pro-
rary piles, as propping for the wall. ceeds there is a tendency of the structure to
‘sway’ towards the car park due to the asymmet-
3.3 The retaining wall ric ground level outside the site. This sway in-
creased when the loads from the tower were ap-
The geotechnical design was carried out in ac- plied. The diagram of bending moments and
cordance with the principles of EC7.1 based shear forces derived from the analyses were used
largely on as assessment of the serviceability
for the structural design of the wall in different
conditions using unfactored soil parameters. This
sections.
required the temporary state to be modelled in
Seismic load was considered as ultimate state
order to determine the most onerous conditions. condition for the wall, but it did not dictate the
Limit equilibrium calculations were then con- design.
ducted to check ultimate limit state conditions.
Analyses were carried out using the finite
element program ICFEP to determine the behav- 247mOD ~30m
car park services
iour of the retaining system and surrounding 238mOD
ground during the construction of the basement RFI anchors RFI
227mOD
and during the loading from the superstructure. 4.5m 222mOD
All analyses were undertaken using unfactored
conglomerate
soil parameters derived from the site investiga- 207mOD
203mOD
tion. A linear elastic soil model was used, al- Alluvial-lacustrine deposits
though the effects of non-linear soil parameters
were also checked. The parameters are summa- Figure 4: Section through the tower area
rised in Table 1.
3.4 The foundation raft
Table 1: Soil parameters for the analyses of the retaining wall
(J=unit weight; c’=cohesion; I’=angle of shearing resistance; The basement rafts rest on the cemented strata of
Ko=coefficient of earth pressure at rest; E’=Young’s fluvioglacial origin. The average pressure (qav)
Modulus) transmitted to the ground by the tower megacol-
soil J c’ I’° Ko E’
umns (including the self weight of the raft) is
kN/m3 kPa MPa about 710 kPa. The average net pressure, equal
1 20 1 30 0.4 160 to qav – ^vo’, where ^vo’ represents the original
2a 20 1 35 0.4 160+187z vertical effective overburden stress at 25m depth
z at 244mOD
2b 22 80 35 0.4 2800
before excavation, is about 710 – 440 = 270 kPa.
2c 22 80 35 0.4 2800-233z The average pressure exerted on the ground by
z at 217mOD the rafts of the podium is about 100 kPa, i.e. sig-
3 20 1 32 0.85 470+3.3z
z at 207
nificantly lower than ^vo’.
The key geotechnical issues were related to
the evaluation of the total and differential settle-
Sections through the middle of the tower, ments of the Tower raft foundation and its ability
where the most onerous conditions occurred, and to redistribute the loads transmitted by the six
through the areas outside the tower were mod- mega-columns and the central core. For these
elled accounting for the presence of the existing purposes, specific analyses were carried out us-
structure for the RFI and the basement under the ing the computer code FOCALS (Foundation on
car park area. Figure 4 shows a sketch of a sec- Cross Anisotropic Layered System); see Wardle
tion though the tower area. The analyses made and Fraser [6]. The code is able to solve the in-
the assumption of plane strain conditions and it teraction problem represented by rafts resting on
layered soils, loaded by both distributed and con-
A. Gasparre et al. / Intesa-San Paolo Tower in Turin – Geotechnical Issues 35
centrated loads. In the code both the raft and the Maximum total settlements were predicted to
layered soils are schematized by elastic constitu- be of the order of 10 cm for long term condi-
tive models. tions. Possible occurrence of creep phenomena
The numerical model was developed taking could lead, after end-of-construction, to maxi-
into account the embedment ratio h/B (where h mum total settlements of the order of 40 mm to
and B represent respectively the height of exca- 50 mm. Maximum induced settlements (long
vation and the short side of the raft), the negligi- term conditions) on the adjacent podium rafts
ble influence of the podium rafts and the retain- could be of the order of 50 to 60 mm on one side
ing walls on the tower foundation, the depth of of the site and 30 to 40 mm on the other side.
the boundary layer, assumed at 65 m below the
raft level and the stress levels induced in the
ground by the tower raft. The latter were signifi- 4 THE EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION ON
cantly lower than the gross yield stress of the SURROUNDING GROUND AND
materials (see for example Jardine, [5]), there- STRUCTURES
fore, the soil materials were reasonably repre-
sented by elastic constitutive models. From the Ground movements were expected to occur as a
profile of elastic Young’s moduli, Eo’ opera- result of the installation of the retaining walls,
tional values that accounted for strain levels were the construction of the basement and the applica-
derived. These are shown in Figure 5. tion of load to the tower.
The settlement distribution derived from the Based on observations of ground movements
analyses for the end-of-construction conditions the settlements due to the installation of the ber-
are shown in Figure 6. linese wall and the diaphragm wall were ex-
pected to be confined to a zone approximately
equal to one times the depth of the wall from the
back of the wall and, in granular soils, the maxi-
mum settlements are likely to be around 0.1% of
the wall depth. Movements due to the installation
of the berlin wall were expected to be negligible
assuming that the installation was carefully
planned. No significant movements were ex-
pected to occur below the top of the conglomer-
ate.
Each diaphragm wall panel has a width of 2.8
m and was to be constructed between guide
trenches from 3 m below the existing ground sur-
face. General ground movements, although small
were therefore expected to be more concentrated
within the 3m from the back of the wall as a re-
sult of local loss of support. The Berlin wall was
Figure 5: Young’s modulus profile. Stress conditions after also expected to mitigate movements to a depth
excavation and tower construction of 9 m below existing ground level where these
To take into account the possible contribution are present.
given by creep phenomena, settlement distribu- An upper bound of the profiles of horizontal
tion, representative to long term conditions, 50 and vertical movement of the ground adjacent to
years after end of construction, were determined the basement was estimated from the results of
using the empirical approach proposed by Bur- the finite element analyses. From these it was
land and Burbidge [3] for static loading condi- deduced that prior to the application of load to
tions; the results are included in Figure 6. the raft the movements outside a zone around 15
m back form the wall were generally less than 5
36 A. Gasparre et al. / Intesa-San Paolo Tower in Turin – Geotechnical Issues
mm. Within the 15 m zone, which is affected rored by slightly smaller movements on the
principally by the forward rotation of the wall opposite wall.
above the conglomerate, the maximum settle-
ment was around 25 mm and maximum lateral
movement to be 40 mm. The movements were 5 CONCLUSION
smaller on the car park side
The geotechnical design of the proposed project
was carried out taking into account the ground
conditions, the loading conditions and the site
constrains due to the urban context.
A dominant feature for the design was the
presence of the conglomerate material which was
both stiff and with a relatively high strength.
This affected the choice and the design of the
substructure system. Finite element analyses
were carried out to support the structural design
of the wall and the foundation raft. Ground
Figure 6: Predicted settlements of tower raft movements and their effects on surrounding
ground and structures were also estimated.
The application of load to the raft resulted in a
general settlement around 20 mm close to the
walls. This settlement was accompanied by a lat- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
eral movement of less than 10 mm towards the
basement. The Authors express their thankfulness to the
In reality, the effect of the loading of the raft Management of the Banca Intesa-Sanpaolo for
was believed to be confined to a smaller area allowing publishing this paper. Moreover we ac-
than the analyses suggested because of the lim- knowledge the contribution of Dr. Cristina Pepe
ited extent of the raft. Furthermore, conservative of Ingegneria Geotecnica, Torino, during the soil
values of the ground stiffnesses were used in the investigation campaign and during the prepara-
tion of the Soil Mechanics Report.
analyses and therefore the maximum net settle-
ments and lateral movements of the ground out-
side the basement were likely to be exaggerated. REFERENCES
It was concluded that:
x The principal movements occurred in the [1] Biot, M.A, Theory of propagation of elastic waves in a
roadways around the site with largest move- fluid-saturated porous solid. I. Lower frequency range,
Journal of Acoustical Society of America 28 (1956),
ments occurring next to the wall. 168-178.
x There was negligible effect of the construc- [2] Burland, J.B., On the compressibility and shear strength
tion on the car park due to the effects of of natural clays, Géotechnique 40, (1990), 329-378.
basement construction and loading of the raft. [3] Burland J.B., Burbidge M.C., Settlement of foundations
on sand and gravel, Proceedings of the Institution of
Care was required during the construction of Civil Engineers, 78 ,1, (1985) 1325-1381
the diaphragm walls to ensure that significant [4] Foti, S., Lai, C.G., Lancellotta, R, Porosity of fluid
settlements local to the outer wall of the car saturated porous media from measured seismic wave
park did not occur. velocities, Gèotechnique 52, 5, (2002) 359-373.
[5] Jardine, R., Some observations on the kinematic nature
x Other buildings outside the site were unlikely of soil stiffness Soils and Foundations 32, 2, (1992),
to be affected by the construction. 111-124.
x The diaphragm wall to the RFI nearest to the [6] Wardle L.J., Fraser R.A., Finite Element analysis of a
plate on a layered cross-anisotropic foundation, Int.
site could move a maximum of in a range of Conf. on Finite Element Methods in Engineering, Pul-
5 mm around its current position. This is mir- mano, V.A.; Kabaila, A.P. Eds, University of N.S.W.,
Australia, 1974.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 37
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-37
RÉSUMÉ
La pénétration dynamique quelque soit de type lourd, moyen ou léger sont des méthodes d´exploration de sol en europe utilisés
par les ingénieurs en géotechnique. Les pénétrations dynamiques s ´utilisent dans tout le monde pour déterminer les paramètres
de calcul géotechnique. L´ EC-7-2 et l´ EC-7-1 sond actuellement les valables normes en europe. Cette étude qui définie N10*=
10/e (e= cm de tronche d´enfoncement par chute) montre que l´automatisation de valeurs aquis est développé pour diminuer le
risque d´erreurs provoqués par les valeurs aquis manuellement. Le système de mesure géotechnique (FGM) pour les pénétrations
dynamiques améliore la qualité, la comparabilité et l´interprétation des valeurs aquis. Pour cela, le sytème automatisé doit être
integré dans l´EC-7-2 comme procédure standard pour les pénétrations dynamiques.
Keywords: EC 7-2, EDAS, Electonic Data Acquisition System, CPT, FGM-System, N10*-values, Definition of shearing and slid-
ing-planes, Correlation of Cu/Ic and N10*-values
1
Corresponding Author.
38 R.A. Herrmann and T. Lauber / Investigations and Interpretation of Results
2.1 Calibration
The FGM system EDAS requires calibrations for
each set of sounding equipment. Initially, the
Figure 1. Automatic Dynamic Probing Heavy and FGM-
nominal impulses with the location of the fol-
System EDAS (Geotechnical Institute, University Siegen). lower (fall-weight) correlated with the impulses
R.A. Herrmann and T. Lauber / Investigations and Interpretation of Results 39
of the chain length in mm determine the equip- light sensor or similar) can yield different results,
ment factor. Another factor is specified depend- and a comparison study was carried out [2]. The
ing on the threshold sensitivity determined for presentation in Figure 4 shows the difference be-
the various fall-weights. On the basis of these pa- tween a hand recording and the automatic data
rameters, the equipment is calibrated in tests with collection with EDAS.
no penetration, and in hard soils with only one to
two millimeters penetration per blow. By an ad- Deviation of the results of data acquisition and manual recording
manual manual
penetration depth, the effect of the chain length, -4 recording recording
+ -
cycle of the chain drive, and other influences can
depth [m]
-6
4 PRESENTATION OF SOUNDING case of high and very high blowcounts with re-
RESULTS sults as illustrated in Figure 5. However, the re-
sulting inconsistencies are meaningless in prac-
The former German standard for Dynamic Pene- tice, since this is within the Dynamic Penetration
tration Test, DIN 4094, and the recent European Test limiting horizon with N10 S 50 blows.
Standard DIN EN ISO 22476-2, and together
with EC 7-2, all require that the results be pre- R e l a ti o n o f P e n e t r a t i o n a n d N 1 0
*
10 0
sented in a blowcount diagram (Step Diagram) 90
70
penetration). 60
N10*
50
40
20
10
18,000
relationship fR from the CPT. However, further
16,000 15,846
research is still necessary.
14,000
12,000 Apart from the advantage of data transfer by
N10* [1]
ABSTRACT
In the south-western part of Ukraine Black Sea plateau as a base foundation soils used semi-rock soils presented pontian lime-
stone. In the state standards are no methods for determining their mechanical characteristics needed for the design of foundations
and piles. The article presents the methodology and results of laboratory and field studies of these characteristics.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans la zone sud-ouest de l’Ukraine de la mer Noire le terrain de fondation utilisée la pierre calcaire. Dans le standard Ukrainien
n’existe pas de methods pour la détermination de leurs caractéristiques mecaniques. L’article présente la methodologie et les
résultants des tests.
Keywords: limestone, semi-rock, the ultimate strength at uniaxial compression, structural strength, the resistance of the shift,
bored pile, field tests, laboratory tests.
Occurrences of the shell limestone at differ- resulting in three horizons with different charac-
ent depths from the daylight characterize engi- teristics. Limits of averaged coefficients of these
neering and geological structure of the plateau characteristics are listed in table.1
south-west from Black Sea in Ukraine. These
Table 1
biochemical rocks have long been used for wall-
ing for a long time. The development was carried Ultimate Volumetric Porosity, Softening co-
out as open pit and underground, resulting in the stress in uni- weight, n efficient
axial com- a,
production zone remained empty. To assess the pression, Rc, %
construction properties of limestone, its physical _P` kN/m3
properties and ultimate stress in uniaxial com-
pression were studied. Geologists [1, 2] studied 0,6 – 2,5 12,7– 16,0 59 – 43 0,77 – 0,58
these characteristics at a distance of 30 km. from
the modern Black Sea coastline. Shell limestone In order to erect high-rise buildings and to
layers are typical marine sediments that have un- strengthen foundations in reconstruction it’s
dergone considerable changes during diagenesis, necessary to use the limestone as a bases of
1
Corresponding Author.
44 N.V. Kornienko et al. / Mechanical Properties of Semi-Rocks Soils
foundations and a base layer for the bored piles. elastic deformations at pressures less than struc-
However, the mechanical properties of these tural strength, and the second one - at pressures
rocks are investigated insufficiently. As a rule exceeding the structural strength. Pressure corre-
the bored piles are designed as point-bearing sponding to the point of intersection of the
ones, while the calculated carrying capacity can branches defines the value of the structural
be several times differ from the actual one. The strength, (see fig. 2).
problem is the limestone of south-west region of
Ukraine is not rock. It is semi-rock, and its me-
chanical properties are identical to disperse soils. b) p, MPa
Therefore the study of these properties is a ur-
gent problem.
According to the effective standard in
Ukraine, the rocks with rigid structural connec-
tions are estimated by ultimate strength in uniax-
ial compression at a water-saturated state. How-
ever, this indicator does not permit to estimate a)
other properties of the shell limestone, to which
include: structural strength, modulus of deforma-
tion and shear resistance along the lateral surface
of bored piles.
Structural strength pstr of studied semi-rock is
the limiting value of resistance at which of the
applied load is balanced by the strength of shells s, mm
Fig. 2. Results of laboratory tests of shell limestone
and structural connections to their contacts. samples. a) A test scheme: 1 - extra stamp, 2 - sample. b) A
Meanwhile in the bases of fundamental there are graph of stamp settlement and settlement elastic component
predominantly elastic deformations, disappearing versus the pressure
after removal of the load. Stresses, exceeding the The research has determined that with
structural strength, cause the destruction of shells increasing strength of limestone at uniaxial
and their structural connections, results that the compression the value of structural strength
rock compaction. According to experiments in increases, and the ratio of these indices decreased
the tray with a transparent wall, residual defor- with increasing strength of the rock. Mean values
mations grow within volume of the irreversible of Rc and pstr by results of tests of 55 samples
deformations zone, forming in the bases founda- with different strength at uniaxial compression,
tion. as well as their ratios are shown in table. 2.
Laboratory tests are performed on the samples
of shell limestone of varying strength. For re- Table 2.
search the compression device, in which the load The results of laboratory testing of ultimate strength at
on the sample with area of 60 cm2 is passed by uniaxial compression and structural strength of limestone.
the stamp with area of 15 cm2 was reequipped. Range of values Mean values, _P`
Tests are performed by the technique of cycli- Rc,
Rc pstr pstr/Rc
cally increasing load [3]. Each stage represents _P`
an independent cycle: load application, keeping
0,5-1,0 0,69 1,60 2,32
it till stabilization of settlement and unloading.
The applied method enabled to measure the 1,0-1,3 1,19 2,11 1,77
value of the total settlement and its residual and >2,0 2,19 2,48 1,13
elastic components at each stage.
The graph of the elastic component of settle-
ment versus the pressure consists of two In the field, estimate of indicators of the
branches. The first branch reflects the growth of strength and deformation properties of lime-
N.V. Kornienko et al. / Mechanical Properties of Semi-Rocks Soils 45
ment of the pile body; e Pi - the load value influ- compression for samples with different strength,
encing the length fragment of the pile body; (see fig. 5).
e fv - the length fragment of the pile body; u -
cross-section perimeter of the pile body. a Rc, MPa
The graph in fig.4 shows that the maximal re-
sistance along lateral surface arises at an area lo-
cated in the limestone.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a test which provides assessment of soil properties and foundation design parameters.
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is the in-situ soil characterization test, which is most widely used in the Americas. The NSPT
index depends not only on the soil properties and on the SPT sampler characteristics, but also on the energy delivered to SPT
sampler during the hammer impact. The amount of energy that is transferred to the sampler depends on many factors, including
the test equipment characteristics, soil conditions, and procedures followed during the test. For this reason, different NSPT index
values can be obtained for the same soil. Thus the NSPT index should be normalized to a standard energy level that is equivalent
to 60% of the nominal SPT hammer energy. Thus, it is of great importance to evaluate the actual energy input. The aim of this
work is to show a suitable instrumented subassembly developed to assess the amount of energy that is effectively delivered to
the sampler during a hammer impact. Results of SPT tests, conducted at the Experimental Research Site of the University of Sao
Paulo (USP), showed the suitability of the instrumented subassembly to measure the amount of the energy that reaches the
sampler, for the particular conditions. However, it should be verified if these conclusions are valid for tests performed in other
situations involving the use of different types of hammer, different soil conditions and different instrumented subassembly
positions.
RÉSUMÉ
L'essai de pénétration standard (SPT) est un test qui permet d'évaluer les propriétés du sol et les paramètres pour les projets de
fondations. Le SPT est l’essais de caractérisation des sols in-situ plus utilisé aux Amériques. L'indice NSPT ne dépend pas
seulement sur les propriétés du sol et les spécifications de l'échantillonneur, mais aussi l'énergie qui atteint l'échantillonneur
pendant le coup de marteau. La quantité d'énergie transférée à l'échantillonneur dépend de nombreux facteurs comme les
caractéristiques de l'équipement d'essai, les conditions du sol, et les procédures d’essais. Pour cette raison, différentes valeurs de
l'indice NSPT peut être obtenu pour le même sol. Ainsi, l'indice NSPT devrait être normalisé à un niveau d'énergie standard qui est
équivalent à 60% de l’énergie nominale du marteau d’essai SPT. Pour cette raison, il est extrêmement important d’évaluer
l'apport d'énergie réelle. Le but de cet article est de présenter une tige instrumenté développé pour déterminer la quantité
d'énergie nette qui atteint l'échantillonneur pendant le coup de marteau. Les essais ont été réalisés à l'Université de São Paulo et
ont montré la pertinence du sous-ensemble d'instruments pour mesurer la quantité de l'énergie qui atteint l'échantillonneur, pour
des conditions particulières. Toutefois, la pertinence de l'instrumentation doit être vérifiée par des essais réalisés dans d'autres
conditions, avec différents marteaux, conditions du sol et positions de la tige instrumentée.
Keywords: SPT field test, energy, instrumentation, instrumented subassembly, force signal, acceleration signal.
1
Corresponding Author.
50 J.A. Lukiantchuki et al. / Development of an Instrumented Subassembly for Energy Measurements
Amplitude
0
10
showing low bearing capacity, with a NSPT index redefinition, proposed by Aoki and Cintra (2000)
ranging from 1 to 8 blows. The depth of the [2].
water level varies from 7 to 10 m, depending on
the season of the year. This site has been
extensively investigated for more than 30 years. Instrumented
Alongside the investigation of geotechnical Subassembly
properties, many load tests have been performed
on many different types of foundations.
Sampler
Force (kN)
40
instrumented subassembly placed just above the
sampler, remained within the accelerometer
0
working range, not exceeding the maximum
allowed value.
-40
Velocity signals were obtained by integrating 199.5 200 200.5 201 201.5 202 202.5 203 203.5 204
Time (ms)
the acceleration signals. In order to verify the Figure 9. Comparison between F and vZ curves.
suitability of the developed equipment, the curve
corresponding to force signals (F) and the curve
corresponding to velocity signals (v) multiplied Displacement signals were obtained through
by the rod impedance (Z) were compared. These the integration of velocity signals. When
comparing the maximum displacement with the
curves should coincide in the time interval
actual sampler penetration a good agreement
between 0 and 2L’/c, where c is the propagation
between these values can be noticed (Figure 10).
velocity and L’ is the distance between the
accelerometer position and the sampler tip. 0.14
4 0.06
5x10
4 0.04
4x10
0.02
Acceleration (m/s)
4
3x10
2x10
4 0
190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280
4 Time (ms)
1x10
Figure 10. Displacement versus time.
0
0x10
-1x104
4.2 Energy and energy ratio
-2x104
190 200 210 220 230 240
Time (ms)
250 260 270 280
Figures 11 and 12 show the energy curve and
80 energy ratio curve, respectively. Energy ratio is
defined as the ratio between the actual energy
60
reaching the sampler and the nominal SPT
hammer energy. At the end of the event, the
Force (kN)
40
penetration resistance and testes performed with 5. Energy correction must be used to
long string of rods. determine the energy ratio, mainly in the case of
soil showing low NSPT index.
600
However, it is advised to verify if these
500
conclusions are valid for tests performed in
Maximum Energy = 390 Joules
different situations. This should include the use
Energy (Joules)
400
300
of different types of hammer, different soil
conditions and different instrumented
200
subassembly positions.
100 Performing SPT tests with the instrumented
0 subassembly placed just below the anvil or in
190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280
Time (ms) another intermediate position causes the 0-2L’/c
Figure 11. Energy versus time. time interval to be longer. Consequently, this
100
enables the verification of the influence of joints
ER= 82%
and connections on wave reflections.
80
ER= 70%
Energy Ratio (%)
60
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
40
Energy
20
Corrected Energy Ratio
The authors are very thankful to FAPESP (Grant
No. 2008/08268-4) and CNPq (Grant No.
0
190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280
479001/2009-0) for the financial support.
Time (ms)
Furthermore, the first author is very thankful to
Figure 12. Energy Ratio versus time.
CAPES for the scholarship granted in Brazil and
Canada.
5 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The suitability of an instrumented subassembly,
to measure energy, was evaluated by carrying out [1] HOWIE, J.A; DANIEL, C.R; JACKSON, R.S;
a series of SPT tests. For the particular case in WALKER, B. Comparison of energy measurement
which the instrumented subassembly was placed methods in the standard penetration test. Reported
just above the sampler and a trip hammer was prepared for the U.S Bureau of Reclamation,
Geotechnical Research Group, Department of Civil
used, the following conclusions can be stated: Engineering, The University of British Columbia,
1. The accelerometers were suitable for Vancouver, Canada, 2003.
measuring the accelerations during the SPT tests. [2] AOKI, N; CINTRA, J.C.A. The application of energy
2. The curves corresponding to force (F) and conservation Hamilton’s principle to the determination
of energy efficiency in SPT tests, In: International
velocity times impedance (v.Z) signals show a conference on the application of stress waves theory to
close agreement in the 0-2L’/c time interval piles 6, v.1, p. 457 – 460, Sao Paulo, 2000.
3. Displacements obtained by integrating [3] ODEBRECHT, E; SCHNAID, F; ROCHA, M.M;
velocity signals were similar to measured BERNARDES, G.P. Energy efficiency for Standard
Penetration Test. Journal of Geotechnical and
sampler penetrations. Geoenvironmental Engineenring ASCE (2005), 1252 –
4. Subsequent impacts were fundamental to 1263.
obtaining the amount of the energy that reaches [4] ABNT (2001) Standard penetration test (SPT). NBR
the sampler. 6484, Rio de Janeiro, 17p. (In Portuguese)
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 55
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-55
ABSTRACT
Within the designed alignment of E-80 motorway in South East Serbia: Section Dimitrovgrad By-Pass the roadway alignment
for the motorway and respective structures has been adopted. In the area of the abovementioned section it is foreseen to build the
roadway in twin-tube tunnel Progon with total length of 1100 m.
The terrain is composed of clayey-gravely layers which are present in alternating sequence with sections of clay. The transitions
from one into another lithological member are mostly gradual and unclear, seldom sharp, and consequently it is very difficult to
single out the boundary between them.
In the course of analysis pertaining to geotechnical construction conditions, the geotechnical zoning of rock masses was carried
out, i.e. the constraints were set for terrain parts along the designed tunnel alignment inside which there are similar conditions
regarding the tunnel construction. Respecting the previously given criteria, according to geotechnical conditions, in the tunnel
tube all singled-out quasi-homogenous zones can be classified into four significantly different categories of rock masses with
specific conditions for tunnel excavation and support system.
Taking into account geotechnical conditions found on the location, size and shape of future tunnel, as well as advanced trends in
the tunneling, as optimal technical and cost-effective solution, the tunnel construction as per SCL has been adopted. Under spe-
cific conditions, SCL thanks to its flexibility, can fulfill the requirements regarding the costs and construction deadlines, validity
of the technical solution, and security of manpower and equipment.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans le cadre de l’alignement projeté de l’autoroute E-80 dans le sud-est de la Serbie : la Section Rocade Dimitrovgrad,
l’alignement de la chaussée pour l’autoroute et les structures respectives a été adopté. Dans la zone de la section susmentionnée,
la construction de l’autoroute dans le tunnel bitube Progon d’une longueur totale de 1100 m a été prévue.
Le terrain est composé de couches argileuses-caillouteuses qui sont présentes dans des séquences alternantes avec des sections
d’argile. Les transitions de l’une à l’autre zone lithologique sont principalement graduelles et peu claires, rarement brusques, et
par conséquence, il est très difficile de les distinguer.
Dans le cadre des analyses afférentes aux conditions géotechniques de la construction, le zonage géotechnique des massifs
rocheux a été effectué, c’est-à-dire que des contraintes ont été fixées sur les portions de terrain le long de l’alignement du tunnel
projeté, à l’intérieur duquel sont présentes des conditions similaires concernant la construction du tunnel. En respectant les
critères donnés antérieurement, selon les conditions géotechniques, dans le tube du tunnel, toutes les zones quasi-homogènes
distinguées peuvent être classifiées en quatre catégories significativement différentes des massifs rocheux aux conditions spéci-
fiques pour l’excavation de tunnel et le système de support.
Vu les conditions géotechniques trouvées sur le site, la taille et la forme du tunnel envisagé, ainsi que les tendances avancées
dans la construction de tunnels, en tant que solution optimale technique et de rentabilité, la construction du tunnel suivant la
méthode SCL (méthode de béton projeté) a été adoptée. Selon les conditions spécifiques, la SCL, grâce à sa flexibilité, peut
satisfaire aux exigences en matière de coût et de délais de construction, de validité de la solution technique, de sécurité de la
main d’œuvre et de l’équipement.
Keywords: tunnel, clay, SCL
1
Corresponding Author
56 S. Milenkovic et al. / Geotechnical Conditions for the Construction of Tunnel “Progon”
Double-tube tunnel "Progon" is designed in the sandstone cemented with carbonate. Along with
variant of separated tubes with individual length of mutual tectonic contact with this unit there is a
about 1050 m each. Distance of the tubes is con- formation of limestone-carbonate complex of
stant and is about 28 m. The tunnel is with constant differing ages. On the tectonic contact thereof,
downgrade (max.0,75%) towards exit. Daylight large differential movements occurred and the
opening area of one tunnel pipe is about 90 m2. block with carbonate complex is rather elevated,
Maximum overburden from the finished level is 40m. and opposite to it there are Cretaceous flysch like
formations which are lowered and form the part
of asymmetric trench structure.
2. REGIONAL GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE Plioquaternary deposits encompass the thick
AND TECTONIC FRAMEWORK package of heterogeneous formations drilled out
from the depth of 76.9 m up to terrain surface. The
Beside the fact that the terrain was well studied sedimentation cycle encompasses the deposits of
when the Basic Geologic Map was produced, de- diluvial-proluvial sediments accumulated in pre-
tailed additional exploratory works throughout all vailingly on-shore aerobic milieu. There stands out
stages of investigation and design for E-80 mo- the material created by the accumulation of "Terra
torway provided a lot of new data which some- rossa" material (ensuing fromlong-standing processes
how modify previous understanding regarding of physical-chemical weathering in surrounding
geologic evolution of the wider investigation zone. karst-type limestone terrains) which mixed itself
The terrain basis in wider zone of "Progon" with the fragments of Mesozoic limestone and sand-
tunnel is made of marine Mesozoic formation. stone. Alternation of differing lithological mem-
Beside the fact that they have been discovered on bers, from compacted rusty-reddish clays and silts,
open outcrops in wider tunnel zone, they have been gravel-sandy clays to rough clastic proluvial de-
drilled in the borehole P-1 at the interval from the posits made of accumulated fragments and boulders
depth of 89.5 m to approximately 76.9 m of depth, of Mesozoic limestone and sandstone, testifies on
where they have been represented by solid, gray the occurrence of climate change in the sedimen-
S. Milenkovic et al. / Geotechnical Conditions for the Construction of Tunnel “Progon” 57
tation process. The deposit thickness of over 60 m depression and long-standing cyclic process of
testifies on rather fast sedimentation within the deposit formation.
Within the complex, two basic lithological different size, max 10 cm. Milieu is hard,
members are singled out: medium to low compressibility, medium to
- Silty-sandy CLAY (PL, Q-G); with non- low water permeability.
uniform distribution of detritus in the mass. Beside the above mentioned, conditionally
Detritus is intensely altered physically and called "pure types", there are several other singled-
chemically, often disintegrated into sand. Mi- out milieus depending on the content of certain
lieu is generally hard, medium to low com- fractions: Clay with gravel, Gravel with clay,
pressibility, slightly water pervious to water Clays and gravel.
impervious. Parameter ranges which are the results of la-
- Clayey DETRITUS (PL, Q-DR): mostly boratory tests carried out on the samples from
angular gravel is of different petrographic exploratory boreholes within the scope of wider
composition (limestone, sandstone) and of tunnel area are presented on the table 1.
TABLE 1
Water Unit Plasticity Shear
Grain-size distribution
Milieu
17.5-21.2
11.2-48
0.7-1.5
18--49
PLQ -
G,DR
10-37
11-27
13-17
34-77
17-29
8-36
9-71
1-69
1-8
x Category " B " The clayey - gravely layers take alternating turns
with the layers of clean clays. The transitions from
Category “B” is represented by silty-sandy CLAY; one into another lithological member are mostly
with non-uniform distribution of gravel in the gradual and unclear, seldom sharp, and conse-
mass. Gravel is sometimes intensely altered. Mi- quently it is very difficult to single out the bound-
lieu is generally hard, medium to low compressi- ary between them.
bility, low permeabile to impermeabile. The over-
burden is in the range 30 - 40 m. x Category " D "
ABSTRACT
The Standard Penetration Test has become increasingly popular in testing stiff to hard cohesive soils. Several correlations have
been proposed that associate undrained shear strength with SPT blowcount in such soils. These correlations, often produced
through significant data scatter, are typically restricted to specific materials and their main drawback is their not taking into ac-
count physical characteristics, often conveniently reflected in trivial lab processes, e.g. clay mineralogy manifested through At-
terberg limits. A simplified empirical relationship is presented that correlates the undrained shear strength (cu) of cohesive for-
mations and the ‘as-measured’ SPT blowcount (N) attempting to reduce statistical scatter by addressing the important influence
of characteristic physical properties on soil strength. The correlation derives from the statistical processing of data obtained in
three different stiff to very hard cohesive formations in Greece, essentially clays and marls, each exhibiting a consistently identi-
fiable geotechnical behaviour, in which a large number of ‘coupled’ SPT and lab UU triaxial tests were performed. Processing of
the available data supports the common observation that the definition of a constant cu / N ratio (even within the same material)
is unrealistic. The inclusion of both water content (w) and plasticity index (PI) in such correlations is investigated and found to
significantly improve the consistency of correlation results, indicating a linear dependence of the cu / N ratio on (w) and loga-
rithmic dependence on (PI). The identification of additional independent parameters affecting the procedure is also examined
and basic directions for the orientation of future correlations are outlined.
RÉSUMÉ
L’essais de Pénétration Standard est devenu récemment très populaire a la détermination des propriétés mécaniques des argiles
raides à dures. Ils existent plusieurs corrélations qui associent la cohésion non drainée avec le nombre SPT. Ces corrélations
sont représentatives pour un nombre des sols limités et présentent une grande dispersion. En général elles ne tiennent pas
compte les propriétés physiques usuelles comme p.e. la minéralogie qui se reflète aux limites d’Atterberg. Une relation empi-
rique simplifiée est proposé, qui relie la cohésion non drainée avec le nombre SPT, mesuré in situ, en essayant de limiter la dis-
persion statistique, en tenant compte l’influence des propriétés physiques caractéristiques. Cette corrélation résulte d’une élabo-
ration statistique d’un grand nombre des données, des trois formations provenant de la Grèce, argiles et marnes, raides jusqu’ a
très dures. Chaque sol cohérent présente un comportement géotechnique unique et distingué. Un grand nombre d’essais couplés
de Pénétration Statique et triaxiaux est réalisé en chaque formation. L’élaboration des données montre que la définition d’un
rapport (cu /N) constant n’est pas réaliste. L’introduction de la teneur en eau (w) en relation avec l’indice des plasticité (PI) a
amélioré efficacement les corrélations montrant une dépendance linéaire du rapport (cu /N) avec la teneur en eau et le logarithme
de l’indice de plasticité.
Keywords: Standard Penetration Test (SPT), undrained shear strength, plasticity (index), water content, hard cohesive soils, clay,
Atttiki Odos, Athens, Greece.
1
Corresponding Author.
62 C. Plytas et al. / Empirical Determination of the Undrained Shear Strength
60
Geographical Unities prove such correlations. One such example ([13])
ǹǹǹ $$ &ǾRU2Ǿ
50
is the work performed for 25 different Japanese
sites with N values mainly between 2 and 30. A
non-linear correlation cu /Pa = 0.29N0.72 was pro-
Plasticity Index, PI (%)
40
MH or OH
ta, although a systematic scatter in the cu values
20
of almost 1 order of magnitude was not avoided
CL - ML
over the dominant SPT blowcount range of N=3-
10 Kifissias Ave. 10. The assumption of linear variation of cu
Douk. Plakentias I/C
ML or OL Mesogeia Area against N remains, however, the most popular
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 one. An analytical approach is presented in [14]
Liquid limit, LL (%)
that verifies this linear correlation based on ener-
Figure 1. Casagrande A-charts for each of the three gy balance. [14] also gives an example referring
formations. to tests at a particular site in Michigan, USA
producing cu / N = 4.1 KPa. It is a reasonable ar-
gument that meaningful correlations with tight
3 CORRELATIONS FROM THE statistics could only be expected within results of
LITERATURE BETWEEN cu AND N the ‘same’ material encountered in ‘similar’ con-
ditions.
It has long been a justified assumption that the
produced SPT blowcount in a tested soil should Table 2. Typical range of values of the Cu / N ratio reported
be in proportional relation to its shear strength. in the literature
Terzaghi and Peck’s [5] classification of cohe- Researchers Cu / N range produced (in KPa)
sive soils based on SPT and unconfined com- [6] Sowers (1954) 2.4 – 16.5
pressive strength (qu) implies a linear cu – N cor- [8] De Mello (1971) 0.4 – 20.0
relation of the form cu ! KPa. The latter [10] Djoenaidi (1985) 6.0 – 20.0 (excluding Sowers)
is accompanied by its authors’ warning note re- [11] Behpoor & Gha- 7.5 – 8.4 (tests with N < 25)
hramani (1989)
garding the large scatter existing in the available [12] Edil et al. (2009) 2.4 – 15.7
data. A wide variety of direct linear correlations
co-exist in the literature stated either as generic According to [3], the diversity of cu – N correla-
or as case-specific, all with varied degree of suc- tions in the literature can be associated with dif-
cess regarding statistic consistency over the em- ferences in material plasticity, sensitivity and fis-
ployed database and realistic applicability in soil suring, as well as equipment factors and cu
behaviour prediction. determination methods and sample characteris-
According to [2], poor correlation of cu and N tics, such as fissuring orientation in tested speci-
is attributed to the combined effect of inadequate men. Fissuring and sample disturbance are
SPT standardization, mixing of undrained pointed out by [4] as the most influential scatter-
strength data from different types of tests and the producing factors in such correlations. Fissuring
variable degree of sensitivity of the clays consi- can either artificially increase cu / N ratio as a re-
dered. The confusingly wide scatter appearing in sult of testing unrepresentative intact material
such correlations due to similar factors is illu- specimens in the lab or in other cases reduce cu /
strated by various researchers indicatively N ratio particularly in hard fissured materials,
represented in Table 2. In any case, in the light of where fissuring together with increased sample
current experience, the derivation of universal disturbance tend to produce an overly brittle be-
correlations applicable to different cohesive soils haviour in the lab which is not observed in the
does not seem feasible in the near future. in-situ modes of failure related to SPT. The latter
On the other hand, the use of consistent drill- effect is supported by [3] demonstrating cu / N
ing equipment, SPT procedure and undrained ratio in London Clay rising to a value of about 11
strength determination is generally found to im- when remoulded samples are used for lab testing,
64 C. Plytas et al. / Empirical Determination of the Undrained Shear Strength
compared to values of the order of 4.5 reported i.e. cu / N ratio, PI and w. The resulting correla-
by [4] based on undisturbed sample testing. The tion is produced in the following form:
important effect of sensitivity on cu / N values is
also highlighted by most researchers, including cu
[2], [3], [4] and [8], the latter having examined a A B
w C
log 10 ( PI ) (1)
wide variety of soils including soft sensitive N
clays. Using Schmertmann’s [15] conclusion that
up to 70% of soil resistance to SPT advancing in which coefficients A, B, and C were deter-
derives from side shearing (reflecting remoulded mined by means of the least squares method and
strength), Clayton [3] estimates that a sensitivity have the dimensions of stress. The results pro-
value of 10 would increase the cu / N ratio by a duced with cu, A, B, and C expressed in KPa and
factor of at least 2.5 compared to a completely w, PI expressed as percentages (%) are presented
insensitive material (of a theoretical sensitivity of in Table 3 and illustrated in Figures 2a, 2b and
1.0). 2c. The present correlation indicates a unique
The work by Stroud [4] has undoubtedly been trend between cu / N, PI for different water con-
very influential in the perception of cu – N corre- tent w. Reducing w corresponds to shifting the
lation. [4] employed an extensive data base of re- (cu / N) vs. (PI) curve upwards, to higher cu / N
sults in London Clay and a wide range of other values and vice versa, which is roughly what
UK overconsolidated insensitive cohesive mate- should be physically expected. For reasons of
rials and weak rocks. The consistency of SPT comparison, plotted in Figure 2 along with the
procedure used, sample diameter (102mm) and current correlations are Stroud’s [4]
triaxial undrained lab testing have all added to w-independent correlation as is Terzaghi-
the close convergence of the results, also verified Peck’s [5] recommended mean cu / N ratio.
by means of plate loading tests where available.
Table 3 – Coefficients in Resulting Empirical Relationships
[4] managed to successfully relate the cu / N ratio
Clayey
to plasticity index (PI) for the range of examined Regression Kifissias
Doukissis
Marl of
Plakentias
materials (with PI practically between 15% and Parameters Clay
Clay
Mesogeia
60%). A consistent decrease in the cu / N values Area
with increasing PI was observed, with very li- Coefficient ǹ (kPa) 13.9748 15.4657 11.9424
mited exceptions. The suggested correlation in- Coefficient Ǻ (kPa) -0.2033 -0.4951 -0.0977
dicates that cu / N varies between about 4.2 and 7
KPa. Coefficient C (kPa) -3.1719 -1.6401 -2.0137
4 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
RESULTS AND EMPIRICAL
CORRELATIONS 5 COMMENTS ON THE RESULTS
A large number of SPT and respective lab test The above correlation implies that the main
results have been used in the present investiga- physical characteristics which affect the cu/N ra-
tion. The undrained shear strength of the soil has tio are the plasticity index, PI and natural water
been determined from triaxial UU tests per- content, w. Although this argument is adequately
formed on intact samples retrieved within each supported by the results of the present investiga-
borehole from depths immediately adjacent to tion, significant scattering is still observed in the
the preceding SPT depth. values of the cu/N ratio. Nevertheless, the trend
An empirical mathematical correlation was of the cu/N variation with the physical characte-
derived by performing linear regression analysis ristics appears to be represented satisfactorily.
on the obtained geotechnical investigation data, The scattering in the results can mainly be at-
tributed to the following:
C. Plytas et al. / Empirical Determination of the Undrained Shear Strength 65
10
LEGEND
w=20%
9
w=15%
w=10%
8
Cu/NSPT (KPa)
w=10,0%
7 Terzaghi & Peck (1967) w=12,5%
w=15,0%
6 w=17,5%
w=20,0%
Stroud (1974)
5 w=22,5%
9 w=8,0%
w=10,0%
Terzaghi & Peck (1967) w=12,0%
7
w=14,0%
Stroud (1974)
5
w=16,0%
w=18,0%
w=20,0%
3
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 PI (%) 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
9
F0HVRJHLD0DUOVDUHDVǹǹǹ
8
w=20%
Cu/NSPT (KPa)
Figure 2. Presentation of resulting empirical correlations in chart form for: (a) Kifissias Clay, (b)
D.Plakentias Clay and (c) Mesogeia Marl.
ence of the aforementioned parameters. It seems
(a) The intrinsic variation of geotechnical that the phenomenon is also influenced signifi-
behaviour within each formation even when cantly from the development of suction in the
comprehensive criteria have been set as to what soil samples, which increases scattering in the re-
can be described as ‘the same formation.’ sults.
(b) The fact that during the evaluation of the (c) The fact that the adoption of cu/N ratio
results certain parameters were not taken into ac- as a fundamental parameter is rather arbitrary.
count, such as anisotropy, sensitivity, fracturing, The challenge of correlating the cu/N ratio
overconsolidation ratio (OCR) etc. Nevertheless, with the physical characteristics of the soil ele-
the estimation of the plasticity index and the nat- ment remains open and such correlations are ex-
ural water content includes indirectly the influ-
66 C. Plytas et al. / Empirical Determination of the Undrained Shear Strength
ABSTRACT
This paper will present a detailed study of influencing factors and possible correlations from the technique of drilling parameters.
Operating parameters of instrumented drilling machine provides a fairly precise idea of the position of transition layers of soil or
rocks of different kinds. Similarly, the combination of these parameters allows to approximate the variation of mechanical and
hydraulic parameters of these ground layers. The work program implemented during this study was as follows:
- Establish the methodology to achieve physical quantities correlated to the mechanical parameters,
- Testing on real sites with different test zones conforming to a program to isolate the influence parameters,
- Apply a statistical analysis to data fields to establish empirical and theoretical relationships.
The results are compared to Standard Penetration Test and static penetrometer profiles.
This paper will try to make a statement of present practices and the importance of writing specific protocol for this test to be
considered as a test of its own and must be adapted to the purpose of investigation.
RÉSUMÉ
Cette communication présentera une étude approfondie des facteurs d’influence et des corrélations possibles à partir de la tech-
nique des paramètres de forage. Une sondeuse géotechnique hydraulique instrumentée a été utilisée sur des planches expérimen-
tales constituées de différents matériaux et stratification. L’observation de la variation des paramètres de fonctionnement de la
machine permet d’avoir une idée assez précise de la position des transitions des couches de sols ou de roches de natures diffé-
rentes. De même, la combinaison de ces paramètres permet d’approcher la variation de certains paramètres mécaniques et hy-
drauliques de ces terrains. Le programme de travail mis en œuvre lors de l’étude a été le suivant :
- établir la méthodologie pour aboutir à des grandeurs physiques corrélées aux paramètres mécaniques
- tester sur sites réels différentes planches expérimentales avec un programme d’essai visant à isoler les paramètres d’influence,
- appliquer la statistique à ces champs de données pour aboutir à des relations empiriques et théoriques.
Les résultats sont comparés à des essais de pénétration au carottier (SPT) et au pénétromètre statique avec piézocone.
Cette communication s’attachera à faire un état des pratiques et à présenter l’importance de l’écriture de protocole spécifique à
cet essai qui doit être considéré comme un essai à part entière et doit être adapté à l’objectif de la reconnaissance.
1
Corresponding Author.
68 Ph. Reiffsteck / Facteur d’influence des paramètres de forage
Les enregistrements de paramètres de forage Chaque paramètre enregistré peut se voir attri-
(MWD pour measuring while drilling) ou dia- buer une signification qualitative en terme de ca-
graphies instantanées sont apparus à l'origine ractéristiques du sol foré ou en terme de fonc-
dans le domaine pétrolier qui s’en servait en tionnement du forage. Durant le forage, chaque
grande partie pour gérer les cadences de forage. changement de couche se traduit généralement
En Génie Civil, ils ont pris, depuis les années par la variation d’un ou plusieurs paramètres [8].
1970, une part grandissante dans les études géo- Toutefois, afin de limiter l’influence de la modi-
techniques ([5] ; [11] ; [3] ; [9] ; [10] ; [13]). fication de l'un des paramètres de fonctionne-
Les paramètres de forage sont les paramètres ment sur les autres paramètres et faciliter
enregistrés directement lors du forage et ayant l’exploitation, il est nécessaire de recourir à des
subi un traitement numérique. Des corrections combinaisons de paramètres appelés : paramètres
sont en effet nécessaires pour prendre en compte composés, quasiment indépendants des condi-
certaines spécificités du système hydraulique tions de réalisation.
ainsi que le poids des tiges, l'influence de la co- Les paramètres composés les plus utilisées
lonne de boue dans le forage, etc. Leur nombre sont rassemblées dans le tableau 1 ([2] ; [1]). Ils
dépend des types d’enregistreurs et des types de sont issus de différentes pratiques européennes,
travaux que l’on souhaite réaliser. La plupart du japonaises, anglo-saxonnes ou scandinaves et
temps de 4 paramètres à 9 au maximum sont en- sont le résultat d’années de pratique et de re-
registrés. Couramment, les suivants sont enregis- cherches sur leur territoire national. Ils sont basés
trés (figure 1) : sur des combinaisons des paramètres bruts et
La vitesse d’avancement (VA), cherchent à représenter une réalité physique du
Pression de poussée sur outil (PO)et pres- terrain. Lors de l’élaboration de ces combinai-
sion de retenue (PR), sons, leurs auteurs ont choisi deux voies princi-
Vitesse de rotation (VR), pales :
Couple de rotation (CR), empirique pour se rapprocher de para-
Pression d’injection du fluide de forage mètres mécaniques d’autres essais comme
(PI), le pénétromètre ou le pressiomètre. C’est le
Débit du fluide de forage (QI). cas des deux premières combinaisons ;
paramètre (-)
théorique en construisant des combinaisons
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 basés sur l’énergie dépensée pour désagré-
0
ger le sol avec l’outil (énergie normalisée)
ou sur l’agitation du signal (entropie).
1 Via (m/h)
Ces relations permettent de disposer de profils
Po ( bar )
Vr ( tr/min )
moins bruités et plus proches des paramètres
2
Cr ( bar ) ayant une signification physique. Toutefois, il est
Pr ( bar )
important de pouvoir cerner l'influence de cer-
z (m)
Pi ( bar )
Débit l/min tains paramètres qui ne sont pas nécessairement
3
enregistrés. Par exemple, nous n’avons pour le
moment aucun moyen de mesurer de manière
4
fiable l’énergie du marteau hydraulique, il est
nécessaire de connaître son importance sur les
paramètres de forage et en particulier sur les
5
énergies. De même, le type d'outil et son usure
Figure 1. : Exemple de résultat de mesure des paramètres de ne sont pas notés ni vraiment étudiés par la bi-
forage bliographie. A ces fins, un plot expérimental
comportant plusieurs sols a été construit [12].
Ph. Reiffsteck / Facteur d’influence des paramètres de forage 69
Il est évident que les résultats issus de la ta- spécifique de forage et l’énergie normalisée ne
rière hélicoïdale continue ne sont pas exploi- donnent pas de relation claire.
tables pour l’exploitation des MWD.
Le choix du type d’outil est donc important et 30 argile
joue un rôle important dans l’étude des enregis- limon
trements de paramètres. Il n’est pas possible pour 25 sable
grave
le moment de mettre au point une relation qui
craie
permettrait de normaliser les énergies en fonction 20
marne
du type d’outil.
qc (MPa)
roche
Indice de Somerton Indice de Somerton
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
15
0 0
0,5 0,5 10
1 1
5
1,5 1,5
2 2 0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
z (m)
2,5 2,5
Rp (s/0,2m)
3 3
Figure 4. : Relation entre qc et la résistance à la pénétration
3,5 3,5 Rp
14 argile
4 4
limon
12 sable
4,5 4,5
Taillant à lame Taillant à bouton grave
Tarrière hélicoïdale continue Tarrière hélicoïdale continue 10
5 5 craie
a) Taillant à bouton
b) Taillant à lame
marne
Fréquence
8
roche
Figure 3. : Comparaison des paramètres de forage avec diffé-
6
rents outils (a) massif 1, (b) massif 2
4
2
3 COMPARAISON DES RESULTATS
0
MWD AVEC LES ESSAIS EN PLACE
8
62
80
0
11
23
35
47
59
70
82
94
10
11
Nous avons cherché à établir des relations entre rapport Rp/qc
les paramètres de forage et certains essais clas- Figure 5. : Histogramme des fréquences
siques de mécanique des sols. Nous nous
sommes appuyés sur les résultats provenant de Les relations entre les paramètres apparaissent
13 sites ayant fait l'objet de reconnaissances dé- de manière plus lisible sur les histogrammes
taillées. Toutefois, tous ne possèdent pas l'en- dressés sur la figure 5. Il semble exister les rela-
semble des méthodes d'essais en place. Ces sites tions suivantes :
balayent la panoplie des textures de sol classique. argile q c 0,00148.R p et q c 0,9.PE VA
La répartition des points en nuages dispersés,
mais avec une certaine fidélité, est visible sur la limon q c 0,0069.R p et qc 1,4. PE VA
figure 4 pour la résistance à la pénétration au
cône en fonction de R p . Le même genre de rela- sable qc 0,0154.R p et qc 8,7. PE VA
tion est obtenu pour PE VA . Malheureuse-
ment, les représentations de la résistance à la pé- craie q c 0,010.R p et q c 1,1.PE VA
nétration au cône en fonction de l’énergie
Ph. Reiffsteck / Facteur d’influence des paramètres de forage 71
Fréquence
fique de forage et l’énergie normalisée est assez 15
roche
7) :
0
0
0
50
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
rapport Rp/NSPT
sable NSPT 0,019.R p et N SPT 24,5. Po VA Il est possible de représenter le nombre SPT
en fonction de l’énergie spécifique de forage. On
craie NSPT 0,500.R p obtient la relation suivante pour les sables :
SDE 390.NSPT . Relation qui diffère de celles
grave NSPT 0,037.R p
proposées pour les sols sablo-limoneux par [4] :
180 argile
SDE 800.N SPT et par [7] : SDE 1430.N SPT .
limon
160
sable
Il convient de préciser que les écart-types ob-
140 grave servés sont relativement élevés et que la qualité
craie de ces corrélations ne peut s’améliorer que par la
120
marne collecte de données supplémentaires et
roche
NSPT (-)
RÉSUMÉ
Les méthodes sismiques de surface sont largement reconnues comme le moyen le plus efficace d’évaluer la vitesse sismique
dans de vastes zones, en particulier dans les dépôts sédimentaires ont le profil du sol est généralement caractérisée par une
augmentation de la vitesse sismiques avec la profondeur. Dans le cas des massifs volcaniques, il est courant d’avoir des couches
de roches volcaniques inclus dans les dépôts sédimentaires, et dans ces cas, l’utilisation isolée des méthodes sismiques de
surface peuvent générer des multiples modèles, pour les mêmes données de terrain. Dans cet article il va être décrit un cas
d’étude, de l’utilisation combinée de différentes techniques sismiques de surface ou réaliser dans un trou de forage, pour la
détermination des profils de vitesse sismique P et S. Les résultats obtenus par ces tests, ont permis la comparaison des ces
résultats et la discussion des avantages et des limitations de l’utilisation de ces méthodes.
Keywords: Volcanic environment, dynamic characterization, seismic refraction, MASW, Crosshole tests
1
Corresponding Author.
74 R. Rocha et al. / Geophysical Site Characterization of a Volcanic Massif
pling larger areas. Nevertheless, some methods ronments, SCPT tests are not a solution due to
are completely blind to velocity reductions with the existence of very stiff layers limiting cone
depth (refraction), are less efficient to shallower penetration.
depths and require a larger processing effort (re- In order to find a cost effective and reliable
flection) and can also present a relatively low way, to determine s-wave velocity profile on an
resolution and in some cases may result in multi- large area situated in a volcanic environment, the
ple models for the same field data (MASW) [5]. authors performed two Crosshole tests (with 23m
In volcanic regions, were soil profile is usu- and 27m depth), and P-wave/S-wave refraction
ally characterized by multiple thin and thick lay- and MASW profile on the surface with the bore-
ers of volcanic sediments and volcanic rock lay- holes positioned on the center. The main idea
ers, the use of isolated seismic surface methods was to use S-waves to determine the velocity and
may not be able to provide reliable data. For this thickness of the shallowest layer, in order to re-
reason borehole methods are preferentially used, fine with this information MASW model, reduc-
since they allow the obtaining of a velocity pro- ing it is uncertainty. Crosshole tests were used
file were all the variations in depth can be deter- for control, since this method is the most reliable
mined. However, having in mind that the vol- way to obtain subsurface S-wave velocities.
canic massifs are characterized by marked
vertical and also horizontal heterogeneities, and
if large areas need to be studied, seismic charac- 3 GEOLOGICAL ENVIROMENT
terization usually presents big cost efforts which
in many cases cannot be supported. The studied area is located in the northern limit
of Angra do Heroísmo (Terceira Island, Azores).
According to the geological map of Terceira,
2 OBJECTIVES (Geological Services of Portugal, 1:50 000), the
area is represented by deposits of the trachytic
The combined use of multiple in situ geotechni- complex, characterized by the presence of fine
cal and geophysical site characterization meth- grained pumice/pyroclastic deposits and trachyt-
ods, to determine mechanical properties of soil ic/andesitic lava flows.
and rock massifs, has been largely used in the At test location level, the boreholes performed
Geotechnical Department of Mota-Engil, S.A. for the Crosshole tests, allowed to differentiate
[4]. In this paper the authors intend to propose a two distinct lithologic horizons. A shallower unit
combined methodology of P-wave and S-wave of pyroclastic deposits mainly composed by:
Seismic Refraction with Multichannel Analyses sands, silts and more rarely clays, varying from
of Surface Waves (MASW) has a way to com- 13.5 m to 19.5 m thickness and overlaying tra-
pensate the limitations of each method on the quytic lava flows. The top of the latter unit is
seismic characterization of a volcanic massif. highly weathered (W5), evolving in depth to
Both S-wave and P-wave seismic refraction moderately to slightly weathered massif (W3-W2,
methods cannot characterize velocity reversal, with RQD varying from 50% to 90 %), as pre-
and thus, whenever there is a seismic profile with sented in Figure 1.
a lower under a higher velocity layer the method
doesn’t work. On the other hand MASW method
may be used to profile S-wave with velocity re- 4 CROSSHOLE TESTS
versal [7], but relying only in MASW data can
generate several models [6]. Although each Although Uphole and Downhole tests were also
available borehole technique is able to character- performed on this site [8], only Crosshole tests
ize accurately subsurface profiles with several results will be treated herein.
velocity reversals [8], the high cost associated to Crosshole tests, were performed as suggested
boreholes execution, limits its application to by ASTM [1]. In the present case, two geotech-
large areas. Also in the case of volcanic envi- nical boreholes with continuous sampling and
R. Rocha et al. / Geophysical Site Characterization of a Volcanic Massif 75
5.1 P and S wave seismic refraction data Figure 5. S-wave refraction tomography obtained in SRT1
acquisition and interpretation
In the acquisition of P wave refraction data, an
array of 48 vertical 4.5 Hz geophones, disposed
in line with 1 m spacing, was used. The seismic
source was a sledgehammer and a light weight
aluminum plate fixed to the ground surface. Both
SRT1 and SRT2 were disposed with CH1 and
CH2 in the middle. Another 48 horizontal 28 Hz Figure 6. S-wave refraction tomography obtained in SRT2
geophone line was placed parallel at a distance of
approximately 5 cm from the vertical geophone 5.2 Surface wave data acquisition and
line, to perform S wave data acquisition, using interpretation
the same P-wave sledgehammer to hit laterally a After collecting P-Wave refraction data seismo-
wooden block and create polarized shear waves graph was prepared to obtain surface wave data.
(Figure 4). Data acquisition of both P and S- Record length was enlarged to 1 second, chan-
wave was performed in five shot points loca- nels gain was raised up to 48 dB and sample rate
tions, with 12 m spacing. The field procedure to 0.125 ms. The same source and geophone ar-
followed ASTM [2] procedure. ray of P-wave was used, but in this case posi-
tioned 10 m away from the first geophone.
SurfSeis1.80 software (Kansas Geological
Survey) was used to process MASW data. In
Figure 7 and 8 multichannel records and velocity
spectrums with the best fitting dispersion curves
overlaid are presented.
ing model to each dispersion curve, as shown in obtained directly from seismic refraction tomo-
Figures 9 and 10, with Zmax of 30 m and 20, for graphy SRT1 is consistent with the data ob-
MASW1 and MASW2, respectively. tained, due to the absence of a marked velocity
reversal until its maximum depth. However, P-
wave velocity kept increasing below elevation
149.5m in SRT1, while MASW1 and CH1 re-
vealed convergent results.
REFERENCES
Figure 12. Projection of VP (right) and VS (left) data obtained [1] ASTM D4428/D4428M-0, Standard Test Methods for
from CH2, SRT2 and MASW2. Crosshole Seismic Testing, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, 2007.
Within 10 and 17m depth, both VP and VS da- [2] ASTM D5777 - 00, Standard Guide for Using the
ta of MASW2 are consistent with CH2. From Seismic Refraction Method for Subsurface Investiga-
tion, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2006.
this depth on, VS of MASW2 is slightly lower [3] Anderson, N., Croxton, N., Hoover, R., Sirles P., Geo-
and VP higher than those obtained from CH2. physical Methods Commonly Employed for Geotechni-
This can have several explanation such as, high cal Site Characterization, Transportation Research
variability of the soils/rocks mechanical proper- Board, Washington, D.C., 2008.
[4] Cruz, N.; Tareco, H; Rocha, R.; Andrade, R. e Cruz, J.,
ties (vertical and horizontal heterogeneity), dif- Caracterização Mecânica de Maciços Rochosos com
ferences in the characteristics of each methodol- Base na Combinação de Prospecção Mecânica e
ogy (volume of soil/rock mass involved in the Geofísica. IV Congresso Luso-Brasileiro de Geotecnia,
measurements) and also disturbance induced by Coimbra, (2008), 423-430. (In Portuguese).
[5] Dal Moro, G., Tre divagazioni: Il mito dell’ inversione.
the test preparation (borehole techniques). MASW in Friuli, esemplio di studio congiunto MASW-
Rifrazione, Centro Internazionale di Scienze
Meccaniche (CISM), Udine, 2008. (In Italian).
7 CONCLUSIONS [6] Ivanov, J., Miller R.D., Xia, J. And Steeples, D., The
Inverse Problem of Refraction Traveltimes, Part 1:
The combined acquisition, of both refraction (P Types of Geophysical Nonuniqueness Trough Minimi-
zation, Pure And Applied Geophysics, 2005.
and S) and surface wave data, proved to be use- [7] Park, C. B., Miller, R. D., and Xia, J., Multichannel
ful when compared to the isolated acquisition of Analysis of Surface Waves, Geophysics, (1999), 800-
any of the referred non-invasive methods, both 808.
for interpretation and cost reasons. In fact, instal- [8] Rocha, R., Cruz, N., Almeida, F., Rodrigues C., Cruz,
J., Comparison Between Crosshole, Downhole and Up-
lation of equipments for collecting P-wave ve- hole in Volcanic Massifs, XI Cong. Nacional de
locities can be also used for MASW surveys. Geotecnia, Guimarães, (2008), 101-108. (In
Moreover, with specific S-wave equipments it’s Portuguese).
possible to obtain S-wave refraction data to- [9] Stokoe, K.H. II, John S. and Woods R. D. Some contri-
butions of the in situ geophysical measurements to solv-
gether, allowing for much more useful informa- ing geotechnical engineering problems. Proc of the 2nd
tion at a lower cost. In the first place, MASW International Conference on Geotechnical Site Charac-
method proved to be very useful in the increasing terization. Porto, 2004.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 79
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-79
ABSTRACT
The revealing technique for detecting fractured zones in rocky }djxu`{ is developed. Scheduled positions of fractured zones
marked on map and directly on locality, determined with use of biolocation effect, were identical. Results, which were received
with use of biolocation methods, have confirmed with devices, geophysical researches and scientific experimental works on ce-
mentation detected of fractured zones
RÉSUMÉ
Une méthode de découverte des zones rompus craquelées dans une base d’une construit maison d’un centre culturel-touristique
a Zaporigia a ete développée. Avec une utilisation d’un effet bio-localise, les positions planifiées determines de zones rompus et
craquelées sur une carte et directement sur une localité, s’est trouve identique. Les résultats obtenus avec une utilisation des
méthodes bio-localises sont confirmés par un complexe de recherches géophysiques et engineerings et par travaux naturels
expérimentaux en une cimentation de zones rompus craquelées observées.
Keywords: soil-cement, drill-mixing technology, physical and mechanical properties, time of mixture setting, impermeability,
grout curtain, reinforcing the soil massif.
1
Corresponding Author.
80 V.S. Shokarev et al. / Investigation of Interdependence of Map and Distract Represented on It
Phenomenon of the given effect has not satisfac- The complex engineering - geophysical re-
tory theoretical substantiation but there are many searches of fracturing estimation of the given
concepts of work of indicators of effect (a pendu- rocky massif were executed in February …
lum, a framework, a rod, etc.) [3]. The method March 2007 by Zaporozhye branch NIISK. The
based on use of biolocation effect is biolocation primary goal of work was the estimation of frac-
and it is applied for the decision of various tasks turing estimation of rocky massif and elements
including search of deposits and geological map- of an engineering - geological structure of site
ping [4]. taking into account probable natural and tech-
The purpose of the present work is to show an nogenic components.
opportunity of use of biolocation method at work The complex of works including three stages
with a topographical basis, for the decision of has been executed for the decision of tasks.
tasks connected with engineering - geological re- The first stage included performance of engi-
searches in construction. neering - geophysical researches of fracturing es-
timation of rocky massif [5] (fig. 1): remote bio-
location researches on map (a topographical
2 BRIEF CHARACTERISTIC OF INVESTI- basis); direct biolocation researches on locality;
GATION SITE AND TECHNIQUE OF electroprospecting works on locality by method
WORKS PERFORMANCE AND TECH- of vertical sounding (VES); works on locality
NIQUE OF WORKS PERFORMANCE with use of method of passive magnetic- reso-
nant location of subsoil (PMRLS);
The investigation site is located in the central The second stage included experimental re-
part of Zaporozhye on the left coast of Dnepr searches of cracked zones: development of the
valley; this is excavation in rocky massif in project of cementation of the top part of zone
length up to 100m and width up to 30m. The site with increased fracturing of rocky massif [6];
from the north is limited by Tbilisi Street and performance of cementing works on tested site;
from the south borders with the artificial lake lo- cementation of rocky massif; quality assurance
cated on a place of former building quarry with of performance of cementation by direct bioloca-
the water table close to a water level in Dnepr. tion method; additional cementation of rocky
Difference of marks between a water level in massif by results of quality assurance of the exe-
lake and a mark of bottom of excavation makes cuted cementation.
~14m. It is planned to construct a cultural - tour- The third stage included quality assurance of
ist complex on the given site. cementation of cracked zones by carrying out of
seismic prospecting works [7].
Figure 1. The circuit of an arrangement of cracked zones, points of sounding and cementing boreholes on platform of construc-
tion of the cultural - tourist complex in Zaporozhye: I- cracked zones determined with the help of remote and direct biolocation
methods; II-points of electric sounding; III-points of magnetic- resonant sounding; IV-cementing boreholes; V-ledge of quarry;
VI-border of zone with increased fracturing of rocky massif which formed at development of quarry.
V.S. Shokarev et al. / Investigation of Interdependence of Map and Distract Represented on It 81
tation of VES curves was applied to realization ings was executed in not fracturing blocks for
of the second stage in an interactive mode with studying density of granites outside of fractured
the image of interpretive curves on the screen. zones. The arrangement of points of sounding is
The received data of capacities of layers and shown on fig. 1. Results of soundings are pre-
their specific electric resistance were used for sented on schedules of change of density of gran-
construction of geoelectric profiles (fig. 2). ites on depth (fig. 3). Measurements of granite
density were carried out with step 10sm along a
vertical axis at sounding. Thus, according to used
of PMRLS technology, each executed indication
characterizes average density of granite in vol-
ume of the cylinder in diameter 10sm and height
6sm, i.e., if emptiness had been met more than
this size, indication would be zero.
presented limits of change of soils density on significant capacity of crushed stone soils in the
PMRLS data in rather monolithic blocks of base of the projected center. Tampons for cemen-
building site are natural and characterize on the tation of boreholes were established directly in
one hand degree of weathering of massif and on concrete preparation.
the other hand – its initial mineralogical hetero- Works of rocky massif fastening were carried
geneity. out in the following sequence:
The granites density changes within 1,80-
2,74g/sm3, at average values of 2,28-2,34g/sm3 A. Preparatory works.
in fractured zones. The change of granites den- x Breakdown and binding of cemented bore-
sity looks as a sawtooth curve with often changes holes (fig. 1);
of the minimal and maximal values of density in x Installation of the process equipment and dis-
fractured zones on schedules of soundings. The tributing of pipelines;
position of fractured zones on schedules is B. Bored works.
shown by additional shading for presentation. x Boring of boreholes 105mm in depth
Executed instrument geophysical researches 8…11m;
have proved the correctness of drawing of frac- x Boring was carried out with blow of bore-
tured zones on map with use of remote bioloca- holes for removal of sludge with the subse-
tion methods. The specific electric resistance of quent washing by water;
granite is less (110 … 200 Ohm, m) in VES C. Hydraulic sampling.
points located directly in fractured zones, for ex- x serviceability and tightness of cemented sys-
ample 1,8 … 10, than in points 4, 5 tem was checked by forcing of water in bore-
(700 … 800 Ohm, m) where fractured zones holes after installation of a tampon in bore-
have not been fixed (fig. 2). hole;
If density of granite changes within1,8 … x Hydraulic sampling was made at pressure
2,74g/sm3 (points PMRLS 1, 2, 6, 7, 10) in 0.3MPa;
cracked zones, density of granite changes within
x Specific water absorption of rocky soils was
2,22 … 2,76g/sm3 (points PMRLS 4, 5, 8,
determined by results of sampling;
9) in uncracked zones (fig. 3).
D. Cementation of boreholes.
x The forcing of cement mortal was made by
mortar pump with adjustable drive;
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES OF
x Cementation of boreholes was carried out by
FRACTURED ZONES
cement mortal with application of portland
slag cement of 400 mark;
The project of cementation of rocky massif was
x Preparation of mortal was carried out in
developed on the basis of the executed re-
working unit by mixing cement with water
searches [6]. The given project provided fasten-
before reception of homogeneous weight, the
ing of rocky massif by reinforced cementation of
mortal were mixed before receipt in borehole;
granites in fractured zones. Cemented boreholes
were located directly in fractured zones (fig. 1). x Cementation of boreholes was made with the
Works of rocky massif fastening were made following scale of change of the contents of
by Open Company “ZB Hydrospecstroy” from cement in the water-cement relation: 4; 1,33;
July, 25 till September, 5 in 2007, from bottom 0,8; 0,57;
of excavation. x The decrease of the mortal charge to
The work of excavation preparation was be- 5l/minutes at pressure 0,3MPa was accepted
fore cementation of fractured zones which pro- for refusal of mortal absorption.
viding crop of loessial soils, removal of top part
of bark of granite weathering (a disperse zone), Tested cementation was preceded to cementa-
the device of lean concrete. Thickness of lean tion of massif. The tested site settled down in
concrete makes 0,2 … 1,5m. It is connected to axes « 1 … 3 » lines “A...G” (fig. 1). The absorp-
84 V.S. Shokarev et al. / Investigation of Interdependence of Map and Distract Represented on It
RÉSUMÉ
Une des techniques utilisées pour la construction de l'infrastructure souterraine est le forage horizontal dirigé
(FHD). Cette méthode sans tranchée est compliquée lors du franchissement des dépôts gravier que le fluide de
forage débusque due à une plus grande perméabilité et l'absence de formation de gâteau de filtration. A cause de
l’effondrement du trou de forage, la tige de forage peut se coincer et l'installation de la canalisation peut échouer
en raison du dépassement des forces de traction. Pour trouver une solution pour le problème de l'instabilité de
forage, le processus Biogrout a (spécialement) été adapté pour la stabilisation de forage dans le gravier. Dans le
processus Biogrout, le sable est transformé en grès par l’injection d'un mélange dédié dans le souterrain, ce qui
stimule les micro-organismes afin de catalyser les réactions chimiques conduisant à la précipitation des cristaux
de carbonate de calcium (CaCO3). Ces cristaux forment des «ponts» entre les grains, augmentant la résistance et la
rigidité du matériau. Après un premier test réussi sur l'échelle dans le laboratoire en 2008 dans lequel le gravier a
été cimenté, un conteneur de 3 m3 a été cimenté après lequel un trou a été foré avec succès à l'aide de l’équipement
FHD. Après le succès de cet essai, deux applications sur le terrain ont été effectuées de 600 et 900 mètres dans le
cadre de l'installation d'un gazoduc près de Nimègue NL. Au cours du test sur le terrain, un volume de 1.000 m3 de
gravier a été stabilisée en utilisant la technique Biogrout après quoi un FHD a été effectuée avec succès.
1
Corresponding Author.
86 W.R.L. van der Star et al. / Stabilization of Gravel Deposits Using Microorganisms
Keywords: Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD), Biogrout process, in situ cementation, biological methods, gravel
clear to what extent calcite precipitation would uniform medium-grained gravel (D50=10 mm,
aid the strength. A preliminary laboratory pro- originating from the Moese river near Maastricht
gram was therefore executed in which 18 kg of (NL)) and the second one containing the same
gravel was treated with the Biogrout process in gravel, mixed with coarse gravel (D50=40 mm).
wooden boxes. After placement of one pore vol- as well as with cobble stones up to 300 mm. The
ume bacteria and subsequent fixation with tests were performed in Papendrecht (NL) using
50 mM calcium chloride, five respectively nine the same on site produced bacteria and cementa-
treatments with 1 mol/L urea/calcium chloride tion solutions as in the 100 m3 sand cementation
solution (the cementation solution) were applied tests performed on the same site [4].
to induce calcium carbonate precipitation. In the
test with nine flushes of the cementation solu-
tion, a second batch of bacterial suspension was
added after the first five treatments with
urea/calcium chloride mixture. In addition, the
test with five treatments of cementation fluid was
also performed in a system where the gravel was
mixed with 1.5 kg coarse sand. After treatment,
the boxes were opened on one side and visually
inspected (Figure 2).
20 2 flush
1 flush
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Displacement [mm]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The paper presents an analysis of effectiveness of the application of seven commonly used CPT-Based classification systems for
the assessment of subsoil stratigraphy and lithology. The analysis was conducted with the following classification systems: Be-
gemann 1965, Douglas/Olsen 1981, modified Schmertmann 1985, Robertson et al. 1986, Robertson 1990, Eslami/Fellenius
1997, and, Zhang/Tumay 1999. The analysis was performed for subsoil composed of slightly and strongly overconsolidated mo-
raine tills and glacifluvial sands and gravels. In the investigated area a total of nine piezocone penetration tests, PCPT (or CPTU)
tests were conducted and samples were collected for laboratory analyses. The reference point for soil behavior type classification
systems was provided by the results of grain size distribution of the soil. The basic element in the analysis was to determine the
effect of the type of the applied soil behavior type classification system on the construction of the subsoil stiffness model. Three
systems were selected as best performing for the purpose of this analysis: Douglas/Olsen 1981, Robertson et al.1986, and
Zhang/Tumay 1999. The construction of subsoil stiffness models was based on the statistical Inverse Distance Weighted method
(IDW) by Młynarek, et al., 2007.
RÉSUMÉ
La communication présente une analyse de l’efficacité de l’application de sept systèmes de classification basés sur l’essai CPT
communément utilisés pour l’évaluation de la stratigraphie et de la lithologie des sols. L’analyse a été réalisée sur la base des
systèmes de classification suivants : Begemann 1965, Douglas/olsen 1981, Schmertmann modifié 1985, Robertson et al. 1986,
Robertson 1990, Eslami/Fellenius 1997 and Zhang/Tumay 1999. L’analyse a été faite pour des sols composés d’argiles
morainiques à blocs, légèrement et fortement surconsolidées et de sables et de graviers glaciofluviatiles. Dans la zone étudiée, un
total de neuf essais de pénétration au piezocône, PCPT (ou CPTU) ont été réalisés et des échantillons ont été récupérés pour des
analyses de laboratoire. Le point de référence pour évaluer les systèmes de classification des sols a été fourni par les résultats de
l’analyse granulométrique réalisée pour les différents sols. L’élément de base dans l’analyse réalisée a été de déterminer l’effet
du type de système de classification utilisé sur la construction du modèle de raideur du sol. Trois systèmes ont été sélectionnés
comme étant les plus performants pour ce type d’analyse : Douglas/Olsen 1981, Robertson et al. 1986 and Zhang/Tumay 1999.
La construction des modèles de raideur des sols s’est appuyée sur la méthode statistique de l’ « Inverse Distance Weighted »
(IDW) de Mlynarek et al., 2007.
Keywords: cone penetration test, CPT, PCPT, CPTU, soil behavior, soil classsification, soil stiffness, probability
1
Corresponding Author.
92 M.T. Tumay et al. / Effectiveness of CPT-Based Classification Methods
3 FOUNDATIONS FOR THE and: a1= -11.345, a2= -3.795, b1= 15.202, b2=
INTERPRETATION OF SOIL BEHAVIOR 5.085, c1= -0.269, c2= -0.759, d1= -2.960, d2=
TYPE CLASSIFICATION METHOD 2.477.
DERIVED FROM PCPT (CPTU) DATA
In this system a probabilistic correlation was
In the development of CPT-based classification established between the U index and the compo-
systems directly measured and/or “corrected” pa- sitional soil type given by the Unified Soil Clas-
rameters are utilized, i.e. qc versus qt, fs and u. sification System (USCS). The CPT-based fuzzy
Significant progress in the identification of soil soil classification methodology, which also uses
behavior type using a PCPT classification system in situ state index, V, is fundamentally different
was obtained by introducing a standardization of in realizing the constraint of soil composition,
cone resistance by vertical effective stress and and instead is based on the certainty of soil be-
the effect connected with the excess pore pres- havior (i.e., cone tip resistance and local fric-
sure in cohesive soils. These effects are included tion).
in the following formulas:
qt V v 0 (1)
4 EFFECTIVENESS OF SOIL BEHAVIOR
Qt TYPE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
V 'v 0
FROM PCPT IN THE EVALUATION OF
SUBSOIL STRATIGRAPHY AND
u 2 u0 (2) LITHOLOGY
Bq
qt V v 0
The potential of individual classification charts
where: qt – corrected cone resistance, Vv0 & V’v0 based on PCPT data for the identification of soils
– total & effective overburden stress, u2 – pore found in the subsoil may be verified as a 1-D or
pressure measured behind the cone, u0 - hydro- 2-D problem [16]. In case of a 1-D model this
static pressure. identification is conducted along the PCPT per-
A different probabilistic to fuzzy approach is formed, while in the 2-D or 3-D models it is
presented by the system proposed by Zhang and through the construction of the so-called geo-
Tumay [13]. In this method conformal mapping technical section. The analysis of the evaluation
was performed on the Douglas and Olsen [12] of soil type was limited to the 1-D model, while
chart to transfer the chart axis from the CPT data the analysis of subsoil rigidity was based on the
(qc and Rf) to the soil classification index U and 2-D model. Figure 5 presents the evaluation of
the in situ state index, V. the structure of subsoil using different systems.
A very good conformity with the results of grain
U
a1 x a2 y b1 c1 x c2 y d1 size distribution in the soil was obtained when
c1 x c2 y d1 2 c2 x c1 y d 2 2 using classification charts by Zhang and Tumay,
as well as those by Douglas and Olsen. It was
a2 x a1 y b2 c2 x c1 y d 2 (3) particularly evident in the surface zone, where
c1 x c2 y d1 2 c2 x c1 y d 2 2 clays are strongly interbedded with sands and
silts. The Robertson et al. 1986 system, com-
monly used in Poland, isolates at that depth a
where: layer of homogeneous clays. This fact is clearly
documented in Figure 5. In turn, the potential to
x 0.1539R f 0.8870 logqc 3.35 (4) expose the effect of interbedding in the subsoil
structure was revealed in the recent system pro-
0.2957R f 0.4617 logqc 0.37 (5) posed by Robertson [14], which applies soil be-
y
havior index Ic.
96 M.T. Tumay et al. / Effectiveness of CPT-Based Classification Methods
The comparison of individual systems sug- of values defined by coordinates xi,yi,z0. Each of
gests one important observation. Figure 5 shows these values affects the interpolated value of v0
that in regions of the analyzed with simple sub- with the weight, wi , which is inversely propor-
soil structure, i.e glacifluvial sand zone and the tional to the distance between these points. The
lower clay layer, less advanced systems such as formula used in Inverse Distance Weighted,
those proposed by Begemann or Schmertmann, IDW, method takes the form:
provide a very good identification of subsoil stra-
tigraphy and lithology, while some recent ad- N ( v0 )
5 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ¦w
i 1
i
6 CONCLUSIONS
the strengthening and weakening zones. This Engineering, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Vol I,
(1965),17-20.
element is particularly important when a designer
[11] J.H. Schmertmann, Guidelines for Cone Penetration
of an object has to analyze in detail the coopera- Test, Performance and Design, Report No. FHWA-
tion of this object with subsoil, taking into con- TS-78-209, U.S. Department of Transportation,
sideration the non-uniformity of settlement for Washington, D.C., (1978), pp. 145.
[12] J. B. Douglas, R. S. Olsen, Soil Classification using
individual foundations. Electric Cone Penetrometer, Symposium on Cone Pene-
tration Testing and Experience, Geotechnical Engineer-
ing Division, ASCE, St. Louis, MO, USA, (1981), 209-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 227.
[13] Z. Zhang, M.T. Tumay, Statistical to Fuzzy Approach
toward CPT Soil Classification, ASCE Journal of Geo-
The authors would like to thank HEBO Pozna technical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol.
Ltd. for conducting static probing tests in the 125, No. 3 (1999), 179-186.
analyzed area and making their results available. [14] Z. Zhang, and M. T Tumay, Simplification of soil
classification charts derived from the cone penetration
test," ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ,
Vol. 19, No.2, (1996), 203-216
REFERENCES [15] T. Lunne, P. Gauer, Z. Młynarek, W. Wołyski, M.
Kroll, Quality of CPTU, Part 2 Statistical evaluation of
differences between the CPTU parameters obtained
[1] M.T. Tumay, R.L. Boggess, and Y. Acar, Subsurface from tests with various penetrometers, Norwegan Geo-
investigation with piezocone penetrometer,” Sympo- technical Institute Report, 2003.
sium on Cone Penetration Testing and Experience, [16] Z. Młynarek, Site investigation and mapping in urban
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, St. Louis area, Geotechnical Engineering in Urban Enviorn-
MO, USA, (1981), 325-342. ments, V. Cuellar et. al (Eds.) Vol. 1. Millpress Rotter-
[2] H.M. Zuidberg, L.H.J. Schaap, and F.L Beringen , A dam (2007), 175-202.
penetrometer for simultaneously measuring of cone re- [17] M.Th. van Staveren, J.K. Deen, The need for cone pe-
sistance, sleeve friction and dynamic pore pressure,” netration test accuracy classes, Geotechniek, 7(2),
Procedings of the Second European Symposium on Pe- (1998), 12-19.
netration Testing, Vol. 2, Amsterdam, (1982), 963-970. [18] Y.H. Karasulu and M. T. Tumay, Practical visual pres-
[3] R. G. Campanella, and P. K. Robertson, Current status entation approach for CPT-based soil characterization
of the piezocone test, Proceedings Penetration Testing and modeling, Proceedings, of the ASCE Geo-Frontiers
1988, ISOPT-1, Orlando), Vol. 1, Balkema, Rotterdam, Conference: Advances in Geotechnical Engineering,
(1988), 93–116. ASCE Special Publication No. 211, Dallas, TX, (2011),
[4] P.D. Kiousis, G.Z. Voyiadjis, M.T. Tumay, A large pp. 2387-2396.
strain theory and its application in the analysis of the [19 ] P.K. Robertson, Interpretation of cone penetration tests
cone penetration mechanism,” International Journal for – a unified approach, Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 46, (2009), 1337-1355.
Vol. 12, No, 1, (1988), 45-60. [20 ] F.H. Kulhawy, P.W. Mayne, Manual on Estimating Soil
[5] P.K. Robertson, R.G. Campanella, D. Gillespie, J. Properties for Foundation Design, Report No. EL –
Grieg, Use of piezometer cone data, Proc. ASCE Spe- 6800, Electric Power Reseaech Institute (1990
cialty Conference In Situ’86: Use of In Situ Tests in [21] Z. Młynarek, Subsoil contribution to construction fail-
Geotechnical Engineering, Blacksburg (1986), 1263- ures (in polish), Proc. of Konferencja Naukowo-
1280. Techniczna “Awarie Budowlane”, Szczecin (2009).
[6] P. K. Robertson, Soil Classification using the Cone Pe- [22] Z. Młynarek, J. Wierzbicki, W. Wołyski, An approach
netration Test, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 27(1) to 3D subsoil model based on CPTU results, Geotech-
(1990), 151-158 nical Engineering in Urban Enviornment,. V. Cuellar
[7] M.G. Jefferies, M.O. Davies, Soil Classification by the et. al (Eds.) Vol. 3. Millpress Rotterdam (2007), 1721-
cone penetration test: discussion. Canadian Geotechni- 1726.
cal Journal, 28(1) (1991), 173-176.
[8] A. Eslami, B.H. Fellenius, Pile Capacity by direct CPT
and CPTu methods applied to 102 case histories, Cana-
dian Geotechnical Journal, 34(6) (1997), 880-898.
[9] T. Lunne, P. K. Robertson, J. Powell, Cone penetration
testing in geotechnical practice, E&FN Spon, Lon-
don,1997.
[10] H. K. S. Begemann, The friction jacket cone as an aid
in determining the soil profile, Proceedings 6th Interna-
tional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 99
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-99
ABSTRACT
The presence of hard concretions and lithified beds in the subsoil can cause serious problems during the realisation of infra-
structure projects. As these concretions do most often not occur as continuous layers, they also are a real challenge for geotech-
nical investigations. This paper gives an overview of geological features and general characteristics of typical hard soil concre-
tions in Flanders. Special attentions is paid to the important interaction between geology and geotechnics. Some typical
examples are given of successful and unsuccessful geotechnical investigation programs and their effects on the realisation of in-
frastructure projects.
RÉSUMÉ
La présence de concrétions dures et d’horizons lithifiés dans le sol peut causer de graves problèmes lors de l’exécution de
projets d’infrastructure. Puisque dans la plus part des cas ces concrétions ne se présentent pas comme des couches continues el-
les constituent un défi réel pour les investigations géotechniques.
Cet article donne un aperçu général des caractéristiques géologiques et mécaniques de quelques concrétions typiques pour le
sous-sol Flamand. Un intérêt spécial a été dédié à l’interaction entre la géologie et la géotechnique. Quelques cas représentatifs
sont présentés de recherches géotechniques qui soit ont abouti à des résultats positifs, soit ont mené à un échec.
1
Corresponding Author.
100 G. van Alboom et al. / Problems Caused by the Presence of Hard Concretions and Lithified Beds
lake or wind deposits of sand, clay, peat and heterogeneous. In many cases only the better
loam (silt). A typical soil profile in the Antwerp quality, meaning the rocks used as building
harbour area eg. consists of soft clay and peat, stones, are well described and investigated. Poor
loose Quaternary sands, very dense Tertiary quality rocks have not been studied quite exten-
sands and stiff clay. sively.
Within Tertiary sediments hard concretions This table gives a broad overview of these
can occur as continuous/discontinuous layers or concretions, but is certainly not complete.
as boulders. Their presence in Flemish soils is
certainly not predominant, but can have a major
impact on geotechnical design.
Table 1
Some of these hard concretions (sandstones, In recently updated geological maps and booklets
limestones…) have over the past centuries been with explanatory text the presence of hard con-
quarried for the construction of historical build- cretions is clearly mentioned within the descrip-
ings (cathedrals, beltowers…). The demand for tion of geological units. This was not the case
authentic natural building stones is now growing with the older geological maps, where you had to
rapidly for renovation projects. have knowledge of the presence of hard concre-
Table 1 gives a summary of some typical con- tions to find evidence from specific borehole
cretions in Tertiary layers in Flanders and their logs.
features. The features and compressive strength The Belgian Geological Survey is now draw-
of the described concretions or rocks can be quite ing up a database on hard concretions in the Bel-
G. van Alboom et al. / Problems Caused by the Presence of Hard Concretions and Lithified Beds 101
gian subsoil, including a sheet with technical fea- x retraining walls (all types): eg inadequate
tures (compressive strength…) concrete cover on diaphragm walls [3],
Technical features are at this stage based on sheet piling not suitable due to inadequate
building stones documentation [1], and should be penetration or tearing of interlocks causing
completed with results from project site investi- water infiltration and ground loss
gations. x tunnel boring: increase of wear of tunnel-
ling equipment, lower production rates
This will definitely lead to discussions where In Flanders nearly all site investigations make
following questions need to be addressed: use of CPT, with depths ranging between 20m
x Could the presence, number and hardness of and 40m.
hard concretions be anticipated by the con- The presence of hard stones is marked by an
tractor, based on available information in abrupt increase of cone resistance in the CPT
specifications. diagram, sometimes up to refusal of the equip-
x Were the execution methods proposed by the ment. [4]
contractor fully adapted to the known soil Three situations can occur:
conditions xthe stone is pushed away, or CPT rods are de-
x Could lower production rates or need for flected at the contact point with the stone (
adapted execution techniques be anticipated fig 1 a and b): the CPT profile doesn’t give
x Who is financially responsible for extra costs evidence of the presence of these stones. In
the latter case the CPT might deviate sig-
The presence of hard concretions can have im- nificantly from the vertical
pact on xthe maximum thrust of the CPT is reached,
x groundworks for building excavations: when and further penetration is not possible with-
excavations have to be performed within a out use of special techniques (fig 1 c)
limited space the removal of hard concretions xthe CPT rods do not touch the stone at all, and
can be cumbersome because no heavy equip- there isn’t any evidence of the presence of
ment can be used stones in the CPT-profile. (fig 1d)
x groundwater lowering: the presence of hard
concretion layers can cause problems for in-
stallation of deep wells, and can also influ-
ence waterflow towards the excavation slopes,
requiring additional drains above these layers
x deep foundation techniques: problems
caused by fracture of precast piles, feasibil-
ity of auger piles depending on hardness and
size of concretions
102 G. van Alboom et al. / Problems Caused by the Presence of Hard Concretions and Lithified Beds
(a) (b)
Destructive methods:
However a laboratory research at the Catholic
University of Leuven demonstrated that penetra- a) pneumatic hammering
tion of sandstone with a thickness up to 20cm In between thrust column and CPT rods a
might be possible with CPT cones [5]. Electrical framework with a pneumatic hammer is placed
cones being more fragile it is general practice in allowing a pulsating downward movement of the
Flanders to execute mechanical CPT if penetra- rods. By the pulsating force and a limited static
tion of sandstone layers is required. thrust the stone can be crushed. The use of this
technique is limited to rather thin stone layers.
Figure 2 shows a CPT diagrams where an b) Overburden drilling (ODEX)
electrical CPT had to be stopped due to the pres-
ence of a sandstone layer At refusal of the CPT, all rods are removed
and a drilling rig with ODEX-system takes over.
The boring tubes are lowered into the ground
by percussion, combined with an eccentric
movement of the tophammer. After perforation
of the hard concretions the casings and topham-
mer are withdrawn and CPT is resumed. Extra
casings are needed to avoid buckling of the CPT
Fig 2 electrical CPT stopped at hard concretion level rods.
CASE HISTORI`ES
had a heterogeneous structure with laminations, drilling projects. More often they result in sub-
cavities and porous zones. Compressive strength stantial delays and major extra costs.
varied between 30 and 145 MPa, tensile strength
between 3 and 9 MPa.. The question whether or not the presence of
From mineralogy tests heterogeneity was con- hard concretions was unforeseen is an issue for
firmed and stones could be classified as either fierce discussions.
calcareous sandstone or sandy limestone. “Unpredictability” is indeed debatable, and
The specifications on the tunnelling project does not exclusively relate to whether or not their
included general information on geology and presence was anticipated and mentioned in the
complete data on the test pit (geological profiles specifications. Adequacy of information on
and descriptions, test results, efficiency of exe- thickness of continuous layers, area density and
cuted strutted excavations). Moreover TUC dimensions of boulders, hardness of the hard
RAIL organised for all interested tenderers a concretions are quite often discussed, often re-
visit to the site, where samples of different exca- sulting in lawsuits
vated sandstones were exhibited.
Thanks to the extensive investigation and the The case of the tunnelling project in Zaventem
well documented specifications the tunnelling shows however that a well documented dossier
project could be realised without problems re- and geotechnical/geological investigation that is
lated to the presence of sandstones. shared with tenderers can reduce significantly
uncertainties with respect to the presence of hard
concretion and their features.
CONCLUSION
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This page intentionally left blank
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 115
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-115
ABSTRACT
The dynamic Poisson ratio is a complex calculation parameter mainly considering the standard existing equipment in some Geo-
technical laboratories. Nevertheless, this dynamic property can be easily calculated through a simple relationship – based on the
theory of elasticity – between the propagation velocities of two distinct elastic waves. Despite permitting an easy calculation of
the dynamic Poisson ratio, the signals arrival instant – in regard to the above referred waves – are not always identifiable on the
time domain basis of interpretation (Viana da Fonseca et al. [1]). For the analysis of the dynamic Poisson's ratio, three types of
elastic waves were taken into consideration. For soil-cement specimens – studied in this paper – were calculated the compression
wave velocity VP, Bar wave velocity VL and shear wave velocity VS. Properties like the dynamic confined modulus Mdin, dynam-
ic modulus of elasticity Edin and dynamic shear modulus Gdin were also intended. The cross comparison between the dynamic
Poisson ratios computed by different waves is used to ensure the chosen arrival instances based on time domain interpretation. In
this paper it is also preformed a dynamic Poisson ratio recalculation in order to evaluate the parameter sensitivity regarding the
equipment resolution concluding in the possibility $@
$^din from the presented tests.
RÉSUMÉ
Le coefficient de Poisson dynamique est un paramètre de calculs complexes qu’envisage principalement l'équipement standard
en vigueur dans certains laboratoires géotechniques. Néanmoins, cette propriété peut être facilement calculée par une relation
simple - basée sur la théorie de l'élasticité - entre les vitesses de propagation de deux ondes élastiques distinctes. Malgré permet-
tant un calcul facile du coefficient de Poisson dynamique, l'instant d'arrivée des signaux - en ce qui concerne les vagues ci-
dessus visées - n'est pas toujours identifiable sur la base de l'interprétation dans le domaine temporel (Viana da Fonseca et al.
[1]).Pour l'analyse du coefficient de Poisson dynamique, trois types de vagues élastiques ont été tenues en considération. Pour
les spécimens de sol-ciment - étudiés dans le présent document - ont été calculées de la vitesse des vagues de compression VP,
vitesse des vagues Bar VL et la vitesse des vagues de cisaillement VS. Propriétés comme le module dynamique limité Mdin, mo-
dule d'élasticité dynamique Edin et module de cisaillement dynamique Gdin étaient également destinés. La comparaison croisée
entre les coefficients de Poisson dynamiques calculées par les différentes vagues est utilisé pour assurer l'arrivée des cas choisis
en fonction de l'interprétation dans le domaine temporel. Dans cet article, il est également préformé un nouveau calcul de coeffi-
cient de Poisson dynamique afin d'évaluer la sensibilité des paramètres concernant la résolution d’équipements.
Keywords: Soil-cement, seismic waves, dynamic Poisson ratio, ultrasonic transducers, bender elements
1
Corresponding Author.
116 M.F. Amaral et al. / Dynamic Poisson Ratio Analysis
The used oscilloscope and the chosen time where tS is the S-wave time of propagation.
window for the VP determining provide a tP accu- The relationship between Gdin and Edin is well
racy of ± 0.2s. These tests were performed using known and it can be written by
a 1MHz nominal frequency compression trans-
ducers. 1
Gdin Edin (7)
4.2 Bar waves 2(1 din )
According to Graff [25], the use of lower nomin- Then, the association linking Gdin to Mdin is
al frequency transducers converts propagation
medium, of the compression wave, to an asso-
(1 2 din )
ciated constrained environment. Therefore, those Gdin M din (8)
frequencies enable a bar wave propagation in- 2(1 din )
stead of the – as presented before – traditional
compression wave. Some authors (Graff [25],
The tS determining accuracy was ± 2.0s.
Khan et al. [26], Amaral & Viana da Fonseca
These tests were performed using a pair of bend-
[13]) defend that this physical phenomenon is as-
er elements.
sured whenever the impulse wave length has the
same order of magnitude of the propagation envi-
ronment.
VL or Bar velocity is expressed by 5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Gdin
VS H tS (6)
Figure 2. S-wave times of propagation.
M.F. Amaral et al. / Dynamic Poisson Ratio Analysis 119
Tables 2 and 3 indicate not only the speci- Table 4. Dynamic properties minimum values.
mens’ dynamic stiffnesses but also the ^din com- N. Mdin (MPa) Edin (MPa) Gdin (MPa) ^din
puted for each combination of Mdin & Edin and
Edin & Gdin. 1 2467 2000 784 0.227
2 5884 4772 1923 0.172
Table 2. ^din computed by Mdin and Edin. 3 5927 4892 1900 0.216
t VP Mdin tL VL Edin
N. P ^ 4 6729 5355 2092 0.204
(m/s) (MPa) (m/s) (MPa) din
5 4832 3664 1378 0.264
1 118 1155 2476 131 1042 2016 0.262
2 80.4 1700 5913 89.5 1536 4825 0.261 Table 5. Dynamic properties maximum values.
3 80.2 1705 5956 88.0 1554 4947 0.252
N. Mdin (MPa) Edin (MPa) Gdin (MPa) ^din
4 73.4 1852 6766 82.0 1658 5421 0.269
1 2484 2031 815 0.295
5 85.7 1608 4855 97.5 1404 3702 0.290
2 5942 4880 2036 0.269
Table 3. ^din computed by Edin and Gdin. 3 5986 5004 2012 0.317
boratory and its coordinator Professor Giovanni [13] Amaral, M. F. and Viana da Fonseca, A., Laboratory
spectrum analysis. Proc., Portuguese Geotechnical Na-
Cascante. This research was developed under the
tional Conference, Geotechnical and Sustainable De-
activities of FCT (Portuguese Foundation for velopment. Vol. 1, Guimarães, Portugal (2010), 2209-
Science and Technology) research unit SEC, in 2218.
FEUP, namely PTDC/ECM 099475/2008 project, [14] Cruz, N., Rodrigues, C. and Viana da Fonseca, A., The
influence of cementation in the critical state behavior of
financed by European Community artificial bonded soils, Proc., Int. Symp. on Deform.
(QREN/UE/FEDER), on the Operational Pro- Chtics. of Geomaterials, Vol. 1, Seoul, Korea (2011) (in
gram for Competitive Factors “COMPETE”. press).
[15] Bodig, J. and Jayne, B., Mechanics of wood and wood
composites, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY,
USA, 1982.
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destructive testing, Chapman and Hall, London, UK,
[1] Viana da Fonseca, A., Ferreira, C. and Fahey, M., A 1996.
framework interpreting bender elements tests, combin- [17] Cartz, L., Non-Destructive Testing, ASM, The Mate-
ing time-domain and frequency domain methods. rials Information Society, Ohio, USA, 1995.
Geotch. Test. J., ASTM, Vol. 32(2) (2009). [18] ASTM. Standard test method for pulse velocity through
[2] Clough, G. W., Sitar, N., Bachus, R. C. and Rad, N. S., concrete (C597). In Annual book of ASTM standards,
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[3] Leroueil, S. and Vaughan, P. R., The general and con- [19] Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., and Fam, M.A., Soils
gruent effects of structure in natural soil and weak and waves particulate materials behavior, characteriza-
rocks, Géotechnique, 40, 3 (1990), 467-488. tion and process monitoring, John Wiley & Sons, New
[4] Coop, M. R. and Atkinson, J. H., The mechanics of ce- York, USA, 2001.
mented carbonate sands, Géotechnique, 43, 1 (1993), [20] Cascante, G., Najjaran, H., and Crespi, P. Non-
53-67. destructive evaluation of brick walls-fuzzy Logic analy-
[5] Gens, A. and Nova, R., Conceptual bases for a constitu- sis, J. Infra- Struct. Syst., Vol. 14(1) (2008), 117-128.
tive model for bonded soils and weak rocks, Proc., Int. [21] Landon, M.; DeGroot, D.; and Sheahan, T., Nondestruc-
Symp. on Geotech. Engerg. of Hard soils – Soft rocks, tive sample quality assessment of a soft clay using shear
Vol. 1, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (1993), wave velocity, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., Vol.
485-494. 133(4) (2007), 424-432.
[6] Viana da Fonseca, A., Geomechanics of Porto residual [22] Rios Silva, S., Viana da Fonseca, A., Consoli, N. C.,
soil from granite. Project criteria for direct foundations. Strength and stiffness properties of mixtures of granitic
PhD thesis, Porto University, Portugal, 1996 (in portu- soil-cement, Proc. XVIIth ICSMFE Conf., Egypt (2009),
guese). 312-315.
[7] Cuccovillo, T. and Coop, M. R., On the mechanics of [23] Viana da Fonseca, A., Carvalho, J., Ferreira, C., Santos,
structured sands, Géotechnique, 49, 6 (1999), 741-760. J. A., Almeida, F., Pereira, E., Feliciano, J., Grade, J.
[8] Schnaid, F., Prietto, P. D. M. and Consoli, N. C., Cha- and Oliveira, A., Characterization of a profile of resi-
racterization of cemented sand in triaxial compression. dual soil from granite combining geological, geophysi-
Journal of Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 127(10) (2001), cal, and mechanical testing techniques, Geotech. &
857-867. Geolog. Engin., Springer, Netherlands, 14(5) (2006),
[9] Consoli, N. C., Rotta, G. V. and Prietto, P. D. M. Yield- 1307-1348.
ing-compressibility-strength relationship for an artifi- [24] Richart, F. E. Jr., Hall, J. R. Jr., Woods, R. D., Vibra-
cially cemented soil cured under stress. Géotechnique, tions on soils and foundations. Prentice-
London, 56(1) (2006), 69-72. -Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970.
[10] Consoli, N. C., Foppa, D., Festugato, L. and Heineck, [25] Graff, K. F., Wave motion in elastic solids. Dover Pub-
K. S. Key parameters for strength control of artificially lications, Oxford, UK, 1991.
cemented soils. Journal of Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, [26] Khan, Z., Majid, A., Cascante, G., Jean Hutchin-
133(2) (2007), 197-205. son, D. and Pezeshkpour, P.. “Characterization of a ce-
[11] Viana da Fonseca, A. and Coutinho, R. Q., Characteri- mented sand with the pulse-velocity method”. Can.
zation of residual soils, Geotechnical and Geophysical Geotech. J., 43 (2006), 294-309.
site characterization, Ed. Huang, A-B and Mayne, P.
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 121
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-121
ABSTRACT
The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) is one of the main parameter for rock mass characterization and classification, as well
as in rock engineering practice. Although UCS testing has been standardized by the International Society for Rock Mechanics
other parameters such as results from point load test, which is comparatively cheap and easy to apply, are most widely used.
Various studies in the literature propose relationships between Is50 (from point load test) and UCS, thus objective of this study is
to determine conversion factors relating Is50 and UCS for intact sedimentary rocks, as well as for conglomerates and breccias,
since to those rocks, specimen with geometric characteristics for the USC test according to ISRM requirements can not be easily
shaped.
RÉSUMÉ
La résistance á la compression uniaxe est la paramètre essentielle pour définir et classifier la messe rocher. Bien que la résistance
á la compression a été normalisée par la Société International du Mécanique des Roche, autres paramètres telle que l’essai
ponctuel, sont appliquées. Objectif de cette étude est la proposition des facteurs de la conversion entre l’essai ponctuel et la
résistance à la compression aux rocks sédimentés et semblablement aux conglomérâtes et breccias.
1
Corresponding Author.
122 A.A. Antoniou / Estimation of UCS from PLT for Sedimentary Rocks
c (MPa)
120
core diameter size, 80
d: is the diameter of the specimen in mm. 40
[13] stated that the results of his studies do not 0
support the previous equation; the maximum 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0
from 38 to 54 mm in diameter. Figure 1. Linear function between point loading and uniaxial
In this study, the cylindrical samples had a compressive strength for sedimentary carbonate rocks.
length to diameter ratio of 1.9 to 2.3, avoiding
any uncertainties regarding the influence of the
200
sample size on the measured strength. The dia- y = 24,82x 0,88
160
metrical point load test was carried out on cores R2 = 0,77
c (MPa)
120
having a length to diameter ratio fluctuated from
1.8 to 2.1. Moreover the loading axis was applied 80
30
Engng Geol Hydrogeol 34, (2001), 225–232.
[6] F. M. Chester, J. M. Logan, Implications for mechani-
20
cal properties of brittle faults from observations of the
10 Punchbowl Fault Zone, California, Pure Appl Geophys
0 124, (1986), 79–106.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 [7] K. T. Chou, R. H. C. Wong, Uniaxial compressive
Is50 (MPa) strength and point load strength, Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. 33,(1996), 183–188.
Figure 7. Linear function between point loading and uniaxial [8] M. Fener, S. Kahraman, A. Bilgil, O. Gunaydin, A
compressive strength for conglomerates and breccias. comparative evaluation of indirect methods to estimate
the compressive strength of rocks, Rock Mech. Rock
Eng. 38 (4) (2005), 329–343.
60
[9] D. K. Ghosh, M. Srivastava, Point-load strength: an in-
50 y = 11,81x0,83 dex for classification of rock material, Bull. Int. Assoc.
40 R2 = 0,71
Eng. Geol. 44, (1991), 27–33.
c (MPa)
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132 M.F. Attom and M.M. El-Emam / Experimental Evaluation of Free Swell Method
ABSTRACT
The compressibility properties of Zagreb-area clays are evaluated based on oedometer consolidation test results for 177 undis-
turbed samples tested in the period between 2002 and 2007. The compression Cc and recompression Cr indexes are statistically
correlated (linear regression) with the corresponding classification index properties. Each of these indexes is correlated with the
liquid limit, natural moisture content, plastic limit, void ratio, and their combinations. Derived correlations are compared with
similar correlations for clay found in other countries.
RÉSUMÉ
La compressibilité des argiles de Zagreb a été analysée sur la base de 177 essais oedométriques effectués sur les échantillons in-
tacts de sol dans la période entre 2002 et 2007. La corrélation statistique entre l'indice de compression, Cc, et l'indice de relaxa-
tion ou recompression, Cr, a été établie par régression linéaire en utilisant les paramètres de classification appropriés tels que la
limite de liquidité, la limite de plasticité, la teneur en eau naturelle, l'indice des vides, et leur combinaisons. Les corrélations ob-
tenues ont été comparées avec les corrélations similaires utilisées pour argiles dans d'autres pays.
Key words: compression index, recompression index, soil index parameters, linear regression.
1
Corresponding Author.
134 I. Bradvica and G. Mitrović / Compression Index Cc and Recompression Index Cr
Table 1. Correlations established for Cc – compression index Table 3. Previously published equivalences for Cc - compres-
for Zagreb-area clays sion index
Table 5. Comparison of calculated and measured Cc values correlations established for other clays, as can be
seen from comparison with previously published
correlations with other coefficients of selected
variables. The authors recommend the use of
equivalencies defined for Zagreb clays for pre-
liminary design purposes, but with precautions as
indicated above. Final correlations are:
Cc = 0.0091 wo - 0.032
Cr = 0.0005 (wle0) + 0.0171
The newly established correlations for Zagreb Cr = 0.117 Cc + 0.0101
clay (equivalence No. 2 for Cc and equivalences
No. 12 for Cr) have revealed the smallest devia- The correlations established for other clays show
tions between the calculated values and meas- greater dispersion of measured values when
ured values. Only one out of the total of 177 tests compared to the above correlations.
exceeded the calculated value by more than two
times. Other correlations established in this study
are similar to previously established relation- REFERENCES
ships, references [2] and [3].
[1] E. Nonveiller,: 0HKDQLND WOD L WHPHOMHQMH JUDÿHYLQD
Školska knjiga, Zagreb 1979.
[2] R.D. Holtz, W.D. Kovacs, An Introduction to Geotech-
Table 6. Comparison of typical values of compression index-
nical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
es Cc
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1981.
[3] S. Javed, Prediction of Compression and Recompres-
sion Indices of Texas Overconsolidated Clays, Proceed-
ings of Texas ASCE Spring Meeting, 2005.
4 CONCLUSIONS
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Weiach 8 0.8 44 1.3 ,
,
Weiach 16 0.5 40 1.8 (
Weiach 16 0.8 47 1.3
.
,%
(
4
-
Gruben 8 0.5 44 1.3
, H
, DI -
Gruben 8 0.8 46 1.5
+ ,
-
.
Gruben 16 0.5 49 1.3
%
Gruben 16 0.8 49 1.5 , .
Pontresina 8 0.5 45 1.9
Pontresina 16 0.5 52 2.1
)1+1)1*1'
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, ,
!
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(
.(
,
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 155
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-155
ABSTRACT
Recent catastrophes occurred in France clearly show the great vulnerability of embankments and dikes to internal erosion or
overtopping. Repeatable tests, examining the effects of water on soil microstructure through small-scale specimens, are essential
to study rapidly and efficiently a large panel of configurations (soil textures and eroding fluid chemistry). The “Crumb Test” as
ASTM standard is a simple, quick and convenient test that can be used both in the laboratory and on field. It is an easily practi-
cable test but with limited capacity because of interpretations based on visual observations.
We propose here to modify the equipment and improve the test protocol by the development of an “Enhanced Crumb Test”. Aim
obtain quantitative results, a new test method is thus developed based on temporal evolution of soil specimen geometry. As an ap
tion, we report in this study the tests of 2 remoulded soil textures in a wide range of water content.
RÉSUMÉ
De récentes catastrophes survenues en France montrent la grande vulnérabilité des remblais et digues face à l’érosion interne et à
la surverse. Dans le but de diagnostiquer efficacement la sensibilité des sols aux processus érosifs, des essais répétables sur de
petits échantillons sont indispensables pour étudier un grand nombre de configurations (texture de sols et nature de fluides). Le
« Crumb Test » ou essai d’émiettage tel que normalisé par l’ASTM, est un essai simple et rapide qui peut être utilisé à la fois en
laboratoire et sur le terrain. Il est facilement réalisable mais avec une capacité limitée en raison d’interprétations basées sur des
observations visuelles.
Nous proposons ici de modifier l’appareillage et d'améliorer le protocole d'essai par le développement d'un « essai d’émiettage
amélioré ». Ce dernier est basé sur le suivi de l'évolution temporelle de la géométrie d’un échantillon centimétrique de sol plongé
dans un grand volume d’eau afin d’obtenir des résultats quantitatifs. En guise d’application, nous présentons une campagne
d’essais menée sur 2 textures différentes de sols reconstitués dans une large gamme de teneur en eau.
Keywords: Crumb test, test procedure, dispersion, parametric study, clayey soil
Mots clés : “Crumb Test”, essai d’émiettage, protocole d’essai, dispersion, étude paramétrique, sols argileux
1
Corresponding Author.
156 C. Chevalier et al. / Un nouvel essai d’émiettage pour mieux caractériser l’effet de l’eau
ronnante (par exemple eau salée). Elle est donc mé à 2 minutes, 1 heure et 6 heures. Selon le
très difficile à prévoir. degré de turbidité du nuage, le sol est classé dans
Dans le but de diagnostiquer efficacement la un des quatre niveaux de dispersion suivants (Fi-
sensibilité des sols aux processus érosifs, il est gure 1) :
essentiel d’étudier les effets de l’eau sur la mi-
crostructure des sols au moyen d’essais simples, x Niveau 1 – Non dispersif : il ne se produit
rapides et répétables sur des échantillons de pe- pas de réaction entre le sol et l’eau ;
tite taille. Le « Crumb Test » préconisé par x Niveau 2 – Intermédiaire : il se produit une
l’ASTM [1] fournit une indication qualitative sur réaction légère avec la formation d’une
la sensibilité à la dispersion des sols argileux. suspension colloïdale de faible turbidité ;
Afin de quantifier les résultats, une nouvelle mé- x Niveau 3 – Dispersif : il se produit une ré-
thode est développée permettant le suivi tempo- action modérée ;
rel de la géométrie d’un échantillon de sol. x Niveau 4 – Très dispersif : il se produit une
On propose de placer un échantillon centimé- réaction forte.
trique et cylindrique de sol non-saturé et com-
pacté dans un grand volume d’eau distillée sans
aucun effort mécanique externe et d’enregistrer
des images de celui-ci au cours du temps. Le pro-
fil vertical de l’échantillon est ensuite extrait en
filtrant les images acquises et des paramètres
quantitatifs en sont déduits.
A l’aide de ce protocole, plusieurs textures de
sol reconstituées sont étudiées. Les phénomènes
d’hydratation et de dispersion d’un sol non-
saturé sont observés comme deux phases consé-
cutives de gonflement puis d’affaissement de
l’échantillon. Figure 1. Essais typiques de « Crumb test », a) niveau 1 : non
dispersif, b) niveau 2 : intermédiaire, c) niveau 3 : dispersif,
d) niveau 4 : très dispersif [1].
2 DESCRIPTION DU “CRUMB TEST”
Dans la littérature, de nombreux auteurs ont étu- 3 ELABORATION DU NOUVEAU
dié le problème de la sensibilité à la dispersion PROTOCOLE D’ESSAI
par des essais en laboratoire dans le but
d’expliquer et de caractériser le phénomène [2- Le « Crumb Test » est un essai très simple et fa-
4]. Pour l’identification des sols dispersifs, diffé- cile d’utilisation. Il donne une bonne et rapide
rents essais ont été normalisés par l’ASTM : le indication sur la sensibilité à la dispersion de
« Pinhole test » (essai à l’aiguille) [5], le « Dou- l’argile. L’essai n’est pas coûteux, il ne nécessite
ble hydrometer test » (essais sédimentométriques pas d’appareil complexe et il peut être utilisé
en parallèle) [6] ainsi que le « Crumb test » (es- dans n’importe quel laboratoire ainsi que sur site.
sai d’émiettage) [1]. Cependant comme l’essai se base sur
Le « Crumb test » consiste à immerger un l’observation, l’indication donnée est qualitative.
cube de sol naturel ou remanié de petite taille (15 Les résultats dépendent en effet de la couleur de
mm de côté, compacté à la main) dans un volume l’argile, de la lumière dans le laboratoire… mais
d’eau distillée beaucoup plus important (250 ml). aussi de l’opérateur.
L’échantillon est posé sur le fond d’un récipient L’essai ici développé utilise deux caméras qui
cylindrique, à côté du bord. La tendance des par- permettent de suivre l’évolution temporelle de la
ticules du sol à se disperser en suspension colloï- géométrie d’un échantillon cylindrique.
dale est estimée par l’observation du nuage for- L’échantillon est placé dans un récipient en plas-
tique transparent rempli d’eau distillée. Le fond
C. Chevalier et al. / Un nouvel essai d’émiettage pour mieux caractériser l’effet de l’eau 157
et la face arrière du récipient sont recouverts d’« affaissement » dans la mesure où la hauteur
avec des plaques de couleur noire. Une première de l’échantillon diminue. La partie supérieure
caméra est placée face à l’échantillon, enregis- s’aiguise et la pente des dépôts constituant le tas
trant l’évolution du profil ; une seconde est pla- au pied de l’échantillon devient plus régulière.
cée à la verticale afin de vérifier que la symétrie Enfin, sur la plupart des échantillons, au bout
de l’échantillon est conservée au cours de d’un temps « long » (de quelques minutes à plu-
l’expérience (Figure 2). sieurs heures), une structure finale en forme de
cône est atteinte.
4 ETUDE PARAMETRIQUE 20
K100 K50S50
densité (kN/m )
18
3
4.1 Préparation des échantillons 16
vée, car l’augmentation de la teneur en eau vo- paramètre eh en racine du temps. Cette considé-
lumique initiale du sol provoque, au cours d’une ration semble être fondée dans les différents cas
infiltration, une diminution de la vitesse étudiés. Ceci est en accord avec l’équation de
d’infiltration d’eau dans le sol. On constate la Richards selon laquelle le profil d’infiltration suit
même tendance dans l’affaissement des échantil- une loi d’évolution en racine du temps [7,8].
lons (matérialisée par la chute de hauteur) : les
échantillons qui contiennent initialement plus 5.2 Grandeurs caractéristiques de l’essai
d’eau s’effondrent plus vite à l’exception de
K100 à 36% de teneur en eau (Figure 8) qui La Figure 9 illustre le changement maximum de
hauteur des échantillons pour tous les essais ré-
s’hydrate très faiblement. Notons que certains de
alisés. On constate qu’indépendamment de la
ces échantillons peuvent ne pas entrer dans la
densité de l’échantillon, plus la teneur en eau est
phase d’affaissement et rester inchangés pendant
plusieurs jours. élevée, moins l’échantillon gonfle. Ce constat est
beaucoup plus significatif pour les échantillons
Enfin, le gonflement des échantillons conte-
purement argileux. Au-delà des teneurs en eau
nant 50% d’argile est plus faible mais légèrement
étudiées le sol devient plastique et non testable.
plus rapide par rapport aux échantillons pure-
ment argileux. Cela est vraisemblablement dû à
3 8
la perméabilité des échantillons : plus le sol con-
tient d’argile, moins il est perméable et plus l’eau 6
hg (mm)
2
met donc de temps pour s’y infiltrer. 4
1
2
4
0 0
19%
3 18% 9% 11% 13% 15% 17% 19% 18% 22% 26% 30% 34%
15% teneur en eau teneur en eau
h (mm)
13%
2 Figure 9. Gonflement maximum des échantillons : textures
9%
K50S50 (à gauche) et K100 (à droite).
1
60 90
0
temps (min)
0 10 20 30 45
temps (min)
60
30
Figure 7. Changement de hauteur des échantillons de la tex-
30
ture K50S50. 15
4 0 0
36% 9% 11% 13% 15% 17% 19% 18% 22% 26% 30% 34%
3 teneur en eau teneur en eau
36%
h (mm)
12 16
modèles d’infiltration communément utilisés.
10 8 La bonne répétabilité des résultats d’un coté et
la bonne discernabilité entre configurations diffé-
8 0 rentes de l’autre sont des atouts de ce nouvel es-
9% 11% 13% 15% 17% 19% 18% 22% 26% 30% 34%
teneur en eau teneur en eau sai. L’essai permet donc de sonder de manière
Figure 11. Diamètre final des échantillons : textures K50S50 intéressante les propriétés du sol.
(à gauche) et K100 (à droite). Le nouveau dispositif et le protocole dévelop-
pé dans le présent article permettent, par ailleurs,
50 50
45
d’étudier un grand nombre de configurations
45
rencontrées en pratique. Il est en effet très facile
final (°)
40 40
35 35
de faire varier la nature et les propriétés des sols
30 30
comme illustré ici mais il est également possible
25 25
d’étudier l’influence des caractéristiques physi-
9% 11% 13% 15% 17% 19% 18% 22% 26% 30% 34% co-chimiques de l’eau environnante.
teneur en eau teneur en eau
D’autres études sont envisagées sur différen-
Figure 12. Angle d’inclinaison final des dépôts : textures tes tailles d’échantillon ainsi que différents types
K50S50 (à gauche) et K100 (à droite).
d’argiles pour élargir et compléter les résultats.
Concernant les angles d’inclinaison des dé-
pôts, on remarque visuellement qu’ils convergent REFERENCES
très vite (dès les premiers détachements) vers
leurs valeurs finales. Ces dernières sont plus ou [1] ASTM (2005) Standard test methods for determining
dispersive characteristics of clayed soils by the crumb
moins les mêmes pour tous les échantillons quel- test, Annual book of ASTM standards, Vol. 04.09,
que soit la texture et la teneur en eau (Figure 12). D6572-00.
On distingue cependant une nouvelle fois un [2] Holmgren, G.G.S. and Flanagan, C.P. (1976) Factors
écart notable pour la texture K100 à une teneur affecting spontaneous dispersion of soil materials as
evidenced by the Crumb test, ASTM proceedings on
en eau de 36%. symposium on dispersive clays, Chicago, pp. 218-239.
Etant donnée la diminution du diamètre final [3] Perry E. B. (1979) Susceptibility of dispersive clay at
des échantillons aux teneurs en eau plus élevées Grenada dam, Mississippi, to piping and rainfall ero-
et l’indépendance de l’angle d’inclinaison des sion, Tech Rep. GL-79-14, U.S. Army Engineers, Wa-
terways Experiment station, Vicksburg, 111 pages.
dépôts, on constate que le volume final des [4] Sherard J. L. et al. (1992) Piping in earth dams of dis-
échantillons suit la même tendance que leur hau- persive clay, Geotechnical Special Publication, (32),
teur maximale de gonflement. Ainsi, plus la te- 55-93.
neur en eau est faible et/ou plus le pourcentage [5] ASTM (2005) Identification and classification of dis-
persive clay soils by the pinhole test, standard test
d’argile est élevé, plus le volume final sera method, Annual book of ASTM standards, Vol. 04.08,
grand. D4647-93.
[6] ASTM (2005) Standard test method for dispersive
characteristics of clay soil by double hydrometer, stan-
6 CONCLUSIONS dard test method, Annual book of ASTM standards,
Vol. 04.08, D4221-99.
Dans le but d’améliorer le « Crumb Test », un [7] Richards L.A. (1931) Capillary conduction of liquids in
porous mediums, Physics , pp. 318–333.
nouvel essai d’émiettage a été développé. Grâce [8] Martin T. (2009) Elaboration et analyse d’un nouvel es-
a cet essai, il est ainsi possible de suivre la dy- sai experimental pour comprendre l’émiettage des sols,
namique de gonflement d’un sol non-saturé en Rapport de stage de recherche, École polytechnique, 52
délimitant notamment plus précisément une pages.
phase d’hydratation et une phase d’affaissement.
Une étude paramétrique a montré que la durée
de ces deux phases dépend de la teneur en eau de
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 161
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-161
ABSTRACT
Desiccation cracking has been a major concern for the proper functioning of clay soils. Reinforcement of sand with discrete fi-
bres has been well investigated in the literature. In contrast, clayey soil reinforced with discrete fibres has been less studied. Fi-
bre-reinforcement has been considered in projects involving slope stabilization, embankment construction, subgrade stabiliza-
tion, and stabilization of thin veneers such as landfill covers. Some recent researches have indicated that benefits may be gained
by inclusion of discrete fibres in clay.
Influence of fibre inclusion on soil compaction parameters and crack propagation pattern have been investigated in this paper.
Different type of clay and fibre were used for this investigation. The main parameters such as fibre length and percentage were
changed. (i.e. Fibre length varied from 5mm to 25mm and fibre percentage varied from 0.1 to 1% as dry weight of soil). Sample
size also was changed throughout this study and crack propagation pattern has been well investigated. Image analysis was used
to evaluate crack percentage. The results showed that crack propagation percentage will be reduced with adding fibre. Further-
more, compaction curve for used samples showed that inclusion of fibre caused a slight decrease in maximum dry density and
increased in optimum moisture content (OMC).
RÉSUMÉ
La dessiccation se fendant a été une inquiétude importante pour le fonctionnement nécessaire de sols de glaise. Le renforcement
de sable avec les fibres séparées a été bien enquêté dans la littérature. Au contraire, le sol glaiseux renforcé avec les fibres sé-
parées a été moins étudié. Le renforcement de fibre a été considéré dans les projets impliquant la stabilisation inclinée, la con-
struction de digue, la stabilisation de sous-qualité et la stabilisation de placages fins comme les couvertures d'enfouissement des
déchets. Quelques recherches récentes ont indiqué que les avantages peuvent être gagnés par l'inclusion de fibres séparées dans
la glaise. L'influence d'inclusion de fibre sur le sol compaction les paramètres et le dessin de propagation de première a été en-
quêtée dans ce papier. Le différent type de glaise et de fibre a été utilisé pour cette enquête. Les paramètres principaux comme la
longueur de fibre et le pourcentage ont été changés. (c'est-à-dire. La longueur de fibre variait de 5 millimètres à 25 millimètres et
à pourcentage de fibre varié de 0.1 à 1 % comme le poids sec de sol). La grandeur de promotion a aussi été changée au cours de
cette étude et le dessin de propagation de première a été bien enquêté. L'analyse d'image a été utilisée pour évaluer le pourcen-
tage de première. Les résultats ont montré que le pourcentage de propagation de première sera réduit avec l'ajoutant de la fibre.
En outre, compaction la courbe pour les échantillons utilisés a montré que l'inclusion de fibre a provoqué une augmentation
faible dans la densité sèche maximum et la diminution dans la teneur en humidité optimale (OMC).
1
Corresponding Author.
162 A. Chegenizadeh and H. Nikraz / Influence of Fibre Inclusion on Crack Propagation
x About 4.5 kg of air-dried soil was put in the A series of cracking tests were conducted and
mixing pan so that it could pass No. 4 following results obtained. Table 2 shows the
sieve. crack density with different fibre content and
x The moisture content was increased by length. Crack density factor was computed based
about 5%. on image processing and obtaining the ratio of
x The weight of empty mould without the crack to total surface area.
base plate and the collar was recorded as
W1 (gr). Table 2. Crack density versus fibre content
x The collar and base plate was fixed and the Fibre Percentage Fibre Crack Intensity Factor
first soil part was compacted with 25 blows length
in proctor mould No fibre 5.28
x Some scratches were put with a spatula 0.1% 5mm 3.4
0.1% 25mm 2.85
forming a grid to ensure uniformity in dis- 1% 5mm 0.37
tribution of compaction energy to the sub- 1% 25mm 0.24
sequent layer. The second and third layer
was placed and 25 blows were applied. Figure 4,5,6,7 and 8 show the images from
x The final layer was placed so that the com- different fibre contents. The results proved that
pacted soil is just above the rim of the with increasing in fibre content and length crack
compaction mould when the collar is still density decreased rapidly.
attached.
x The collar carefully was detached without
disturbing the compacted soil inside the
mould and edge was used to trim the excess
soil levelling to the mould.
x The weight of the mould with the moist soil
W2, (gr) was determined.
x Sample was extruded the sample and
evaluated for water content in some cans
x The rest of the compacted soil was broken Figure 4. The crack propagation without fibre
with hand to pass US Sieve No.4. and
moisture content was increased by 2%.
x Steps repeated again for different moisture
contents.
x Different fibre contents (i.e. 0.1% and 1%)
were used.
x The dry density plotted versus moisture
contents for unreinforced clay and rein-
forced clay
Figure 5. The crack propagation 0.1% fibre with 5mm
length
RESUME
Une des limites à l’ètude des matériaux naturels est la difficulté d’obtenir des échantillons similaires. La reconstitution d
échantillons´est un processus utilisé pour résoudre ce problème, son applicabilité à des grès en cours de discussion dans ce
travail. Les processus de reconstitution présentés ici, en utilisant un matériau obtenu exclusivement par la désagrégation de grès
naturel, cherche à reproduire les processus géologiques qui ont conduit à la formation du grès considéré, qui intègre le Groupe de
Silves. Après avoir décrit les deux méthodes utilisées pour reconstituer les échantillons dans le laboratoire, le comportement
échantillons de grès naturel et reconstitué est comparé. Les résultats permettent l’évaluation de la capacité de se reproduire et de
caractériser des échantillons de grès faiblement cimenté dans le laboratoire et de contribuer à améliorer notre compréhension de
cette importante formation géologique ainsi que d’autres présentant des caractéristiques similaires.
1
Corresponding Author.
168 P.A.L.F. Coelho et al. / Validation of Methodology for Reconstituting Weakly Cemented Sandstones
iour, which allows parametric studies to be car- spatial variability that limits the value of experi-
ried out on similar specimens. mental analysis intended to evaluate the influ-
The reconstitution of a certain geological ma- ence of some factors on its behavior, from a Civil
terial usually requires the characterization and Engineering perspective.
laboratory replication of the geological processes The sampled sandstone layer shows a pale
that occurred in nature, even if the impossibility pink shad due to the presence of iron oxides
of reproducing the effects of geological time (hematite and goethite) and presents a clastic tex-
must be recognized. This study evaluates the fea- ture with medium sand grains. The stratification
sibility of reconstituting a weak rock, namely a surfaces appear well defined and the layer thick-
friable sandstone, according to the enounced ness is about 0.5 to 0.6 m. The sandstone sam-
principles. The methodology used to reconstitute ples taken from this formation are easily disag-
and verify the two fundamental requirements for gregated by hand and are very sensitive to the
the samples, namely the uniformity of behavior presence of water as well as to vibration, which
and the similarity with the average natural be- is related to the fact that their cementation is
haviour, are described. The study was conducted weak, possibly of clayey nature. The formation
in sandstones of the Castelo Viegas formation, exhibits, in its natural state, high resistance and
which exists in several places in the district of freestanding capacity, as can be seen in the verti-
Coimbra and in other regions of Portugal. cal excavations that can be made. The grains of
This study considers two methods for sand- the studied sandstone are mainly constituted by
stone reconstitution. In a first attempt, the mate- quartz, k-feldspar, plagioclase and micas. The
rial obtained by disaggregation of the sandstone silt-clay matrix is mostly composed of clay min-
was reconstituted simply by using uniaxial con- erals, iron and manganese oxides and, more
fined compression to simulate the load applied to rarely, by carbonates.
the formation in their natural state. On a second
attempt, the material was vibrated and then com-
pressed, in order to include the effects of seismic RECONSTITUTION METHODS IN
events, which certainly occurred at the time of LABORATORY
the formation of the sandstone.
In an initial phase, common to both methods, the
sandstone samples were collected with the neces-
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES THAT sary care to avoid significant disturbance to the
ORIGINATED THE CASTELO VIEGAS natural material and to obtain samples represent-
FORMATION ing the true behavior in situ. Parts of these sam-
ples were placed in a container with water for
The Castelo Viegas Formation (Upper Triassic) approximately 24 hours to allow smooth disag-
is a fluvial formation with an age of about 200 gregation of the matyerial without applying me-
million years that integrates the Silves Group [1] chanical actions that could break the grains.
[2] [3] [4]. The studied sandstone was collected The compression of the material was executed
from the top layer of the Castelo Viegas Forma- on a Servo Hydraulic Universal Testing Ma-
tion. The sampled site is located on the western chine, within a rigid metal mold built for that
slop of the Miguel Bombarda Street, one of the purpose (Figure 1).
access routes to the Polo II of the University of
Coimbra. Based on the thickness and unit
weights of the various lithostratigraphic units
resting above the sampled layer in the past, it is
estimated that the studied sandstone was sub-
jected to a lithostatic load corresponding to a to-
tal of 648 m of sediments, with an average unit
weight of 21.57 kN/m3. This formation shows
P.A.L.F. Coelho et al. / Validation of Methodology for Reconstituting Weakly Cemented Sandstones 169
12000
Figure 2. Grain-size distribution curves of one reconstituted Vertical Samples
10000 Natural
and two natural samples.
8000 Sample
^a (kPa)
6000 Rec5d-V
4000
RecVib-V
Behavior in the presence of water 2000
0
It was experimentally observed that sandstone
0 0,5 1 1,5 2
samples disaggregate relatively easily when im- ¶a (%)
mersed in water. In the case of the intact sample, Figure 3. Stress-strain curves of specimens cut in the vertical
it took several hours before major disaggregation direction
occurred and, at the end of this period, it still
showed some clusters that appeared intact. How-
ever, these were easily disaggregated by weak
hand pressure [5]. All the reconstituted speci-
mens, when submersed in water, underwent
complete disaggregation with no noticeable clus-
ters in only a few minutes.
P.A.L.F. Coelho et al. / Validation of Methodology for Reconstituting Weakly Cemented Sandstones 171
^v failure (kPa)
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 Sample
¶a (%)
Figure 4. Stress-strain curves of specimens cut in the horizon- Rec 5d
tal direction. #
RecVib
Natural
while in the natural ones the variation is only Sample
from 0.64% to 1.50%. 1
Rec 5d
0,5 RecVib
12000 0
Natural-H
0 0,5 1 1,5
10000
)a ¶h failure (%)
Natural-V
P8000 Figure 7. Relationship between horizontal and vertical
(k strain at failure of natural and reconstituted specimens.
re6000 Rec5d-H
ul
ia Rec5d-V
fa4000
s Table 1 provides detailed values regarding the
2000 RecVib-H
differences between the values plotted in the
0 RecVib-V previous charts. For the compressive strength
0
0,5 1 1,5 the values obtained in the natural samples are, in
ea failure (%) average, up to 5 times higher than the values ob-
Figure 5. Values of stresses and strains at failure of natural
and reconstituted specimens. tained for the reconstituted samples. The oppo-
site is observed with respect to the strains at fail-
ure. These, in average, show values for the
Figures 6 and 7 clearly show the anisotropic reconstituted samples that are about 1.5 times
behaviour of the natural samples with respect to higher than those measured for the natural sam-
the direction of loading. The natural samples ples. It is possible to confirm once again the low-
show the expected behaviour of greater resis- est variability of compressive strength in recon-
tance under compression in the vertical direction, stituted samples, but, on the contrary, higher
a tendency that is not observed for the reconsti- variability of the deformations measured at fail-
tuted samples. It is clear from Figure 6 that the ure in the samples reconstituted by Method 2.
values of unconfined compression resistance in The Young's Modulus (E0), being a relation-
the reconstituted samples are much lower than ship between stresses and strains shows, as ex-
the ones exhibited by the natural material, even if pected, higher values in the case of natural sam-
variability is much less. In terms of strains at ples, due to the fact that natural samples have
172 P.A.L.F. Coelho et al. / Validation of Methodology for Reconstituting Weakly Cemented Sandstones
higher compressive strength and lower deforma- cut in the vertical direction exceeds the resis-
tions at failure. tance of the ones cut in the horizontal direction,
Table 1. Statistical analysis of the properties of natural and but the opposite seems to happen in the reconsti-
reconstituted samples in terms of compressive strength, strain tuted samples, even if with a smaller magnitude;
at failure and Young's Modulus. • Vibrating the samples during reconstitution
Samples Statistical ^a ¶a E0 is ineffective, as the presence of fines limits the
parameter (kPa) (%) (MPa) resulting densification of the material.
Natural Max. 11392 1.50 1252 The observed differences cannot be fully ex-
Min. 3557 0.64 95
Average 7455 1.03 764 plained. These may simply result from time ef-
Stand. Dev. 2103 0.22 274 fects not being replicated, may be due to some
Reconst. by Max. 1412 1.58 160 underestimation of the lithostatic load or even to
Method 1 Min. 796 0.95 76 the fact that the fines found in the material,
Average 1160 1.34 103
Stand. Dev. 238 0.20 32 which limit vibration effects, were absent at the
Reconst. by Max. 1140 1.76 495 time of the deposition and were generated later
Method 2 Min. 989 0.30 56 (neoformation).
Average 1060 1.05 243
Stand. Dev. 65 0.51 182
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
The authors are grateful to Prof.s Alexandre Ta-
vares, Luis Gama Pereira and Fernando Carlos
The research herein presented aimed at reconsti-
Lopes for their valuable contribution to the re-
tuting friable sandstone using two different
search, and to Mr. Jose Antonio, technician of
methods. The consolidation of loose material
the Geotechnical Lab of DEC-FCTUC, for his
was carried out through compression under a
generous support with the experiments. The re-
load corresponding to the lithostatic load applied
search was supported by the grant PTDC/ECM/
in situ to the sampled sandstone, in one case also
103220/2008 of the Portuguese Government and
with vibration. The results show that:
the EU (Compete and QREN programs).
• The reconstituted samples have more homo-
geneous texture and color, but a grain size distri-
bution similar to natural samples, except for a
REFERENCES
possible small increase of fines, which may be
due to grain fragmentation during reconstitution; [1] C. Palain, Une série détritique terrigéne. Les “Grés de
• The natural samples have higher unit weight, Silves”: Trias et Lias inférieur du Portugal. Memories
which proves that the void ratio of reconstituted of the Geological Services of Portugal, N.S., 1976.
samples is higher and the process of consolida- [2] R. P. Reis, A. Corrochano, C. A. Bernardes, P. P.
Cunha & J. L. Dinis, The Meso-Cenozoic of the Portu-
tion under load cannot fully replicate the struc- guese Atlantic Coast. III Geological Congress of Spain
ture of natural samples, even when vibration is and VIII Latin-American Geological Congress, Excur-
used to simulate the effects of seismic events sions, Salamanca (1992), 115-118 (in Portuguese).
• The natural and reconstituted samples ex- [3] A. F. Soares, J. F. Marques, R. B. Rocha, Contribution
to the understanding of Coimbra’s geology. Memories
hibit qualitatively similar sensitivity to water and News, Publ. Mus. Mineral Geol. Lab. University of
though the disaggregation of the reconstituted Coimbra. nº 100, (1985), 41-71 (in Portuguese).
samples is more extensive and much faster; [4] A. F. Soares, J.F. Marques, J.D.S. Sequeira, Geological
map and explanation notice for region 19-D Coimbra-
• The natural samples show higher compres- Lousã. Department of Geology. INETI. Lisbon, 2007.
sive strength and lower extensions at failure, but (in Portuguese)
exhibit greater variability in their properties; [5] V. Marques, P. Coelho, P. Andrade, P. Cunha, Method-
• The anisotropy in the resistance of natural sam- ology for the reconstitution of sandstones aiming at its
geotechnical characterization. XII Portuguese Geo-
ples is not adequately replicated by reconstituted technical Conference, Guimarães, Portugal, 2010 (in
samples. The resistance of the natural samples Portuguese).
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 173
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-173
ABSTRACT
Cemented soils are often seen as non-textbook materials, since they don´t fit into the usual behaviour of transported soils in the
light of classical Soil Mechanics theories. The major problem of establishing a mechanical behaviour pattern of cemented sandy
soil based on recoiled natural samples is the variability of its fabric and the existence of a dispersion of particulate strength, ag-
gravated by inevitable sampling induced disturbance. The use of artificially cemented soils has been frequently used as a mean
to overcome these drawbacks. However, this approach may be criticized due to an important handicap, that is the difficulty of ar-
tificially recreating natural microfabrics. Herein, a laboratorial framework performed on Guarda granitic residual soils, inte-
grated in a wider research PhD program (Cruz, 2010) is presented, aiming to study the influence of microfabric in artificially and
naturally cemented soils strength and stiffness properties. The program involved an extensive laboratorial testing program per-
formed over remoulded soils of weathered granite mixed with Portland cement under distinct contents. Overall, 50 uniaxial,
diametral and triaxial (CID) compression tests with internal or local instrumentation (LVDT) were executed over these admix-
tures.
RÉSUMÉ
Les sols cimentés sont souvent considérés comme des matériaux «non-textbook», car ils ne s’ajustent pas dans le comportement
habituel des sols transportés, compte tenu des théories classiques de la Mécanique des Sols. Le problème majeur d’établissez un
modèle de comportement mécanique des sols sableux cimenté, basé sur des échantillons naturels recueilli, est la variabilité du
fabrique et l’existence d’une dispersion de la résistance des particules, aggravée par les inévitables perturbations induites par
l’échantillonnage. L’utilisation des sols artificiellement cimenté a été souvent utilisé comme un moyen de remédier ces inconvé-
nients. Cependant, cette approche peut être critiquée en raison d’un handicap important, notamment, la difficulté de recréer arti-
ficiellement la microstructure naturelle. Ici, un étude de laboratoire intégré dans un plus large programme PhD (Cruz, 2010), ef-
fectuées sur les sols résiduels granitiques de la Guarda (Portugal), est présenté visant étudier l’influence de la microstructure
dans les propriétés de résistance et de rigidité des sols artificiellement et naturellement cimentés. L’étude comprenait un grand
programme d’essais de laboratoire effectué sur des sols remaniés de granite altéré, mélangé avec du ciment Portland en différent
pourcentages. Dans l’ensemble, 50 essais de compression, uniaxiale, diamétrale et triaxiale (CID), avec instrumentation interne
ou locale (LVDT), ont été exécutés au cours de ces mélanges.
1
Corresponding Author.
174 N. Cruz et al. / The Influence of Microfabrics in Bonded Soils Behaviour
q/p'
Cem-52.5R and 2% Cem-32.5N, but with clearly 1.5
p'=300 kPa
Natural residual soil
300 (q/p')max
Cem 1%-52.5R
0
250 Cem 2%-32.5N
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Cem 2%-52.5R
200 εa (%)
Cem 3%-32.5N
150 Destructured -1
100 0 dmax
50 1
2
0
3
εv (%)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Axial strain, εa (%) 4
5
Figure 1. Uniaxial compression tests.
6
45 7
Natural residual
Indirect tensile stress, q t (kPa)
40 soil 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
35 Cem 1%-52.5R εa (%)
30 Figure 3. CID triaxial tests in destructured samples.
Cem 2%-32.5N
25
20 Cem 2%-52.5R
2.5
15
Cem 3%-32.5N
10
2
5 Destructured
q /p'
0 1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 p'=25 kPa
Vertical diametral strain, εd (%) 1 p'=50 kPa
Figure 2. Indirect tensile stress. p'=75 kPa
0.5 p'=300 kPa
(q/p')max
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
4 TRIAXIAL TESTS εa (%)
-2
1
p'=350 kPa
p'=25 kPa
mum rate of dilation takes place after the maxi-
p'=50 kPa mum stress ratio, while these two points coincide
0.5 p'=150 kPa
(q/p')max
in destructured samples [3]. Results also reveal
0 that increasing cementation level leads to a high-
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 er gap between peak and maximum dilatancy re-
εa (%)
lated strains.
-6 Finally, a softening post-peak behaviour is ob-
-5 dmax
served, which is smoother in natural soils. De-
-4
spite the same order of strength magnitude, arti-
-3
ficial and natural sample behaviours are not
-2
εv(%)
-1
similar and thus, the former doesn´t seem to rep-
0 resent with accuracy the latter.
1
2 4.2 Stress-dilatancy behaviour
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
εa (%) The different behaviours referred above seem
Figure 6. CID triaxial tests natural structured samples. to be highly influenced by volumetric answer
during shear and so, relations between strength
In the first place, results show that globally
and dilatancy were also studied to go further in
strains associated to peak strengths increase with
the understanding of these behaviours. To do so,
increasing confining stresses.
On the other hand, stress ratios of the destruc- dilatancy ratio (dHv/dHs) was plotted against stress
tured samples show a gradual increase up to a ratio, K (=q/p’), as presented in Fig. 7, 8, 9 and
maximum ultimate value (with the only excep- 10. These figures show that the higher dilatancy
N. Cruz et al. / The Influence of Microfabrics in Bonded Soils Behaviour 177
is obtained in natural soils, followed by artificial Figure 9. Stress-dilatancy data for cemented soil with 2% of
cement 32.5N.
mixtures, while in destructured samples the pa- q/p' Frictional trend
2.5
rameter is no longer present. In these latter, the Cemented trend
p'=15 kPa
stress paths are almost linear, revealing the ab- 2 p'=25 kPa
p'=50 kPa
sence of a cementation strength, while in artifi- p'=150 kPa
cially or naturally cemented soils the increase of 1.5 p'=300 kPa
p'=500 kPa
cementation strength is represented by an in-
creasing cohesive intercept in shear strength, as 1
0 Cem 1%-52.5R
800 Natural residual soil
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
Direct determination of seismic wave velocities in the laboratory is becoming common practice worldwide, given its great poten-
tial in the definition of the stiffness at very small strains. One of the techniques for seismic wave measurement makes use of pie-
zoelectric transducers, such as bender elements (BEs). However, some limitations remain to the applicability of this technique,
namely for stiff geomaterials, such as compacted soils, naturally or artificially cemented soils and soft or weak rocks. For this
purpose, two accelerometers have been used in conjunction with BEs. In the present paper, this combined test setup implemented
on a stress-path triaxial chamber will be detailed. An application study will be presented for a hard soil, prepared by laboratory
compaction and tested in triaxial compression at different isotropic stress levels. The equipments, procedures and interpretation
analyses will also be described. The advantages of this setup are twofold: i) the interpretation of the acceleration measurements
is straightforward, since the signals are of the same nature; ii) these measurements can be used to verify the bender element sig-
nals, and thus minimize the subjectivity of the interpretation of BE results. Additionally, the accelerometers can be used autono-
mously wherever the interpretation of BEs becomes too complex. The results of this research enabled to validate the interpreta-
tion methods used for bender element testing. Moreover, this combined setup of transducers provided a simple yet powerful tool
for eliminating the subjectivity inherent to BE testing, enabling reliable measurements of small-strain stiffness for a wide range
of materials.
RÉSUMÉ
Détermination directe des vitesses des ondes sismiques dans le laboratoire est devenue une pratique courante dans le monde en-
tier, compte tenu de son grand potentiel dans la définition de la rigidité à petites déformations. Une des techniques pour la me-
sure des ondes sismiques utilise des transducteurs piézoélectriques, comme des bender elements (BEs). Toutefois, certaines li-
mites restent à l'applicabilité de cette technique, pour les géomatériaux raide, comme les sols compactés, les sols cimentés et des
roches tendres ou faibles. A cet effet, deux accéléromètres ont été utilisés en conjonction avec des BEs. Dans cet article, cette
installation d'essai combiné mise en œuvre sur une chambre triaxial de stress-path sera détaillée. Une étude d'application sera
présentée pour un sol dur, préparé par compactage en laboratoire et testé en compression triaxiale à différents niveaux de con-
trainte isotrope. Les équipements, les procédures et l'interprétation seront également décrits. Les avantages de cette installation
sont de deux ordres: i) l'interprétation des mesures d'accélération est simple, puisque les signaux sont de même nature; ii) ces
mesures peuvent être utilisées pour vérifier les signaux des BEs, et donc de minimiser la subjectivité de l'interprétation des résul-
tats. En outre, les accéléromètres peuvent être utilisés de manière autonome quand l'interprétation des BEs devient trop com-
plexe. Les résultats de cette recherche a permis de valider les méthodes d'interprétation utilisées pour les essais des BEs. En plus,
cette configuration combinée des transducteurs fourni un instrument simple mais puissant pour éliminer la subjectivité inhérente
à les essais des BEs, permettant des mesures fiables de la rigidité à petites déformations, pour un large éventail de matériaux.
1
Corresponding Author.
180 C. Ferreira et al. / Determination of the Small-Strain Stiffness of Hard Soils
a) b)
2 APPLICATION OF THE COMBINED
BENDER ELEMENTS AND Figure 1. Setup and installation of the bender elements and
ACCELEROMETERS SYSTEM accelerometers in a soil specimen: a) schematic; b) photo-
graph of setup AC3-13.
10 100
AC amplitude (mV)
BE amplitude (V)
0 0
BE signal is reduced as stress level increases,
BE
while the AC signals appear to be unaffected by
BE
AC
stress changes. In effect, with the stress increase,
-5 -50
AC
the shear wave may become undetected in the re-
BE transmitter BE receiver
AC 3 AC 13
ceived BE signal, while it is still visible in the
-10
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
-100
AC measurements. For this reason, it can be
b) Time (ms) stated that the performance of the accelerometers
is virtually independent of the stiffness of the
Figure 2. Time histories of signals from BEs and ACs at dif-
ferent isotropic confining stresses: a) 100 kPa; b) 300 kPa
tested material.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the com-
Table 1 presents a comparative summary of bined measurement of shear wave velocities by
the results obtained by the BEs and the ACs at bender elements and accelerometers is a valid
the different confining pressure stages, in terms method, providing comparable results. Further-
of travel time, shear wave velocity and shear more, the combined use of BEs and ACs is both
modulus. The differences between the measure- advantageous and complementary: not only in
ments are also indicated in the table. terms of the validation of the BE interpretation,
but also for the determination of shear wave ve-
locities beyond the range of applicability of the
Table 1. Comparative summary of BE and AC results
BE method.
Test
Parameter
Confining pressure (kPa) This is particularly relevant for testing stiffer
method 0* 100 200 300 materials, such as hard soils (compacted or artifi-
t (ms) 4.25 0.74 0.60 0.50 cially cemented) and soft rocks or for testing at
BE VS (m/s) 47.1 270.3 333.3 400 high stress levels.
G0 (MPa) 4.4 145.5 221.2 318.6
ABSTRACT
Research into the stress-strain behaviour of many stiff clays and weak rocks has demonstrated conclusively that it is highly non-
linear. Hence, to calculate ground movements it is necessary to define stiffness parameters at strains which correspond to the
strains caused by the construction. In this paper the stiffness of five soils from various Greek construction sites was evaluated
through improved equipment and test techniques. These included measurement of shear wave velocity and the use of local strain
instrumentation. The latter comprised of miniature inclinometers and LVDTs. Tests were performed on natural (undisturbed)
specimens trimmed from block samples. The specimens were isotropically and anisotropically consolidated and stiffness pa-
rameters were measured for each soil for a range of effective stress levels. Despite the wide variation of the deposits all soils
contain less than 20% clay content and their Atterberg limits plot very close to the A line. The measured stiffness values fall
within the broader band of data reported in the literature for stiff clays.
RÉSUMÉ
La recherche sur le comportement contrainte-déformation de nombreuses argiles raides et roches tendres a démontré de façon
concluante qu'il est hautement non-linéaire. Par conséquent, pour calculer les mouvements de terrain, il est nécessaire de définir
les paramètres de rigidité à deformations qui correspondent aux contraintes provoquées par la construction. Dans cet article, la
rigidité de cinq sols provenant de divers sites de construction grecques a été évaluée grâce à l'amélioration des équipements et
des techniques des tests. Ces mesures inclus la vitesse des ondes de cisaillement et de l'utilisation de l'instrumentation des de-
formation locale. Ce dernier comprend des inclinomètres miniatures et LVDT. Des essais ont été effectués sur des spécimens
naturelles (intactes) taillés dans des blocs. Les échantillons ont été isotropiqument et anisotropiqument consolidés et les pa-
ramètres de rigidité ont été mesurés pour chaque sol pour une gamme de niveaux de la contrainte effective. Malgré la grande
variation des sédiments tous les sols contenant moins de 20% la teneur en argile et leurs limites d'Atterberg terrain sont très
proche de la ligne A. Les valeurs de rigidité mesurée se trouvent dans la large evantail de données rapportées dans la littérature
pour les argiles raides.
1
Corresponding Author.
186 V.N. Georgiannou et al. / Measurement of Stiffness of Greek Stiff Soils
various construction activities all over Greece. cloth. They were stored in a chamber filled with
Block samples were extracted from an area of the water in its lowest compartment. Triaxial speci-
Ionian geotectonic zone studied in connection mens 38mm in diameter and 76mm in height
with the construction of the Egnatia motorway were hand trimmed in a soil lathe from the block
[1], an area in central Greece where a new samples.………………….
motorway (E65) is under construction, from the 100%
base of the Corinth Canal [2], and two locations 90%
in Athens. It is interesting to note that the 80%
Five natural cohesive soils are presented in this Figure 1. Grading curves for natural soils.
paper. To minimize the effects of sampling
disturbance, block samples were extracted from The tested soils were initially saturated, and
vertical faces of cuts, with the exception of the B values measured in the triaxial specimens
Marousi low plasticity clay which was prepared were in excess of 0.95. The initial effective stress
from rotary-cored samples taken from a depth of in each specimen, pi’, was measured by applying
16-18m at the site of Kiffisias avenue in the a cell pressure and allowing the pore pressure to
OAKA area. Large block samples of Egnatia come to equilibrium, usually involving a period
high plasticity silt were extracted from the face of 24 h. Specimens were subsequently
of a tunnel in the Egnatia Motorway at a section consolidated to a range of effective stresses.
located some 35 km east of Igoumenitsa Port in Laboratory tests were carried out in computer
North-West Greece. Blocks of Marl were controlled Bishop and Wesley [3] triaxial stress
recovered from cuttings of the Corinth Canal path cells with an accuracy of ±0.5kPa in
about 60m deep and at elevations close to sea pressure and ±0.1N in load measurements. The
level. Finally, blocks of Moshato low plasticity instrumentation of the triaxial cells included a
clay from Athens and Lamia high plasticity silt pair of local strain measurement transducers,
from central Greece were obtained from a depth either the axial strain electro-level inclinometers
of 5 m after the removal of the overlying [4] or submersible linear variable differential
deposits. The blocks, 50 to 60 cm high, were transducers (LVDTs) mounted diametrically
covered with cling film and covered with wet opposite over a central gauge length of the
Table1. Index properties of the tested soils specimens, and a mid-height pore pressure probe
[5]. The shearing rate was 5%/day for the
w0 (%) Gs wL WP undrained tests and 4%/day for the drained tests
(%) (%) on Marl and Moshato clay. The index properties
Marl 25-26 2.69 31.0 25.0 of the five soils are summarised in Table 1. All
Lamia 27-29 2.62 57.0 32.0 soils apart from the low plasticity clays of
Moshato and Marousi, are silty albeit too close to
Moshato 20-22 2.70 29.9 17.5
the A line. Moreover, Marousi and Egnatia soils
Egnatia 18-20 2.66 53.0 30.0 include a high percentage (>25%) of sand. Their
Marousi 17-18 2.67 37.3 22.2
V.N. Georgiannou et al. / Measurement of Stiffness of Greek Stiff Soils 187
grading curves are shown in Fig 1. All soils have probe and base measurement of pore pressure did
clay contents lower than 20%. not exceed 1% of the current effective stress.
p'=('1+2*'3)/3
1200
=ct (kPa)
1000
3 COMPRESSIBILITY 575
q=1-3 (kPa)
CHARACTERISTICS 800
430
600 400
Fig. 2 shows the oedometer compression curves 400
240
for the tests carried out on natural intact samples. 200
It can be seen that only the Moshato and Lamia 100
0
samples, which were obtained from shallow
0 2 4 6 8 10
depth, reach obvious normal consolidation
axial strain (%) (a)
curves with the Marl samples showing the
smallest volume change between subsequent
0,5
loading increments. Hence, for the stress range
0,0
examined during shearing only Moshato and
volumetric strain (%)
-0,5 0 2 4 6 8 10
Lamia samples are expected to be normally -1,0 p'=ct (kPa)
100
consolidated. -1,5
-2,0 575
-2,5
0,80 Marousi 430
-3,0
Marl 400
0,70 -3,5 240
Egnatia -4,0
0,60
Moshato axial strain (%)
(b)
0,50 Lamia
Figure 3. (a) Stress-strain and (b) volumetric
e
0,40
against axial strain curves for the Marl.
0,30
50000
400
0
q (kPa)
0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10
300
shear strain (%) (a)
p'=430 kPa, AC
800
100
p'=400 kPa, AC
200 kPa
Figure 4. (a) Variation of shear modulus with 200
145 kPa
strain and (b) variation of normalised shear 110 kPa
modulus with strain for the Marl. 100
0
The stiffnesses normalised with respect to effec-
0 5 10 15 20 25
tive stress shown in Fig. 4(b), at ¶s=0.01% vary axial strain (%)
between 370 and 460 for the stress range 100-
570kPa the higher value corresponding to
p’=100-200kPa, indicating that p’ can be suc- 300 (c)
cessfully used as a normalising parameter. The p'=500 kPa
stiffness data derived from the p’=ct tests on
Corinth marl fall within the band of data ob- 200
u (kPa)
unlike the typical behaviour of normally to a much narrower band compared with the
consolidated clays. However, the stress-strain Marl (Fig. 4(b)).
curves are flat and do not show brittleness at
least for axial strains up to 10%. The diagram of 350000 Marg4, p'=240 kPa, AC
excess pore water pressures shown in Fig. 5(c) Egn1, p'=240 kPa, IC
300000 lamia4, p'=200kPa, IC
indicates that dilative tendencies take over long
Marousi, p'=160 kPa, IC
before peak at about 5% axial strain. Such 250000
Moshato2, p'=200 kPa, IC
dilative tendencies can be attributed to the 200000 London Clay, p'=190 kPa, IC
dominance of silt in this soil. The samples after
slight bulging developed single slip surfaces at 150000
Gmax
50-530 to the horizontal followed by a conjugate 100000
surface at large strains.
G (kPa)
50000
p'=110 kPa
p'=110 kPa
400 tail. The stiffness measurements for London Clay
also included in Fig. 7 appear to form the lower
band for this bunch of materials. The specimen
200 of London Clay was obtained from rotary cored
(b) samples 100mm in diameter taken from a depth
0 of around 30m at the site of Waterloo Interna-
0,001 0,010 0,100 1,000 10,000 tional Terminal and sheared in the triaxial at an
shear strain (%) initial effective stress of 190kPa under undrained
Figure 6. (a) Variation of shear modulus with conditions.
strain and (b) variation of normalised shear
modulus with strain for Lamia.
5 CONCLUSIONS
In Fig. 6 the stiffness variation with strain is
shown for these tests. Strong non-linearity and The present study has provided some insight
dependence on stress level is evident. The effect into the stress-strain behaviour of five natural
of the latter is taken into account in Fig. 6(b) soils with Atterberg limits close to the A line.
where stiffness has been normalised with respect The intact strength properties of two of the soils
to effective stress and the results are normalised have been studied: a high plasticity silt from La-
190 V.N. Georgiannou et al. / Measurement of Stiffness of Greek Stiff Soils
mia, Greece, and low plasticity Marl from the urements of the Crag and Lower London Tertiaries at
Sizewell, Geotechnique, 47 (1997), 451-474.
Corinth Canal. Both soils developed slip
surfaces, with the Marl exhibiting brittle
behaviour contrary to the less sensitive behaviour
of the soil from Lamia. Small strain
measurements have been used to define the
stiffness for all five soils. Stiffness non-linearity
is evidenced. With the exception of the normally
consolidated Moshato and Lamia soils, which
show smaller stiffness than the other soils, the
stiffnesses of the overconsolidated soils are
similar, at the same effective stress level, and fall
within the band of data obtained from laboratory
tests for stiff clays in the literature.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
Decomposed granite soils, formed by weathering of the parent rock, exist widely in many areas of the world. The mechanical
properties of this type of geomaterial, compared to clay and sand, are less extensively studied. In this study the small-strain shear
modulus (G0) of a decomposed granite soil in Hong Kong was measured for a variety of packing densities and confining pres-
sures, using the resonant column (RC) and bender element (BE) techniques, and the values of G0 obtained by the RC and BE
tests were compared to study the effect of test method. It is found that the small-strain shear modulus of the decomposed granite
soil is considerably lower than that of a benchmark quartz sand. Furthermore, the G0 values of the decomposed granite soil ob-
tained by the bender element tests are significantly higher than those measured by the resonant column tests, whereas for quartz
sand the two test methods are found to provide quite similar results.
RÉSUMÉ
Les sols granitiques décomposés, qui sont le produit de la désagrégation de la roche-mère, sont trouvés dans de nombreuses ré-
gions du monde. Les propriétés mécaniques de ce type de géomatériaux ont cependant été moins étudiées que celles de l'argile et
le sable. Les résultats de mesures du module de rigidité de cisaillement aux petites déformations (G0) d'un sol granitique décom-
posé de Hong Kong sont présentés ici pour une variété de densités et de pressions de confinement. Les essais ont été faits par co-
lonne de résonnance (RC) et en utilisant la méthode aux piézocéramiques dits « bender elements ». Les valeurs de G0 obtenues
par les RC et BE tests ont été comparées pour étudier l'effet de la méthode d'essai. Les résultats montrent que le module de ci-
saillement aux petites déformations du granite décomposé est généralement très inférieur à celui des sables quartzitiques. Les va-
leurs de G0 du granite décomposé obtenues par les tests aux piézocéramiques sont nettement supérieures à celles obtenues par les
essais par colonne de résonnance, alors que ces deux méthodes donnent des valeurs assez similaires quand elles sont appliquées
à un sable quartzitique.
Keywords: Shear modulus, wave velocity, bender element, resonant column, decomposed granite
key role in the deformations associated with ex- compression waves (P-wave). The apparatus can
cavations and foundations ([3]). accommodate a sample of 50 mm in diameter
Among various methods for laboratory mea- and 100 mm in height and has a cell pressure ca-
surement of shear modulus, the resonant column pacity of 1 MPa. The advantage of this apparatus
(RC) test is recognized to be most reliable. In re- lies in that BE and RC tests can be performed on
cent years, the bender element (BE) test involv- identical specimens, which makes the compari-
ing direct measurement of shear wave velocity son of test results of the two methods more mea-
becomes increasingly popular ([3-4]). Both me- ningful and reliable and benefit the signal inter-
thods have different advantages and limitations. pretation in BE tests [9-10].
For example, while the interpretation of RC tests
has been well established, the BE tests can be in-
corporated in various devices such as triaxial and
oedometer configurations. Nevertheless, the in-
terpretation of BE signals is somehow difficult
involving uncertainty ([5-6]).
In the past several decades, the stiffness of
soils at small strain has been studied extensively.
It is now widely accepted that the value of G0 of
a granular soil mainly depends on the void ratio
(or packing density) and the effective confining
pressure. Research also indicates that the value
of G0 depends on the particle size distribution
([7-8]).
Unlike ordinary soils, decomposed granite
soils are formed by weathering of the parent
rock. They exist widely in Hong Kong and many
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the apparatus used
other parts of the world, and are generally re-
garded as sandy soils. In this study, a series of
bender element and resonant column tests have
3 TEST MATERIAL AND PROCEDURES
been performed on a decomposed granite soil at
various densities and effective confining pres-
The soil in this study, referred to as completely
sures. The objective of the study is to improve
decomposed granite (CDG), was collected from
our understanding of the stiffness property of de-
a loose fill slope in Hong Kong. It is composed
composed soils at small strain.
mainly of quartz and feldspar. Figure 2 shows
the particle size distribution of the soil. The basic
properties are: specific gravity Gs = 2.64, D10 =
2 TEST EQUIPMENT
0.0035 mm, D50 = 0.60 mm, D60 = 0.83 mm,
coefficient of uniformity Cu = 237, coefficient of
A state-of-the-art apparatus incorporating the curvature Cc = 6.75. The fines content (particle
bender element, slow-rate torsional shear and re- size < 63 m) of the soil is 25.3%.
sonant column functions has been set up at the Each specimen was prepared by the moist
University of Hong Kong, and has been success- tamping method with 5 sub-layers. After sample
fully used in the study of the shear stiffness of preparation, a suction of 25 kPa was applied to
sands under various conditions ([9-10]). The ap- stand the sample and support the weight of the
paratus is schematically shown in Fig. 1. The RC driving arm of the RC. Then, the dimensions of
is of bottom-fixed and top-free configuration the sample were measured accurately and the ini-
with internal LVDT for the measurement of spe- tial void ratio was determined. Finally, the sam-
cimen axial deformation. The BE is able to gen- ple was flushed with CO2 and then with de-aired
erate not only shear waves (S-wave) but also
X.Q. Gu and J. Yang / Laboratory Measurement of Shear Stiffness of Decomposed Granite 193
water. Back pressure was increased accordingly determine the travel time ([4-6]). However, no
to ensure the saturation of the sample until the firm conclusion can be drawn as to which me-
Skempton’s B value was higher than 0.95. In thod is free from the near-field effect.
each test, an isotropic effective confining pres- For dry and wet sand specimens Yang and Gu
sure was applied in four steps, namely 50, 100, [9-10] have shown that performing BE tests at a
200 and 400 kPa. During consolidation, the axial range of frequencies is much helpful for signal
deformation and volume change of the sample interpretation. Following this practice Figure 3
were measured. The void ratio of the sample dur- shows typical wave signals in a CDG specimen
ing consolidation was updated at each loading at the confining pressure of 100 kPa and the void
stage. Then, BE and RC tests were performed to ratio of 0.458, for frequencies ranging from 1 to
determine G0 for each specified stress state. 80 kHz. It is clear that the characteristics of
waveforms in the soil depend on frequency, im-
100
plying the frequency dependence of the shear
wave velocity in the soil. The near-field effect,
80 which is obvious at low frequencies, tends to de-
Percentage passing (%)
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Sinusoidal
Particle size (mm) 1kHz Saturated
ı ' = 100 kPa
e = 0.458
5kHz
termined as follows
40kHz
L
G0 (Vs ) ( ) 2 2
(1)
t 80kHz
velocity, L and t are, respectively, the travel dis- 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
tance and travel time of the shear wave. It is well Time (ȝs)
agreed that the distance between the tips of pie-
zoelectric transducers can be taken as the travel Figure 3. Typical output signals with sinusoidal inputs at dif-
ferent frequencies
distance L. However, the determination of the
By analyzing the characteristics of output sig-
travel time t is somehow difficult and subjective,
nals in a whole view and using signals at 10 and
due primarily to the near-field effect. Various
20 kHz specifically, it is reasonable to determine
methods, such as the start-to-start method and the
that the S-wave travel time is around 398 !s. By
cross-correlation method, have been proposed to
194 X.Q. Gu and J. Yang / Laboratory Measurement of Shear Stiffness of Decomposed Granite
G0 (MPa)
The effect of confining pressure on the small- 150
strain shear modulus of the CDG is shown in
Figure 4 for a specimen at the initial void ratio of 100
0.475. Both BE and RC measurements show that RC: y = 7.52x
0.54
velocity to shear modulus is an effective density Figure 4. Small-strain shear modulus from BE and RC tests
rather than the saturated mass density in order to as a function of confining pressure (e =~0.458)
account for the coupling effect on elastic wave
propagation in porous media ([10-11]). 160
To account for both pressure and void ratio ef-
BE: y=70.51x0.44
fects, a general empirical expression for sand (R2=0.97)
120
([12]) is adopted here to analyze the test data:
G0/F(e) (MPa)
'
G0 AF (e)(
80
)n (2)
Pa
40
RC: y=43.51x0.47
where A is a constant reflecting soil properties
(R2=0.98)
and fabric, ı’ is the effective confining pressure
(in kPa), pa is a reference stress of 98 kPa, n is a 0
stress exponent, and F(e) = (2.17-e)2/(1+e) is a 0 1 2 3 4 5
Normalized pressure ı'/Pa
void ratio function reflecting the effect of pack-
ing density. Note that here G0 value are in MPa. Figure 5. Normalized small-strain shear modulus from BE
Figure 5 shows the normalized small-strain and RC tests
modulus G0/F(e) as a function of the normalized
pressure ı’/pa. Generally, the relation expressed Table 1 Fitting results of small-strain modulus for CDG and
in Equation (2) works for the CDG as well. The Toyoura sand
fitting parameters are given in Table 1. The stress Reference Soil Method Fitting parameters
exponent n is determined to be 0.44 for BE test A n
data and 0.47 for RC data; both values are This study CDG RC 43.5 0.47
BE 70.5 0.44
slightly higher than that for a benchmark quartz [9] Toyoura RC 92.5 0.41
sand, Toyoura sand, see Table 1. However, the BE 95.1 0.41
value of the constant A for the CDG is signifi- [7] Toyoura RC 88.2 0.40
cantly lower than that for Toyoura sand, meaning
that the stiffness of the CDG is quite smaller than
the quartz sand. One of possible explanations for
this observation is that the CDG tested is very
well graded with a large coefficient of uniformity.
X.Q. Gu and J. Yang / Laboratory Measurement of Shear Stiffness of Decomposed Granite 195
100
5 CONCLUSIONS
help determine the travel time of S-wave nical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 131 (2005),
1063–1070.
with an increased reliability.
[7] T. Iwasaki and F. Tatsuoka, Effect of grain size and
grading on dynamic shear moduli of sand, Soils and
Foundations 17 (1977), 19–35.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT [8] T. Wichtmann and T. Triantafyllidis, Influence of the
grain-size distribution curve of quartz sand on small
strain shear modulus Gmax, Journal of Geotechnical and
The work presented in this paper was supported Geoenvironmental Engineering 135 (2009), 1404–1418.
by the University of Hong Kong under the Seed [9] J. Yang and X.Q. Gu, Dynamic shear modulus of dry
Funding for Basic Research scheme. This sup- sand: effect of test method, Proceedings of the 14th Eu-
ropean Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Ohrid,
port is highly acknowledged. 2010.
[10] J. Yang and X.Q. Gu, Measurement of shear waves in
dry and saturated sand, Proceedings of the 14th Asia
Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotech-
REFERENCES nical Engineering, Hong Kong, 2011.
[11] M. A. Biot, Theory of propagation of elastic waves in a
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Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 126 ciety of America 28 (1956), 168–191.
(2000), 1015–1025. [12] B. O. Hardin and F. E. Richart, Elastic wave velocities
[2] J. Yang and X.R. Yan, Site response to multi- in granular soils, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foun-
directional earthquake loading: a practical procedure, dation Engineering Division 89 (1963), 39–56.
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 29 (2009), [13] A. Souto, J. Hartikainen, and K. Ozudogru, Measure-
710–721. ment of dynamic parameters of road pavement mate-
[3] J. H. Atkinson, Non-linear soil stiffness in routine de- rials by the bender element and resonant column tests,
sign, Géotechnique 50 (2000), 487-508. Géotechnique 44 (1994), 519–526.
[4] E. G. M. Brignoli, M. Gotti and K. H. II. Stokoe, Mea-
surement of shear waves in laboratory specimens by
means of piezoelectric transducers, Geotechnical Test-
ing Journal 19 (1996), 384–397.
[5] V. Jovicic, M. R. Coop and M. Simic, Objective criteria
for determination of Gmax from bender element tests,
Géotechnique 46 (1996), 357–362.
[6] J.-S. Lee and J. C. Santamarina, Bender element, per-
formance and signal interpretation, Journal of Geotech-
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 197
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-197
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 203
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-203
ABSTRACT
In order to investigate the response from laterally cyclic loading of monopiles a large centrifuge tests series is ongoing at the
Technical University of Denmark (DTU). This paper will present some of the tests carried out with a focus on the influence of
accumulation of rotation when changing the loading conditions. In these tests the load conditions are controlled by two load
characteristics, one controlling the level of the cyclic loading and one controlling the characteristic of the cyclic loading. The
centrifuge tests were performed in dense dry sand on a pile with prototype dimensions as following: The diameter of the pile was
d = 2 m, the penetration depth of the pile was L = 6 d = 12 m and a load eccentricity of e = 15 d = 30 m. The loading of the pile
was performed with a load setup which applies the load on the monopile in a manner that corresponds to the load condition for a
monopile used for wind turbine foundation. This is important in order to get the right failure mechanism in the sand. The load
frame is controlled with a feedback system which enables force controlled load series. A total number of 8 tests have been car-
ried. In all of the tests, the pile was loaded with 500 load controlled cycles and for the entire test series accumulation of rotation
was seen.
RÉSUMÉ
Afin d'étudier la réponse de chargement latéral cyclique de monopieux, une importante série d'essais en centrifugeuse est en
cours à l'Université technique du Danemark (DTU). Ce document présente quelques-uns des tests effectués avec un accent sur
l'influence de l'accumulation de rotations pour des conditions de chargement variables. Dans ces essais, les conditions de charge
sont contrôlées par deux caractéristiques de charge, une contrôlant le niveau de la charge cyclique et l’autre contrôlant l'orienta-
tion du chargement cyclique. Les essais en centrifugeuse ont été effectués sur un pieu situé dans du sable dense et sec ; le pieu a
les dimensions suivantes : d = 2 m de diamètre, profondeur de L = 6 d = 12 m et excentricité de la charge de e = 15 d = 30 m.
Le chargement du pieu a été réalisé avec une configuration de charge qui applique la charge sur le monopieu d'une manière cor-
respondant au chargement rencontré lors de l’utilisation d’un monopieu comme fondation d’une éolienne. Ceci est important afin
d’obtenir le mécanisme de rupture correct dans le sable. Ce cadre de chargement est contrôlé à l’aide d’un système de rétroaction
qui permet des séries de chargement contrôlées par la force. Un total de 8 essais a été effectué. Dans tous les tests, le pieu a été
chargé avec 500 cycles contrôlés par la force et une accumulation de la rotation a pu être notée pour toute la série de tests.
1
Corresponding Author.
204 R.T. Klinkvort et al. / Laterally Cyclic Loading of Monopile in Dense Sand
The static and all cyclic tests were performed 4.1 Installation of piles
in dry Fontainebleau sand. The classification pa-
rameters shown in Table 1 are taken from [7]. After the sand is prepared the piles are jacked in-
to the soil at 1g. Figure 2 shows the jacking force
Table 1. Classification parameters for the Fontainebleau sand
measured during installation. It can be seen that
Specific gravity of particles, Gs 2.646 the sand samples are homogeneous and that de-
Minimum void ratio, emin 0.548 viation can be attributed mainly to the variation
Maximum void ratio, emax 0.859
Average grain size, d50, in mm 0.18 in void ratio. From this it is concluded that the
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 1,6 soil samples for all the performed tests can be as-
sumed identical. The installation data of T6 was
The test pile has a diameter of 22 mm. This not recorded - the relative density for this test
leads to a “model diameter/grain size diameter” was found to ID=0.84.
ratio of 22/0.18 = 122. This ratio should be large
enough to avoid particle size effects when apply-
ing the artificial gravity field according to the
observations described in [8].
A spot pouring hopper was used for the prepa-
ration of the sand sample. After the sand is pre-
pared, the pile is installed at 1 g. Only one test is
carried out per soil sample.
A set of non-dimensional parameters are used
to describe the applied cyclic loads. This ap-
proach is similar to the one chosen by [9].
displacement, the applied force and the rotation maxima and minima from every cycle can be
were recorded. In Figure 3 the result from the found.
monotonic load test can be seen. Here the rota-
tion of the pile top is plotted against the applied
force. As it can be seen from the figure no max-
imum capacity is reached. Therefore a rotation
criterion was used for define the failure.
ABSTRACT
The paper concerns evaluation of initial stiffness in natural overconsolidated cohesive soils of various plasticity ranging from 10
to 80 %. Initial stiffness is here represented by shear modulus Gmax determined on the basis of shear wave velocity measured at
the end of consolidation stage during triaxial test. On the basis of representative number of tests it was shown that change in ini-
tial stiffness caused by mean effective stress increase is a soil kind dependent and can be described as a function of plasticity in-
dex. Some consideration concerning value of shear modulus for unconfined are also included. Thus, knowing both the above
components it is possible to evaluate initial stiffness of overconsolidated cohesive soils solely on the basis of index properties.
RÉSUMÉ
L’article comporte une etude de la rigidité initiale des sols naturels, preconsolidés, cohérents de la plasticité variable de 10%
jusqu’a 80%. La rigidité initiale est défini ici comme le module de cisaillement Gmax déterminé sur la base de la vitesse d’onde
de cisaillement mesurée à la fin de la phase de consolidation au cours d’essai triaxial. Sur la base du nombre représentatif
d’études on a montré que le changement de la rigidité initiale due à l’increment de la contrainte effective dépend du type de sol
et peut etre décri par la fonction de l’indice de plasticité. L’article contient également quelques réflexions sur la valeur de la rigi-
dité initiale en absence du stress latéral. De cette manière, prenant en compte ces deux éléments, on peut évaluer la rigidité ini-
tiale des sols preconsolidés cohérents seulement sur la base des propriétés physiques.
Keywords : shear modulus, shear wave velocity, overconsolidated natural soils, various plasticity
1
Corresponding Author
210 M.J. Lipiński and W. Tymiński / Evaluation of Initial Stiffness
but not least it should be emphasized that shear which might help to select representative value
wave velocity can be measured in the laboratory of stiffness in a layered subsoil. This paper fo-
and in the field, what considerably magnifies its cuses on initial stiffness of natural overconsoli-
usefulness. dated cohesive materials of various plasticity in-
All the above advantages creates sound pre- dex ranging from 10 to 80%. Experimental data
mises for use of shear wave velocity measure- created a basis for derivation of formula for ini-
ment as a versatile tool in solution of practical tial stiffness of natural overconsolidated material
geotechnical engineering problems. This requires on the basis of index properties.
experience in measurement of shear wave veloci-
ty in natural soils. However, the majority of geo-
technical papers concerning measurement of 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
shear wave velocity do not refer to overconsoli-
dated natural material. Those papers focus on re- Soil for tests were sampled in undisturbed state
constituted academic sands [4] or soft cohesive (standard shelby tube) from various sites located
materials [5]. Little is known about natural over- all other Poland. The soils are of Quarternary and
consolidated cohesive material which in the past Tertiary origin. In general, soil was sampled
were very often subjected to complicated stress from upper moraine deposits, the lower pregla-
history. Influence of stress history on evaluation cial deposits and Pliocene clays. Laboratory tests
of very small strain stiffness has been addressed indicated that all soil can be classified as clays of
in many works [6]. Majority of relationships various plasticity from low through medium to
which have been proposed on the basis of expe- high in case of Pliocene clays. Wide range of
rimental data consist of four elements depending plasticity of tested soil is depicted on Casa-
on: effective state of stress, void ratio, stress his- grande's chart shown in Figure 1.
tory, material constants.
Effective stress can be represented by effec-
tive component of vertical stress, mean stress or
separated vertical and horizontal stress. Void ra-
tio is taken into consideration in the form of var-
ious function depending on the kind of soil.
Stress history is usually represented by overcon-
solidation ratio related to vertical (OCR) or mean
effective stress (Ro). However, there are opinion
that effect of overconsolidation is to large extent
taken into account by void ratio function and ho-
rizontal stress component. There are few works Figure1. Casagrande's plasticity chart of tested soils.
which consistently account for kind of soil [7]. In
this case kind of material is split among expo- State of soil measured by liquidity index IL
nents of stress and overconsolidation ratio (less oscillated around zero, with small positive values
important) and factor A which varies significant- for low plasticity soil and small negative value
ly with plasticity index. Just plasticity index is for high plasticity clays. These values of liquidity
the parameter which can change value of A, and y range
thus initial stiffness of a soil, even several times 1700÷2000 kPa. So it is quite clear that material
over the range of plasticity feasible to appear in is stiff and heavy overconslidated.
natural soils. All tests were carried out in triaxial apparatus
In case of natural subsoil many different mate- having cell with internal linking bars. Undis-
rials of various plasticity can be distinguished. turbed material was set up in the cell, then satu-
This fact makes difficult to select relevant value rated by back pressure method to achieve full sa-
of stiffness for load carrying structure. Therefore turation and then consolidated to predetermined
it seems advisable to look for certain regularities isotropic stress. Some of specimens were con-
M.J. Lipiński and W. Tymiński / Evaluation of Initial Stiffness 211
Computer
Triaxial
Receiver cell Figure 3. Test results.
Source
IP < 30%
Wave generator 30 < IP <60%
IP> 60%
Figure 2. Laboratory setup for shear wave velocity measure- There are a few observation which can be
ment.
done on the basis of these data. The data cover
quite wide range of void ratio (0.3÷0.85), range
of stress (20÷600kPa) and shear wave velocity
3 TEST RESULTS
(150÷450m/s).
Regarding relationship between shear wave
Any presentation of the data should account for
velocity and mean effective stress the data
major variables contributing to state of soil. For a
among plasticity ranges differs significantly. The
given soil these variables are state of stress and
data clearly indicate that shear wave velocity in-
void ratio. Therefore the shear wave velocity da-
creases when plasticity decreases. It can be also
ta are shown in Figure 3 in the form of the fol-
noticed that for a given stress range a gradient of
lowing relationships:
shear wave velocity increases with plasticity in-
- Shear wave velocity against effective stress
dex decrease. It should be emphasized that trends
- Void ratio against shear wave velocity
for all three groups of data are curvilinear. Lower
Since one of the major objective of the paper was
plasticity soils show higher curvilinear trend of
evaluation of soil kind component contribution to
the data. For all soils a curvature of a trend line is
stiffness of soil, the data have been divided into
bigger for smaller stress (ie. less than 100kPa). It
three categories corresponding to various ranges
would be more convenient to analyze trends in
of plasticity index IP i.e
the form of straight lines. It can be done by con-
sidering elastic constant shear modulus G instead
of shear wave velocity. The conversion is based
on the well known formula derived from theory
of elasticity:
G
Vs2 (1)
_$!
It can be discussed if modulus derived from
shear wave velocity should be marked with sym-
bol G0 or Gmax. For heavy overconsolidated soils
symbol Gmax seems to be quite adequate. In Fig-
ure 4 values of shear modulus Gmax determined
on the basis of shear wave velocity are shown
against mean effective stress. As it was antic-
212 M.J. Lipiński and W. Tymiński / Evaluation of Initial Stiffness
It might be argued if this type of trend line is op- 4.2 Gmax at small normal stress
timal. Especially that value of k changes most in-
The procedure shown in Figure 7 is very clear
tensively in plasticity range not exceeding
and simple. However, degree of credibility of
40÷50%. For high plasticity soils, gradient of
both components contributing to the actual value
Gmax due to stress increase does not seem to vary.
of Gmax is not the same. Different slopes k for
This might suggest to consider value of k in two
various value of plasticity index described by
separate groups i.e. soils of plasticity up to 40%
equation 2 is quite certain. Nevertheless, it is
and very high plasticity clays. Taking into con-
worth to note that various slopes of linear regres-
sideration general behavior of these two groups
sions results in various values of intercept G0.
of soils under stress application such approach
There are two possible ways to determine value
might be rational. However application of power
of G0. The first one is to treat it just as an inter-
function has advantage of applying one formula
cept without any physical meaning. Attractive-
for the whole range of plasticity.
ness of this approach results from its simplicity
Fairly wide range of stress makes possible to
and the fact that actually it relies entirely of mea-
set up slope of linear regression within each
surement of stiffness for various stress level.
small range of plasticity. However it is worth to
However, it is not universal, since each time val-
note that each of these regression lines intersects
ue of G0 should be determined. It is also worth to
vertical axis (Gmax at p}{$$!
point out that bigger slope resulting from lower
Therefore, in order to determine value of shear
plasticity is associated with smaller intercept.
modulus (within each of nine small ranges of
Proportions between G0 ¡max changes with
plasticity index) one has to take into considera-
plasticity. In case of small to medium plasticity a
tion two components:
value of intercept is small comparing to increase
G0 which is Gmax }{
of stiffness resulting from stress increase. For
high plasticity soil value of initial stiffness G0 is
G max 41
I P1.57 p ' (3) significant comparing the actual value of Gmax.
These geometrical observation can be clearly de-
thus the actual value of Gmax for any stress can be duced from Figure 5. It must be emphasized that
calculated according to the following formula: the term initial stiffness G0 is used here not in a
sense of common meaning i.e. initial value of G
Gmax G0 41
I P1.57 p ' (4) for smallest strain range. This term is used here
in a sense of notation introduced in Figure 7, i.e.
the first possible way to determine G0.
(value of plasticity index in %)
The second possibility to determine G0 should
The scheme for calculation of Gmax is shown in rely on its physical meaning. However, it should
figure 7. be noticed first, that it is not possible to deter-
mine value of shear wave velocity for effective
Gmax stress equal to zero for heavy overconsolidated
cohesive soil. Apart from experimental problem,
which results from the fact that for small stress
an identification of arriving signal is uncertain,
even for unconfined conditions cohesive soil has
tg = k a certain value of effective stress resulting from
k = f(IP) suction acquired in process of unloading during
G0 sampling. Due to a volume constrains any dis-
cussion on measurement of suction and its fur-
ther interpretation is beyond the scope of this pa-
p’
per. An alternative solution is to select arbitrary
Figure 7. Two components for calculation of shear modulus. value of effective stress. Taking into considera-
214 M.J. Lipiński and W. Tymiński / Evaluation of Initial Stiffness
tion various plasticity of soil and resulting from ticity soils and slightly negative value for high
this experimental problems (saturation, swelling plasticity clays.
etc.) value of 50 kPa of effective stress was se- Increase in stiffness due to stress increment in
lected. Figure 8 shows distribution of Gmax nor- cohesive soils of various plasticity can be de-
malized with respect to 50 kPa and showed scribe by a unique formula (3).
against void ratio within three categories of plas- If value of shear modulus G50 is determined
ticity index i.e. smaller than 20, 20÷40, and within identified plasticity index range from Fig-
higher than 40%. Categories of plasticity index ure 8, then it is possible to evaluate Gmax solely
result from most intense change of stiffness in knowing void ratio and plasticity index on the
the range of plasticity up to 40%. Use of this basis of the formula (5).
chart makes possible to determine initial stiffness
in heavy overconsolidated cohesive soils of vari-
ous plasticity: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Gmax G50 41
I P1.57 ( p '50) (5)
Where G50 is calculated on the basis of regres- This paper was partly supported by the Polish
sions shown in Figure 8, with taking into account Ministry of Science and Higher Education (re-
void ratio value. Values of stress and shear mod- search grant N N506 0989 33).
ulus are in kPa.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The well-known theories do not explain/predict the tendency of particle breakage for initially concave grading
curves. The paper presents the interpretation of the results of some particle breakage tests with initially A>0.5 and
with initially A<0.5 grading curves. The explanation seems to be the same for these.
RÉSUMÉ
Les théories bien connues n’expliquent (ne prédisent) point la tendance de rupture des particules ayant une courbe
granulométrique initialement concave. Le document présent une explanation aux résultats de quelques essais de
rupture de particules avec courbes initialement A>0.5 and A<0.5. Des explications semble d’être les mêmes pour
celles-ci.
1
Corresponding Author.
216 J. Lorincz et al. / Some Comments on Grading Entropy Variation and Crushing of Various Sands
2 GRADING ENTROPY
As a result, the distribution of the double cell
To begin, the grading entropy concept is briefly system is known and can be computed if the
summarized, and some mathematical and relative frequencies of the fractions xi (i = 1, 2,
physical features related to the breakage problem 3...N) are specified. The relative frequencies of
are treated in detail. Some aspects of the the fractions xi (i = 1, 2, 3...N) of each grading
previous results (([1]), ([4])) are repeated as curve satisfy the following equation:
needed, for clarity. jmax jmin N 1
¦ xi 1, x i t 0, N t 1 (2)
2.1 Statistical cells (fractions and elementary cells) i j min
123 234 345 456 567 2.3.1 Definition of the grading entropy
The grading entropy S can be separated into the sum
12 23 34 45 56 67
of two parts ([1]):
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S S 0 'S
Figure 1. The lattice of the continuous sub- simplexes of
(3)
a continuous simplex (the one unit integers are serial number
of fractions, the k-unit integers denote k-component
mixtures: kN).
J. Lorincz et al. / Some Comments on Grading Entropy Variation and Crushing of Various Sands 217
a'
According to the solution, for a fixed N and A Following from the Descartes rule of signs,
the following grading curve or point of the polynomial y has one and only one positive root
simplex maps into this point: for a ([4]). As A varies between 0 and 1 then
positive root a varies between 0 and Õ, extreme
218 J. Lorincz et al. / Some Comments on Grading Entropy Variation and Crushing of Various Sands
its size is increasing with decreasing A and N, 0.4 and 0.6, the zero fractions were added from the smaller
side. (a) N =2 . (b) N = 6
and increasing with increasing i, the number of
the additional zero fractions.
The discontinuity in the B coordinate is
always a decrease, its size is increasing with
increasing B and decreasing N, and increasing
with increasing i the number of the additional
zero fractions.
In case of N=1 - a single-fraction soil - there
is no discontinuity jump. The discontinuity for Figure 6. Reinforced crushing pot used in the soil crushing
fixed N and i is much larger on the A<0.5 side experiments.
than the A>0.5 side of the diagram, as it can be n=185, n=125, n=85
3
1.2 N=2, discontinuity when 0.4
n=0
i smaller fractions are
added
B [-]
0.8 0.0
i=0
A=2/3
i=1 0.6 0.8 1.0
i=2 Relative base entropy, A [-]
0.4
Figure 7. Normalised entropy path of a one-fraction soil
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(LÖrincz et al, 2006) (N is the treatment number)
A [-]
0.8
i=0
i=1
i=2
4 1 1 1 1 1
0.4
2 1 1 1 1 1
0.0 1 0.65 0.83 0.8 0.9 0.7
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
A [-] 0.5 0.38 0.62 0 0 0
(b) 0.25 0.17 0.35 0 0
Figure 4. Computed discontinuity of the normalized entropy 0.125 0 0 0 0 0
diagram for initially optimal soils with symmetric A values
0.1 and 0.9, the zero fractions were added from the smaller
side. (a) N =2 . (b) N = 6
5 BREAKAGE TESTS, RESULTS AND
1.2
EVALUATION
B [-]
0.8
5.1 Testing method and soils
N=2, discontinuity when
0.4 i smaller fractions are
added A testing procedure was developed in the frame
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 of this research (LÖrincz et al. 2005). The
A [-]
(a) sample is subjected to a series of crushing
treatments using a specially reinforced crushing
1.2
pot, made at the Geotechnical Department of the
Budapest University of Technology and
B [-]
0.8
0.4
N=4, discontinuity when
i smaller fractions are
Economics with a diameter of 50 mm, a height
added
of 70 mm and a wall thickness of 3 mm (see Fig.
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 6). The tests were made in the laboratory of the
A [-]
(b) Department of Construction Materials and
Figure 5. Computed discontinuity of the normalized entropy Engineering Geology.
diagram for initially optimal soils with symmetric A values
220 J. Lorincz et al. / Some Comments on Grading Entropy Variation and Crushing of Various Sands
B [-]
0.8 concave
sieving. The grading entropy value is computed 10
5.2 Results
0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
The results are shown in Figures 7 to 9. The A [-]
result of LÖrincz et al, (2006) for a single
(c) Test 3, silica sand.
fraction soil in Fig 7, shows a monotonic
normalized entropy path which is homothetic to
the A>0.5 side of the upper bounding line (the A 1.2
40
decreases as B increases). The normalized
entropy paths for the tests on multi-sized soils
B [-]
0.8
initial
(Table 3, Fig 8) show a significant jump at the concave 10
start of the test when the new smaller fractions 0.4 (number of
crushing
appear (A increases and B decreases). If no new treatment)
0.8
breakage is always monotonic. The entropy initial
increment S increases as the base entropy S0 0.4
decreases similarly in all cases.
0.0 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90
0.8
1.2 30
0.4 20 10
initial
B [-]
0.8
0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
A [-]
0.4
(a) Test 1, silica sand
0 0.0 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
10 A [-]
20
1.2
(f) Test 6, carbonate sand.
B [-]
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
A [-]
J. Lorincz et al. / Some Comments on Grading Entropy Variation and Crushing of Various Sands 221
30 6 DISCUSSION
initial 20
10
6.1 The interpretation of the entropy path
The non-normalized entropy path during
breakage is characterized by a decrease in the
base entropy So and a monotonic increase in the
.0
0.10
0.2
0.30
0.4
0.50
0.6
0.70
0.8
0.90
1.0
entropy increment eS.
A [-] The S0, the weighted mean of the fraction
(g) Test 7, carbonate sand
entropies, is monotonically and uniquely related
to the mean grain size and it follows that a
Figure 8. Normalised entropy path of multi-fraction soils (a)
to (d) Silica sands, (e) to (g) Carbonate sands
decrease in the mean grain diameter should
cause a decrease in the base entropy S0.
The entropy increment S is a measure of the
2.8 N=7 disorder of the grain system, which originates
Entropy increment,'S [-]
2.4
N=6 from the mixing of the fractions. It can be
N=5 related to the entropy principle.
2.0 The normalized entropy path has the same
N=4
0.4 0.6
1.6 N=3
behavior provided the number of fractions
remains constant. However, it has a
1.2 N=2
discontinuity if the number of fractions increases
0.8 due to the appearance of smaller fractions. In
0.4 this situation, the discontinuity is with ‘opposite
sign’ (A increases, B decreases) if a new smaller
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
fraction appears.
Base entropy, S0 [-] Comparing the results of the carbonate and silica
sands with the same initial composition it can be
(a) found that the entropy path is about the same
(Fig 10), only the rate of breakage depends upon
2.8 N=7 soil type. The distance along a given entropy
Entropy increment,'S [-]
The physical explanation is as follows. As is Concerning the size of the jump, it can be said
well-known ([1]), the relative base entropy A that the soils with unstable structure according to
(the weighted mean of the reduced fraction the well-known A criterion (the grain structure is
entropies) characterizes the stability of the grain unstable if A is less than 2/3, [1]) seem to be
structure, without any knowledge of the actual unstable during breakage having a relatively large
geometrical arrangement. The grain structure is initial jump at the start of the test.
unstable if A is less than 2/3. There is an initial, somewhat surprising result
The change in a soil’s grading, especially concerning the use of both carbonate and silica
through the appearance of some finer fractions, sands. For a given initial mixture composition
may cause a sudden change in the soil’s the entropy path seems to be the same, however,
structure, leading to an increase in its stability. there may be a significant difference in the rate
The relative base entropy A (a stability of breakage depending upon soil type. This fact
indicator) discontinuously increases, and the can be used to elaborate some simple geological
normalized entropy increment B (the ‘disorder’ testing methods to categorize the hardness of the
indicator) discontinuously decreases, if the various rocks.
number of the number of fractions in the grading
curve, N, increases.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1.60
0.80
Figure 10 The similarity of the breakage path for tests 3 and [1] LÖrincz, J; Imre, E; Gálos, M; Trang, Q.P; Telekes, G;
6 (blue), 4 and 5 (pink), 7 (green). Open circles indicate Rajkai, K; Fityus, I. (2005) Grading entropy variation
silica sand, full circles carbonate sand, the starting point of due to soil crushing. Int. Journ. of Geomechanics. Vol 5.
the solid lines (indicating the jumps) is the initial state, the
Number 4. p. 311-320.
end point of the solid lines is computed.
[2] Lorincz, J. Imre, E. Kárpáti, L. Trang, P. Q. Gálos, M;
Telekes, G. (2009) Entropy concept to explain the
particle breakage. Proc. of 17th ICSMGE, Alexandria, p
7 CONCLUSION
139-143
[3] Trang, P. Q.; Kárpáti, L. , Nyári, I., Szendefy, J., Imre,
The non-normalized entropy path during E., Lõrincz, J. (2009) Entropy concept to explain particle
breakage is characterized by a decrease in the breakage and soil improvement Proc of Ygec Alexandria
base entropy So and a monotonic increase in the p 87-90.
entropy increment eS. The normalized entropy [4] Imre, E; LÖrincz, J; Trang, Q.P; Fityus, S. Pusztai, J;
path during breakage has the same behavior Telekes, G; Schanz, T. (2009) Some dry density transfer
provided the number of fractions remains function for sands. Invited paper. KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering 13(4):257-272. DOI 10.1007/s12205-009-
constant. However, it has a discontinuity if the
0257-7
number of fractions increases due to the
appearance of smaller fractions. In this situation,
the discontinuity is with ‘opposite sign’ (A
increases, B decreases). It is found here that the
discontinuity can simply be computed, on
condition that the number of the new fractions is
given.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 223
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-223
ABSTRACT
A laboratory investigation was conducted in order to evaluate the influence of parameters pertinent to suspension composition on
the effectiveness of microfine cement suspension grouting. Four gradations each from three different types of cement (CEM I,
CEM II/B-M and CEM IV/B, according to EN 197-1) were used having nominal maximum grain sizes of 100 ¡m, 40 ¡m, 20 ¡m
and 10 ¡m. The effectiveness of cement suspensions with water to cement ratios of 1, 2 and 3 by weight was evaluated by con-
ducting one-dimensional injections into four clean, uniform sands using a specially constructed device and was quantified by
conducting unconfined compression and permeability tests on the resulting grouted sand specimens. Grouted sands obtained un-
confined compression strength values of up to 15 MPa and permeability coefficients as low as 1.3*10-6 cm/s or by up to 5 orders
of magnitude lower than that of ungrouted sands. The water to cement ratio of cement suspensions is the most important of the
investigated parameters since it affects drastically both strength and permeability of grouted sands. Cement type, cement fine-
ness and curing times greater than 28 days, have lower or negligible influence on the effectiveness of grouting.
RÉSUMÉ
Une recherche en laboratoire a été effectuée pour évaluer l’influence des paramètres pertinents à la composition de suspension
au sujet de l’efficacité des ciments très fins en injection. Quatre courbes de gradation, chacune composée de trois types de ci-
ment (CEM I, II/B-M et IV/B, conformément à EN 197-1) ont été utilisées avec des dimensions nominales maximales des grains
a 100, 40, 20 et 10 ¡m. L’efficacité des suspensions de ciment ayant un rapport de poids entre eau et ciment de l’ordre de 1, 2 et
3 a été évaluée par injections unidimensionnelles dans quatre sables, purs et uniformes, à l’aide d’un dispositif spécial construit à
ce propos, et a été quantifié, au moyen des essais de compression uniaxiale et de perméabilité sur des échantillons sableux injec-
tés. Les sables injectés ont obtenu des valeurs en compression uniaxiale jusqu’ à 15 MPa, ainsi que, des coefficients de perméa-
bilité aussi faibles que 1.3*10-6 cm/s ou de 5 ordres de grandeur inférieures par rapport aux sables non injectés. Le rapport eau –
ciment en suspension des ciments, est le paramètre le plus important parmi ceux qui ont été examinés, puisqu’ il affecte de ma-
nière drastique aussi bien la résistance, que la perméabilité, des sables injectés. Le type de ciment, la finesse du ciment et le
temps de durcissement supérieur à 28 jours, ont plus faible ou même négligeable influence sur l’efficacité des injections.
Keywords: permeation grouting, suspensions, microfine cements, laboratory injections, grouted sand, permeability, strength
1
Corresponding Author.
224 I.N. Markou and A.I. Droudakis / Effectiveness of Microfine Cement Suspension Grouting
not be injected into soils with gradations finer ing a special laboratory mill, to produce three
than coarse sands. The latter can be injected in additional cements with nominal maximum grain
fine sands or coarse silts but are more expensive sizes (dmax) of 40 ¡m, 20 ¡m and 10 ¡m. Charac-
and, some of them pose a health and environ- teristic grain sizes and Blaine specific surface
mental hazard. Efforts have been made to extend values for all cements are presented in Table 2.
the injectability range of suspension grouts by In terms of gradation, all cements with nominal
developing materials with very fine gradations. dmax = 10 ¡m can be considered as “microfine”
As a result, a number of fine-grained cements, since they satisfy the requirements of Standard
called “microfine” or “ultrafine” cements, has EN 12715 (d95 < 20 ¡m and specific surface over
been developed and manufactured. The behavior 800 m2/kg) as well as definitions adopted by
of microfine cements in permeation grouting has ISRM, ACI Committee 552 and PCA [1]. Also,
been the objective of many research efforts. cements with nominal dmax = 20 ¡m have ade-
The experimental investigation reported quately small characteristic grain sizes to be con-
herein is part of an extensive research effort sidered, marginally, as “microfine”.
aimed toward the development of a relatively All suspensions tested during this investiga-
fine-grained material, suitable for permeation tion were prepared using potable water since it is
grouting, obtained by pulverization of ordinary considered appropriate for preparing cement-
cements produced in Greece. Suspensions of based suspension grouts. The suspension W/C
three different cement types, each at four differ- ratio was set equal to 1, 2 and 3 by weight, in or-
ent gradations, were tested. Scope of this presen- der to test both stable and unstable suspensions
tation is to quantify the improvement of the stre- in terms of bleed capacity. A superplasticizer
ngth and permeability of sands by grouting with (patented new generation of admixture based on
these coarse- and fine-grained cements and to polycarboxylate chemistry), at a dosage of 1.4 %
document the effect of cement type and fineness, by weight of dry cement, was used to improve
grout water to cement (W/C) ratio and curing suspension properties. The same dosage was ap-
time. Unconfined compression and permeability plied to all cement suspensions, without optimi-
tests were conducted on grouted sand specimens.
Table 1. Composition of cements.
160 2000
120
Sand: 14-25, W/C: 2
1000 Sand: 10-14, W/C: 2
100 Sand: 14-25, W/C: 3
Cem. dmax: 20¡m
Sand: 14-25
(a)
80
500
0 1 2 3 4 400 600 800 1000
W/C Ratio 2
Blaine Specific Surface (m /kg)
Figure 2. Effect of cement type on grouted sand strength.
1E-2
W/C ratio of the grouts and can be attributed to Permeability Coefficient (cm/s)a Cement: II/B-M
the composition of the cements, since CEM I is a Sand: 14-25, W/C: 2
pure Portland cement consisting of a larger pro- Sand: 10-14, W/C: 2
portion of clinker in comparison with the other Sand: 14-25, W/C: 3
1E-3
two cement types and does not contain poz-
zolanic materials (Table 1).
The effect of cement fineness, expressed as
Blaine specific surface, on the strength and per- 1E-4
meability of sands grouted with CEM II/B-M
suspensions, is shown in Figure 3. It can be ob-
served (Figure 3a) that the unconfined compres- (b)
sion strength of grouted sands is not affected by 1E-5
cement fineness. It is known [2, 3] that use of 400 600 800 1000
microfine cements can lead to higher unconfined 2
compression strength values of grouted soil in Blaine Specific Surface (m /kg)
comparison with ordinary Portland cements. This Figure 3. Effect of cement fineness on (a) strength and (b)
observation was not verified by the findings of permeability of grouted sand.
the present research, possibly due to the high
W/C ratios of the suspensions used. However, it more effective filling of sand voids with grout
must be stated that suspensions with W/C ratio solids. This justification is also confirmed by the
equal to 1 were not used because, in the case of results of the present investigation shown in Fig-
cements with dmax = 100 ¡m, they present low in- ure 4. It is easily observed that permeability co-
jectability in 14-25 sand. efficient values of grouted sands decrease with
As it is shown in Figure 3b, permeability coef- decreasing bleeding capacity of the suspensions
ficient values decrease with increasing cement used in the injections. Therefore, it is evident that
Blaine specific surface, in agreement with the the mechanism of permeability reduction is
observations of other researchers [2, 3]. The ef- based on the reduction rate of soil voids induced
fect of cement fineness on the permeability of by grouting, as it has also been stated by other
grouted sands is attributed to the lower bleeding researchers [4, 5].
capacity (total proportion of the volume of bleed The results of permeability and unconfined
water to the initial volume of suspension) of mi- compression tests conducted on specimens ob-
crofine cement suspensions which leads to the tained from cement grouted sand columns, after
I.N. Markou and A.I. Droudakis / Effectiveness of Microfine Cement Suspension Grouting 227
pensions with W/C ratio equal to 1 ranged from Pressure: 160 kPa
7.2 MPa to 13.7 MPa (Table 4) and is generally
up to 7 and up to 20 times higher than the ones 1E-4
obtained by suspensions with W/C ratios equal to
2 and 3, respectively. The ranges of strength and
permeability values of grouted sands included in
Table 4 are in good agreement with values found 1E-5
in the literature for cement grouted soils [e.g. 2,
. -6 4.75
4, 5, 6, 7]. Thus, the end effect of grouting with k20 = 2 10 (W/C)
2
the suspensions used in this investigation is R = 0.94
comparable to that obtained by grouting with 1E-6
other ordinary or microfine cement suspensions.
0 1 2 3 4
As indicated in Figure 5, a good correlation
W/C Ratio
exists between unconfined compression strength
or permeability coefficient of grouted sands and Figure 5. Correlation of suspension W/C ratio with (a) strength
W/C ratio of suspensions, for sand columns and (b) permeability of grouted sand.
228 I.N. Markou and A.I. Droudakis / Effectiveness of Microfine Cement Suspension Grouting
Table 5. Comparison of strength and permeability values of grouted sands after curing for 28 and 90 days.
Cement W/C Unconfined Compression Strength (MPa) Permeability Coefficient (cm/s)
Sand
Type dmax (¡m) Ratio 28 days 90 days Increase (%) 28 days 90 days Reduction (%)
I 20 2 14-25 2.22 2.22 0.0 5.7*10-3 5.7*10-3 0.0
II/B-M 20 2 5-10 1.07 1.06 0.0 4.7*10-5 3.8*10-5 19.2
-5
II/B-M 20 2 10-14 1.36 1.51 11.0 4.6*10 3.5*10-5 23.9
II/B-M 20 2 14-25 1.93 2.11 9.3 4.5*10-5 3.2*10-5 28.9
II/B-M 10 2 10-14 1.36 1.46 7.4 5.1*10-5 3.9*10-5 23.5
The strength and permeability values obtained cement suspensions having W/C ratio = 1.
after curing of grouted sands for 28 and 90 days, x Increase of curing time from 28 to 90 days
respectively, are compared in Table 5. The ob- leads to a permeability reduction of grouted
served strength increase is considered as low sands reaching a maximum value of 29%.
since it ranges from 0% to 11%, while the ob-
served permeability reduction attains generally
higher values with a maximum of 29%. There- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
fore, the increase of curing time from 28 to 90
days affects grouted sand permeability more sig- The information reported herein is part of re-
nificantly than it affects grouted sand strength. search project PENED-03ED527 which was co-
Another interesting finding is that both strength financed by the E.U. – European Social Fund
and permeability of sand grouted with CEM I (75%) and the Greek Ministry of Development –
suspension remained unaltered after the first 28 GSRT (25%). TITAN Cement Company S.A.
days of curing, possibly due to the higher hydra- contributed chemical analyses, pulverization and
tion rates of pure Portland cements in compari- grain size analyses of the cements.
son with composite and pozzolanic cements.
REFERENCES
4 CONCLUSIONS
[1] Henn, R.W. & Soule, N.C., Ultrafine Cement in Pres-
Based on the results obtained and the observa- sure Grouting, ASCE Press, Reston, Virginia, 2010.
[2] De Paoli, B., Bosco, B., Granata, R. & Bruce, D., Fun-
tions made during this investigation, the follow- damental observations on cement based grouts (2): Mi-
ing conclusions may be advanced: crofine cements and the CemillR process, Proc., Conf.
x Grouting with CEM I (Portland cement) on Grouting, Soil Improvement & Geosynthetics, New
suspensions improves the unconfined com- Orleans, ASCE, GSP No. 30 (1992), Vol. 1, 486–499.
[3] Shibata, H., Study on long – term strength properties of
pression strength of grouted sand. suspension grouts with ultra-fine-grain materials, Proc.,
x Increase of cement fineness improves blee- Conf. on Grouting & Deep Mixing, Tokyo, A.A.
ding capacity of suspensions and, conse- Balkema, (1996), Vol. 1, 71–76.
quently, the permeability of grouted sands. [4] Krizek, R.J. & Helal, M., Anisotropic behavior of ce-
ment grouted sand, Proc., Conf. on Grouting, Soil Im-
x Grouted sand strength increases and grou- provement & Geosynthetics, New Orleans, ASCE, GSP
ted sand permeability decreases with de- No. 30 (1992), Vol. 1, 541–550.
creasing suspension W/C ratio. Good corre- [5] Schwarz, L.G. & Chirumalla, M., Effect of injection
pressure on permeability and strength of microfine ce-
lations were found between grouted sand ment grouted sand, Proc., Geo-Denver 2007, Denver,
strength or permeability and W/C ratio. ASCE, GSP No. 168 (2007).
x Unconfined compression strength values of [6] Zebovitz, S., Krizek, R.J. & Atmatzidis, D.K., Injection
grouted sands ranging from 7 MPa to 15 of fine sands with very fine cement grout, J. Geotech.
Engrg. 115 (1989), 1717–1733.
MPa and satisfactory reduction (4 to 5 or- [7] Dano, C., Hicher, P.Y. & Tailliez, S., Engineering
ders of magnitude) of the permeability of properties of grouted sands, J. Geotech. & Geoenv.
sands can be obtained by grouting with Engrg. 130 (2004), 328–338.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 229
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-229
ABSTRACT
The objective of this paper is to establish a simplified model for evaluating whether primary and secondary consolidation may
develop as two simultaneous mechanisms. The classical 1D consolidation theory has been recomputed and used to establish a set
of equations covering an estimate of the theoretical strain rate. The theoretical strain rate, when applied on time-strain curves
from Oedometer testing (Incremental loading) on a high plasticity clay, reveals a match between theory and factual measure-
ments. Referring to the dimensionless time, T, introduced by Terzaghi, the math is typically seen for T < 0.8 considering the
pure 1D consolidation theory. For T > 2 the development of strain rate during secondary consolidation can also be predicted by
the equations introduced. The measured strain rate for the time 0.8 < T < 2.0 is consistently higher than what should be expected
by just using the 1D consolidation theory. Ideas for explaining this observation have been discussed.
RÉSUMÉ
L'objectif de cet article est d'établir un modèle simplifié pour évaluer si la consolidation primaire et secondaire peuvent se déve-
lopper comme deux mécanismes simultanés. La théorie de consolidation classique 1D a été recalculée et utilisée pour établir un
ensemble d'équations portant sur une estimation de la vitesse de déformation théorique. La vitesse de déformation théorique sur
une argile très plastique, lorsqu'il est appliqué sur les courbes de temps/déformation des essais oedométriques (chargement par
paliers), révèle une correspondance entre la théorie et les mesures observées. Se référant au facteur temps T sans dimension in-
troduit par Terzaghi, le calcul est généralement effectué pour T < 0.8 en utilisant la théorie de la consolidation pure 1D. Pour T >
2, le développement de la vitesse de déformation lors de la consolidation secondaire peut aussi être prédite par les présentes équ-
ations. La vitesse de déformation mesurée pour le moment 0.8 < T < 2.0 est conséquemment plus élevé que ce qui serait prévu
en utilisant simplement la théorie de consolidation 1D. Un échange d’idées pour expliquer cette observation a été discuté.
Keywords : Primary consolidation, secondary consolidation, creep rate, 1D consolidation theory, degree of consolidation
With the objective of studying simultaneous u: Pore overpressure generated by the load
primary and secondary consolidation, only the increase
time-strain curves are discussed and the applied p: Load increase in the load step in question
load has thus no direct importance.
w: Unit weight of water
Section 2 shortly summarizes index properties h: Time dependent pressure head
of the clay investigated. Section 3 briefly touches h0: Pressure head before load increase
the basic principles from the Terzaghi consolida- t: Real time
tion theory including a reformulation into strain ck: Coefficient of consolidation
rates. Time-strain curves and strain rate curves z: Depth within specimen (sign convention,
are introduced in Section 4 with a discussion in- see Figure 1)
cluded in Section 5. H: Half the specimen height for double sided
drainage
2 KEY PROPERTIES OF SOIL INCLUDED Figure 1 represent examples of the solved heat
equation showing the development of the nor-
The time-strain curves included in this paper re- malized pore overpressure versus normalized
fer to incremental loading Oedometer tests, per- time for various levels within the soil layer, as-
formed on Palaeogene clay from the glacially suming a rectangular pressure head distribution
folded Roesnaes formation. The tests applied are immediately after the load has been applied.
0.0
based on soil specimens characterized by the fol-
T = 0.00
lowing approximate properties: natural water 0.1
05
0.5
0.3
setup. 0.6
0.50
T = 0.75
0.7
0
THEORY
T = 1.300
0.9
1.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
3.1 Governing equations u/p = 1 - '/p
Figure 1. Normalized pore overpressure versus normalized
The 1D consolidation theory, as established in depth for different time factors T = t
ck/H2.
[1], may shortly be summarized by the heat eq-
uation defined in Equation (1): As shown in [1], the solution of the heat equa-
tion may be expressed as a Taylor series (not
"h1/"t1 = ("2h1) / ("z12) (1) shown here). The Taylor series is a number es-
tablished by (in theory) an infinite number of
where: terms. In this paper a sufficient number of terms
h1 = u / p =
w
(h – h0) / p is defined by summing the absolute value of each
t1 = t
ck / H2 (= T) of the last four terms. The ratio between this sum
z1 = z / H and all the terms used to define the Taylor series,
is established and if it exceeds 1e-5, more terms
The symbols are explained below: are added. Once the ratio < 1e-5, an approximate
N. Mortensen / Reflections on Primary and Secondary Consolidation 231
value of the Taylor series is known. By this ap- Table 1. Constants to be applied in Equation (3).
proach, the examples illustrated on Figure 1 have [3] This paper. Intervals for T
been established. [0.001, 2.000] [0.001, 2.000] [0.010, 2.000]
a -6.0000 -5.1607 -5.1514
3.2 Degree of consolidation b 1.0000 0.9412 0.9408
c 0.5000 0.5103 0.5099
When the effective stresses in a soil layer increa- d -3.0000 -2.6017 -2.5980
ses, the settlement of the soil surface, #(T) will 1.82 0.46 0.26
increase too. The degree of consolidation, U re- : Maximum absolute error [%], relative to Figure 2.
presents a normalized way of illustrating #(T):
3.3 Strain rate
U = #(T)/#100 = $(1-h1) dz1 (2)
The strain rate for a time-strain curve in an incre-
mental loading Oedometer test has been addres-
#100 is the settlement corresponding to end of
primary. The degree of consolidation (Figure 2) sed. Replacing displacements in Equation (3) by
has been computed using the same computer rou- strains lead to U = %(t)/%100 and thus, the strain
tine as applied in establishing Figure 1. The inte- rate for one time-strain curve can be established
gration of Equation (2) is performed using Simp- by:
son’s rule as given in [2].
0.00 ("%t)/("T) = %100
"[U]/("T) (4)
0.10
= %100
U
c
d
Td-1 / [a
(b+c
Td)]
0.20
0.50
zaghi. The result of this differentiation is illu-
0.60 strated in Figure 3, indicating that the strain rate
decreases linearly with two different tendencies:
one straight line to the left of point A (T 0.75)
0.70
1.00
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 1 A
T []
(¶%/(¶T)/ %&''
zing out pore water would control the strain rate The time to reach end of primary, t100 is estab-
up to T 0.75. It has, however, not been possible lished in accordance with ASTM D 2435-04, [4].
to identify such an explanation by analyzing the It is seen that almost identical values of t100 are
equations involved. found using the two different methods, whereas
Equation (5) is a reformulated version of equ- the corresponding strains, %100 differ slightly. The
ation (4), where T is expressed by a factor “F” square root time method leads to %100 = 2.03 –
times the real time t. 0.13 = 1.90 % whereas the log time method im-
plies %100 = 2.10 – 0.13 = 1.97 %.
("%t)/("t) = %100
"[U]/("t) (5) The initial deformation on Figure 4 represents
the difference between the measurements within
= %100
U
c
d
Fd
td-1 / [a
(b+c
Fd
td)] the presented time-strain series, relative to the
last measurement in the former time-strain series.
“F” is defined utilizing that T = 2 correspond
to end of primary, cf. Figure 2. Since T = t
ck/H2 4.2 A strain rate philosophy
it is seen that ck/H2 = 2/t100 = F which represents
Figure 5 shows the strain rate plot from the time-
the transformation from T to t. The values %100 strain series in Figure 4. All plots drawn are ba-
and t100 therefore uniquely defines the theoretical
sed on constants “a” through “d”, extracted from
strain rate during primary consolidation.
the right column of Table 1.
1
n]
min
e [%/m
LIDATION 0..1
ain
Sttrra
Trra
annssisstion
on
zzo
onnee
0 ..01
4.1 Time to end of primary consolidation %%110000:: 1..97
7%
tt100:: 2 285 5mmiin
n
0..01 0..1 1 10 1 00 10 0 0 10 0 0 0
0.8
Time [m
me n]
min
1.0 Figure 5. Strain rate versus time; theory and measured values.
Axial strain [%]
1.2
1.4
The following comments may be given to Fi-
t100 = 270 min
gure 5:
1.6
A) The theoretical strain rate from Equation
1.8
%90/9
(5) is plotted using t100 and %100 as shown on the
2.0 t100 = 285 min Figure (and deduced in Figure 4).
2.2 B) The crosses represent a computed strain ra-
2.4 te, based on measured values of the strain and the
2.6
time. The time-strain measurements are filtered
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 in the following way: Extract three consecutive
Time [min]
Figure 4. Illustration of the evaluation of the time needed to readings of (time, strain); establish best fit re-
reach end of primary, t100 using square root time and log time. gression line, and use the inclination of this line
as the strain rate corresponding to the time defi-
N. Mortensen / Reflections on Primary and Secondary Consolidation 233
ned by the central data set. The smoothening of < 3.1. More plots may be shown revealing the
data is performed to minimize the noise in the same tendencies as already discussed and the
measurements for t > 1000 minutes, where the principles applied seems to imply a transition zo-
change in displacement is close to the accuracy ne where the measured strain rate is higher than
of the transducers. the predicted rate.
C) The line called “Theoretical creep line” has
an inclination of minus unity. For the plot type
used, the rate of secondary consolidation, C = 5 DISCUSSION / CONCLUSION
log10(1+t/ts) will, mathematically seen, plot with
an inclination of minus unity and plus unity for A brief discussion about the principle applied in
loading and unloading, respectively; “ts” is a ref- this paper is included in order to try to evaluate
erence time. how this transition zone may be understood. The
0.0
strain rate model as proposed in Equation (5) de-
pends solely on two properties: t100 and %100.
0.2 1
0.6
0.01
0.8
1.2
0.0001
1.4
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time [min]
Figure 6. Illustration of the evaluation of the time needed to 1E-005
reach end of primary, t100 using log time. 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time [min]
Figure 7. Strain rate versus time; theory and measured values.
Despite the simplifications introduced, and the
rigorous assumptions hidden within the 1D con- Looking at Figure 4 indicates that two differ-
solidation theory, Figure 5 shows reasonable ent ways of defining t100 will, for any practical
consistency between the theory applied and the purpose, lead to identical results. Referring to the
measurements established for t < 100 minutes, same figure, it is also seen that the deviation in
corresponding to T = 0.7. Figure 5 also indicates the value of %100 is less than 5 %, so there seems
that the inclination of the theoretical creep line is to be no fundamental difference in the applied
reached for t ) 400 min or T ) 2.8. values of t100 and %100 from the two methods.
The transition zone from Figure 5 is covering Figures 5 and 7 combine two different mecha-
0.7 < T < 2.8. In this zone, the measured strain nisms: a) the 1D consolidation theory formulated
rate exceeds the predicted rate using the consoli- as a strain rate and b) the mathematical conse-
dation theory and the inclination of the theoreti- quence of the applied creep law, revealing an in-
cal creep line has not yet been reached. clination of unity when plotted in log strain rate
Figures 6 and 7 are established for a different versus log time. A smooth transition between the
time-strain curve, using the principles already two theories can thus only be obtained if the
discussed. Figure 7 shows a similar transition zo- theoretical creep line intersects the consolidation
ne, spanning the approximate interval of 0.8 < T strain rate at the time where the inclination of the
234 N. Mortensen / Reflections on Primary and Secondary Consolidation
two rates is identical. This will, however, corres- specimen must be applied instantaneously so the
pond to t100 deviating strongly from the estimates entire consolidation process can be followed.
illustrated in Figure 4 which probably is not rea-
listic. Alternatively, the two theories may inter-
sect at “a random” time. This will imply a first ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
order derivative of the strain rate having two dif-
ferent values at the same time (switching from The author is grateful for being given the oppor-
one mode to another), which is not supported by tunity to utilize and publish selected laboratory
the test results. results financed by the organization Femern A/S,
In conclusion, the theoretical strain rate, as es- [5]. The presented data serves as a sub-group of
timated by the consolidation theory, deviates data established during the laboratory testing
from the strain rate during creep unless some sort programme for the fixed link across Fehmarn-
of transition zone is introduced. Based on meas- belt. In addition, the author is thankful for having
ured data, the strain rate philosophy proposed been given the possibility by Rambøll Arup Joint
seems to be justified for the consolidation pro- Venture for serving in the actual position.
cess with T < 0.7-0.8. Possible explanations for Thanks must also be given to Ph.D. and Asso-
the deviation when T > 0.7-0.8 may be: ciated Professor at the Technical University of
a) The constrained Oedometer modulus will Denmark, Ms. Anette Krogsbøll and Emeritus
vary through the consolidation phase, which is Professor Niels Foged for fruitful discussions on
not included in the theory applied. If Figure 1 is the subject addressed.
studied for T > 0.7-0.8, it is seen that more than The laboratory work is performed by GEO,
80 % of the applied total stress is transferred to Denmark. Finally, the author is very grateful for
effective stresses, and for such a stress change, the financial compensation made available by the
the constrained modulus should also change. It is technical director of the company nmGeo, mak-
not consistent that 1) the major change in effec- ing this paper possible.
tive stresses is seen along the strain rate curve
where the best match is obtained with measured
data and 2) use a change of the constrained Oe- REFERENCES
dometer modulus to argue for deviations between
theory and measured data along the curve part, [1] Hansen, B., Advanced Theoretical Soil Mechanics, The
where the change in effective stresses is reasona- Danish Geotechnical Society, Bulletin 20, Copenhagen
bly small. 2001.
[2] Press, W.H., S.A. Teukolsky, W.T. Vetterling, and B.P.
b) The change in pore pressure during the Flannery. Numerical Recipes, Third edition, ISBN 978-
consolidation phase must, in the end, be affected 0-521-88407-5.
by the creep phase, which must influence the [3] Hansen, J. Brinch. A model law for simultaneous pri-
strain rate. The two phases must interact some- mary and secondary creep. The Danish Geotechnical
Institute, Bulletin 13, Copenhagen 1961.
how. [4] ASTM D 2435-04. Standard test methods for one-di-
c) Although not proven, it cannot be rejected mensional consolidation properties of soil using incre-
that for T < 0.7-0.8, the strain rate may be heavi- mental loading.
ly influenced by the amount of water leaving the [5] www.femern.com
specimen. The consequence is that instead of try-
ing to explain a difference between measured
values and a theory, a new theory should be es-
tablished covering the transition zone and the
secondary consolidation phase. A more detailed
study of such mechanisms should include Oedo-
meter testing in a CRSC-setup where pore pres-
sures can be traced and where the load on the
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 235
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-235
ABSTRACT
The Needle Penetration Test (NPT) is used to estimate the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the Maastrichtian lime-
stones. In parallel to UCS testing, NPT has been conducted for the future A2 tunnel in Maastricht, the Netherlands on borehole
cores ranging from very weak calcarenite to carbonate sands. NPT results are correlated to UCS values and clustered to give a
qualitative material strength estimation. The spatial distribution of the very low NPT values is tentatively related to the occur-
rence of faults. Then, the relationships between UCS and NP resistance observed in the laboratory for calcarenites are analysed.
The spreading of the results is related to the material microstructure. An accurate UCS estimation cannot be derived from a sin-
gle NPT value. To get an insight on the processes taking place during NP testing, the total needle resistance and shaft friction
have been recorded and microstructural damage has been observed. Final damage consists of crushing and compaction, related to
high stresses, rather than de-bounding of grains, observed in UCS testing. Despite this difference in damage type, resistance to
needle penetration and UCS values are related.
RÉSUMÉ
Le test de résistance à l’enfoncement d’une aiguille (REA) a été utilisé pour estimer la résistance à la compression simple des
calcaires Maastrichtians (RCS). En parallèle à des mesures RCS, le test REA a été conduit pour le future tunnel A2 à Maastricht
aux Pays-Bas sur des carottes faites de calcarénites de très faible résistance et de sables carbonatés. Les valeurs de REA sont cor-
rélées aux valeurs RCS et groupées pour estimer qualitativement la résistance des matériaux à partir de mesures REA. La distri-
bution des très faibles valeurs REA le long du tracé du tunnel peut être liée à la présence de failles. Ensuite, les relations obser-
vées au laboratoire entre REA et RCS sont analysées. L’éventail des mesures est expliqué par la microstructure des calcarénites
testées. Une détermination exacte de UCS ne peut découler d’une seule mesure REA. Pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes
du test REA, la résistance totale de l’aiguille à l’enfoncement ainsi que la force de friction le long de son corps sont mesurées..
De plus, l’endommagement du matériau a été observé. Autour de l’aiguille, les grains sont écrasés et compactés sous les larges
contraintes imposées par l’aiguille. En compression simple, une décohésion des grains est observée le long du plan de rupture.
Malgré tout, les valeurs de REA et RCS sont reliées.
1
Corresponding Author.
236 D.J.M. Ngan-Tillard et al. / UCS Estimation for Maastricht Limestones by NPT
various rock types, mainly sedimentary and vol- dicating the maximum spring compression ranging from 0 to
8.5 cm.
canic rocks ranging from very weak to strong
rocks [1].
In the Netherlands, a modified version of a
surface hand penetrometer manufactured by Ei- 2 EVALUATION OF LIMESTONE
jkelkamp, the Netherlands [2] has been adopted STRENGTH FOR CUT AND COVER
for indirect estimation of the UCS of extremely TUNNEL DESIGN
weak to very weak (according to [3]) carbonate
materials originating from the same geological For the site investigation for the A2 cut and
formation, the Maastrichtian limestones (Figure cover tunnel project in the city of Maastricht, the
1). The penetrometer is equipped with a spring of Netherlands, the needle penetrometer test was
a given stifnesss. As the needle is pushed into the used to estimate quickly, objectively, and with
limestone, the spring is compressed. The com- minimal material disturbance, the strength of
pression of the spring is read with the help of an borehole cores of Maastrichtian limestone. NPT
indicator ring. As the penetration depth of the readings were taken every 10 cm. As the purpose
needle increases, it increases until reaching a of testing was the detection of very low strength
constant value. The needle penetration resistance material, the penetrometer was equipped with a
(MPa) is obtained by multiplying this value (cm) 1.4 (instead of 1 mm) diameter needle and a soft
by the spring stiffness (N/cm) and dividing it the spring (50 N instead of 100 or 150 N for 10 cm
the cross section area of the needle (mm2). In this compression). Readings of 8.5 cm indicorre-
paper, NPT results obtained for the future A2 spond to a needle penetration resistance is equal
tunnel in Maastricht, the Netherlands are ex- to or greater than 27.6 MPa.
posed and more insight is gained in the labora- In parallel to NPT, a number of cores were
tory on the performance of NPT in these lime- subjected to UCS testing. Figure 2 shows the
stones. correlation between needle penetration readings
and UCS values obtained for the A2 tunnel. Car-
bonate sands (cluster 1), very weak calcarenite
(cluster 2) and weak calcarenite (cluster 3) were
distinguished based on penetrometer values. The
presence of carbonate sands instead of cal-
carenite was tentatively related to faulting (Fig-
ure 3) [4], even if damage caused by rotary core
drilling could not be rejected [5].
4
Meersen
Nekum Cluster 3
3 Emael
Schiepersberg
UCS (MPa)
Gronsveld
2 Valkenburg
Cluster 2
1
Cluster 1
0.9972 [6] as function of the UCS value as fol- to migrate into the pores of the adjacent intact
lows: material. Crushing and compaction are also ob-
served in compaction shear bands in triaxial test-
UCS = 0.2176 NPT – 5.0816 (1) ing under high confinement. Under UCS condi-
tions, damage is different: cement connections
and more rarely connections between cement
0.08 0.08
fringes and grains are broken and grains remain
intact. Despite this difference in damage type,
Force during needle penetration (kN)
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.02
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Penetration (mm)
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
Microfine cements, produced by pulverizing cements of three different types, were injected into clean sand at a water-to-cement
ratio of 1:1 by weight. Unconfined and triaxial compression, resonant column and bender element tests were conducted to inves-
tigate the stress-strain-strength characteristics and the dynamic properties of the grouted sand. Microfine cement grouting re-
sulted in (a) average unconfined compressive strength of 6.4 MPa, (b) average cohesion of 1.7 MPa, (c) improvement of the in-
ternal friction angle by an average of 5°, (d) significant improvement of the initial modulus of elasticity by up to 25 times, (e)
significant reduction of the strain at failure by up to 10 times, (f) higher shear modulus by up to 25 times, (g) improved damping
ratio by 100%, (h) significantly improved dynamic modulus of elasticity and (i) increased Poisson ratio by an average of 35%.
RÉSUMÉ
On a injécté de micro-ciments de rapport eau/ciment 1:1, produits en pulvérisant des ciments de trois types différents dans un sa-
ble propre. On a effectué des essais de compression simple et triaxiale, de colonne résonnante et des éléments piézoelectriques
pour étudier les characteristiques contrainte-déformation-résistance et les proprietes dynamique du sable injecté. L'injection du
micro-ciment a résulté en (a) une compression simple moyenne de 6.4 MPa, (b) une cohésion moyenne de 1.7 MPa, (c) une
augmentation de l’angle de frottement de 5° en moyenne, (d) un module d’ élasticité initial jusqu’à 25 fois plus élévé, (e) une de-
formation à la rupture jusqu’à 10 fois moins grande, (f) un module de cisaillement jusqu’à 25 fois plus élévé, (g) une augmenta-
tion du coefficient d’ amortisement de 100%, (h) une augmentation significative du module d’ élasticité dynamique et (i) une
augmentation du coefficient du Poisson de 35% en moyenne.
Keywords: Grouted sand, microfine cement, unconfined compression, triaxial compression, resonant column, bender elements
1
Corresponding Author.
242 I.A. Pantazopoulos and D.K. Atmatzidis / Mechanical Behavior of Microfine Cement Grouted Sands
0
100 10 1 0.1
2 MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES G ra in S i z e ( m )
For the purposes of this investigation, a Portland, Figure 1. Typical cement gradations.
a Portland-composite and a pozzolanic cement
(CEM I, CEM II/B-M and CEM IV/B according cement suspensions and was grouted at a dense
to Standard EN 197-1) were used. Each cement and dry state (relative density 90 %, angle of in-
was pulverized to produce three additional ce- ternal friction 42.6°).
ments with nominal maximum grain sizes (dmax) Laboratory equipment similar to the arrange-
of 40 ¡m, 20 ¡m and 10 ¡m and average Blain ment described in ASTM D4320-84, was used to
specific surface values of 567, 720 and 928 produce small-size grouted sand specimens
m2/kg, respectively. Cements with dmax = 10 ¡m (height = 112 mm, diameter = 50 mm) ready for
can be considered as “microfine” according to testing. Injection was stopped when the volume
Standard EN 12715 (d95 < 20 ¡m and specific of the injected grout was equal to two void vol-
surface over 800 m2/kg). Also, cements with dmax umes of the sand in the mold or when the injec-
= 20 ¡m have adequately small characteristic tion pressure was equal to 200 kPa. The grouted
grain sizes to be considered, marginally, as “mi- specimens were tested after curing for 28 days.
crofine”. Typical gradations of these cements are Unconfined compression tests and UU and
presented in Figure 1. CU-PP triaxial compression tests (confining
The water-to-cement ratio (W/C) of the grouts pressures of 100, 200 and 400kPa) were con-
was set equal to 1, by weight, to represent stable ducted at an axial strain rate equal to 0.1 %/min.
suspensions in terms of total bleed capacity. A The dynamic properties of the grouted sands
superplasticizer (patented new generation of ad- were investigated at confining pressures up to
mixture based on polycarboxylate chemistry) at a 400 kPa by conducting torsional resonant column
dosage of 1.4 % by weight of dry cement was tests for a shear strain range, a, of approximately
used to improve grout properties. All suspen- 5:10-5 % to 5:10-2 % and bender element tests at
sions were prepared using high speed mixers. As a shear strain of approximately 10-6 %. Testing
recommended by the superplasticizer producer, procedures and interpretation of raw data com-
the total amount of cement, 70 % of the water plied with well established methods [1, 2]. For
and the superplasticizer dosage were mixed for 5 comparison, similar tests were conducted on
min. Then, the rest of the water was added and clean sand and on neat grout specimens.
mixing continued for another 5 min.
The soil used was a clean, uniform, limestone
sand with angular grains and grain sizes limited 3 STRESS-STRAIN-STRENGTH
between sieve sizes (ASTM E11) Nos. 14–25
(d15 = 0.8 mm). This sand was groutable by all The stress-strain curves from unconfined com-
pression tests indicate similar behavior between
grouted sands and neat cement sediment. For the
grouted sand specimens, the strain at failure, ¶f,
ranged from 0.49 % to 1.10 % (av. 0.64 %) and
I.A. Pantazopoulos and D.K. Atmatzidis / Mechanical Behavior of Microfine Cement Grouted Sands 243
the compressive strength, qu, ranged from 4.0 strain at failure ranged, with the exception of one
MPa to 11.2 MPa (av. 6.4 MPa). The respective ordinary cement, from 0.5% to 2.5% (av. 1.0 %),
ranges for neat cement sediments were 0.4 % to with no apparent effect of cement grain size.
0.9 % (av. 0.68 %) and 6.5 MPa to 12.7 MPa (av. These values are in good agreement with those
8.85 MPa). Both grouted sand and neat cement obtained for the neat microfine cement sediments
specimens exhibited brittle behavior at failure. (dmax = 20¡m and 10¡m) which had Ei in the
Similar observations on deformability were made range of 17.9 MPa to 29.0 MPa (av. 23.0 MPa)
on the basis of the results from UU and CU-PP and ¶f in the range of 0.4% to 1.2% (av. 0.8%).
triaxial tests. The effect of grouting on the deformability of the
All initial modulus of elasticity, Ei (slope of sand is significant. The initial modulus of elastic-
the stress-strain curve at the origin) and failure ity of the sand increases by more than one order
strain, ¶f, values obtained from UU and CU-PP of magnitude (av. 12.4) and the failure strain de-
tests are presented in Figure 2 and allow an eval- creases by a factor of 5 to 10.
uation to be made of the effects of cement grada- The results obtained during this investigation in-
tion and triaxial test type. The initial tangent dicate that, in general, the Mohr-Coulomb failure
modulus of the grouted sand decreased with in- criterion represents adequately the behavior of
creasing cement grain size and ranged from 17 to the grouted sand. Accordingly, the shear strength
33 MPa (av. 25.7 MPa), from 14 to 36 MPa (av. of the grouted sand is quantified in terms of the
25.6 MPa), from 13 to 27 MPa (av. 19 MPa) and angle of internal friction, , and the cohesion, c.
from 13 to 20 MPa (av. 16.4 MPa), for nominal However, it should be noted that some of the
maximum cement grain size (dmax) equal to 10, CU-PP tests did not yield a satisfactory failure
20, 40 and 100 ¡m, respectively. The envelope (Kf-line), leading to unexpectedly low
values for the angle of internal friction and, con-
40 sequently, overestimated values for the cohesion
Triaxial test of the grouted sands. As anticipated, grouting
35 UU CU-PP
had some effect on the angle of internal friction
30
W/C=1 of the sands. For the majority of the tests, a value
ranging between +7° and -3° of that of the clean
Ei (MPa)
3000 4500
Triaxial test Sand: #14 - #25 (a)
4000 Cement: I/B-M, dm ax=10m, W/C=1
2500 UU CU-PP
3500
W/C=1 Grouted sand
2000 3000
G (MPa)
c (kPa)
2500
1500
2000
Neat grout
1000 1500
1000
500 Clean sand
500 3=400 kPa
3=50 kPa
0 0
0 10 20 40
30 100
40 50 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01
dm ax (m) Shear strain, (% )
4000
Figure 3. Cohesion of grouted sands.
(b)
3000
4 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES
G (MPa) 2000
Presented in Figure 4a are typical results ob-
tained for the shear modulus, G, of grouted sand, dm ax
clean sand and neat grout at two confining pres- 1000 10m
Sand: #14 - #25
20m Cement: I/B-M, W/C=1
sures (50 kPa and 400 kPa) as a function of shear
100m 3=400kPa
strain. It is evident that the shear modulus of 0
grouted sand attains significantly higher values, 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02
compared to the clean sand, and more than dou- Shear strain, (% )
results for the full shear strain range and all con- type or confining pressure. As with the shear
fining pressure levels, as shown in Figure 4c. modulus, the E0 values were higher than those
Presented in Figure 5 are typical results ob- obtained for the neat cements (4.0 GPa to 5.8
tained for the damping ratio values of grouted GPa) and significantly higher than those obtained
sand, clean sand and neat grout at two confining for the clean sand (180 MPa to 950 MPa). The
pressure levels (50 kPa and 400 kPa) as a func- computed dynamic shear modulus, G0, values are
tion of shear strain. It can be observed that, up to in very good agreement with values obtained
a shear strain level of about 10-2 %, the damping from resonant column tests for lower (10-5 %)
ratio of the grouted sand has higher values than shear strain levels. Finally, the Poisson ratio of
that of the clean sand, while over this shear strain the microfine cement grouted sand, ranged from
limit this trend is reversed. The neat microfine 0.31 to 0.36, was similar to that of the neat ce-
cement sediments (dmax = 20¡m and 10¡m) had ment sediments (0.28 to 0.33) and higher than
D values which ranged from 0.6 % to 1.9 % for a that obtained for the clean sand (0.24 to 0.26).
shear strain range of 10-4 % to 10-2 % and were For a more comprehensive presentation of the
not affected by confining pressure level. Within effectiveness of grouting on the dynamic proper-
the same shear strain range, clean sand values ties of the clean sands, all results are presented in
ranged from 0.4 % to 2.0 %. Cement grain size Figure 6 in terms of the ratios G/Gs, D/Ds and
did not have a significant or systematic effect on E0/E0,s which are defined as the ratios between
the damping ratio values of the grouted sand. the dynamic properties values of grouted sand to
Usually, sand grouted with microfine cement those of the clean sand at the same shear strain.
grouts (dmax=20 and 10 ¡m) had higher damping Shear modulus improvement decreases as the
ratio values compared to sand grouted with ordi- confining pressure increases. Specifically, for
nary cement grouts (dmax=100 ¡m) but the oppo- confining pressure equal to 50 kPa and 400 kPa
site was also observed in some cases. In terms of grouting improves the shear modulus of the sand
cement type, it appears that grouting with type by an average factor of 25 and 9, respectively.
II/B-M cement suspensions yields damping ratio The improvement in shear modulus is not af-
values higher by up to 100% compared to sus- fected by shear strain.
pensions of type I and IV/B cements. The improvement of the damping ratio is
The dynamic modulus of elasticity, E0, ob- somewhat affected by shear strain and seems not
tained for sand grouted with microfine ce- to be affected by the level of the confining pres-
ments(dmax = 10 ¡m and 20 ¡m) had an average sure. Specifically, the improvement ratio ranged
value of 9.4 GPa, was higher by about 30 % between 1 and 4 (av. 2.2), increased as the shear
compared to sand grouted with ordinary cements, strain increased up to approximately 10-3 % and,
and showed no significant variation with cement then, decreased as the shear strain increased from
10-3 % to 10-2 %. This can be attributed to the
10 significant increase of the damping ratio of the
Sand: #14 - #25
clean sand for shear strains greater than 5:10-3 %.
Cement: I/B-M, dmax=20m, W/C=1
8 The improvement ratio of the dynamic mod-
50 kPa -
Grouted
50 KPa
sand
-
ulus of elasticity, at a shear strain of 10-6 % ob-
3=50 kPa Neat grout
6 50 -
kPasand
Clean tained from bender element tests, is affected by
D (%)
400
kPa -sand
Grouted the level of the confining pressure and ranges
3=400 kPa 400
NeatkPa -
grout
4 from 20 to 26 and from 8 to 10, for confining
Clean
400 -
sand
kPa
pressures equal to 50 kPa and 400 kPa, respec-
2 tively. The improvement of the Poisson ratio of
the sand by grouting ranged from 10 % to 60 %
0
and seems not to be affected by cement type or
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01
Shear strain, (% ) grain size and confining pressure level.
15
crease of the initial tangent modulus of the sands
10 and decrease of the strain at failure of the sands
by up to one order of magnitude, (b) develop-
5
3 = 50kPa
ment of cohesion up to 1.7 MPa and increased
W/C = 1 1:1 3 = 400kPa
1:1
0 internal friction angle by 5°, (c) increase of the
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 shear modulus and dynamic modulus of elasticity
Shear strain, (% )
by at least one order of magnitude for a confin-
4 ing pressure up to 400 kPa, (d) double the damp-
(b)
ing ratio, independent of confining pressure, up
3
to a shear strain of about 10-2 % and (e) increased
Poisson ratio by 30 %.
4. Compared to ordinary cements, grouting with
D/Ds
2
microfine cements results in higher initial mod-
ulus of elasticity by 50 %, lower failure strain by
1 20 %, higher cohesion by 100 %, similar angle of
W/C = 1
1:1
3 = 50kPa 3 = 400kPa
1:1 internal friction, higher shear modulus by 25% to
0 40%, similar damping ratio, higher dynamic
1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 modulus of elasticity by 30 % and similar Pois-
Shear strain, (% )
son ratio.
30
(c) W/C = 1
25
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
20
15
search project PENED-03ED527, co-financed by
10 the European Social Fund (75%) and the Greek
Ministry of Development (25%).
5
0
0 50 100 200
150 400
200 250
Confining pressure, 3 (kPa)
REFERENCES
Figure 6. Improvement of dynamic properties. [1] P.L. Lovelady and M. Picornell, Sample coupling in re-
sonant column testing of cemented soils, Dynamic Elas-
tic Modulus Measurements in Materials 1045 (1990),
180-194.
5 CONCLUSIONS [2] G. Viggiani and J.H. Atkinson, Interpretation of bender
element tests-technical note, Geotechnique 45 (1)
(1995), 149-154.
Based on the results obtained and the observa- [3] M.H. Maher, K.S. Ro and J.P. Welsh, High strain dy-
tions made during this investigation, the follow- namic modulus and damping of chemically grouted
ing major conclusions may be advanced: sand, Soil Dynamic and Earthquake Engineering 13
1. Grouting with microfine cements, produced by (1994), 131-138.
[4] E. Delfosse-Ribay, I. Djeran-Maigre, R. Cabrillac and
pulverizing different types of ordinary cement, D. Gouvenot, Shear modulus and damping ratio of
improves significantly the stress-strain-strength grouted sand, Soil Dynamic and Earthquake Engineer-
behavior and the dynamic properties of sands. ing 24 (2004), 461-471.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 247
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-247
ABSTRACT
A series of cyclic direct shear tests on sand (Fontainebleau)/rough material interfaces is presented. These tests simulate the situa-
tion along the shaft of metallic piles subjected to a large number of environmental or anthropic cyclic loads. These cycles (typi-
cally 104) are of small amplitude (10 kPa in shear stress) as the service loads don’t produce an early failure. The problem of loss
of sand between the box and the rough plate, typical phenomenon in this type of test, receives a special attention. It is interesting
to observe that according to the sand density, and to the position of the “center of cycles” in the stress plane, a dilatant or con-
tractant behaviour is exhibited, agreeing, with the characteristic state developed by Luong. The influence of the stress path (con-
stant normal stress or prescribed normal stiffness) is also highlighted. For numerical simulations by the FEM these tests will be
interpreted and formulated in the future according to a visco-plastic framework, the number of cycles being a fictitious time.
This work is part of the french project ANR SOLCYP, acronym of “Research on behaviour of piles subjected to cyclic loading”.
RÉSUMÉ
On présente une série d’essais de cisaillement direct cycliques sur des interfaces sable de Fontainebleau / matériau rugueux, re-
présentant la situation le long de pieux métalliques soumis à un grand nombre de cycles d’origine environnementale ou anthro-
pique. Il s’agit d’un grand nombre (104) de petits cycles (10 kPa en contrainte de cisaillement) car les charges de service ne sont
pas supposées conduire à une rupture rapide. Une attention particulière est portée à la prise en compte de la perte de sable entre
boîte et plaque rugueuse, inhérente à ce type d’essais. Il est intéressant de constater, selon la compacité du sable, et la position du
« centre des cycles » dans le plan des contraintes, un comportement dilatant ou contractant, conforme à « l’état caractéristique »
développé par Luong. Le rôle du chemin de cisaillement (contrainte normale constante, ou rigidité normale imposée) est égale-
ment souligné. En vue de simulations par la méthode des éléments finis, ces essais seront interprétés et formulés dans le futur se-
lon un cadre visco-plastique, le nombre de cycles tenant lieu de temps fictif. Ces travaux sont effectués dans le cadre de l’ANR
SOLCYP, acronyme de « Recherches sur le comportement des pieux soumis à des sollicitations cycliques».
Keywords: Direct shear tests, granular soil-structure interface, cyclic loading, mean cyclic path, large number of small cycles,
characteristic state, visco-plasticity
1
Corresponding Author.
248 S. Pra-Ai and M. Boulon / Essais de cisaillement direct sur interfaces sol granulaire-structure chargées
trainte normale sol sur pieu, même pour un petit enregistrées sont le vecteur contrainte appliqué
nombre de cycles (Schlosser et Guilloux, 1981 ; sur l’interface (composantes normale n (com-
Boulon et Foray, 1986 ; Boulon et al, 1986). La pression >0) et de cisaillement , anneaux à
problématique des sols sollicités cycliquement a jauges, résolution 0,5 kPa), ainsi que le vecteur
fait l’objet de très nombreuses publications. Une déplacement relatif sol-structure (composantes
des plus récentes (Wichtmann, 2005) est à men- normale [u] (dilatant > 0) et tangentielle [w],
tionner. Les interfaces sol-structure ont jusqu’ici LVDT, résolution 0,01 mm). La consigne C de
été bien étudiées en laboratoire, pour un petit commande du moteur a pour expression (k rigi-
nombre de cycles, typiquement < 10 2 (Al-Douri dité normale prescrite):
et Poulos, 1991 ; Desai et al, 1985 ; Fakharian et
Evgin, 1997 ; Johnston et al, 1987 ; Tabucanon C n k[u ] 0 (1)
et al, 1995). La modélisation des sollicitations
ce qui rend possible les chemins suivants de ci-
cycliques est également assez riche pour les in-
saillement direct :
terfaces sol-structure (Desai et Nagaraj, 1988 ;
Cas I. k = 0 , contrainte normale constante
Aubry et al, 1990; Boulon et Jarzebowsky,
Cas II. N , volume constant
1991 ; Shahrour et Rezaie, 2002 ; Mortara, Bou-
lon et al, 2002). En revanche, les cycles sur les Cas III. k > 0 , rigidité normale prescrite
interfaces sol-structure et sur les pieux ont été re-
lativement peu étudiés en laboratoire et in situ
pour les grands nombres de cycles, en raison de
(3) (2)
la lourdeur des essais (Boulon et Puech, 1984).
Par ailleurs, le sujet a fait l’objet de peu de re-
commandations (API, 1993). L’étude présentée
ici concerne une campagne consistante d’essais
de cisaillement direct sable-structure rugueuse en
vue d’alimenter des simulations numériques, (1)
dans le cadre du projet SOLCYP (ANR et Pro-
gramme National). Il s’agit de grand nombre de
petits cycles, correspondant par exemple aux Figure 1. Dispositif experimental
chargements au voisinage des pieux off-shore
fondations de plateformes flottantes ancrées, ou Le groupe moto-réducteur (3) générant la con-
d’éoliennes. trainte de cisaillement est commandé par micro-
ordinateur. Dans le cas des essais cycliques, deux
seuils (haut et bas, ajustables) de contrainte de
2 DISPOSITIF EXPERIMENTAL cisaillement sont prescrits, provoquant les inver-
sions souhaitées du sens de cisaillement. La vi-
La machine d’essai est une boîte de Casagrande tesse de cisaillement est de 0,05 mm/minute.
modifiée (Figure 1) en vue de simuler et de solli- Pendant le cisaillement, la consigne (1) est appli-
citer le plus généralement possible une interface quée à 0,1 kPa près. La ½ boîte contenant le sol
sol-structure. La première modification a consis- cisaillé a un diamètre de 60 mm.
té à remplacer la ½ boîte inférieure par une
plaque métallique rugueuse (2). Le second dispo-
sitif remplace le poids générateur de la contrainte
normale en bout du bras amplificateur classique. 3 MATERIAUX
Il s’agit d’un moteur électrique à double sens (1)
agissant sur ce bras, et commandé par une con- Le sol cisaillé est un sable de Fontainebleau
signe (1) émise par le micro-ordinateur de com- standard, siliceux, dont les principales caractéris-
mande en fonction de la contrainte normale ins- tiques physiques sont résumées dans le tableau 1.
tantanée à appliquer. Les variables mesurées et Ce sable a été testé aux indices de densité ID =
S. Pra-Ai and M. Boulon / Essais de cisaillement direct sur interfaces sol granulaire-structure chargées 249
30 % (état lâche) et ID = 90 % (état dense). Les de rigidité d’interface normale kn (6), et tangen-
plaques rugueuses utilisées ont été constituées en tielle kt (7), la modification de résistance
collant sur une plaque d’acier d’épaisseur 10 mm d’interface #l (8) au cours des cycles. La granu-
une couche de 0,2 mm d’un mélange d’araldite et lométrie de la zone d’interface est également
de sable de Fontainebleau (60 g d’araldite pour analysée, ce qui est difficile vu la faible quantité
100 g de sable), ce qui donne une forte rugosité. de matériau disponible.
Il est prévu de tester ultérieurement des plaques
d’acier grenaillé de la rugosité d’un pieu modèle [w]cm = [w]cm (ID, n cm, *cm, N) (4)
du laboratoire. [u]cm = [u]cm (ID, n cm, *cm, N) (5)
kn = kn (ID, n cm, *cm, N) (6)
Tableau 1. Sable de Fontainebleau, caractéristiques physiques kt = kt (ID, n cm, *cm, N) (7)
d50
d max
d min emax emin Cu #l = #l (ID, n cm, *cm, N) (8)
(mm) (kN/m3) (kN/m3)
0.22 16.86 13.92 0.862 0.541 1.72
4 RESULTATS ATTENDUS
6 RESULTATS OBTENUS
informations pour le sable dense (ID = 90 %). à la liquéfaction de l’interface (annulation con-
Pour le sable lâche comme pour le sable comitante de n et ).
dense, on constate une accélération exponentielle
de [w]cm lorsque #cm tend vers #l. L’interface est
toujours contractante à densité faible. Par contre,
à densité forte, l’existence de l’état caractéris-
tique est flagrante, un comportement dilatant se
manifestant aux angles #cm élevés. La figure 5
donne de même, pour le cas dense ( n cm=
40 kPa), l’évolution de la rigidité tangentielle lo-
cale (correspondant à #cm). Si l’on constate un
raidissement de l’interface aux faibles valeurs de
*cm c’est par contre un radoucissement violent, Figure 5. Evolution de la rigidité tangentielle tangente (mesu-
conséquence de la dilatance mentionnée à la fig- rée à l’angle de frottement mobilisé #cm) au cours des
ure 4, qu’on observe lorsque *cm tend vers *l. Un cycles,U+ = 10 kPa, ID = 90 %, n cm = 40 kPa.
important aspect de notre étude a trait au com-
portement particulier d’interface sur chemin cyc- La figure 6 et les suivantes mettent en évi-
lique KNC (à rigidité normale imposée). dence l’influence du niveau de rigidité normale
sur le cisaillement cyclique, selon la densité du
sable. A la figure 6, il s’agit de sable dense (ID =
90%) avec une rigidité normale prescrite kne =
2000 kPa/mm. Un grand nombre de cycles (N =
2500) est nécessaire pour atteindre la liquéfac-
tion. Cette dégradation est bien plus rapide avec
le sable lâche (figures 7 et 8), à tendance plus
contractante que le sable dense. La figure 7, dans
laquelle 15 cycles conduisent à la liquéfaction,
correspond à une rigidité normale prescrite de
1000 kPa/mm, et à une fourchette de contrainte
de cisaillement de 15kPa < cm < 25 kPa. A la fi-
gure 8, avec une rigidité normale élevée
(5000 kPa/mm) et une fourchette de contrainte
de cisaillement voisine de la précédente (10 kPa
< cm < 20 kPa), 6 cycles seulement mènent à la
liquéfaction.
Cet article présente les premiers résultats d’une [1] Al-Douri R. H. et Poulos H. G., Static and cyclic shear
tests on carbonate sands, ASTM GTJ 15(2) (1991), 138-
série consistante d’essais de cisaillement direct
157.
cyclique sol granulaire (sable de Fontainebleau)- [2] API (American Petroleum Institute), A.P.I. RP 2A-
structure (métal), et le début de leur interpréta- LRFD–Section G: Foundation design, 64-77, 1993.
tion, en vue de modéliser le comportement de [3] Aubry D., Modaressi A. et Modaressi H., A constitutive
model for cyclic behaviour of interfaces with variable
pieux sollicités cycliquement à très grand
dilatancy, Computers and Geotechnics. 9(1-2) (1990),
nombre de cycles. Les phases contractantes et di- 47-58.
latantes ont été bien identifiées, en fonction de la [4] Boulon M.et Puech A., Simulation numérique du com-
position des cycles dans le plan des contraintes. portement des pieux sous chargement axial cyclique,
Revue Française de Géotechnique 26 (1984), 7-20.
[5] Boulon M. et Foray P., Physical and numerical simula-
tions of lateral shaft friction along offshore piles in
sand, 3rd Int. Conf. On Numerical Methods in offshore
piling, Nantes (1986),127-147.
[6] Boulon M. et Foray P., Comportement d’interface et
prévision du frottement latéral le long des pieux et ti-
rants d’ancrage. Revue Française de Géotechnique 35
(2) (1986), 31-48.
[7] Boulon M., Jarzebowsky A., Rate type and elastoplastic
approaches for soil-structure interface behaviour : a
comparison. Proc. 7th Int. Conf. IACMAG, Cairns, Aus-
tralia (1991), 305-310.
[8] Desai C. S., Drumm E. C. et Zaman M. M., Cyclic test-
ing and modeling of interfaces, ASCE JGE 111(6)
Figure 7. Chemin de contrainte, essai KNC, k = 1000 (1985), 793-815.
kPa/mm, n0 = 100 kPa, ID = 30 %, Uc = 10 kPa [9] Desai C. S. et Nagaraj B. K., Modeling for cyclic nor-
mal and shear behavior of interfaces. ASCE JGE 114(7)
(1988), 1198-1217.
[10] Fakharian K. et Evgin E., Cyclic simple shear behav-
iour of sand-steel interfaces under constant normal
stiffness condition, ASCE JGGE 123(12) (1997), 1096-
1105.
[11] Johnston I. W., Lam T. S. K. et Williams A. F., Con-
stant normal stiffness direct shear testing for socketed
pile design in weak rock, Géotechnique 37(1) (1987),
83-89.
[12] Luong MP, Stress–strain aspects of cohesionless soils
under cyclic and transient loading, International Sym-
posium on Soils under Cyclic and Transient Loading,
Swansea, 7–11 January, Pande GN, Zienkiewicz OC
(eds) 1980; 315–324.
Figure 8. Chemin de contrainte, essai KNC, k = 5000 [13] Mortara G., Boulon M. et Ghionna V. (2002), A 2-D
kPa/mm, n0 = 100 kPa, ID = 30 %, Uc = 10 kPa constitutive model for cyclic interface behaviour, Inter-
national Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods
in Geomechanics 26 (2002), 1071-1096.
[14] Schlosser F. et Guilloux A., Le frottement dans le ren-
forcement des sols, Revue Française de Géotechnique,
8. REMERCIEMENTS 16 (1981), 65-79.
[15] Shahrour I. et Rezaie F., An elastoplastic constitutive
relation for soil-structure interface under cyclic loading,
Ces recherches sont conduites dans le cadre de Computers and Geotechnics 52(1) (2002), 41-50.
l’ANR SOLCYP 07 PGCU 005-06, pilotée par [16] Tabucanon J. T., Airey D. W. et Poulos H. G., Pile skin
l’IREX. Les auteurs adressent leurs vifs remer- friction in sand from constant normal stiffness tests,
ciements aux responsables de cette action pour ASTM GTJ 18(3) (1995), 350-364.
[17] Wichtmann T, Explicit accumulation model for non co-
leur soutien. hesive soils under cyclic loading, Dissertation, Ruhr
Universität Bochum, Allemagne (2005), 274 pages.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 253
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-253
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the performance of prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) improved soft Bangkok clay in accelerating the rate
of consolidation by using vacuum and heat preloading. Large scale consolidometer tests were performed with PVD improved
reconstituted specimens using surcharge preloading (PVD only), surcharge combined with vacuum pressure preloading (Va-
cuum-PVD) and surcharge combined with heat (Thermo-PVD), respectively. Subsequently, the flow parameters were back-
calculated based on Hansbo (1979) method by expressing in terms of the horizontal coefficient of consolidation (C h) and the ra-
tio between the horizontal hydraulic conductivity in undisturbed zone (kh) to the horizontal hydraulic conductivity in smear zone
(ks) or (kh/ks). The Ch were 1.93 m2/yr, 2.23 m2/yr and 4.17 m2/yr for PVD, Vacuum-PVD and Thermo-PVD, respectively, with
corresponding, kh/ks values of 3.0, 2.7 and 1.4, respectively. Thus, the Vacuum-PVD can increase the horizontal coefficient of
consolidation, Ch resulting in faster rate of settlement at the same magnitudes of settlement compared to PVD. The Thermo-PVD
can increase further the coefficient of horizontal consolidation, Ch with the associated reduction of kh/ks values by reducing the
drainage retardation effects in the smear zone around the PVD and consequently, faster rates of consolidation were obtained.
RÉSUMÉ
Cette comunication fait une descripton du drain vertical prefabrique (PVD) pour ammeileure les caracteristiques d' argile de
Bangkok. Le taux de consolidation est accelere par vacuum et precharge avec chaud. Des essais de consolidation sont efectuees
avec echantillons remanies avec surcharge, avec surcharge et vacuum (vacuum PVD) et aussi avec surcharge combine avec
chaleur (Termo PVD). Les parametres de flux ont ete compares avec la methodologie de Hansbo (1979) ,donc le coefficient
horizontal de consolidation (Ch), et la raison entre le coefficient horizontal hydraulic de conductivite de la zone non rema-
nie (kh) avec le coefficente horizontal hydraulic de conductivite de la zone remanie (ks), donc (kh/ks). Les valeurs obtenus de Ch
sont 1.93 m2/yr, 2.23 m2/yr et 4.17 m2/yr, pour le PVD, pour Vacuum-PVD et pour Termo-PVD, respectivement, que corres-
pondent aux valeurs kh/ks de 3.0, 2.7 and 1.4, respectivement. Donc le Vacuum-PVD peut augmenter le coefficient horizontal
de consolidation, Ch et le taux des tassements en comparaison avec PVD. Termo-PVD peut augmenter plus le coefficient hori-
zontal de consolidation, Ch avec reduction de valeurs kh/ks , donc avec reduction des effets des delais de la zone remanie autour
du PVD, et en consequence on obtien des taux de consolidation plus rapides.
1
Corresponding Author.
254 J. Saowapakpiboon et al. / Performance of PVD Preloading with and Without Vacuum and Heat
was CeTeau drain (CT-D911) with 100 mm in were controlled by an electronic thermal-control
width and 3.5 mm in thickness. unit that received the signal from thermocouples.
Drainage was allowed to flow only one way. Set-
The disturbed samples were mixed by using a tlement was monitored during the test until the
mixer. Water was added until the water content soil specimen reached to 90% consolidation. The
was slightly greater than the liquid limit. The method of Asaoka (1978) was used to estimate
mixed soil was placed into the large scale con- the degree of consolidation and the magnitude of
solidometer cell layer by layer until to the de- final settlement.
sired height. The appropriate loads were applied
for the reconstitution process to obtain the de- 3.3 Effect on the coefficient of consolidation,
sired water content and void ratio equal to the Ch, and permeability ratio, kh/ks
initial conditions.
The values of Ch for all tests were back-
Table 1 Physical properties of soft Bangkok Clay in Suvar- calculated using the equations from Hansbo
nabhumi Airport (1979) for radial consolidation with PVD is
given as follows:
Physical properties
2 8Th /
Liquid limit (%) 102.24 U h 1 exp 0 (1)
1 F -.
Plastic limit (%) 39.55
Water content (%) 112.69 where Uh is the degree of consolidation for hori-
zontal drainage; Th is the time factor for horizon-
Plasticity index 62.69
tal drainage; F is the factor which expresses the
3
Total unit weight (kN/m ) 14.70 additive effect due to the spacing of the drains,
Specific gravity 2.66
F(n), smear effect, Fs, and well-resistance, Fr.
The values of F(n), Fs and Fr are given by the
following equations:
3.2 Consolidometer test program
For the reconstitution using the new large conso- 2D / 3
lidometer, a 50 kPa pressure was applied. Drai- F (n) ln 0 e - (2)
nage was allowed to flow to the top and bottom 1 dw . 4
of the apparatus. Silicone grease was applied to
the insides of the large consolidometer to reduce 2k / 2d /
the friction. Throughout the whole process, the Fs 0 h 1- ln 0 s - (3)
settlements were monitored. After reconstitution, 1 ks . 1 d w .
the water content, shear strength, and specimen
height were determined. 2 K
Fr L2 h (4)
3 qw
The vertical pressure of 50 kPa was increased
to 100 kPa after reconstitution under the applied
where De is the diameter of the equivalent soil
vertical pressure in the specimen improved with
cylinder, dw is the equivalent diameter of the
PVD. For the specimen improved with PVD and
drain, kh is the coefficient of horizontal perme-
vacuum pressure (Vacuum-PVD), a vertical
ability, ks is the horizontal permeability of the
pressure of 50 kPa and vacuum pressure of -50
smear zone, ds is the diameter of the smear zone,
kPa were applied. For the Thermo-PVD, the spe-
z is the distance from the drainage end of the
cimen was improved with PVD combined with
drain, L is the length of the drain for double
vertical pressure of 100 kPa together with appli-
drainage and twice the length of the drain for
cation of heat up to 90 ºC. The temperatures
single drainage, qw is the discharge capacity of
J. Saowapakpiboon et al. / Performance of PVD Preloading with and Without Vacuum and Heat 257
the drain at hydraulic gradient of 1 (one). The at higher the temperature, higher volume con-
time factor, Th, for horizontal drainage can be traction and higher rate of consolidation resulted
calculated using: from the increased hydraulic conductivity. The
compressibility increased due to thermally in-
Ch t duced irreversible contraction of saturated nor-
Th 2
(5)
mally consolidated soft Bangkok clay. Further-
De
more, Abuel-Naga et al. (2006) showed that the
Thermo-PVD indicated substantial amount of
where Ch is the coefficient of horizontal consoli- settlement of about 5 times using undisturbed
dation and t is the time elapsed after the applica- specimen of soft Bangkok clay in the laboratory
tion of the load. model test.
Time, t (day)
Time, t (days)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60
0
10
PVD Improvement 40
20
Vacuum-PVD Improvement
30 Smear Undisturbed
Thermo-PVD Improvement
40 20 zone zone
50
Settlement,SS (mm)
(mm)
60
70
0
Settlement,
80
0 50 100 150 200 250
90
100
Radial distance, r (mm)
110
120 Figure 5. Heat transfer at radial distances of PVD improved
130
specimen with Thermo-PVD.
140
150
160 The temperature decreased with increasing
Figure 4. Comparison of settlement of PVD improved recon- distances from the heat source. The radius, r, of
stituted specimens with and without vacuum and heat. 25 mm corresponds to the location of the smear
zone with a mandrel dimension of 18.2 mm x
In addition, Saowapakpiboon et al. (2009a) 81.90 mm, and the diameter of the disturbed
showed that the Thermo-PVD has highest vol- zone can be calculated as 87mm. The tempera-
ume contraction and rate of consolidation due to ture of 80 ºC in the smear zone and decreased
thermal effects. These results demonstrated that with distance from the heat source. It took 40
258 J. Saowapakpiboon et al. / Performance of PVD Preloading with and Without Vacuum and Heat
increased.
Settlement, S (mm)
40
Ch = 1.93 m2/yr
kh/ks = 3.0
60
4.3 Ch and kh/ks values
80
The test results from reconstituted specimens
in the new large scale consolidometer are back- 100
calculated to determine the values of Ch and kh/ks
by using the method from Hansbo (1987). The 120
(a)
back-calculated values of reconstituted specimen
Time, t (days)
improved with PVD is demonstrated in Fig. 8a,
where Ch value was 1.93 m2/yr with kh/ks of 3.0. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
Figure 8b shows the results of reconstituted
specimen improved with Vacuum-PVD, the Measured curve
20
Predicted curve
back-calculated Ch value was 2.23 m2/yr with
Settlement, S (mm) 40
kh/ks of 2.7. This behavior was observed by Ch = 2.23 m2/yr
kh/ks = 2.7
Mohamedelhassan, E., and Shang, J.Q. (2002) 60
that the vacuum and surcharge preloading of the 80
same magnitude produces similar coefficients of
consolidation. For the reconstituted sample in 100
kh/ks = 1.4
values of the Ch and kh/ks for all specimens are 60
also summarized in Table 2.
80
Table 2 Summary of changes in flow parameters for speci- duction of kh/ks by the consequent increase in
mens in large scale consolidometer
hydraulic conductivity and subsequently reduced
Flow the drainage retardation effects in the smear zone
PVD Vacuum-PVD Thermo-PVD around the PVD.
parameters
[11] Bergado, D.T., Saowapakpiboon, J., Kovittayanon, N. of clay soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 39,
& De Zwart, T.P., (2006). Ceteau-S PVD vacuum sys- pp. 1126–1138.
tem in soft Bangkok Clay: A case study of the Suvar- [26] Pothiraksanon, C., Saowapakpiboon, J., Bergado, D.T.
nabhumi Airport Project. The 6th Sysposium on Soft and Thann, N.M., (2008). Reduction of smear effects
Ground Improvement and Geosythetics, Bangkok, around PVD using Thermo-PVD. Ground Improve-
Thailand, pp. 18-27. ment, Vol. 161: 179-187.
[12] Chai, J. C., Carter, J. P. and Hayashi, S.(2005): Ground [27] Rowe, R.K., Taechakumthorn, C., (2008). Combined
deformation induced by vacuum consolidation. Journal effect of PVDs and reinforcement on embankments
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, over rate-sensitive soils. Geotextiles and Geomem-
ASCE, Vol. 131, No. 12, pp. 1552-1561. branes 26: 239-249.
[13] Chai, J.C., Carter, J.P. and Hayashi, S. (2006a), Vac- [28] Rujikiatkamjorn, C., Indraratna, B., Chu, J., (2008). 2D
uum consolidation and its combination with embank- and 3D numerical modeling of combined surcharge and
ment loading, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 43: 985- vacuum preloading with vertical drains. International
996. Journal of Geomechanics 8 (2), 144-156.
[14] Chai, J.C., Miura, N., Bergado, D.T., (2008). Preload- [29] Saowapakpiboon, J., Bergado, D.T., Chai, J.C., Kovit-
ing of clayey deposit by vacuum pressure with cap- tayanon, N. and De Zwart, T.P. (2008a), Vacuum-
drain: Analyses versus performance. Geotextiles and PVD Combination with Embankment loading Consoli-
Geomembranes 26: 220-230. dation in soft Bangkok Clay: A case study of the
[15] Choa, V., (1989). Drains and vacuum preloading pilot Suvarnabhumi Airport Project. Proceeding of the 4th
test, Proceeding, 12th, International Conference on Soil Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics, Shang-
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,Vol. 2, pp. hai, China, pp. 440-449.
1347-1350. [30] Saowapakpiboon, J., Bergado, D.T., Hayashi, S., Chai,
[16] Delage, P., Sultan, N. and Cui, Y. J., (2000). On the J.C., Kovittayanon, N. and De Zwart, T.P. (2008b),
thermal consolidation of Boom Clay, Canadian Geo- CeTeau PVD Vacuum System in soft Bangkok Clay: A
technical Journal, 37: 343-354. case study of the Suvarnabhumi Airport Project. Low-
[17] Hansbo, S., (1979). Consolidation of clay by band- land Technology International, 10(1): 42-53.
shaped prefabricated drains, Ground Eng’g., Vol. 12 [31] Shama, J.S. and Xiao, D., (2000). Characterization of a
(5): 16-25. smear zone around vertical drains by large-scale labora-
[18] Hansbo, S. (1981). Consolidation of fine-grained soils tory tests. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 37: 1265-
by prefabricated drains. Proceedings of 10th Interna- 1271.
tional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation [32] Shen, S.L., Chai, J.C. Hong, Z.C., Cai, F.X., (2005).
Engineering, Stockholm, pp. 677-682. Analysis of field performance of
[19] Hansbo, S. (1987). Design aspects of vertical drains and [33] embankments on soft clay deposit with and without
lime column installation. Proceedings of 9th Southeast PVD-improvement. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 23
Asian Geotechnical Conference, pp. 1-12. (6): 463-485.
[20] Hansbo, S. (1997). Aspects of vertical drain design: [34] Tang, M. and Shang, J.Q., ( 2000). Vacuum Preloading
Darcian or non-Darcian flow. Geotechnique, 47 (5): consolidation of Yaogiang Airport runway, Geotech-
983–992. nique, 50(6): 613-653.
[21] Indraratna, B., Sathananthan, I., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., [35] Walker, R., Indraratna, B., (2006). Vertical drain con-
Balasudramaniam, A.S. (2005). Analytical and numeri- solidation with parabolic distribution of permeability in
cal modelling of soft soil stabilized by PVD incorporat- smear zone. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenviron-
ing vacuum preloading. International Journal of Geo- mental Engineering, ASCE 132 (7), 937-941.
mechanics 5(2), 114-124. [36] Walker, R., Indraratna, B., (2009). Consolidation analy-
[22] Indraratna, B., Rujikiatkamjorn, C., McIntosh, G., Ba- sis of a stratified soil with vertical and horizontal drain-
lasubramaniam, A. (2007). Vacuum consolidation ef- age using the spectral method. Geotechnique 59(5),
fects on lateral yield of soft clays as applied to road and 439-449.
railway embankment. Proc. of Int. Symposium on Geo-
technical Engineering, Ground Improvement and Geo-
synthetics for Human Security and Environmental Pre-
servation, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 31-61.
[23] Indraratna, B., and Rujikiatkamjorn, C. (2008). Effects
of vertical drains and loading patterns on vacuum con-
solidation. Geosustainability and Geohazard Mitigation,
Proceeding of Selected Sessions of Geocongress 2008,
New Orleans, Louisiana.
[24] Kjellmann, W., (1952). Consolidation of clay soil by
means of atmospheric pressure. In: Proceedings on Soil
Stabilization Conference, Boston, U.S.A., pp. 258-263.
[25] Mohamedelhassan, E., and Shang, J.Q. (2002). Vacuum
and surcharge combined one-dimensional consolidation
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 261
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-261
ABSTRACT
Compaction and liquefaction of sand caused by a large number of loading cycles were investigated ex-
perimentally and theoretical models of these phenomena were proposed. The experiments were per-
formed in the cyclic triaxial apparatus Enel-Hydro, which enables sinusoidal changes of the vertical
stress and measurement of both the vertical and horizontal strains. Firstly, the volumetric and deviato-
ric strains were determined for a dry sand, at different initial states. Experimental results were presen-
ted in the form of common curves, and then analytical approximations of these data were proposed as
functions of a number of loading cycles and the cyclic deviatoric stress amplitudes. Incremental equa-
tions describing the cyclic load induced strains, including compaction, were then derived. Secondly,
the saturated samples were investigated in undrained conditions in order to determine curves descri-
bing the pore pressure generation caused by cyclic loadings, up to sand liquefaction. Then, the dry soil
response was linked with the sand behaviour in undrained conditions, through the assumption that the
volumetric strains are zero in undrained conditions. As a result, the incremental equation describing the
pore pressure generation, up to the onset of liquefaction, was derived. It was shown that there was a
fair agreement between theoretical prediction and experimental results.
RÉSUMÉ
Keywords: compaction, pore pressure generation, liquefaction, triaxial experiments, constitutive equations
1
Corresponding Author
262 A. Sawicki et al. / Compaction and Liquefaction of Sand
1 INTRODUCTION
It is important to note that these values cor- following incremental equation, which enables
respond to stress unit 105 N/m2 and strain unit 10- investigation of sand compaction for an arbitrary
3
. cyclic stress history:
Eq. (7) can be re-written as:
2 d (% v* ) % v* /
% v* A d% v 0 ln(1 N ) - dN . (11)
, (8) 10 dN 1 N .-
q 3 / q B
Figure 4. A common plot for compaction after 104 cycles. 4.1 General remarks
3.3 Common compaction curve When saturated sand samples are tested in un-
drained conditions, the pore-pressure is generat-
Assume a common compaction curve in the fol- ed and liquefaction may take place if the initial
lowing form: state of soil is contractive. Fig. 6 illustrates the
effective stress path followed during the cyclic
%v* = %v* f(N), (9) shearing. A characteristic feature of this beha-
viour is that the mean effective stress is decreas-
where %v* is given by Eq. (7) and f(N = 104) = 1. ing due to the pore-pressure generation. When
The following function is a good candidate: the effective stress path reaches the instability
line, two kinds of behaviour may take place. In
f = ln(1 + N), (10) the case of initially contractive soil, the pheno-
menon of static liquefaction takes place. If the
where = 0.02577 and = 0.18 for the data ana- initial state of soil is dilative, the other phenome-
lyzed. Fig. (5) illustrates the relations (9) and non, designated as cyclic mobility, can be ob-
(10) against experimental data. served.
It seems that agreement between the analytical It will be shown that there is a link between
approximation (9) and experimental data is ac- the drained and undrained behaviours of sand
ceptable, particularly as geotechnical experi- subjected to cyclic loadings, through the well
ments are subjected to many uncertainties. Diffe- known relation:
rentiation of Eq. (9) with respect to N leads to the
A. Sawicki et al. / Compaction and Liquefaction of Sand 265
dEv = d%v + d%ve = 0, (12) Eq. (16) has been solved numerically, using
where dEv = total volumetric strain increment an explicit, two-step Euler method, [4], [6]. The
and d%ve = volumetric strain increment due to the initial conditions are the following:
change of effective mean pressure
u(N = 0) = 0, p’(N = 0) = 0. (17)
p’ = p0 - u, (13)
The following relation between %v* and p0 was
where p0 = initial mean stress and u = pore pres- assumed after [2]:
sure. The volumetric strain increment d%v is giv-
en by Eq. (11). This equation enables the deriva- 2 p0 /
tion of equation describing the pore-pressure % v* C1 exp 0 C p ( 1)- , (18)
01 p ref -.
generation due to cyclic loadings.
2 d% * dp ' df /
d% v 0 v f % v* - dN . (14)
01 dp ' dN dN -.
data suggest that the following relation can be 3. Pore-pressure generation, caused by a large
applied: number of loading cycles (6 x 104), was in-
vestigated experimentally and analytically.
% ve ( N ) A1 exp5B1 (* / * ' ' ) 16 , (19) 4. Constitutive incremental equation for the
pore-pressure generation and onset of lique-
faction was derived on the basis of assump-
where A1 4x10-3, B1 10 and *’’ = 1.55 which
tion that there is a link between compaction
corresponds to the Coulomb-Mohr yield condi-
in drained conditions and undrained beha-
tion. In this case:
viour.
5. Theoretical results are conformable with expe-
d% ve "% ve "% v* d* rimental data with acceptable accuracy.
(20)
dp ' "p ' "* dp '
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The paper describes the testing of rock salt samples for monotonic loading under uniaxial compression, which was carried out
with synchronous recording of changes of acoustic emission (AE), infrared radiation (IR) and strain parameters. The purpose of
the work – to justify the effectiveness of techniques developed in NIIOSP for complex geomaterials deformation processes
diagnostic with respect to the considered type of soft rock. The obtained results show that the techniques may be a useful part in
the system of in-situ monitoring of the geomechanical events.
RÉSUMÉ
Le document décrit les essais sur des échantillons de sel gemme de chargement monotone en compression uniaxiale, qui a été
réalisée avec l'enregistrement synchrone des changements de l'émission acoustique (AE), les paramètres du rayonnement infra-
rouge (IR) et la souche. L'objectif de l'ouvrage - pour justifier l'efficacité des techniques développées dans NIIOSP pour la dé-
formation des géomatériaux processus complexes de diagnostic à l'égard du type considéré de roche molle. Les résultats obtenus
montrent que les techniques peuvent être un élément utile dans le système de surveillance in situ des événements géoméca-
niques.
Keywords: Processes of deformation, axial stress, axial strain, acoustic emission, infrared radiation, rock salt samples,
monitoring of the geomechanical events
1
Corresponding Author.
268 V.I. Sheinin et al. / Instrumentation of Parameters of Thermal Radiation and of Acoustic Emission
meters with a sufficient accuracy, there are a va- is to use AE measurements. The results of the
riety of techniques which are based on the use of measurements allow to monitor the accumulation
these effects and which allow obtaining informa- of cracks and to estimate the crack sizes [17].
tion about the changes of stress-strain state of This approach was tested on different types of
solids, currently offered. However, attempts to geomaterials. On the other hand, in [18] it is
unambiguously identify the changes of the me- showed that the concentration and size of cracks
chanical state of the geomaterials using such in a geomaterial sample strongly determine the
measurements encounter significant difficulties. dynamics of variations in the intensity of the
These difficulties are mainly due to the following infrared (IR) radiation that accompany changes
factors: the complexity of the construction of in the state of stress of the sample. As far as the
adequate theoretical models describing the de- approaching of deformation of geomaterials to
pendence of the measured physical parameters the fracture stage is accompanied by active
on the changes of stresses and strains; the need to cracking, and namely the cracking processes in
solve the reverse problems; the lack of resolution solids are the main source of intensification of
of the available experimental equipment and the heat, so the efficiency of IR diagnosis of the
presence of background and noise components in changes of the mechanical state of geomaterials
the recorded signals. can be enhanced by complexing with the data of
For efficient estimation of parameters of the synchronous measurements of the AE. The aim
deformation processes occurring at different of this work is to elaborate experimental tech-
stages of change of stress state of geomaterials, nique that establishes a set of interrelated para-
an integrated approach is necessary, in which meters of AE and IR signals that carry reliable
these processes are studied by different methods information about the occurrence and the stages
simultaneously. Such an approach enables the of deformation processes in geomaterials.
most efficient use of the potential of each of the
methods at different stages of deformation and at
different loading conditions. 2 METHOD OF EXPERIMENTAL
Earlier in NIIOSP it was shown [9 – 11] that it STUDIES
is a promising approach to use the thermoradia-
tion contactless measurements data for the identi-
fication of "fast" processes of change of elastic 2.1 Setup for testing samples of geomaterials
stresses in geomaterials. The procedure of [9–11] and apparatus for simultaneous recording
makes use of two well-known thermodynamic of changes of measured parameters
effects, namely, the change of temperature of
solids with the adiabatic change of the first inva- The studies were conducted on an experimental
riant of stress tensor [15] and the dependency of stand that allowed to record mechanical, thermo-
the infrared radiation intensity on from the body radiation and acoustic emission parameters syn-
surface temperature [16]. chronously and automatically for various
During the studies that were initiated by these schemes and loading conditions. See the sche-
works, more general methodological problems of matic diagram of experimental stand on Fig. 1.
using different emission effects for the diagnosis A noncontact detector of the changes of the
of the processes of deformation of geomaterials intensity of optical radiation in the infrared wa-
were formulated. velength RTN – 31 [19] was used as a primary
In particular, the possibility of expanding the IR radiation receiver. Detector (1) was set at
range of IR diagnostics usage to non-adiabatic about mid-height of the sample (2) at a distance
deformation conditions and to the values of of 0.5…1 cm from the sample surface. There was
loads, which approach pre-destructive and de- a strain gauge element (6) installed between the
structive values, was considered [11]. plate (4), which supports the sample, and the
The most common approach to diagnose vari- plate (5) to measure changes of the force applied
ous stages of deformation processes of materials to the sample. In addition, the measuring system
V.I. Sheinin et al. / Instrumentation of Parameters of Thermal Radiation and of Acoustic Emission 269
included an indicator for the longitudinal strain 2.2. Methodological features of application
(7), located between the plate (5) and the rolling of the acoustic emission and
cross-arm of the press. thermoradiation measurements for
complex diagnostics of the stress state
changes in geomaterials
One of the methodological issues that were ad-
dressed in the described course of the experi-
ments was to identify the ranges of loading rates
at which one could quite clearly identify the
processes of deformation and their different stag-
es of change using the detected emission parame-
ters. One of the complexities of this choice is that
the informativity of the AE measuring increased
with the loading rate being decreased, while that
of IR measurements, on the contrary, decreased.
Ranges of rates of change of the strains for
different geomaterials, in which the AE mea-
Figure 1. A scheme of experimental setup and location of the
surements are effective, are indicated in several
sensors. publications, e.g. [3, 4 and others]. The same es-
timates for IR measurement that are given, e.g.,
The registration of the activity of the acoustic in [9 – 11, etc], are based on the requirements of
emission dN/dt (the number of pulses per quasiadiabatic deformation during measure-
second), which is one of the most frequently AE ments.
measurements that are used in laboratory and The adiabatic requirement on the deformation
field studies of geomechanical parameters [1 –4], process means, literally, that there should be no
was conducted by a piezoelectric transducer (3) heat transfer between the deformable solid body
connected to the measuring complex A-Line 32D and the environment [15]. Obviously, in the real
[20] that worked in the frequency band from 30 laboratory, as in any natural conditions, this re-
up to 500 kHz. The converter of acoustic signals quirement can be satisfied only approximately.
was placed on the free surface at the same height However, if the rate of change in sample temper-
with the IR radiation sensor. ature due to thermomechanical processes is much
The tests were conducted on cylindrical spe- greater than the speed of the changes due to heat
cimens (diameter 36...38 mm and a height of transfer, the degree of this approximation is quite
66...72 mm) of rock salt, which could be catego- sufficient. The minimum threshold rate of
rized as "weak" rock. Two groups of samples change of stressed state that is necessary for
from two different fields were prepared for the temperature changes speed ratio requirement to
test. Uniaxial compression was performed in two be carried out in fixed conditions of the experi-
different modes: at a constant loading rate ment, can be estimated in laboratory conditions
(d 1/dt = const) (samples of the first group) and by performing a series of tests with different
at a constant rate of longitudinal deformation rates of change in load [9]. It should be noted
growth (d%1/dt = const) (samples of the second however that in recently appeared and technical-
group). ly interesting papers [12 – 13] not enough atten-
tion is paid to the necessary conditions for effec-
tive thermoradiation measurements; thus the time
dependencies of the IR radiation parameters that
are provided in these reports largely loose their
representativeness. Virtually, an experimental
evaluation of the influence of loading rate on the
270 V.I. Sheinin et al. / Instrumentation of Parameters of Thermal Radiation and of Acoustic Emission
Figure 4. The plots of axial stress 1(t) (1) and the AE activi-
ty dN(t)/dt (3) at deformation rate of d 1/dt=const=0,2
MPa/sec.
4 CONCLUSIONS
emission processes for monotonic loading of in coal samples under uniaxial loading, Journal of Min-
ing Science 40 (2004), 458–464.
geomaterial samles essentially depends on the [4] Filimonov Y., Lavrov A., Shkuratnik V., Acoustic
rate of increase of the load. emission in rock salt: effect of loading rate, Strain 38
The previously obtained conclusion that the in- (2002), 157 – 159.
formativeness of the thermoradiation (IR) mea- [5] Ogawa T., Oike K., Miura T., Electromagnetic radia-
tions from rocks, Journal of Geophysical Research 90
surements, both from point of view of the identi- (1985), 6245-6249.
fication of elastic deformation processes, and in [6] Cress G. O., Brady B. T. and Rowell G. A., Sources of
terms of the fixation of boundaries between stag- electromagnetic radiation from fracture of rock samples
es of the process changes the stress state, in- in the laboratory, Geophysical Research Letter 14
(1987), 331-334.
creases with increasing loading rate, was con- [7] Kurlenya M. V., Vostretsov A. G. , Kulakov G. I. , and
firmed. On the other hand, it is shown that the Yakovitskaya G. E. , Recording and Processing of
decrease in information content of IR measure- Electromagnetic Emission Signals in Rocks, Izd SO
ments for the «slow-loading», accompanied by RAN, Novosibirsk, 2000. (In Russian)
[8] Voznesenskij A.S., Nabatov V.V., Estimate of crack
an increase informativeness of acoustic emission formation in gypsiferous rock mass by the method of
measurements, in particular, on fixing the boun- electromagnetic radiation recording, Journal of Mining
dary points between the stages of deformation. Science 39 (2003), 207-215.
Tests showed efficiency of nondestructive [9] Sheinin V. I., Motovilov E. A., and Filippova S. V., Es-
timating the change in the stress state of soils and rocks
emissive measurements as basis for complex from the change in the flux intensity of infrared radia-
diagnostics of stress-strained mode changes of tion from their surface, Journal of Mining Science
rock salt sample including detection of stress 30 (1994), 240-246.
values in the boundary points of elastic and [10] Sheinin V.I., Levin B.V., Motovilov E.A., Moro-
zov A.A. and Favorov A.V., Recognition of rapid peri-
nonelastic deformation and damage. odic variations in rock stresses from infrared radiome-
The developing methodology is supposed to try data, Izvetiya – Phys. Solid Earth 37 (2001), 298–
be used for geomaterials mechanical parameters 304.
detection which is necessary for strength and [11] Levin B.V., Sheinin V.I., Blokhin D.I., Favorov A.V.,
Infrared diagnostics of the geomaterial response to the
stability calculations of geotechnical structures in pulsed end impact loads, Doklady Earth Sciences 395
rock masses. (2004), 465-468.
[12] Wu L., Liu S., Wu Y., Wang C., Precursors for fractur-
ing and failure – Part II: IRR T-Curve abnormalities,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. 43 (2006), 483-493.
[13] Yixin Z., Yaodong J., Acoustic emission and thermal
infrared precursors associated with bump-prone coal
The authors are grateful to D.S. Dryginskaya for failure, Int. Journal of Coal Geology 83 (2010), 11-20.
help during experiments and M.L. Kholmyansky [14] Egorov P. V., Denisov A. S. and Minaev S. M., Process
for useful discussions. for Assessment of Stress State in a Rock Mass. Geo-
physical Processes for Monitoring Stresses and Strains,
The authors are also gratefully acknowledging Izd. SO RAN, Novosibirsk, 1985. (In Russian)
the support of the Russian Foundation for Basic [15] Nadai A., Plastic Flow and Fracture in Solids,
Research (project number 10-05-00687-a). McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
[16] Kriksunov L. Z., Fundamentals of Infrared Technique.
Handbook, Sov. Radio, Moscow, 1978.
REFERENCES [17] Frolov D. I., Kil’keev R. Sh., Kuksenko V. S., Study of
the dynamics of microcrack fusion by the acoustic-
emission method, Mechanics of Composite Materials
[1] Lockner D., The role of acoustic emission in the study
17 (1981), 104-107.
of rock fracture., Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geo-
[18] Balueva M.A., Blokhin D.I., Savatorova V.L., Talonov
mech. Abstr. 30 (1993), 883-899.
A.V., Sheinin V.I., Simulation of microcrack influence
[2] Lavrov A., Vervoort A., Filimonov Y., Wevers M.,
on temperature variations within geomaterials under de-
Mertens J., Acoustic emission in host rocks material for
formation, Journal of Mining Science 45 (2009), 576-
radioactive waste disposal: comparison between clay
580.
and rock salt, Bull. of Eng. Geol. and Env. 61 (2002),
[19] Ilyn A.S. Thermoelectric receivers of optical radiation,
379-387.
Metrology (2005), 19-30. (In Russian)
[3] Shkuratnik V. L., Filimonov Yu. L. and Kuchurin
[20] Acoustic emission measuring installation A– Line 32D.
S. V., Experimental investigation into acoustic emission
Passport, Interunis, Moscow, 2008. (in Russian)
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 275
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-275
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282 S.E. Stallebrass and L.J. Seward / The Effect of Mechanical Remoulding
and it is this bulk sample which has been used beds. At certain depths these were interbedded
for the tests reported in this paper. with hard, olive green/grey sandy silt [1]. The
It has been suggested [2] that the Mercia bulk sample of soil which was obtained con-
Mudstone has an aggregated structure, which tained material from all three of the beds de-
means that clay minerals in the Mercia Mudstone scribed above.
are bonded together into silt size particles, such A mineralogical XRD analysis of soil from
that a particle size distribution test will tend to around the piles [1] showed that the clay fraction
greatly underestimate the proportion of clay min- ranges from 0 – 28% with an average of 15% and
erals actually present in the mudstone. If these that in most samples, illite is the most abundant
aggregations are broken up the clay minerals will mineral, making up to 98% of the clay fraction,
be released and it is possible that this will affect and on average between 50-60%. Illite-smectite
the mechanical response of the mudstone. interlayers were present in approximately 50% of
The effect of breaking up aggregations of clay samples tested. The method used to test these
particles on index properties has been investi- samples requires the soil to be ground to a fine
gated for Mercia Mudstone for other sections of powder and it is thought that this would have
the stratigraphy [3] [4] and differing results have caused any silt sized aggregates of clay particles
been obtained both in term of the energy required to have been broken down. Consequently, the
to disaggregate the particles and the effect on the average values obtained from these mineralogi-
index properties. It is likely that the later is cal analyses should give a reasonably accurate
strongly dependant on the clay minerals present, picture of the clay fraction in the bulk soil sam-
which varies significantly across the Mercia ple used in these tests. It should noted that the
Mudstone group. bulk sample contains a representative amount of
This study looked at the effect on strength and the sandy silt material which is unlikely to have a
compressibility of subjecting samples of soil to significant clay content.
varying amounts of mechanical remoulding and Particle size distributions for this soil were ob-
also of varying the water content at which re- tained using wet sieving and sedimentation.
moulding takes place. The mechanical remould- Samples were prepared by soaking the soil and
ing was undertaken to replicate the remoulding then by gentle agitation to separate uncemented
effect of the auger used in continuous flight au- aggregates. Typical particle size distribution
ger piling and the water content was varied to in- curves are given in Figure 1. The distributions
vestigate the effect of ground water entering the vary due to the variability of the bulk sample.
pile bore from more permeable water bearing This shows that in its natural state the mudstone
layers. In the field trial water was added artifi- appears to be sandy silt with a clay fraction of
cially during the excavation of two of the piles. around 10%.
100
90
2 SOIL TESTED 80
70
50
40
this member at Ibstock comprises red, and some-
30
times green and grey mudstones and siltstones 20
ranging from finely laminated to structureless, 10
with thin beds of coarse siltstone and very fine 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
sandstone [5]. particle size (mm)
The stratigraphy logged at the site was consis-
tent with this description with centimetre-scale Figure 1. Typical particle size distribution curves for the un
laminated brick red/brown silty clay beds, inter- remoulded bulk sample
spersed with centimetre-scale red/purple hard
S.E. Stallebrass and L.J. Seward / The Effect of Mechanical Remoulding 283
Comparing the clay fraction observed in Fig- simulate the same churning action that might oc-
ure 1 with the average clay fraction of 15% ob- cur in continuous flight auger pile construction.
served from XRD analyses supports the sugges- All the soil specimens tested were prepared using
tion that the Mercia Mudstone tested contains silt the same approach as described below.
sized aggregations of clay particles [2], that can
broken up under the action of mechanical re- 3.1 Preparation of test specimens
moulding, but is not conclusive due to the vari-
ability of the soil. Further evidence was obtained A sub sample of soil from the bulk sample re-
trieved from site was prepared by soaking in dis-
from particle size distribution tests carried out af-
tilled water for a few days and then being placed
ter the soil represented by the solid line in Figure
in a mixer. The sub sample used in the series A
1 was remoulded, leading to a clay fraction of
tests was mixed to a water content of 18%. The
just over 20%.
The index properties of the bulk sample prior sub sample used in the series B tests was mixed
to remoulding were also obtained. The Liquid to a water content of 19%. This soil was then di-
vided into three batches and in two of these
limit was 27.7%, and the plastic limit 10.0%,
batches the water contents were increased to
giving a plasticity index of 17.7% and an Activ-
22% and 26% respectively. All three batches
ity of 1.42, which compares to the typical Activ-
were then mixed again before being passed
ity for illite of 0.9.
through the meat mincer three times. The soil at
26% was at too high a water content to pass eas-
ily through the mincer and soil became stuck in
3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
the flights of the screw used in the mincer. All
the soil used in the Series A tests was passed
Two series of stress path triaxial tests have been
through the mincer twice. A third of the soil was
carried out on samples of Mercia Mudstone
set aside and the remainder was passed through
taken from the bulk sample described in the pre- the mincer a further two times. Another third
vious section. In both series of tests an effort was set aside and the final third was passed
was made to start with a representative sample of
through the mincer two more times. This left six
the soil. In test series A the soil used in the test
batches of soil as described in Table 1 and these
samples was mechanically remoulded, by pass-
were all separately mixed to a slurry with a water
ing through a meat mincer, at the average natural
contents of 40-60%. The procedures outlined
water content of 18%. In test series B the soil
above were designed to ensure that the tests in
used in the test samples was mechanically re-
each series are comparable despite the variability
moulded at different water contents. Table 1
of the base bulk sample.
summarises the processes undergone by the soil
The 38mm diameter cylindrical specimens re-
used in the various tests.
quired for testing in the stress path triaxial appa-
Table 1. Summary of mechanical remoulding and water con- ratus were prepared from slurry using Perspex
tents for soil samples tested.
floating ring consolidation tubes. The specimens
Test ID No of times soil re- Water content at were consolidated under a maximum vertical
moulded by passing which soil re-
through meat mincer moulded stress of 60kN/m2. Because of the high silt and
Test A2 2 18%
sand content in the Mercia Mudstone it was dif-
Test A4 4 18% ficult to minimise friction between the pistons
Test A6 6 18% and the tube and consequently many of the
Test B3L 3 19% specimens created did not have uniform water
Test B3M 3 22%
Test B3H 3 26%
contents.
Wesley [6] type stress path triaxial cells as de- It was estimated that the final water content of
scribed by Atkinson [7]. All specimens were the specimens may vary due to water entering the
compressed isotropically to the states given in sample at the base of the specimen by as much as
Table 2 and then sheared under undrained condi- 0.5%. This gives a potential error in the specific
tions at a constant strain rate. volume which is indicated by the vertical line
Water contents were obtained at the start of shown in Figure 2. This error will not only af-
the tests from trimmings from the specimen and fect the position of the curves in terms of an off-
at the end of the test. Due to the problems in set to the specific volume but also to a lesser ex-
specimen preparation outlined above, the final tent the gradient of the curves.
water content was considered to be the most reli-
1.8
able and was used to calculate specific volumes. Test B3H
Table 2. Test details Test B3M
1.75 Test B3L
Test ID p' after isotropic
Test A4
compression
Test A6
(kN/m2) 1.7
Specific volume
Test A2 100
Test A4 180
Test A6 155 1.65
Test B3L 150
Test B3M 150
Test B3H 150 1.6
1.5
Because of the variability of the soil in the bulk 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5
sample each series of tests was effectively under- Lnp'
taken on a unique soil. The compression curves
presented in Figure 2 should therefore be treated Figure 2. Compression data for Series A and Series B tests
as two sets of data; Series A tests for which there
are two reliable compression curves and Series B Despite the potential inaccuracy in the spe-
tests for which three compression curves are pre- cific volumes it is clear that the two Series B
sented. The curve for Test B3H starts from a tests subjected to mechanical remoulding in the
higher value of mean effective stress because the meat mincer at 19 and 22% water content have
first stage of this test was a one step consolida- very similar normal compression lines whereas
tion. the normal compression line for the soil re-
In all cases the soil was only lightly overcon- moulded at a higher water content (26%) charac-
solidated at the start of isotropic compression terises a soil with a lower specific volume or
and all samples reached a normal compression more closely packed grains. It also has a lower
line during the compression stage. As shown in value of λ, indicating the presence of a greater
Figure 1 the mudstone has a very high silt con- proportion of silt and sand sized particles. The
tent and low clay fraction, so it is not surprising gradients of the normal compression lines ob-
that the values of λ derived from the normal tained in the Series A tests are similar, but for
compression lines in Figure 2 are relatively low. these tests it appears that the gradient and spe-
They vary from 0.077 and 0.080 for Tests A4 cific volume increase with greater mechanical
and A6 respectively through 0.068 for Tests B3L remoulding in the meat mincer.
and B3M to 0.046 for tests B3H. Data from the undrained shear stages are pre-
The low compressibility of the soil means that sented in Figures 3 and 4 as q/p' against axial
the compression behaviour is very sensitive to strain. Figure 3 shows data for the Series A tests
the measurement of water contents in the sample. and in these the value of stress ratio at failure in-
S.E. Stallebrass and L.J. Seward / The Effect of Mechanical Remoulding 285
creases steadily with number of passes through Figure 4. Stress ratio against axial strain for Series B tests
the meat mincer from 1.11 through 1.22 to 1.43. The results from the Series A tests are slightly
In all cases the soil has reached a critical state counter intuitive as it might be expected that if
and these values of the critical state friction coef- the mechanical remoulding is causing particles to
ficient are consistent with angles of friction of disaggregate from silt sized to clay, the stress ra-
27.9°, 30.5° and 35.3° respectively. Figure 4 tio at failure should decrease from a value con-
shows stress ratio against axial strain for the Se- sistent with a silt, which would be greater than
ries B tests. The stress ratio against strain re- 1to a value consistent with a clay which would
sponse is not affected by the water content at be 1 or less. This is in contrast to the values of
which remoulding takes place. All the data for q/p' at failure reported earlier. However, this
the Series B tests are very consistent and give a may be explained with reference to the data from
value of stress ratio at failure of 1.31, equivalent the Series B tests
to a critical state angle of friction of 32.5°. The data from the Series B tests appear very
consistent when plotted as normalised stress
1.6
strain data as in Figure 4, they are less consistent
1.4 when the stress paths followed during the tests
are plotted in q:p' stress space as shown in Figure
1.2 5.
The stress path for Test B3H is characteristic
1
Stress ratio, q/p'
1.4 140
1.2 120
100
1
Stress ratio, q/p'
80
q' (kN/m2)
0.8
60
0.6
Test B3L
Test B3M 40 Test B3L
0.4 Test B3M
Test B3H
20 Test B3H
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 p' (kN/m2)
axial strain, %
Figure 5. Stress paths for Series B tests
286 S.E. Stallebrass and L.J. Seward / The Effect of Mechanical Remoulding
Stress paths for the three Series A tests are the specimen retains the characteristics of the
given in Figure 6. These tests were all com- natural bulk sample. However, the other two
pressed to different initial states before shearing. specimens are not sufficiently affected by the
The curves are a little uneven due to lack of con- remoulding for the critical state friction coeffi-
trol of the stresses, but nevertheless are all essen- cient to change. Pre-failure deformations are al-
tially the same shape and similar to the stress tered by the remoulding resulting in stress paths
paths in test Series B where it appeared that pre which appear more typical of normally com-
failure deformations were dominated by the clay pressed clay.
fraction but failure was dominated by the sandy Further testing is required to establish how
silt fraction. It may be that when the soil is me- sensitive the remoulding is to water content and
chanically remoulded to low levels, aggregations whether prolonged mechanical remoulding
of clay particles are not split up but aggregations would lead to a clay content that would start to
of silt particles are resulting in the higher angles affect the critical state friction coefficient.
of friction.
140
Test A2
Test A4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
120
Test A6
100 The authors would like to acknowledge the sup-
port of Tony Suckling and Balfour Beatty
q' (kN/m2)
80
Ground Engineering who funded the PhD re-
60
search undertaken by the second author. They
40
would also like to acknowledge the contributions
of Alexandros Galatoulos, Athina-Freskita Konti
20
and Andreas Trapezaris who undertook much of
0 the laboratory testing reported here.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
p' (kN/m2)
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of an experimental test programme to evaluate the long-term engineering response of water satu-
rated intact homogeneous samples of high porosity Seaford Chalk. The influence of the in situ stress path was investigated by
replicating idealised stress states adjacent to an underground excavation. Extensional tests were performed using modified triax-
ial cells. Axial and radial strains were recorded continuously over the duration of the tests. From the results of the test pro-
gramme, the response of chalk was both qualitatively and quantitatively assessed. A conceptual micro-mechanical model was
developed to illustrate the complex mechanism of dilation and creep.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article présente les résultats de test expérimental, dans le but d’évaluer l’impact de la saturation en eau d’échantillons à
porosité élevée, intact et homogène de calcaire de Seaford. L’influence du champ de contrainte in situ a été étudiée en
reproduisant l’état de contrainte théorique d’une excavation souterraine. Des tests supplémentaires ont été réalisés utilisant des
cellules triaxiales modifiées. Les déformations axial et radial ont été enregistrées en continues durant les tests. À partir des
résultats, une évaluation qualitative et quantitative de la réponse du calcaire a été faite. Une modélisation du mécanisme
microscopique a été développée afin d’illustrer le mécanisme complexe de la dilatation et de long terme.
1
Corresponding Author
288 K.J.L. Stone and K.I. Katsaros / An Investigation of Long-Term Engineering Response
The influence of the in situ stress path was in- same specimen is subjected to incremental com-
vestigated by replicating idealised stress states pressive loads, i.e. a multi-stage loading. In both
adjacent to an underground excavation, as illus- cases the applied stress paths are normally those
trated in Figure 1. of conventional triaxial compression.
However it is known that for some rocks their
strength is generally less in extension than in
compression. The difference for rock salt for ex-
ample, is up to 4 MPa [6]. It is therefore likely
that the long-term behaviour may be influenced
by the in situ stress paths, and in particular those
leading to extensional behaviour associated with
the reduction in confining stress as in the vicinity
of tunnels and slopes, refer to Figure 1.
In the laboratory test programme, three long-
term conventional axial compression tests, and
three long-term extensional tests were carried
out. The extensional tests were performed using
conventional triaxial cells modified for stress
path testing. The extensional tests followed a
combination of conventional axial compression,
axial extension and lateral extension stress paths.
It should be noted that the tests were con-
ducted at relatively low stress levels correspond-
ing to depths 35-70 m to be consistent with stress
Figure 1a: Stress paths followed by elements of material at levels associated with major civil engineering
three locations adjacent to an excavated cavern. b) Idealised
triaxial extension stress paths to represent locations around
projects and natural features such as cliff faces.
an excavation, and conventional triaxial compression stress
path. 2 TEST PROGRAMME AND
METHODOGY
Whilst the short-term strength and deforma-
tion properties of chalk are reasonably well re- Seven static load frames with a cantilever type
ported in the literature and guidance for design arrangement of dead weights were constructed
can be found in Lord et al. [1], there have been and placed in an environmentally controlled
only few studies of the long-term response of laboratory, see Figure 2.
chalk [2], [3], [4] and [5]. Consequently, there
remains little published guidance in terms of the
long-term strength and deformation parameters
especially at low stress regimes (less than 100 m
depth) for use in civil engineering design.
Extensional tests were undertaken in modified 2.1 Long term test programme
conventional triaxial cells. The modified cells A total of 6 long-term creep were conducted,
encompass a balanced ram and provide axial four of which are presented in more detail. Load
stresses unaffected by changes in the cell pres- increments were generally held for periods rang-
sure and are described elsewhere [7]. ing from a few days to almost 10 months. Radial
The stress state at any stage of a creep test is and axial strains were recorded together with cell
often expressed as a percentage of the ultimate pressures and environmental parameters. The test
peak failure stress for a corresponding short-term programme is summarised in Table 1.
test. Figure 3 presents the short-term strength en-
velope for the high porosity water saturated Sea-
ford Chalk used in this study. These data
3 RESULTS
tively ceased towards the end of the 73% load 98% peak strength) as was also observed for the
increment (~ 145 days). In the subsequent load triaxial compression tests R2 and R4.
increment at 92% of the estimated peak strength, Test R7 was a conventional lateral extension
the onset of axial creep strain is associated with (up to 81% peak strength) followed by axial
contractive radial strains. These contractive compression to failure (Figure 3). Figure 6 pre-
strains are also seen to reduce over the load in- sents an overview of the strains recorded. During
crement and become dilative once the creep the 23% load increment the sample contracted
strains seize. The radial strains remain practically and plateaued whereas the radial strain dilated
unaffected at the 101% increment and above. rapidly. At 63% some initial axial expansion
buckling with subsequent lateral contraction as also suggested that the same stochastic model
noted in R2 at the start of the 92% and 99% load can be applied to describe he short-term response
increments. The newly formed dilatant voids of chalk at low stress levels.
around the failed columns are slowly occupied
by the segregated loose material resulting in ax-
ial compaction. This material rearrangement is a REFERENCES
time dependant process driven by the weak con-
tact force network and perceived macroscopi- [1] J.A. Lord, C.R.I Clayton and R.N. Mortimore, Engi-
cally as creep. The process will continue until the neering in chalk. CIRIA Publication CP574, London:
CIRIA (2002).
voids are filled and newly formed strong network [2] K.I Katsaros, The long-term stress-strain behaviour of
columns also start to fail. This model is consis- chalk. PhD Thesis, University of Brighton, 2008.
tent with creep stabilisation taking place coinci- [3] M. A. Andersen, N. Foged, & H.F. Pedersen, The rate-
dent with the onset of small dilative strains (see type compaction of a weak North Sea chalk. In: Tiller-
son & Wawersik (eds),. Rock Mech. Proc. of the 33rd
for example R2 at day 179 and 232). U.S. Symp., Santa Fe, New Mexico, June 3-5. Rotter-
dam: Balkema,1992.
[4] A. Dahou, J.F. Shao, & M. Bederiat, Experimental and
5 CONCLUSIONS numerical investigations on transient creep of porous
chalk. Mechanics of Materials, 21, (1995).
[5] E.Maranini, & M.Brignoli, Creep behaviour of a weak
At the low stress levels used of this study, the rock: experimental characterization. Int. J. Rock Mech.
macroscopic deformation is only significant once Min. Sc., 36, (1999).
[6] N. D. Cristescu, & U. Hunsche,. Time Effects in Rock
localisation of deformation has commenced. A Mechanics. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,1998.
simple micro-mechanical model is introduced to [7] K. J. L Stone, & K. I Katsaros, A Modified Triaxial Cell
describe the macroscopic response observed. The for Stress-Path Testing of Weak Rock (Hard Soils),
main conclusions for the long-term mechanical ASTM Geotch. Testing Journal, Vol 31, No.5, (2008).
[8] M.D. Bolton, The role of micro-mechanics in Soil Me-
response of chalk under low stress regimes can chanics. International Workshop on Soil Crushability,
be summarised as follows. Yamaguchi University, Japan, (1999).
[9] R.N. Mortimore, & P. M. Fielding, The relationship be-
• At the strain levels experienced in the tests tween texture, density and strength of chalk. In: Bur-
land, J. B., Mortimore, R. N., Jones, D. L., & Corbett,
no significant influence due to the applied B. O., (eds), 1990. Chalk, Proc. Int. Chalk Symp.
stress path was observed. Brighton Polytechnic,Thomas Telford, London, (1989).
• Even in the absence of significant axial [10] D.Petley, M.Jones, C. Fan, C.Stafford, M.Leddra, &
creep strains, radial or dilative strains are N.Kageson-Leo, Deformation and fabric changes in
weak fine-grained rocks during high pressure consoli-
observed. dation and shear. In: Anagnostopoulos, A., Schlosser,
• No axial creep strains are observed below F., Kalteziotis, N., & Frank, R., (eds), Geotechnical
80-90% of the expected peak strength (as Engineering of hard soils-soft rocks. Rotterdam,
determined by conventional testing). Balkema,(1993).
[11] N. M. Kageson-Loe, M.E. Jones, D.N. Petley, & M.J.
• Axial creep strains are relatively small Leddra, Fabric evolution during the deformation of
(<1%). chalk. Int. J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci. & Geomech.
• The micromechanical processes involved Abstr., 30, (1993).
under deviatoric loading can explain the [12] N. Kageson-Loe, R.N. Mortimore, M.E. Jones & S.
Willis, On chalk fabrics and their influence on defor-
macroscopic experimental observations. mation behaviour. Extended abstract for EAPG Chalk
Conference, Copenhagen. (1994).
In the low stress regime dilation and creep are [13] E. T. Bowman, The ageing and creep of dense granular
intricately intertwined and an attempt to explain materials. Ph.D. Thesis, Cambridge University, 2002
this process with a stochastic model of microme-
chanical deformation has been briefly presented.
Further evidence to support this approach to-
gether with recommendations for further re-
search are presented in Katsaros [2] where it is
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 293
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-293
ABSTRACT
In year 2005 sixty-six laboratories took part in the round robin test, almost all the laboratories working in the country. Laborato-
ries has analysed the required parameters of artificially produced (or eventually natural) soil samples. The main goal is to get an-
swers to this questions: what is the degree of homogeneity of the physical charactheristics of samples, and the possibly existing
significant differences between laboratories participating in the round robin test. In the paper there is a summary of results of the
most common geotechnical laboratory tests: grain size distribution, plastic limit, liquid limit, plasticity index and Proctor com-
paction tests. The evaluation of the measurements calculated by variance analysis, but used some approximative processes too..
RÉSUMÉ
Dans l'année 2005 presque tout les laboratoires notament soixante-six ont participé aux essai. Les laboratoires ont analysé les pa-
ramètres requis de produit artificiel (ou éventuellement naturelles) des échantillons de sol. L'objectif principal est d'obtenir des
réponses à ces questions: quel est le degré d'homogénéité des caractéristiques physiques des échantillons, et les différences signi-
ficative entre les résultats des laboratoires participant aux essai. Dans le document il y a un résumé des résultats statistique des
tests les plus fréquent de laboratoire géotechnique: la distribution granulométrique, la limite de plasticité, la limite de liquidité,
indice de plasticité et des essais de compactage Proctor. L'article contient une évaluation de la fiabilité des résultats de mesure.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Homogenization
In 2005 a set of round robin tests was performed
The soil samples were taken on sites where large
to evaluate the reliability of the laboratory test
volume of relatively homogenous soil was avail-
results. The 63 participating laboratories have
able. Than the soil sample was placed on a rigid
performed 8 particles size distribution tests, 8 at-
platform, the lumps were broken and the soil was
terberg limits test and 8 modified Proctor tests.
commixed several times. The homogeneity of the
The laboratories received parts of the same soil
large sample was analyzed by the means of soil
samples.
classification tests: the large sample was divided
to four parts and one specimen was taken from
each to perform the tests.
1
Corresponding Author.
294 A. Takács and A. Mahler / Statistical Evaluation of Geotechnical Laboratory Round Robin Tests
In the case of grain size distribution the crite- In the case of the sand and gravel content (i.e.
rion of homogeneity was the following: the in the case of sieving) the coefficients of varia-
measured “percent passed” value for Dmax/2 par- tion range between 0.03 and 0.17 and it has an
ticle size should not deviate from the average average value of 0.08. In the case of fine content
value by more than 10%. In the case of atterberg significantly larger values can be experienced.
limit test, the plasticity index’s maximum ac- The values vary between 0.09 and 0.31 and have
ceptable deviation from the average was 2%. an average of 0.18. This also confirms the pre-
After the homogenization smaller specimens sumed fact that sieve test is more reliable than
were created and then sent to the participating the hydrometer test.
laboratories.
Sample No. 2. 3. 4. 6. 8.
n1 66 66 62 66 66
2 RELIABILITY OF THE PERFORMED
n2 61 61 61 62 58
LABORATORY TESTS
average 28.0 23.6 9.1 45.8 56.0
stand. deviation 4.24 5.07 2.83 6.23 4.82
2.1 Particle size distribution test coeff. of variation 0.15 0.22 0.31 0.14 0.09
maximum 39.0 36.0 16.0 63.0 69.0
Altogether more than 500 tests were per-
minimum 16.0 10.0 3.0 29.0 45.0
formed on 8 different sample groups. In this
work the accuracy of the sand+gravel and the range 23.0 26.0 13.0 34.0 24.0
fine content values are discussed. According to Table 2. Summary of fine contents’ results
the Hungarian standard relevant that time, the
sand+gravel content is defined as the percent of A similar trend can be observed in the case of
soil particles larger than 0.1 mm and the fine extreme values. The sand and gravel content’s
content is the particles smaller than 0.02 mm. It maximum deviation from the average is less then
must be noted that the sand and gravel content is ±20% in four cases, only the Sample 2. is an ex-
determined by sieving and the fine content is de- ception; in the case of this soil sample the devia-
termined by hydrometer analysis. So the coeffi- tions were significantly larger for the extreme
cients of variation values refer to the reliability values as well as for the standard deviation val-
of these two different testing methods. ues. The extreme values of the fine content differ
The determined statistical parameters are by about ±40% in general, but in the case of
shown in Table 1. and Table 2., in these tables n1 Sample 3. ±70% deviations can be observed.
represents the total number of tests and n2 is the 0,20
0,18
number of the tests taken into account (after eli- 0,16
coefficient of variation, C v
R2 = 0,8801
mination of erroneous results). 0,14
0,12
0,10
The tendencies are clear: the smaller the average The plastic limit results’ coefficients of varia-
(i.e. gravel & sand or fine content) the larger the tion vary between 0.053 and 0.153 and the aver-
coefficient of variation (i.e. the smaller the reli- age value is 0.105. In the case of liquid limit
ability). these values vary between 0.054 and 0.128 and
0,40 have an average of 0.087.
0,35 These values are similar to the values experi-
coefficient of variation, C v
0,30 enced for the sand and gravel content, so the reli-
0,25
ability of the plastic limit and liquid limit are
0,20
0,15
R2 = 0,8847 similar to that of sieving and are definitely better
0,10
than that of hydrometer test.
0,05 Generally the extreme values fall in a range
0,00 ±20%, but in the case of soil Samples 3 and
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sd<0,02 mm (%)
Sample 5 the extremes differed from the average
by about 30%.
Figure 2. Coefficients of variation in the case of fine content Similarly to the grain size distribution values,
the coefficient of variation values are plotted
2.2 Atterberg limit test against the average values (Figure 3. and 4.). but
in this case no significant correlation can be ex-
The atterberg limits were determined on soils perienced between theses values.
having a plasticity index range of 15-35%. Near-
ly 500 test on 8 homogenized sets of soil sam- Sample No. 1. 2. 3. 4.
ples. The reduced number of tests taken into ac- n1 62 62 62 62
count (n2) was determined as it was described in n2 60 62 62 61
the case of particle size distribution test.
average 54.6 53.5 45.5 48.2
Sample No. 1. 2. 3. 4.
standard deviation 3.61 3.06 5.26 4.02
n1 62 61 59 62 coeff. of variation 0.066 0.057 0.116 0.083
n2 58 54 59 61 maximum 64.2 60.8 54.9 56.0
average 23.3 22.7 27.6 23.6 minimum 47.5 46.3 33.0 39.3
standard deviation 1.87 1.21 4.22 2.42 range 16.7 14.5 21.9 16.7
coeff. of variation 0.080 0.053 0.153 0.103 Table 5. Summary of liquid limits’ results
maximum 27.9 25.2 38.4 30.4
minimum 19.4 20.9 16.4 16.7 Sample No. 5. 6. 7. 8.
range 8.5 4.3 22.0 13.7 n1 62 62 62 62
Table 3. Summary of plastic limits’ results n2 56 61 58 58
Sample No. 5. 6. 7. 8. average 43.3 41.5 40.6 43.3
n1 62 62 62 62 standard deviation 5.52 2.24 2.62 5.52
coeff. of variation 0.128 0.054 0.064 0.128
n2 61 60 60 58
maximum 55.2 46.5 47.2 48.0
average 20.0 19.0 19.8 20.0
minimum 31.5 35.7 34.2 37.8
standard deviation 2.35 1.75 2.50 2.35
range 23.7 10.8 13.0 10.2
coeff. of variation 0.118 0.092 0.126 0.118
maximum 26.6 23.2 26.1 23.8 Table 6. Summary of liquid limits’ results
0,20
Sample No. 5. 6. 7. 8.
0,18
n1 64 64 64 64
coefficient of variation, C v
0,16
0,14 n2 63 63 59 64
0,12
0,10
average 2.25 1.93 2.15 2.25
0,08 standard deviation 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04
0,06
coeff. of variation 0.018 0.015 0.012 0.018
0,04
0,02 maximum 2.35 2.00 2.22 1.99
0,00
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
minimum 2.16 1.86 2.08 1.81
plastic lim it, w P range 0.19 0.14 0.14 0.18
Table 8. Summary of maximum dry densities’ results
Figure 3. Coefficients of variation in the case of plastic limit
0,05
0,20
0,18
coefficient of variation, C v
0,04
coefficient of variation, C v
0,16
0,14 0,03
0,12
0,10 0,02
0,08
0,06 0,01
0,04
0,02 0,00
1,70 1,80 1,90 2,00 2,10 2,20 2,30
0,00
40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 r max
d
It is worth noting that the scatter in the case of - In the case of plastic limit, liquid limit and
plastic limit seems definitely larger than that of proctor tests, the coefficient of variation
the other properties, in addition the µ1>0 values do not depend on the measured values.
represent a non-symmetric distribution. - The measured data has shown a distribution
1 that can be best described by normal dis-
wL
I.U tribution, although slightly asymmetric
wP
E distribution has been observed for the
2 lim F (Sd<0,02mm)
it
of plastic limit results.
II. t he G+S (Sd>0,1mm )
po
ss max
ib d
le
3N Be di
st
ta rib
(U ut
i on
2
- sh
a pe
s ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
d)
4
Be
VII.
(J
- sh
III.
of the “Development of quality-oriented and
ap
5
ed
)
G
am
gn
m
or
ABSTRACT
The paper presents results from laboratory investigations into the behaviour of marls from small to large strains. In particular, re-
sults are presented concerning the following engineering properties: (a) shear modulus and damping ratio, as determined by
means of resonant column tests, (b) undrained shear strength, as determined by means of triaxial and uniaxial compression tests,
and its correlation with the preconsolidation pressure of the soils, determined by means of oedometer tests, and (c) residual
strength, as determined by means of ring shear tests and its correlation with the critical strength. The implications of the test re-
sults on the engineering behaviour of marls from small to large strains are discussed.
RÉSUMÉ
L'article document présente différents résultats de laboratoire qui ont permis d'étudier le comportement des marnes de petites à
grandes déformations. En particulier, on présente les résultats obtenus sur les propriétés mécaniques suivantes: (a) le module de
cisaillement et le coefficient d'amortissement, déterminés par des essais de colonne de résonnance,(b) la résistance au cisaille-
ment non drainé, déterminée par des essais de compression triaxiale et uniaxiale et sa corrélation avec la pression de préconsoli-
dation des sols, déterminée au moyen d'essais d'oedométre, et (c) la résistance résiduelle, déterminée au moyen d'essais de cisail-
lement annulaire et sa corrélation avec l' état critique. On discute également les implications des résultats des essais sur le
comportement mécanique des marnes de petites à grandes déformations.
Keywords: Marls, cementation, shear modulus, damping ratio, undrained shear strength, preconsolidation pressure, residual
strenght, critical strength
1
Corresponding Author.
300 Th. Tika et al. / Engineering Properties of Marls from Small to Large Strains
effects are as important as are the effects of ini- shear modulus and damping ratio of the soils
tial porosity and stress history. (Drnevich, 1967, Kallioglou, 2003). The tests
Marls are often encountered in Greece and were performed on solid cylindrical specimens of
their behaviour is of great interest in geotechnic- intact soils (diameter: 71.1mm, height:
al engineering dealing with problems, such as 142.2mm), which were consolidated at various
seismic site response analysis, design of founda- levels of isotropic effective stress, o. Two types
tions, deep excavations and tunnels, earthworks, of dynamic torsional excitation were imposed:
slope stability and others (Tika et al, 2010). small strain loading under drained conditions and
Typical strain levels most important to engi- a sequence of loadings with increasing strain un-
neering design are in the range of 10-5 to 10-3 der undrained conditions. As the test is consi-
(Simpson, 1999). Therefore stiffness from very dered to be non-destructive, o, was usually in-
small to medium strains is required for the pre- creased to various levels in order to assess the
diction of soil response to both static and dynam- dependence of dynamic properties on o.
ic loading. On the other hand, the study of the Preconsolidation stress, p, was determined
stability and kinematics of potential sliding soil from conventional incremental oedometer tests
masses requires the knowledge of soil behavior ( /v/ /v=1) on intact soils and reconstituted
post-peak and at large strains. samples, prepared at a water content of about 1.2
The paper presents results from laboratory in- times the liquid limit of the soils. Each load step
vestigations into the behaviour of marls from lasted 24 hours.
small to large strains. In particular results are Undrained shear strength was determined
presented, concerning the following engineering from either uniaxial compression tests, or triaxial
properties: (a) shear modulus and damping ratio, compression tests on isotropically consolidated
(b) the correlation between preconsolidation specimens (UU and CU). Drained shear strength
pressure and undrained shear strength and (c) the was determined from triaxial compression tests
correlation of drained residual and critical state on isotropically consolidated specimens (CU and
strengths with index properties. CD), or shear box tests. Conventional triaxial
(diameter: 35mm, height:70mm) and shear box
(diameter 63.5mm, height 25.4mm) apparatuses
2 SOILS TESTED were used for the above types of tests, carried out
on intact soils.
The soils tested were retrieved from various parts Drained residual shear strength was deter-
of Greece and Cyprus, from quaternary and neo- mined from ring shear tests on remoulded speci-
gene sediments of depth ranging from 3m to mens (Bromhead, 1979). Details for the tests are
105m, using rotary coring and Shelby sampling. given in Elpekos (2010). Test specimens were
The plasticity index, PI, varied between 7% and placed at a water content below or at plastic limit
66% and the overconsolidation ratio, OCR, be- into the annular space of the apparatus (internal
tween 1 and 11. The calcium carbonate content, diameter: 70mm, external diameter: 100mm,
CC, ranged from 26% to 100% and was deter- height: 5mm). After placement, the specimens
mined using HCl or radiographic methods as a were consolidated to the desired level of vertical
percentage of the soil dry mass. The soils had ei- stress (about 400kPa). Shearing was then per-
ther uniform, or layered structure with calcareous formed at a rate of displacement of
concretions in some cases and a variety of co- 0.018mm/min and at various levels of vertical
lours. stress, 400kPa, 200kPa and 100-150kPa, in order
to assess the normal stress dependence of drained
residual strength.
3 LABORATORY TESTS
8
on reconstituted sample of the marl. The natural
6
state of the soil at stresses above v0 lies above
4 the SCL line. However, loading beyond p in
Cyclic Triaxial Test
2 the oedometer results in desruption of cementa-
0 tion bonds and fabric of the soil, so that the natu-
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 ral compression line becomes steeper than the
(%)
SCL line and falls towards the ICL line.
Soil (kPa) e PI(%) CC(%)
Figure 6 shows the variation of the undrained
55 0.615 7 61 shear strength ratio, su/ vo, with overconsolida-
135 0.804 28 60 tion ratio. The log-log plot indicates a linear rela-
159 0.911 66 >35 tionship, expressed by the following equation:
s u / o A
p / o
0.70
Figure 4. Variation of normalized shear modulus, G/Gmax, (a) (2)
and damping ratio, DT, (b) with shear strain,
, at /oinsitu for
intact marls where A is the undrained shear strength ratio for
normally consolidated marls (OCR=1).
Th. Tika et al. / Engineering Properties of Marls from Small to Large Strains 303
1.3 'vo soil and the presence of fissures and the strength
'p along them (Skempton, 1977, Sotiropoulos &
1.2
Cavounidis, 1980, Skempton & Vaughan, 1995).
1.1 Skempton (1977) suggested that for a first-time
1.0
slide in stiff fissured clay, the shear strength at
ISL failure can be approximated by the full softened
0.9 or critical state strength. Skempton (1964, 1977)
0.8 also suggested that the strength of a clay will be
1 10 100 1000 10000 at or close to the residual on slip surfaces in old
Vertical effective stress, v'(kPa)
landslides or soliflucted slopes, in bedding shears
Figure 5. Compression curves for a marl in folded strata, in sheared joints, or faults.
Lupini et al. (1981) demonstrated three me-
10 chanisms controlling drained residual shea-ring:
su/ 'vo = A x OCR 0.7 a turbulent mode in soils with high portion of ro-
tund articles, a sliding mode in which a low
strength shear surface of strongly orientated par-
93
1.2 PI=18-34 % ticles forms and a transitional mode involving
A=
LL=46-73 % both turbulent and sliding shear. They concluded
su/ 'vo
71
1 0.8 CF=3-51 % that these modes are related to the packing and
A= CC=28->85 %
e o=0.751-1.677 porosity of rotund articles present. Correlations
between drained residual strength of cohesive
soils and index properties are effective in soil
Uniaxial compression test
Triaxial compression test (UU) strata of constant mineralogy.
Triaxial compression test (CU)
Figure 7 shows the variation of residual fric-
0.1 tion angle, r=arctan (r/n), of marls tested in
1 10 30 the ring shear apparatus, with plasticity index at
OCR a normal stress of n=200 kPa. In the same fi-
Figure 6. Variation of undrained shear strength ratio, su/ vo, gure, the critical state friction angle, cs, mea-
with overcosolidation ratio, OCR= /p //vo, for intact marls sured in triaxial compression (CU and CD) and
direct shear tests on intact marls, is also pre-
The value of A depends on the stress path, fol- sented. A good correlation between both the re-
lowed by soil up to failure, and therefore the type sidual and critical state friction angles with plas-
of test used for the determination of undrained ticity index is observed. Similar correlations with
shear strength. A value of A=1.293 was derived the other index properties have been observed. It
from the consolidated undrained triaxial co- is shown that at the above normal stress level, the
mpression tests and a value of A=0.871 from the difference between the two angles and therefore
unconfined compression and unconsolidated un- brittleness increases considerably for marls with
drained triaxial compression tests. The above re- a plasticity index greater than PI 20%. For such
sults indicate that the undrained shear strength marls therefore, the presence of pre-existing
ratio for marls is about 3 to 5 times greater than shear surfaces may be the most influential factor
the corresponding value of su/vo=(0.23±0.04) controlling engineering design.
proposed for uncemented normally consolidated
clays (Jamiolkoswki et al., 1985).
304 Th. Tika et al. / Engineering Properties of Marls from Small to Large Strains
40 REFERENCES
Ring shear test
Triaxial test (CU, CD) [1] E.N. Bromhead, A simple ring shear apparatus, Ground
30
Direct shear test
Engineering 12(5) (1979), 40–44.
8r (deg) or 8cs(deg)
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ABSTRACT
Recent research reveals that sandy soil with different portions of fines exhibit very different behavior and may not be explained
by established soil mechanics theories. This study aims to shed light on the various aspects of loosely compacted completely de-
composed granite (CDG) through stress-path controlled triaxial tests. A series of consolidated undrained tests (CU) were con-
ducted on remoulded CDG specimens, which were prepared at different densities. It has been observed that the isotropic com-
pression line and critical state line are not unique if soil specimens were prepared at different initial compactions. This behavior
deviates from the critical state soil mechanics framework for pure clays or pure sands. The remoulded soil appears to display
transitional behavior. The second part of the investigation involved stress-path controlled triaxial tests including anisotropic con-
solidated undrained tests (KU) to simulate the stress path of a soil element in a slope subjected to rainfall infiltration.
RÉSUMÉ
Des recherches récentes révèlent que les sols de sable avec des parties différentes de l'exposition des amendes des comporte-
ments très différents et ne peut être expliquée par la mécanique des sols mis en place des théories. Cette étude vise à faire la lu-
mière sur les divers aspects de lâche compacté granite complètement décomposé (CDG) à travers le stress-chemin contrôlées des
essais triaxiaux. Une série d'essais non drainés consolidés (CU) ont été effectués sur des échantillons remaniés CDG, qui ont été
préparés à des densités différentes. Il a été observé que la ligne de compression isotrope et la ligne d'état critique ne sont pas un-
iques, si des échantillons de sol ont été préparés à différents compactage initial. Ce comportement diffère du sol cadre critique
mécanique Etat pour les argiles pures ou les sables purs. Le sol remanié semble afficher un comportement de transition. La deux-
ième partie de l'enquête a porté sur le stress-tests chemin contrôlée triaxial, y compris anisotrope consolidés essais non drainés
(KU) pour simuler le parcours de tension d'un élément de sol en pente soumis à l'infiltration des précipitations.
Keywords: Triaxial, transitional behavior, stress path, completely decomposed granite, slopes.
1
Corresponding Author.
312 J.J. Zhang and C.Y. Cheuk / The Transitional Behavior of Loosely Compacted CDG
native methods to improve the stability of loose yellowish brown sandy residual soil with some
fill slopes. A possible method is the use of soil amounts of fine contents. The particle size distri-
nails to enhance the stability of these slopes [1]. bution is illustrated in Figure 1.
The soil nail design needs to determine the
steady state shear strength of soil through triaxial
tests. Once the critical state line (CSL) is deter-
mined, the steady state shear strength of soil can
be easily found using the correlation between
specific volume v, mean effective stress p´ and
deviator stress q. However, some researchers [2]
[3] recently found that some soils with an inter-
mediate state between sands and clays display a
characteristic of non-uniqueness of CSL in the
lnp´-v plot. Since some CDG soils are mainly the
mixture of sands and fines, the CSL of CDG may
be also not unique.
For the soil of which the grain size distribu-
tion is well graded, the mechanism is very differ-
ent from pure sands and pure clays. The CSL and Figure 1. Particle size distribution
normal compression line (NCL) on the lnp´-v
plane seems to be not unique. Nocilla et al. [2]
defined this behavior as ‘transitional behavior’ Basic index tests on the soil specimens were
and named this soil as ‘transitional soil’. The key conducted in accordance with BS1377 (BSI
feature of the transitional soil is the non- 1990). The liquid limit is around 37% while the
uniqueness of CSL and NCL. Martins et al. [4] plastic limit is approximate 21%. It has been
also showed that some soils with an intermediate found that the maximum dry density is 1875
state between clays and sands have no unique kg/m3, which is corresponding to the optimum
NCL. Ferreira and Bica [3] extended the work of moisture content of around 13%.
Martins et al. [4] and founded that some reconsti-
tuted soils do not have unique CSL and isotropic
NCL in triaxial tests. 3 TEST PROGRAM
In this paper, two series of triaxial tests (CU
and KU) and a series of odeometer compression Two series of triaxial tests were conducted in this
tests were conducted using reconstituted CDG in study. The first series included 14 isotropic con-
Hong Kong to study the transitional behavior of solidated undrained tests (CU) to investigate the
loosely compacted CDG. The objective of these non-uniqueness of CSL. Soil samples were pre-
tests is to investigate whether the soil has unique pared at different initial relative compactions,
CSL and NCL or not, and look into the loose soil which are defined as the dry densities relative to
behavior subjected to stress paths simulating the maximum dry density determined by stan-
rainfall infiltration in slopes. dard proctor test. Specimens were prepared at
75%, 85% and 90% relative compactions and
these samples were isotropically consolidated to
2 TEST MATERIAL different effective stresses (see Table 1), fol-
lowed by undrained shearing until 30% axial
The CDG taken from Beacon Hill in Hong Kong strain was reached.
were used in this study. The soil samples were The second series contained 8 anisotropic
collected from the site at the depth of 0.5m to 2m consolidated undrained tests (KU) to study the
measured from the ground surface. Visual in- influence of pre-shearing on the CSL and failure
spection indicated that the Beacon Hill soil is
J.J. Zhang and C.Y. Cheuk / The Transitional Behavior of Loosely Compacted CDG 313
Symbols: RC, relative compaction; vi, initial specific volume; vc, final specific volume; p´, mean effective stress before shearing;
q, deviator stress before shearing
4 TEST PROCEDURE
mechanism under undrained conditions. Since
the CSL may be affected by different stress paths Soil samples of 76 mm in diameter and 152 mm
and failure mechanisms, results of KU tests can in height were prepared by moist tamping [5],
be compared with CU tests to see whether the which could easily produce specimens of differ-
CSL is unique or not under different stress paths. ent relative compactions. A pre-determined
Soil samples of 75% and 85% relative compac- amount of water (i.e. 13% moisture content) was
tions were pre-sheared to different initial stress added to the oven-dried soil and the mixture was
states (see Table 1), followed by undrained kept in a sealed plastic bag for 24 hrs to obtain
shearing to simulate the stress state of a soil ele- its equilibrium condition. Each specimen was
ment in a slope. compacted in ten layers by dropping a small
Apart from triaxial tests, a series of odeometer hammer from a given height each time. In order
compression tests were also conducted to check to check the uniformity of specimens, the 152
whether the NCL would converge at high stress mm long specimen was cut into three sections
levels. Soil specimens were prepared at different and it was found that the different of density is
relative compactions ranging from 70% to 95% less than 5% [6].
and consolidated up to 1600 kPa.
314 J.J. Zhang and C.Y. Cheuk / The Transitional Behavior of Loosely Compacted CDG
For the preliminary saturation, each specimen mens were prepared at different initial relative
was flushed by CO2 and de-aired water. A cell compactions ranging from 75%, 85% and 90%.
pressure of 30 kPa was applied during the satura- However, if the CSL and isotropic compres-
tion process in order to maintain the stability of sion line (ICL) are plotted in the lnp´-v plane
the specimen while the pressure of CO2 and de- (see figure 3), it seems that each initial compac-
aired water flushing was 20 kPa. After prelimi- tion has its own set of parallel ICL and CSL. It
nary saturation, back pressure saturation was car- can be observed that the ICL and CSL are not
ried out by increasing the pore water pressure unique for specimens with different initial com-
while cell pressure was kept 10kPa greater than pactions, showing a very different behavior from
the back pressure. B-value checking was con- clean sands and pure clays. The reconstituted
ducted for each specimen and the B-value for CDG exhibits the non-uniqueness of CSL and
each specimen was greater than 0.97. ICL, which is the main feature of transitional soil
After saturation, each sample was isotropical- as described by Nocilla et al. [1].
ly consolidated to different initial mean effective
stresses p´ (See table 1) in CU tests. While the
KU tests were first isotropically consolidated to a
given p´, followed by drained shearing to a spe-
cific deviator stress q. The axial strain rate for
CU and KU tests is 0.065% per min in undrained
condition and each specimen was tested up to
30% axial strain.
Final moisture content was obtained after each
test by putting the sample into a freezer for 6 hrs
and then drying it in an oven for 24 hrs. Once the
final water content was determined, the final
void ratio can be calculated. Error in the mea-
surement of volumetric strain due to membrane
penetration was considered by using the method
suggested by Sivathayalan and Vaid [7]. The
maximum error in terms of void ratio is around Figure 2. Critical state of CU tests in p´-q plot
1%, which may have minor influence on the lo-
cation of CSL in lnp´-v plot.
For odeometer tests, each specimen was pre-
pared at 13% moisture content and saturated in
the water for 24 hrs. The loading sequence of
compression was 50kPa, 100kPa, 200kPa,
400kPa, 800kPa and 1600kPa. The unloading
was also conducted from 1600kPa to 50kPa in a
reverse sequence corresponding to compression.
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1.3. Classification
Classification
This page intentionally left blank
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 325
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-325
J. P. Baud 1
Eurogéo, Avrainville, France
M. Gambin
Apagéo, Magny-les-Hameaux, France
ABSTRACT
Physical and mechanical properties used to characterize soil and rock are different according to the approaches and targets of the
various activities involved, namely soil mechanics, rock mechanics or engineering geology. The Authors suggest that the data
obtained during a borehole expansion test, which can be summarized by a Ménard E-modulus and a limit pressure, be used in an
overall classification ranging from loose soils to hard rock without any discontinuity, based on the soil Pressiorama® developed
some years ago.
RÉSUMÉ
Les propriétés physiques et mécaniques utilisées pour caractériser les sols et les roches sont différentes selon les approches et
les objectifs, ceux de la géotechnique, de la géologie de l’ingénieur ou de la mécanique des roches. Les auteurs suggèrent que les
mesures faites lors de l’expansion de la cavité cylindrique d’un forage, et qui peuvent se ramener aux deux paramètres fonda-
mentaux, un module pressiométrique et une pression limite, soient utilisés pour une classification passant sans discontinuité des
sols aux roches, fondée sur le diagramme Pressiorama® mis au point pour les sols il y a quelques années.
Keywords: Pressuremeter, flexible dilatometer, rock moduli, rock limit pressure, hard soils, weak rocks, weathered rocks.
Mots-clés : Pressiomètre, dilatomètre, modules des roches, pression limite des roches, sols raides, roches tendres, roches altérées.
solide des sols qui sont tous les terrains qui ne Un des objectifs du colloque d’Athènes 2011 est
sont pas roches, et caractérisés par leur manque de s’intéresser aux terrains dont le champ
plus ou moins marqué de solidité : altérables, ter- d’action est revendiqué à la fois par la mécanique
rassables, friables, compressibles, mous jusqu’à des sols et la mécanique des roches. Et bien que
la limite de la liquidité. les spécialistes des deux disciplines soient le plus
Historiquement, la définition de Terzaghi [1], souvent dans des rapports cordiaux et fructueux,
à la double culture de géologue et d’ingénieur, et développent leur expertise dans le cadre de
institue la limite mécanique entre sols et roches : lois physiques universelles, la revendication va
« Le sol est un agrégat naturel de grains miné- parfois jusqu’à contester à l’autre la pertinence
raux qui peuvent être séparés par de légères ac- de son approche : « Une forte cohésion et une
tions mécaniques telles que l’agitation dans de fissuration développée, deux critères souvent ci-
l’eau. La roche au contraire est un agrégat natu- tés pour les roches, restent insuffisants. La sépa-
rel de grains minéraux liés par des forces de co- ration entre sols et roches dépend beaucoup de
hésion fortes et permanentes. Comme ces termes l’école de pensée et du domaine d’expérience de
« fort » et « permanent » sont sujets à diverses l’ingénieur ; les congrès qui ont tenté de regrou-
interprétations, la distinction entre le sol et la per les sols raides et les roches tendres n’ont fait
roche est nécessairement arbitraire. En fait, il y a qu’ajouter à la confusion. C’est à la géologie
beaucoup d’agrégats naturels de grains minéraux qu’il appartiendrait de faciliter une clarifica-
qui sont difficiles à classer, soit comme sols, soit tion. » [2]. Le schéma ci-après (Figure 1) se base
comme roches » [1].
Figure 1. Cycle de la matière minérale (et organique) des Modifié et augmenté des concepts géologiques classiques,
roches aux sols. d’après une présentation « à faire hurler un géologue » (sic)
de J. Hurtado [3]
J.P. Baud and M. Gambin / Classification des sols et des roches à partir d’essais d’expansion cylindrique 327
donc sur la distinction que fait la géologie clas- Cette classification est illustrée par exemple dans
sique, avant la tectonique des plaques, entre les le diagramme Pressiorama® [5], et elle est tota-
facteurs de formation des roches de l’écorce ter- lement liée au coefficient de structure défini
restre, ou géodynamique interne, et les facteurs par Ménard comme le rapport EM/E où E serait
de dégradation des roches et recomposition des un « module d’Young » acceptable [6] [7].
roches sédimentaires, ou géodynamique externe. Le devenir de cette classification, et la perti-
C’est, en première approximation, ce qui forme nence du coefficient de structure des sols, est
frontière entre les domaines de la mécanique des une question qui se pose lorsque l’essai pressio-
roches et de la mécanique des sols. Le cycle géo- métrique est appliqué à des « sols » de plus en
logiquement très long d’une particule minérale, plus raides, qui peuvent être, soit des terrains sé-
par exemple un grain de silice magmatique au dimentaires dans un état de consolidation géosta-
sein d’un granite, devenant grain d’un sable de tique élevé, soit des roches dans un état
plage avant de retourner à la base de l’écorce ter- d’altération et de décompression plus ou moins
restre, le conduit à être composant de roches et avancé, ou des roches moins altérées, fracturées
de sols de résistances mécaniques extrêmes, ou peu fracturées et enfin aux roches massives.
symbolisées en marge du schéma par le module
de cisaillement de ces formations. La caractéris-
tique génétique essentielle des roches, c’est la 3 LE COMPORTEMENT
liaison de plus en plus forte entre les grains qui la PRESSIOMETRIQUE DES SOLS
composent, par cimentation au cours de la diagé- INDURES, DES ROCHES TENDRES ET
nèse des roches sédimentaires, cristallisation ou DES ROCHES MASSIVES
recristallisation des roches métamorphiques et
magmatiques. Leur devenir à la surface du La loi de comportement hyperbolique des sols
Globe, c’est la destruction de ces structures soumis à un essai de chargement radial, corres-
fortes, progressive jusqu’à la juxtaposition de pond à la mesure globale de la déformation de la
grains sans liaisons. Vouloir comparer les carac- paroi sous la contrainte de cisaillement que subit
téristiques mécaniques d’un sol très raide et le sol. Le réarrangement des grains au cours de la
d’une roche assez altérée, même si elles semblent déformation et de la généralisation de la rupture
presque identiques, doit se faire en gardant en à une zone de sol, est un phénomène dont le
perspective le fait qu’elles sont aux antipodes de principe est bien établi et compréhensible [6] [7],
ce cycle. même si le détail de son apparition et de ses mo-
dalités suivant les sols fera encore longtemps
l’objet de recherches géomécaniques.
2 CARACTERISATION DES SOLS ET DES Lors du passage progressif à des sols de plus
ROCHES PAR LES PARAMETRES en plus indurés, à des roches altérées, et à des
PRESSIOMETRIQUES CLASSIQUES roches fracturées, le comportement en expansion
radiale des terrains ne change pas brutalement de
La loi de comportement de tout matériau nature, mais l’échelle des contraintes associées
soumis à l’expansion d’une cavité cylindrique change progressivement d’une ou deux puis-
peut se ramener essentiellement à une règle hy- sances de 10 par rapport aux sols « meubles », et
perbolique assez simple [4]. la limitation des essais à 5 MPa due au matériel
Dans les sols les deux paramètres fondamen- disponible ne permet plus que d’accéder à la
taux EM et p*LM (module pressiométrique et phase initiale des déformations. L’essai ne com-
pression limite) qui s’en déduisent permettent porte alors que la mesure d’un module sur cette
une classification des sols, en raison de la rela- plage limitée de contraintes, sans connaissance
tion étroite entre le rapport EM/p*LM, et le type de de la pression limite de l’évolution du module
comportement des sols, entre les pôles extrêmes sous contraintes plus élevées. La mise au point
sableux et argileux, fonction de la proportion et de matériel pressiométrique rendant possible
de la granulométrie des composants des sols. d’atteindre des pressions d’essai de 25 MPa [8],
328 J.P. Baud and M. Gambin / Classification des sols et des roches à partir d’essais d’expansion cylindrique
Ces 3 types de courbes permettent une classifica- sols, avec une phase de fluage et de grandes dé-
tion basique : formations.
- roches massives plus ou moins fracturées ; La différence notable est la tendance à
- roches fracturées et altérées, mais dont la l’augmentation du rapport EM/p*LM avec la pres-
matrice rocheuse reste peu compressible ; sion limite, qui dépasse rapidement les valeurs
- roches altérées et décomposées évoluant en usuelles des sols meubles, pour atteindre 50 ou
un comportement de type sol. 100, et même 200. Les courbes pressiométriques
correspondant à de telles valeurs élevées de
EM/p*LM présentent une « pliure » de plus en plus
4 PASSAGE SOL INDURE / ROCHE nette entre les deux phases, avant et après appari-
TENDRE ET ROCHES ALTEREE / SOL : tion du fluage.
PROGRESSIF OU BRUTAL ?
sures poussées à 25 MPa, ce type de comporte- geons assez rapidement de porter les pressions
ment n’a pas été observé, et tous les matériaux d’essai jusque vers 50 MPa.
testés présentent un fluage progressif annonçant Le diagramme de classification continue des
le début d’une phase de rupture. sols et des roches par les valeurs pressiomé-
A des pressions supérieures, la rupture de la triques nous sert de cadre pour ces travaux, ainsi
roche par expansion en forage peut être obtenue, que la mise au point parallèlement, de lignes
de façon industrielle, par les procédés d’injection d’isovaleurs du coefficient rhéologique compa-
de mousse expansive sous pression (tel le procé- tibles avec la pratique des méthodes pressiomé-
dé DMX de Colas-Rail). Dans ce type triques Ménard [7].
d’arrachement de zones rocheuses proches de la
surface d’un front de taille, avec mise en pres- REFERENCES
sion rapide sous environ 50 à 60 MPa, on peut
[1] K. Terzaghi et R.B. Peck, Mécanique des sols appli-
observer deux modes distincts de rupture du ro- quée, traduction française J. Baudrillard et C. Meunier,
cher : la plus fréquente est la décomposition im- Dunod, Paris (1957).
médiate en blocs polyédriques découpés par [2] Comité Français de Mécanique des Roches, Manuel de
l’ouverture de fractures fermées préexistantes ; mécanique des roches, tome I, Presses de l’Ecole des
Mines, Paris (2000).
plus rarement, dans les roches moins fissurées, [3] J. Hurtado, Introduction à la géomécanique, Sols et
l’expansion provoque un déplacement de la paroi structures ed., Paris (1988).
pendant quelques secondes, avant un émiette- [4] J.-P. Baud et M. Gambin, Déduction d’une loi de ré-
ment de la masse rocheuses en éléments dont ponse hyperbolique unique par compilation de courbes
pressiométriques dans un sol de lithologie homogène,
toutes les faces ne sont pas planes et semblent ISP5 – PRESSIO 2005, Vol. 1. Gambin, Magnan et
correspondre à l’ouverture de joints intergranu- Mestat (ed.), Presses ENPC, Paris (2005), 175-186.
laires (Delaporte, communication orale, [11]). [5] J-P. Baud, Analyse des résultats pressiométriques Mé-
nard dans un diagramme spectral [Log(pLM), Log
L’état des connaissances sur la rupture sous
(EM/pLM)] et utilisation des regroupements statistiques
contrainte triaxiale d’échantillons de roches non dans la modélisation d’un site, ISP5 – PRESSIO 2005,
fracturés, et sur la résistance au glissement des Vol. 1. Gambin, Magnan et Mestat (ed.), Presses
joints rocheux est résumé par Parriaux [12] et dé- ENPC, Paris (2005), 167-174.
[6] L. Ménard et J. Rousseau, L’évaluation des tassements,
taillé dans une abondante bibliographie par Al
tendances nouvelles. Sols-soils, n°1, (1962), 167-174.
Bied [13]. La rupture de la matrice se fait par ap- [7] M. Gambin, Le pressiomètre, in I. Sharour et R. Gour-
parition de bandes de cisaillement dans les zones vès, Reconnaissance des terrains in situ, Hermès
de concentration de contraintes. Sciences - Lavoisier Ed. (2005), Chapitre 4, 104-146.
[8] G.Arsonnet, J.-P. Baud, M. Gambin, R. Heintz,
Au cours d’un essai d’expansion sous très
L’HyperPac 25 MPa comble le vide entre le pressio-
haute pression, le confinement assuré par la mètre Ménard et le dilatomètre flexible, Geotechnics of
masse rocheuse environnante devrait donc con- hard soils and weak rocks, XV ECSMGE, Athens
duire à une rupture combinant à la fois la mise en (2011).
[9] M. Galera, M. Alvarez, Z.T. Bienawski, Evaluation of
jeu des glissements selon les joints préexistants,
the deformation modulus of rock masses. Comparison
et la formation près de la paroi de bandes de ci- by pressuremeter and dilatometer test, ISP5 – PRESSIO
saillement, permettant de garder dans les roches 2005, Vol. 2. Gambin, Magnan et Mestat (ed.), Presses
la notion de pression de fluage pressiométrique. ENPC, Paris (2005), 239-256.
[10] L. Ménard, Le pressiomètre éclateur de roches, Notice
technique Etudes Pressiométriques Louis Ménard D23
5 CONCLUSION PROVISOIRE ET (1974).
DEVELOPPEMENTS FUTURS [11] T. Delaporte, Process DMX (Démoliton par Mousse
eXpansive), Abattage de roche sans emploi d’explosifs,
La mise au point récente de matériel d’essais DVD de démonstration et notice technique (2009).
d’expansion en forage à 25 MPa doit encore [12] A. Parriaux, Géologie, bases pour l’ingénieur, Presses
donner lieu à des mesures dans des conditions de Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes, 2e éd.,
Lausanne, (2009).
terrain variées pour que le retour d’expérience [13] A. Al Bied, Etude expérimentale et modélisation du
vienne étayer les hypothèses faites ici sur la rup- comportement des roches granulaires : écrouissage, ra-
ture des roches par cisaillement. Nous envisa- doucissement et rupture en mode localisé. Thèse Doct.
LCPC, Paris (2002).
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 331
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-331
ABSTRACT
Rock mass classification in limestone in Denmark and Scania are described in relation to tunnelling underneath Copenhagen and
Malmö. Recent developments using face logs and optical and acoustic televiewer borehole logging (OATV) in order to cope for
core sample disturbance from drilling and huge variations in induration and fissuring are discussed with reference to new tunnels
in the area.
RÉSUMÉ
Les classifications de massifs rocheux calcaires du Danemark et de Scania sont appliquées aux tunnels sous Copenhague et
Malmö. Des développements récents sont réalisés en utilisant des levés de front et un examen en forage par imagerie OATV (op-
tique et acoustique) afin de pallier les perturbations des échantillons par le forage et les énormes variations d’induration et de fis-
suration. Ils sont discutés dans le cas de nouveaux tunnels dans la région.
Keywords: Rock mass characterization, limestone, induration, fissuring, RQD, face logs, OATV- logging, GSI-evaluation.
1
Corresponding Author.
332 N. Foged et al. / Rock Mass Characterization for Tunnels in Limestone
consists of 12 km of double track railway where with 8.4 km of twin bored tunnel. Project and the
6 km is in bored tunnels approx. 20 m below the experiences from the construction are described
ground surface through Bryozoan Limestone. in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Metro In-
The tunnels were constructed using tunnel boring auguration Seminar [6]. DGF 19 [7] is a mono-
machines (TBM) and a major underground sta- graph on earlier and new findings on engineering
tion at Triangeln was constructed as a rock ca- geology in Copenhagen gained through this
vern being 12 m high, 27 m wide and 250 m long project.
with a limited weak rock cover under the cultural A new district heating tunnel was constructed
center of Malmö involving significant engineer- in the period 2005 to 2008 that links Amager
ing challenges. The engineering geological mod- Power Plant with the central Copenhagen district
el applied and the investigations carried out be- heating system crossing beneath the harbour and
fore construction has been discussed by Jackson the old town. The tunnel is 4 km long and has
et al. [1] and Stabell [2] and comparison between three shafts and was constructed using an earth
core logging and face logging results during con- pressure balanced TBM. Project investigations
struction are reported by Pade [3] and Wilhelm and detailed face logging carried out in the shafts
[4] in 2006. and comparison to the Metro Cross-over Cavern
In Copenhagen a number of existing tunnels at Sjæleboderne have been discussed by Foged et
have been constructed in Danian Limestone. The al. [8] and by Pade [3] in order to develop a base
first rock tunnel in Denmark was done in 1856 to for upscaling towards rock mass properties using
1858 for water and gas pipe lines below the Co- the Palmstrøm Jv-method [9] and the GSI-
penhagen Harbour. The total list of old tunnels method described by Marinos et al.[10].
includes further 3 tunnels build between 1900 Based on the experiences from Malmö and
and 1942 bored by hand assisted by drill and from the last two projects we developed metho-
blast under the Harbour with cross sections be- dologies for weak rock tunnelling which formed
tween 5 and 10 m2. The first modern bored rock the base for the ongoing investigations for a ma-
tunnel in Copenhagen was the old heat transmis- jor extension of the Copenhagen Metro system
sion tunnel bored with a road header tunnelling (Cityringen) including 17 km tunnels, 17 sta-
machine without use of shields with a horseshoe tions/shafts and 5 larger cross-over and bifurca-
face area of 25 m2 and a length of 1600 m. It tion chambers to be carried out in the coming 7
passes from a shaft at Amager Power Plant under years.
Urban districts and the harbour to a shaft at
Østerport and was constructed from 1984 to
1986, [5]. Based on an extensive ground investi-
gation it was possible to evaluate rock mass
properties and inflow of water to the unlined
tunnel during construction and to design and
construct the water tight liners for tunnels and
shafts with local dewatering. Rock mass proper-
ties were conservatively evaluated from RQD on
double barrel drilled cores especially in biotur-
bated sections of the Middle Copenhagen Limes-
tone.
The Copenhagen Metro was predominantly
founded on or bored through the Upper and Mid-
dle part of Copenhagen Limestone with a major
construction period from 1996 to 2001. The work
comprised of 5 deep stations constructed using Figure1. Alignments of the major tunnelling
secant piled retaining walls, nine shafts and three projects in Copenhagen. Scale ~1:100.000.
major sprayed concrete lined caverns together
N. Foged et al. / Rock Mass Characterization for Tunnels in Limestone 333
ing periods of rapid sedimentation and strong in a minimum in conductivity and a maximum on
periods of little or no sedimentation which cause resistivity log and a distinct maximum on the
establishment of “hardground”. However, there gamma log GM3 3 m above. Based on the GM3
is often a clear relation between induration and marker a structural outline in the central Copen-
bulk density of limestone and by that towards the hagen area indicates gently folded structures with
strength and deformation properties. Conse- fold axes oriented in a NNW-SSE direction. The
quently, the limestone formation may vary sub- most pronounced syncline is observed running
horizontally and/or in space (“krøllekalk”) which west of Rådhuspladsen. In the Frederiksberg area
calls for detailed descriptions on cores including the Copenhagen Limestone is steeply inclined
a determination of induration grade (H1 to H5) (1:40) alongside the NNW–striking Carlsberg
and fissuring (S1 to S5) for each 50 mm of cores fault approx. 500 m west of coming tunnel
or open profile together with core loss and RQD. alignments. Some local discontinuities in the
The geological model set up for the Copenha- GM3 marker could be interpreted as minor faults
gen area has been updated concurrently and in- or ondulations / erosional variations in the limes-
cludes at present information from about 5000 tone formation, DGF Bulletin 19 [7].
boreholes, 13 km of refraction seismic data and Many of the fractures observed in cores are
257 geophysical borehole logs integrated in a likely to be caused by the coring process either
combined engineering geological and hydrogeo- due to damage induced by the drilling technique
logical model in a geotechnical data management or due to opening of incipient fractures once the
system Holebase easily available to end-users, in-situ confining stress is removed. Especially,
Hansen & Nielsen [14]. very variable local changes in indurations as in
the so-called “krøllekalk” in middle Copenhagen
Limestone and passage of thin flint layers may
3 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS be destructive compared to in-situ face logs dur-
ing construction, Foged et al. [8]. The core de-
Recent project investigations of the limestone scription often states “crushed and rolled” for in-
in the Copenhagen area have been carried out ei- tervals of the core indicating that the engineering
ther using the Geobor S wireline coring system geologist estimates drilling disturbances. Con-
or with the “down the hole hammer” (DTH) servatively, it is included in the S5 fraction of the
drilling system, the latter for establishing large cored length, i.e. the fracture distribution ob-
diameter holes for ground water lowering and served in the cores is only indicative of the quali-
other special purposes. Only coring provides ty of the intact limestone. The disturbance is va-
core samples for rock mechanical classification riable and highly dependent on the skill of the
and testing. The cores from the Geobor S system driller and quality of the coring equipment used.
are 100mm in diameter and are described in de- The less indurated horizons may be eroded by
tail on the borehole logs. A suite of geophysical the drilling process and are therefore often un-
logs have been run in the cored boreholes and in derrepresented in the logged core. The majority
some of the DTH boreholes. These allow for the of lost core is believed to represent H1 and H2
identification and correlation of geophysical log material or the “krøllekalk”. General experience
markers and for correlation of the stratigraphical with Copenhagen and Bryozoans limestone has
units between boreholes. shown that the RQD values found from the cores
The division in units in Copenhagen Limes- are likely to underestimate the rock mass quality
tone is based on lithological identifiers and geo- due to the before-mentioned sample disturbances
physical log stratigraphy, DGF Bulletin 19 [7]. from the drilling activity, Kryger & Foged in
The strongly indurated limestone or flint layers DGF Bulletin 19 [7], Stabell [2], Pade [3] and
are seen as intervals of relatively high resistivity Wilhelm [4]. These values should not be used di-
and low porosity on the geophysical logs. The rectly to classify the limestone as field face log-
transition between upper and middle Copenha- ging shows in-situ RQD being a factor of ca. 3
gen Limestone is found using log marker H1; higher than the laboratory assessment of cores.
N. Foged et al. / Rock Mass Characterization for Tunnels in Limestone 335
4 OATV (OPTICAL AND ACOUSTIC logged with OATV and core photos and charac-
TELEVIEWER LOGGING) terization have been added to the OATV logs. A
preliminary evaluation shows a rise in GSI from
In order to provide a better visualization of the 20-50 on recovered cores to 40 to 75 based on
fractures and lithology in the boreholes we have OATVs and a much more distinct positioning of
introduced image logging of the borehole walls real fractures. An example on a section of a typi-
providing much more detailed information about cal reported OATV is shown in Fig. 3.
the penetrated rock mass. Using an optical and The acoustic televiewer transmits ultrasonic
acoustic televiewer (OATV) in combination with vibrations from a transducer and the sound is re-
traditional borehole logs in Malmö Citytunneln flected by the borehole wall by a rotating acous-
and the Copenhagen District Heating Tunnel a tic mirror and the reflections are registered as
much more relevant fracture description could be amplitude and travel time. These parameters de-
developed, Stabell, [2]. The OATV method was scribe the shape of the borehole wall and local
further developed during the investigations and diameter and allow for identification of brea-
construction of the Copenhagen District Heating kouts, open and closed fractures and their linea-
Tunnel, Foged et al. [8], Fugl-Meyer [15] and tion. The amplitude log illustrates the reflection
Pade [3]. The OATV’s were carefully compared response indicating induration and fracturing lo-
with face logs in all three shafts, which provided cally by coloring. The optical televiewer pro-
a better method analysis and by this the rock vides a continuous optical image of the borehole
mass evaluation in the frames of Palmstrøm Jv wall to be used for identification of lithology and
[9] and the GSI method (Geological Strength In- structures such as fractures, bedding planes and
dex) [10] was improved too. For Cityringen 40 foliation.
boreholes have been
Figure 3. An example of an OATV log with from left an acoustic caliper log including a natural
gamma track (red). It shows also area pictures of the wall smoothness, its reflectivity and the optical
image (360 degrees around up-folded). Furthermore, a track of relative induration (purple), core pho-
tos, fracturing and induration indexes from cores and geological evaluations and GSI-grading.
336 N. Foged et al. / Rock Mass Characterization for Tunnels in Limestone
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with laboratory testing of weak rocks. Circumstances influencing the laboratory research, quantity and quality of
obtaining geotechnical characteristics are specified as well. For many lithological types of weak rock it is impossible to specify
in advance the total range of properties which can be obtained by the laboratory research. Generally, the laboratory investigation
begins by sampling and preparing the testing specimens. The choice of the test methods for determination of the geotechnical
properties depends on the ability to prepare regular (prismatic or cylindrical shapes) or irregular specimens and on the stability in
contact with water. The necessity of individual approach when determining geotechnical characteristics of weak rocks is
documented on the example of Neogene siltstones from the territory of Slovakia that have been suggested as a host rock
environment for the perspective deep geological repository of the high-level radioactive waste. They represent rock material with
uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) about 30 MPa that is unstable in water. General chart for the identification of ambiguous
rocks is presented in the paper. The Point load test was evaluated as suitable tests for identification and characterization of this
rock type. The correlation of the Point load test index (Is50) with the UCS was analysed to propose appropriate Is50 to UCS
conversion factor for weak rocks.
RÉSUMÉ
Ce document concerne des analyses de laboratoire des roches faibles. Il spécifie des conditions qui influencent la récherche de
laboratoire, la quantité et qualité de l’obtention des caractèristiques géotechniques étant spécifiées. Dans le cas de plusieurs types
lithologiques des roches faibles, il est impossible de spécifier en avance l’étendue totale des propriétés qui peuvent être obtenues
par une récherche de laboratoire. En général, l’investigation au laboratoire commence par la collection des échantillons et par la
préparation des échantillons d’essai. Le choix des méthodes d’essai pour la détermination des propriétés géotechniques dépend
de la capacité de préparer des éprouvettes régulières (de forme de prisme ou cylindrique) ou irrégulières et de la stabilité ou
instabilité dans le contact avec de l’eau. La nécessité d’une approche individuelle pour la détermination des caractéristiques
géotechniques des roches faibles est documentée sur l’exemple des siltstones du Néogène du territoire slovaque. Ces siltstones
ont été proposés comme l’environnement de roche pour un dépôt profond géologique perspectif du déchet radioactif de haut
niveau. Ils représentent des matériels de roche avec résistance à la compression uniaxiale (RCU) d’environ 30 MPa qui ne sont
pas stabiles dans l’eau. Le tableau géneral pour l’identification des roches ambigues est présenté dans le document. L’ Essai de
charge ponctuelle a été évalué comme un essai convenable pour l’identification et caractérisation de ces types de roches. La
corrélation de l’ Essai de charge ponctuelle (Is50) avec RCU a été analysée afin de proposer Is50 à RCU facteur de conversion
approprié pour les roches faibles.
Keywords: weak rock, rock identification, laboratory testing, Point load test
1
Corresponding Author.
338 J. Frankovská and T. Durmeková / Specific Features of Weak Rock Laboratory Testing
Weak rocks occur almost in all lithological The value of K is not universal for all types of
formations in the territory of the Western rocks, and it is often questionable and discussed.
Carpathians in Slovakia, either as a final product The conversion of the Point load index Is(50) to
of lithogenesis or as a result of retrograde the UCS value is required in consideration of the
changes of originally hard rocks. In general the rock strength classification.
occurrence of these rocks shows the rising trend
towards younger geological units. With regard to
their variability and transition position between 2 LABORATORY RESEARCH OF
soils and rocks are also named as borderline NEOGENE SILTSTONES - EXPERIENCE
geotechnical materials [1, 2]. They are
characterized by significantly changeable The necessity of individual approach when
properties under external moisture and stress determining geotechnical characteristics of weak
conditions, low strength, high deformability, rock is documented on the example of Neogene
anisotropy of properties and often also by silts or siltstones from the southern Slovakia that
instability or volume changes in contact with have been suggested as a host rock environment
water. It is almost impossible to avoid these rock for the perspective deep geological repository of
materials in contemporary engineering a high-level radioactive waste [4, 5]. In the first
construction in the territory of Slovakia [3]. They stage of the engineering geological research for
require a specific approach in the assessment of site selection, basic physical and mechanical
their geotechnical properties and engineering characteristics have been determined. Rock
behaviour. Predominantly their behaviour in samples have been taken from various depth of
contact with water is very important for further a borehole 250 m deep. Lithologically
laboratory testing and geotechnical properties monotonous clastic sediments with sufficient
determination. thickness for a construction of a geological
For many weak lithological types of rock, it is repository are a typical example of rock material
impossible to specify the total range of properties from the group Hard Soils - Weak Rocks. The
that can be obtained by the laboratory research in evaluated rock material was identified and
advance. Generally, the laboratory investigation described as the fine-grained sedimentary rock -
begins by sampling and testing methodology siltstone, sporadically with higher content of
specified in standards. The choice of testing sandy fraction, light brownish grey or grey
methods for determination of geotechnical colour.
properties depends on the ability to prepare At the beginning 13 samples have been taken
regular prismatic or cylindrical specimens. away from various depths of the exploratory
The point load test (PLT) is often the only borehole RAO-5 for laboratory research. The
possibility to obtain strength parameters of rock, borehole diameter was changing with depth,
primarily because of the specimen’s shape and from 113 mm to 87 mm. Regular cylindrical
dimensions requirements for testing. Rock specimens were prepared (dry sawing was used)
specimens in the form of core, cut blocks, or to determine standard mechanical properties
irregular lumps may be used for field or including the modulus of elasticity and modulus
laboratory testing. Test specimens for the of deformability. The determination of some
uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) physical and durability properties turned out to
determination should be cubes or right circular be problematic. Because of rock instability in
cylinders having a diameter not less than 50 mm. water, it was impossible to perform the
Relationship between the UCS and PLT could determination of water absorption, index
be expressed by the conversion factor K using durability by Slake durability test or frost
the following equation: resistance. On the other hand, because of total
slaking of rock in water it was possible to
J. Frankovská and T. Durmeková / Specific Features of Weak Rock Laboratory Testing 339
to soil and as soil it can be classified as fine- 3.2 Point load test suitability for weak rocks
coarse soil. According to the Slovak technical
Despite the great territorial occurrence of weak
standard STN 72 1001:2010 [7], the sample is
rocks on the surface, there is relatively little
classified as clay with medium plasticity,
information about their mechanical properties. It
according to European standard EN ISO 14 688-
is probably caused by their frequent decay during
1:2002 [8] it is identified as the fine sandy silt –
the sampling and consequently by difficulties of
fsaSi).
laboratory determination of particular strength
The proposal of the identification chart based
and deformation characteristics.
on rock behaviour in contact with water and
The Point Load Test is an important index test
consequently on the value of the UCS is
for determination of rock strength. It is
presented in Figure 2. Both laboratory
frequently used, as the preparation of regular
determined characteristics are important for
specimens is too demanding as regards time and
correct identification of rocks and further
expenses, often to the point of being impossible
selection of laboratory testing methods.
because of low rocks strength and their tendency
to fall apart in contact with water. PLT appears to
Rock material be an ideal method to discover the strength
characteristics of the rock, although some
authors, as Bieniawski [9], Hawkins [in 10], or
Stability in water Hoek & Brown [11], state that in the case of the
rocks with pressure strength lower than 15 to 25
MPa, the testing of strength with the PLT method
Stable Fairly stable Unstable
Grade: 1 Grade: 2, 3
is not satisfactory. This statement has been made
Grade: 4, 5
obsolete by newer experimental research [10],
[12].
Hard or Weak rock Soil or Generally the value of conversion factor K
Weak rock Weak rock from Is(50) to UCS for all rocks type is suggested
to be 22 [13, 14]. Experience with weak rocks
testing shows that such value of conversion
UCS factor K is not always suitable.
In case of weak rocks, a significant problem
of strength characteristics determination is rock
anisotropy, as it complicates the correlation
> 50 MPa 1 - 50 MPa < 1 MPa relations between point load index and UCS.
Point load strength reaches its maximum at a
loading direction normal to the planes of
Hard rock Weak rock Soil weakness, and its minimum parallel to the planes
of weakness [15]. In case of minimal uniaxial
compressive strength it cannot be expressed that
simply. Greminger states in his paper that the
Rock Soil UCS normal to the planes of weakness is
mechanics mechanics
methods methods
generally higher than that parallel to it.
However, the minimal value UCS is generally
Figure 2. Rock material identification chart according to the observed and also predicted by the Mohr-
results of laboratory tests. Coulomb criterion, i.e. for a load direction in the
angle of 45, - /2 to the planes of weakness ( is
the angle of sheer strength). Mentioned author
supports his statements by experimental research
of 4 lithological types, where the differences in
J. Frankovská and T. Durmeková / Specific Features of Weak Rock Laboratory Testing 341
achieved strength were more than 60% between state, is presented on the Figures 4 and 5. The
the measured and expected values. His research conversion factor ranges from 12 to 27 (see fig.
leads him to a conclusion that in case of 4), at average 18,5 [17]. Tested sample set was
anisotropic rocks (gneiss, shales etc), the stating not very large, but it is evident from results, that
of their uniaxial compressive strength from the K is lower for weak and weathered granitoids
values of Point Load Index may lead to with lower strength to 50 MPa than for strong
significant errors. and very strong rock types (see fig. 5).
The strength determined by the point load test
is therefore recommended to be used only as an
independent, additional, easily performed
strength parameter. It implies the necessity to
state the index of rock anisotropy, as the ratio of
index of strength in the strongest and the least
strong direction.
Based on the studies of weak rock samples,
the value of K is always lower than 22 or 24, it is
in the range from 10 to 20. Rusnak & Mark [16]
found that a conversation factor K = 21 worked
Figure 4. The range of conversation factors K between the
well for a variety of sedimentary rock types and uniaxial compressive strength and Point load index for
geographic regions in USA (shale, siltstone, granitoids from Western Carpathians in Slovakia.
sandstone and limestone).
Strength properties of Neogene siltstones from
southern Slovakia have been determined by the
standard UCS test on regular geometrical
specimens and by the Point load test with using
irregular lumps. Test results and the regression
equation are illustrated on the Figure 3. For these
rocks the conversion factor varies between 16
and 27. The mean value of K is 20,4. However,
the higher number of tested samples would be
needed for clear conclusions.
4 CONCLUSION
ABSTRACT
The construction of the East European High speed Line (LGV Est), comprised the realization (in the south of Rheims-France) of two
deep railway cuts: the steeped slope cut of “Trois Puits”, 1500m length, 28 m depth; and the “Taissy” cut of 1700 m length, 27 m depth,.
These cuts were located in the upper chalk, with variable thicknesses (and locally important thickness) of highly weathered chalk. For the
design and the optimization of the nailed walls works of Taissy and steeped slope cuts of Trois Puits, it was necessary to proceed to a suf-
ficiently detailed classification of the chalk substratum (with mechanical characterization of different classes).
This paper presents the engineering grading of the white chalk substratum established for the site (inspired from the French and English
classifications), the mechanical characterization of these different grades for their use in the stability analyses, and the definition of the
variation of the stratigraphy and the thickness of different chalk grades along the two hills where the cuts were located.
RÉSUMÉ
La construction de la Ligne LGV Est européenne, a comporté la réalisation (au sud de Reims) de deux tranchées de grande profondeur
dans la craie blanche : la tranchée raidie de « Trois Puits » de 1500m de longueur et 28 m de profondeur, et la tranchée de Taissy de 1700
m de longueur et 27 m de profondeur. Ces ouvrages étaient implantés dans la craie blanche sénonienne, avec des épaisseurs variables et
par endroit importantes de craie altérée. Pour la conception et l’optimisation de ces ouvrages, il s’est avéré nécessaire de procéder à une
classification puis à une caractérisation mécanique des différents faciès de la craie plus détaillées que celles initialement envisagées dans
le cadre du projet.
Cet article présente la classification géotechnique de la craie blanche établie pour ce site (inspirée des classifications françaises et an-
glaises existantes), ainsi que la caractérisation mécanique de ces différentes classes utilisée dans les calculs de stabilité, ainsi que pour le
modèle géotechnique représentant la variation de la stratigraphie et de l’épaisseur des différentes classes de craie le long des ouvrages.
Keywords: weathered chalk, geotechnical grading of the chalk, mechanical properties of the white chalk, deep excavation, nailed wall-
Mots clés : craie altérée, classification géotechnique de la craie, caractéristiques mécaniques de la craie blanche, tranchée profonde, paroi
clouée
Des talus raidis ont été prévus pour la tran- En effet, dans le dossier « projet », le substra-
chée de Trois puits, de 1500 m de longueur [1]. tum crayeux avait été subdivisé seulement en
La tranchée de Taissy longue d’environ 1 700 m, deux classes (craie altérée et craie saine), avec
coupe les vignobles sur près de 700 m. RFF a attribution à chaque classe de caractéristiques in-
décidé de traverser ce secteur de vignes de renom trinsèques jugées très conservatrices.
par le biais d’une tranchée couverte de 500 m de En phase études d’exécution du projet, une
long, prolongée par des murs de soutènement. En subdivision plus détaillée du massif crayeux a
fin de travaux, le terrain naturel a été reconstitué donc été définie. Pour cela, des investigations
au-dessus de l’ouvrage béton, pour pouvoir être complémentaires in situ ont permis d’établir une
replanté. Afin de minimiser l’emprise des terras- subdivision plus fine du massif crayeux au droit
sements dans les vignobles, la tranchée de Taissy des futurs ouvrages, tout en se référant aux clas-
(ouvrage provisoire) a été réalisée à l’abri de pa- sifications françaises et anglaises existantes.
rois clouées verticales en partie basse (sur une Chaque classe a fait l’objet d’essais triaxiaux en
hauteur de 10,6 m) et avec une pente très raide laboratoire afin de pouvoir lui attribuer des ca-
(10V/1H) en partie haute. La figure 1 montre la ractéristiques de résistance au cisaillement, en
tranchée de Taissy en cours de construction. mettant également à profit les données dispo-
nibles dans la littérature scientifique.
L’application de cette méthodologie a permis
d’optimiser la réalisation de ces ouvrages (cons-
truits essentiellement en 2004).
2 CLASSIFICATIONS EXISTANTES
POUR LA CRAIE
1,5 < d
: craie de densité moyenne tructurée très altérée. Les critères de classifica-
(classe R12) tion utilisés pour la craie structurée sont :
d
: craie peu dense (classe R13) l’espacement et l’ouverture des fissures, le degré
Une classification similaire (basée sur d) a d’altération, et dans une moindre mesure : la ré-
été également établie en Grande Bretagne (G.B.). sistance des blocs (essentiellement pour la dis-
La craie est toutefois subdivisée en quatre classes tinction des deux premières classes I et II, avec
(avec ajout d’une classe de craie très dense : d > les joints fermés et espacés à plus de 200 mm).
1,95). Une sixième classe (VI) a été ajoutée plus tard
En France, l’ingénieur géotechnicien dispose par Wakeling en 1970 [6], correspondant à la
aussi de la classification fournie en annexe E1 du craie déstructurée complément altérée (craie
Fascicule n° 62 Titre V [4], dans laquelle le mas- molle ou craie sol).
sif crayeux est subdivisé en trois classes (A à La classification de Mundford a été reprise par
C) en se référant essentiellement aux résultats de le BS 8004 [7], en fournissant des gammes de
l’essai pressiométrique (la valeur de la pression variation de portance pour différentes classes de
limite nette Pl*) et dans une moindre mesure à la craie.
valeur de la résistance de pointe (qc) de l’essai au Wakeling [6] a également attribué des
pénétromètre statique (cf. tableau 1). gammes de valeurs N de l’essai SPT (« Standard
Penetration Test ») à chaque classe du massif
Tableau 1: Classification géotechnique française du massif
crayeux (pour dimensionnement des fondations) crayeux, ainsi que des valeurs de module de dé-
formation reliées à N, essentiellement en se ba-
Description Classe Pl* qc
sommaire (MPa) (MPa) sant sur les résultats obtenus sur le site de Mund-
Craie molle A <0,7 <5 ford.
Craie altérée B 1-2,5 >5 La classification de Mundford a été largement
Craie compacte C >3,0 - utilisée en GB par les géotechniciens, en utilisant
les valeurs de N pour distinguer les différentes
A partir de cette classification, des recom- classes de craie, et par voie de conséquence le
mandations sont fournies (formules empiriques dimensionnement des fondations. Cette dernière
basées sur les résultats d’un nombre significatif pratique a été par la suite critiquée par plusieurs
d’essais de chargement in-situ en vraie grandeur) auteurs (e.g. Dennehey, 1975[8]; Lord et Smith,
pour le dimensionnement des fondations superfi- 1976 [9] ; Burland, 1990 [10]), en concluant que
cielles et des fondations profondes (pour diffé- la valeur N, qui dépend en particulier de la densi-
rents types de pieux), ainsi que pour le calcul des té de la craie, n’est pas bien adaptée pour déduire
tassements. une classification du massif crayeux du type de
Mais ces données sont insuffisantes quand il Mundford.
s’agit de dimensionner des soutènements pour Power, 1982 [11] a proposé des corrélations
lesquels il est nécessaire de définir les caractéris- pour distinguer différentes classes de craie
tiques équivalentes de résistance au cisaillement d’après les résultats de l’essai au pénétromètre
de chaque classe du massif crayeux (par exemple statique (la résistance de pointe qc et le rapport de
pour les calculs de parois clouées, murs de sou- frottement Rf), en se basant essentiellement sur
tènement, ou calculs de stabilité de pente). des données issues du site de Mundford. Powell
En G. B., les travaux de recherches effectués et Quarterman, 1994 [12] ont présenté des résul-
dans les années 1960 à Mundford (Norfolk) dans tats provenant de plusieurs sites, y compris le site
la craie turonienne (« middle chalk »), ont consti- de Mundford. D’après ces auteurs, les corréla-
tué la base de la pratique courante pour la des- tions proposées par Power sont globalement véri-
cription et la classification du massif crayeux. Le fiées (augmentation de qc et de Rf en passant des
massif crayeux à Mundford a été subdivisé au classes V à II) ; néanmoins, les gammes de varia-
départ en cinq classes ou « Grade » par Ward et tion de qc et de Rf pour une classe donnée peu-
al en 1968 [5]. Les classes I à IV comprennent vent se différencier d’un site à un autre, avec une
les craies structurées, et la classe V la craie dés- tendance d’accroissement de qc avec
346 M. Haghgou / Classification et caractérisation d’une craie blanche sénonienne
dans le cadre de cette étude pour chaque classe d’après la norme française NF P11-300 [2], la
est également indiquée): craie du site a été majoritairement classée en R13
(craie peu dense), et pour partie R12 (craie de
CR1 – Craie pâteuse (Pl*< 0,9 à 1 MPa): densité moyenne, en partie inférieure des dé-
cet horizon correspond à la classe A de la blais).
classification française, et le "grade VI" de Les conditions stratigraphiques au droit des
la classification de Mundford. Il s'agit de la déblais Taissy et Trois Puits se caractérisent par
craie complètement altérée, totalement dés- la présence d’un substratum crayeux sénonien
tructurée (craie sol) constituée d'une pâte surmonté de terrains quaternaires. D’après les
crayeuse abondante, enrobant des nodules investigations de sol effectuées (cf. figures 2 et
et morceaux de craie rocheuse tendre plus 3), l’épaisseur des terrains quaternaires est faible
ou moins fréquents : le comportement de pour Taissy (environ 1 à 2 m de limon graveleux
l'ensemble est conditionné par la matrice à limon crayeux), elle est plus variable pour le
crayeuse, déblai Trois Puits (0,5 à 6 m de limons et « gra-
CR2 – Craie très altérée fragmentée à mor- veluches », avec de faibles épaisseurs pour le
celée (1 à 1,2< Pl*<2,5 MPa): cet horizon versant Ouest et des épaisseurs plus importantes
correspond à la classe B suivant la classifi- pour le versant Est).
cation française, et le "grade V" de la clas- PS 1901
sification de Mundford. Il s'agit de la craie 140 PR 513-1
PR 1938 PR 513-3 PS 1939
SC 901 TH 938 PR 1939 PR 513-4
PM 513-2 SC 1939 PM 513-3
très altérée, déstructurée (les surfaces de 135
SC 513-1
Limons
T 939 PR 1902
TH 1940
SC 902
discontinuité de la roche mère sont ab- 130
TH 937
Craie CR 2 Graveluche
PR 513-2
PM 513-4
SC 903
sentes) où coexistent la matrice crayeuse 125
PR 1936
TH 936
PR 1904
PR 1905
PM 513-5
PMP 513-1
moins angulaires) de la craie rocheuse 115 TH 935
PM 513-1
tendre. Le pourcentage de fines (<35 % en- 110
Ligne rouge de Projet
viron, d'après la classification anglaise) dé- 105
Craie CR 4
MPa) : les franges séparant la craie altérée 20 120 220 320 420 520 620 720
Distance (m) depuis KM Tronçon 51+ 737.474
820 920 1 020 1 120 1 220 1 320
de la craie franche, sont placées sous cette Figure 2: stratigraphie le long de la tranchée de Trois puits
nomination (grades IV et III de la classifi-
cation anglaise). Il s'agit de la craie partiel- 150
Représentation stratigraphique schématique deTaissy
PR 905 PR 515-1
lement altérée à saine, morcelée à fractu- SC 904
145 PROP 1
PROP 2 PR 906
L 515-2
PR
rée : la structure de la roche mère (surfaces PM 515-4 PM 515-5
SC 515-2
140
de discontinuité) est présente. Les joints,
Cote toit paroi verticale PR 515-3
faiblement espacés, sont généralement peu 135
CR1 PMP 515-2
SC 907
cote (NGF)
t' (kPa)
800
R2 = 0.991
600
5 RESULTATS DES ESSAIS TRIAXIAUX
400
200
Le programme des essais en laboratoire compor-
0
tait la réalisation de plusieurs séries d’essais 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
s' (kPa)
CR4, comme on pouvait s’y attendre.
Pour chaque classe de craie, les valeurs de pic Figure 6: Résultats des essais triaxiaux CD sur la craie CR3
de s’ et t’ mesurées pour différentes éprouvettes
testées ont été portées sur le même diagramme Pour les craies CR1 à CR3, les résultats des
afin de définir la droite moyenne (régression li- différentes éprouvettes testées sont assez bien re-
néaire) correspondant à l’ensemble des points de groupés autour de la droite moyenne, avec des
mesure. Les figures 4 à 7 montrent les résultats coefficients de corrélation (R² sur les graphiques
des essais triaxiaux CD (Consolidé-Drainé) sur présentés) proches de 0,99.
les classes de craie CR1 à CR4. On observe également une bonne cohérence
Le tableau n° 2 résume les résultats bruts dans la succession des valeurs mesurées pour les
fournis par les droites moyennes des différentes différentes classes de craie.
classes de craie.
Craie C1 (essais triaxiaux CD) Craie CR4 (essais triaxiaux CD)
800 1200
1000
2
400 R = 0.897
400
200
200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
0
s' (kPa)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
s' (kPa)
Figure 7 : Résultats des essais triaxiaux CD sur la craie CR4
Figure 4: Résultats des essais triaxiaux CD sur la craie CR1
M. Haghgou / Classification et caractérisation d’une craie blanche sénonienne 349
Tableau 2 : Valeurs fournies par les essais triaxiaux CD repos, la craie remaniée peut présenter une cohé-
(droites moyennes)
sion apparente de 10 kPa (par recimentation de
Classe de Craie c’ (kPa)
Craie CR2
un nombre important d’essais effectués sur des 5H
1V
craies avec des teneurs en Ca CO3 variables, la
!
#}
!
#
!
Craie CR3
craie totalement remaniée (« pâte de craie ») va-
rierait peu pour différents types de craie : essen-
tiellement entre 31 et 33°. Des valeurs plus éle- Craie CR4
vées sont néanmoins rapportées par d’autres 120,7 NGF
La figure 8, présentée ci-dessus montre le plan [5] WARD, W. H.; BURLAND, J. B. & GALLOIS, R. W.:
“Geotechnical assessment of a site at Mundford, Nor-
de clouage retenu pour une section de calcul de
folk for a large proton accelerator”; Geotechnique, vol.
la tranchée de Taissy, avec une épaisseur signifi- 18, n° 4 (1968), 399-431.
cative de craie très altérée (CR1+CR2). [6] WAKELING, T.R.M.: “A comparison of the results of
standard site investigation methods against the results
of a detailed geotechnical investigation in Middle Chalk
at Mundford, Norfolk”. ln: Proc Conf In-situ Investiga-
7 CONCLUSION tions in Soils and Rock Brit. Geol. Soc., London, 1969
(published: 1970), 17-22.
La réalisation de deux tranchées profondes dans [7] BRITTSH STANDARDS INSTITUTION: “BS 8004:
Code of practice for Foundations; Formerly CP 2004”;
la craie sénonienne, dans le cadre de la construc- British Standards Institution, London (1984).
tion de la LGV est européenne, a permis de [8] DENNEHY, J.P.: “Correlating the SPT N value with
mettre au point une méthodologie pour chalk grade for some zones of the Upper Chalk », Geo-
l’optimisation des ouvrages de soutènement dans technique, vol. 25 (1975), 610-614.
[9] LORD, E. R. F. & SMITH, W. E. “The misuse of SPT
ce type de matériau. N value correlations with Upper Chalk grades”, Geo-
La réalisation de sondages carottés, de technique, vol. 26 (1976), 217-220.
fouilles, de forages pressiométriques et pénétro- [10] BURLAND, J.B.: Preface in: “CHALK”: Proc Int.
métriques, d’essais en laboratoire (surtout essais Chalk Symp. , Brighton, 1989; Thomas Telford, Lon-
don (1990), 1-4.
triaxiaux) ont permis d’une part de définir quatre [11] POWER, P.T.: “The use of the electric static cone pene-
classes de craie avec leurs caractéristiques intrin- trometer in the determination of the engineering proper-
sèques équivalentes, d’autre part la stratigraphie ties of chalk”, Proc. 2nd Eur. Symp.: Penetration Test-
correspondante au droit des ouvrages à cons- ing, Amsterdam (1982), vol. 2, 769-774.
[12] POWELL, J. J. M. & QUARTERMAN, R. S. T.: “A
truire. reappraisal of CPT testing in chalk”, BRE Report No
Ces données géotechniques ont permis G/GP/9412 (1994).
d’optimiser le dimensionnement des ouvrages de [13] SPINK, T.W. & NORUBY, D: "The engineering geo-
soutènement. logical description of chalk", In CHALK. proc. Int.
Chalk Symposium, Brighton, Sept. 1989, Thomas Tel-
Cette méthodologie peut être appliquée à ford, London (1990), 153-159.
d’autres ouvrages à construire en site crayeux, [14] LORD, J.A.; CLAYTON, C.R.I. & MORTIMORE,
pour lesquels il est nécessaire de définir la varia- R.N.: “Engineering in chalk”, CIRIA, London, 2002.
tion stratigraphique et les caractéristiques de ré- [15] LORD, J. A.; TWINE, D. P. & YEOW, H.: “Founda-
tions in chalk”, Project Report 11, CIRIA, London,
sistance au cisaillement de différentes classes du 1994.
massif crayeux. [16] SPINK, T.W.: “The CIRIA Chalk description and clas-
Cette étude a également montré l’intérêt d’une sification”, Quarterly J. of Engineering Geology and
classification suffisamment détaillée du massif hydrogeology, Vol. 35 (2002), 363-369.
[17] CLAYTON, C.R.I.: “The mechanical properties of the
crayeux. chalk”, In CHALK proc. Int. Chalk Symp., Brighton,
Sept. 1989, Thomas Telford, London (1990), 213-232.
[18] CLAYTON, C.R.I.: “Chalk as Fill”, PhD thesis, Uni-
versity of Surrey, 1978.
REFERENCES [19] FLETCHER, M. S. & MISON, D. H. (1984): "Piles in
chalk for Orwell Bridge", proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. Conf.
[1] HAGHGOU, M. & ROSSI, P.: “Technique nouvelle Piling and Ground Treatment, Thomas Telford, Lon-
pour la réalisation de talus raidis dans la craie altérée », don, 203-209.
15th ECSMGE, Athènes sept. 2011. [20] TWINE, D. & WRIGHT, R.H.: “Farmers Avenue Road
[2] NF P 11-300, norme française : « Exécution des terras- Crossing, Castle Mall development, Norwich”, Proc.
sements- Classification des matériaux utilisables dans la 4th Int. Deep Foundations Conf., Stresa, AA Balkema,
construction des remblais et des couches de forme Rotterdam (1991), 147-155.
d’infrastructures routières », sept. 1992, AFNOR, 21p. [21] CAWSEY, D. C. & FARRAR, N S: “A simple sliding
[3] LCPC-SETRA : « GTR : guide technique- Réalisation apparatus for the measurement of rock joint friction”,
des remblais et couches de forme », septembre 1992. Geotechnique, Vol. 26 (1976), 382-386.
[4] “Fascicule n°62- Titre V : Règles techniques de con-
ception et de calcul des fondations des ouvrages de gé-
nie civil» : Ministère de l’équipement, du logement et
des transports, Imprimerie des Journaux officiels, Paris.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 351
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-351
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article présente une collection des données obtenues à différents endroits sur les argiles du Miocène, qui forment une partie
importante du sous-sol de Lisbonne. Les données comprennent essais en laboratoire et essais in situ, à savoir: caractérisation mi-
néralogique; détermination des paramètres physiques, détermination de la distribution granulométrique; détermination du teneur
en eau et des limites d’Atterberg; essais de compression simple; essais triaxiaux; SPT et essais cross-hole. Cet article présente
également la caractérisation d'un site où ils ont exécuté des essais en laboratoire et essais in situ. La quantité d'information est
importante et il est possible d’établir certaines tendances dans les caractéristiques géotechniques de ces sols.
1
Corresponding Author.
352 M. Lopes Laranjo et al. / Some Basic Trends the Geotechnical Characteristics
charge build-up [8]. This thin coating does not edge-to-face contacts were observed, as shown in
modify the surface details nor hinders viewing, Figure 3. This can be explained by the variety of
since the resolution of the SEM equipment over- particles in grain size and composition. The pres-
comes the thickness of the coating layer. ence of pyrite (iron sulfide) was very strong, and
Results from the observation show a large va- different crystalline structures of iron sulfide
riety of contacts between particles. The overall were detected, as shown in Figure 4. Post-
structure seems to be of a honeycomb (Figure 2), deposition events, such as oxidation and dissolu-
suggesting that deposition has occurred quickly tion of pyrite debris can lead to the formation of
in a turbulent environment. Both face-to-face and marcasite.
3 INDEX PROPERTIES
60
The number of samples (n), the mean value
(P) and standard deviation (V) of the clay, silt 50
and sand fraction for both units are summarized
in Table 1. 40
IP (%)
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for grain size distribution 30
Prazeres clay Forno do Tijolo clay
Clay Silt Sand Clay Silt Sand 20
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
n 304 102 10 Prazeres clay
P 33.8 49.9 15.9 40.0 49.3 13.9 Forno do Tijolo clay
V 10.2 10.9 16.8 18.6 19.9 14.8 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
wL (%)
3.2 Water content
Figure 5. Casagrande plasticity chart for 300 samples of
Water content was determined for a very signifi- Prazeres clay and 102 samples of Forno do Tijolo clay
cant number of samples. The statistical values
are shown in Tables 2 and 3 for both Miocene 3.3 Soil weight
clays. The values are typical of low plasticity Soil unit weight and particle specific gravity do
stiff soils. not show significant variation either between dif-
Table 2. Descriptive statistic values for water content and At- ferent formations or within the same layers.
terberg limits - Prazeres clay
Mean values are as expected and follow the
w (%) wL (%) wP (%) IP (%) Ic (%) ranges reported in the literature [9]. Descriptive
n 299 301 301 304 255 statistic values are summarized in Table 4.
Min. 7.50 19.00 13.00 4.00 0.06
Max. 53.50 77.00 53.00 66.00 2.23 Table 4. Descriptive statistic values for soil unit weight and
P 19.91 40.38 20.41 20.27 1.06 particle specific gravity
V 5.29 11.80 5.15 9.42 0.29
Prazeres clay Forno do Tijolo clay
Table 3. Descriptive statistic values for water content and At- J (kN/m3) Gs J (kN/m3) Gs
terberg limits - Forno do Tijolo clay n 164 139 74 20
Min. 16.13 2.33 16.50 2.57
w (%) wL (%) wP (%) IP (%) Ic (%) Max. 23.76 2.76 23.60 2.78
n 102 103 103 103 98 P 20.37 2.64 20.28 2.70
Min. 5.70 21.00 9.70 2.00 0.03 V 1.02 0.09 1.10 0.06
Max. 33.50 65.00 32.00 41.00 2.30
P 19.92 38.65 21.22 17.43 1.10
V 4.47 9.74 3.71 8.08 0.31
Using Casagrande’s plasticity chart, as shown 4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
in Figure 5, it is possible to observe that most of
the samples are classified as CL and CH. A The mechanical properties of Prazeres clay pre-
linear correlation between the plasticity index sented herein derive from both laboratory and in
and the liquid limit can be established for situ tests. Laboratory tests comprise uniaxial
Prazeres clay (2) and for Forno do Tijolo clay (3) compression and triaxial compression. The in
as follows: situ tests here reported concern cross-hole seis-
mic tests and SPT tests. The latter are typical for
stiff clay. Nevertheless, on top of the Miocene
IP 0.78 * ( wL 13.8) (R2=0.93) (2)
layers there is usually some decompression and
N60 values are often lower than 60.
1200
do Tijolo clays. Uniaxial compression strength
values (qu) in depth are shown in Figure 6.
qu (kPa) 1000
y = 0,581x + 5,855
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 R2 = 0,956
0
800 Prazeres clay
s (kPa)
10 600
y = 0,545x + 30,000
400 R2 = 0,838
20
26
30
Depth (m)
34
38
42
46
50
Figure 8. Geotechnical parameters for Forno do Tijolo clay in the site of Terreiro do Paço station of Lisbon metro
Mota-Engil for providing access to their geo-
technical database.
5 CONCLUSIONS
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 363
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-363
ABSTRACT
In present paper a overview of properties of Cambrian clay and sandstone in Estonia is given.
RÉSUMÉ
Les caractèristiques de l'argile Cambrien et les pierres calcaires poreuses.
1
Corresponding Author.
364 M. Mets et al. / On the Properties of Cambrian Clay and Sandstones
The thickness of Cambrian clay sediments is tions accompanied with the movement of
50…60 meters and it is made up by highly over- glacier (the majority of them must have ini-
consolidated layer. Natural water content at the tially been quite elastic). The surface of
saturation degree of of 1 is Wn=8…20%, which these clays (in outcrops) has weathered
is lower than Wn=20…23% that was attained in even more in the depth of 2…3 m and the
the course in the course of a Proctor test at water content is Wn= 18…20%. This is
maximum compaction. This fact indicates that connected with annual temperature influ-
the Cambrian clay has compacted under very ences.
high pressures.
The weathering processes have influenced the The micro-fissured clays that crop out on
properties of Cambrian clays to the depth of a slopes and in pre-glacial relief deforma-
couple of meters and have given rise to a signifi- tions. Among those there are the clay mas-
cant web of micro cracks that determines their sifs displaced in the course of old land-
further activities. The formation of micro cracks slides - fissured material with the water
has been evoked by the movement of glaciers content of 22…24% and the strength con-
above them or the rocks covering them. This was siderably smaller than the others described
accompanied by changes in temperature and wa- above. These varieties have been influ-
ter content, as well as the earth respiration and enced by the shear deformations with the
the subsequent changes in temperature. The an- plastic character accompanied brought
about by the movement of glaciers and the
nual temperature changes sporadically affect the
layers in the depth of up to 10 m. rotational deformations accompanied with
them later. They have doubtless also been
Depending on the geomorphology, the follow-
ing varieties among the Cambrian clays may be influenced by the development of slope de-
formations, especially in the sea.
differentiated according to their weathering de-
gree: The fourth variety of clays occurs only in
the Cambrian clays on the coast of the Bal-
The clays that lie deeper than 20…25 m are
tic Sea – in the area that gets incendated
very strong varieties and micro fissures oc-
cur in them only in case of geological dis- during the storms. Due to the salty water
orders. Their strength can rather accurately the Cambrian clays swell up with greater
be estimated by the drained test and on the intensity, their micro fissures widen and the
water content increases Wn= 28…30%. The
bases of laboratorial testing, their com-
strength of these clays regardless of their
pressibility usually appears much higher
than it is in reality. The building of the un- hard consistency does not differ from the
strength of weak soils. The Devonian clays
derground in St. Petersburg and the founda-
tion of tunnels in Talinn have corroborated that have been in the outcrop for a long
time, also belong among this clay type.
the last assertion. The water content of
these clays is Wn= 8…12%. These clays have strongly been weathered
by cold and water and that has affected
The micro-fissured clays that crop out in their bearing capacity.
the horizontal part of the relief or are cov-
ered with a few meters thick Quaternary
sediment layer. The greater water content
(Wn= 14…18%) is connected with the de-
velopment of micro fissures; due to these,
the strength of those clays is considerably
smaller than that of the previous variety.
Their strength has been influenced by cen-
turies – long changes in temperature and
the moisture regime and the shear deforma-
M. Mets et al. / On the Properties of Cambrian Clay and Sandstones 365
Table 1. The geotechnical properties of Cam- achieved using creep point. An example is given
brian clay. in what follows.
Wn,% 8-10 14-18 23-28 30-32 The Toolse castle was founded in the 15th
WL,% 38 38 40 43 century and immediately after the constuction
WP,% 24 26 28 30 works had ended,, the cracking and the horizon-
IP 14 12 12 13
’ƒ 26 30 28 28 tal settling of walls could be observed. These
C’ƒ, kPa 250 100 50 40 have lasted for five hundred years and are still
Yr 16 15 14 12 going on today. The reasons are simple enough:
Cuy, kPa 140 60 30 20 the castle of Toolse was built on Cambrian clay
Cuƒ, kPa 180 100 55 40
qy, MPa 1.0 0.4 0.15 0.1 near the sea. The clay layer is inclined towards
qƒ, MPa 1.4 0.8 0.6 0.3 the sea (inclination 1:5), this layer is covered
E0-pr, MPA 75.0 30.0 10.0 5.0 with a gravel layer (thickness 5…10 cm) and to-
M, MPa 20.0 10.0 8.0 5.0 wards the water flow to the sea. The upper layer
R, MPa 1.8 0.92 0.45 0.40
N0, MPa 7.8 3.5 1.4 1.2 of the Cambrian clay is decomposed and its
properties are given in the following table (table
Signs given in the tables: 2):
’ƒ – angle of internal friction of the so il, WL = 47…45% WP = 30…32% IP = 14…16%
drained test
C’ƒ – soil’s cohesion, drained test Table 2.
M – soil’s deformation modulus on the com- Layers Wn Cuy Cuƒ Y C’
pression test depth % kPa kPa kPa
0-1.0 30 20 40 28 40
R – bearing capacity calculated by the formula 1-3.0 25 30 50 - -
7 of SNiP 2.02.01.83 Over 3.0 22 40 70 28 50
3 CAMBRIAN SANDSTONES
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The Black Marls extend about a hundred of square kilometer in the South East of France. This Jurassic geological formation is
locally known under the name of “Black Marls”. The altered section of this formation is subject to many instability phenome-
non: slow and regular erosion of the bare sectors, slide slopes, mud flow. To understand the spatial extension and the evolution
mechanisms of this material, it was decided within the GIS Draix organization to carry out measurements by geological surveys,
, in-situ geo-mechanical tests and laboratory tests. To measure the vertical extension of the altered section of the Black Marl, it
the University of Grenoble carried out a series of in situ tests with the dynamic penetrometer Panda. These tests were completed
with laboratory experiments for geotechnical classification. Measurements of degradation under cycle drying-saturation follow-
ing standard NFP 94-067 were carried out and it was developed a new test of degradation under the influence of the cycle freez-
ing-thawing. The results indicates that the Black Marl is a rock which is altered along a decimeter vertical extension, with a geo-
technical classification SC (USCS) and A1-A2 (GTR).The results show an evolutive rock, very sensitive to the conditions of
water and freeze. The tests of degradation indicate a degradable rock under the cycle of water, but more degradable under the ac-
tion of freezing. The prevention of its evolution should be conducted by a spatial protection preventing it from the saturation-
dessiccation and freeze-thaw mechanism. This could be achieved by a surface filling of earth, whith a sufficient thickness to pre-
vent the observed degradations
RÉSUMÉ
Les Terres Noires couvrent plusieurs centaines de km2 dans les Alpes du Sud. Il s’agit d’une formation géologique jurassique,
connue localement sous le nom de “Terres Noires”. La tranche altérée de cette formation est sujette à de nombreux phénomènes
d'instabilité: érosion lente et régulière des secteurs non végétalisés, glissements de versants, coulées boueuses. . Pour mieux
comprendre l’extension spatiale et les mécanismes de l’évolutivité de ce matériau, en liaison avec les travaux du GIS Draix, il a
été décidé de réaliser à la fois des reconnaissances géologiques, géomécaniques in situ et des essais de laboratoire. Pour mesurer
l’extention verticale de la couche altérée des Terres Noires, il a été entrepris par l’Université de Grenoble une série de mesures in
situ au pénétromètre dynamique léger Panda. Ces essais ont été complétée par des expériences au laboratoire de classification
d’après les propriétés physiques. Des mesures de dégradalités sous cycle dessication-saturation selon la norme NFP 94-067 ont
été réalisées et il a été mis au point un nouvel essai de dégradabilité sous l’influence du cycle gel-dégel. L’ensemble de ces résul-
tats indique que la Terre Noire est une roche qui se présente sous un aspect dégradée selon un extension verticale décimétrique
de classe SC (USCS) et A1-A2 (GTR). Les essais de dégradabilité indique une roche peu dégradable sous le cycle de l’eau, mais
plus dégradable sous l’action du gel. La prévention de son évolutivité passe par une protection efficace contre les phénomènes de
saturation-désaturation réalisée par des couches protectrices de terre végétale suffisamment épaisse et plantée pour permettre la
prévention des mécanismes de dégradation identifiés.
Keywords: Weak rock, Weathering, Geotechnical properties, hydric cycle, freeze-unfreeze cycle
Mots clés : Roche tendre, Altération, Propriétés géotechniques, Cycle hydrique, Cycle gel-dégel
1
Corresponding Author.
370 J. Monnet et al. / Les “Terres Noires” du Dauphiné
loup et du Sauze). De grands glissements de ter- % selon les secteurs pour les marnes saines. Les
rain sont notamment observés dans la région de autres composants minéraux sont le quartz, les
Barcelonnette (La Valette [3], Super Sauze [4]) micas, les argiles.. ; ceux-ci, déterminés aux RX
sur la fraction inférieure à 2μ sont l’illite (40 à
80 %), la chlorite (10 à 40 %) et les interstratifiés
4 CARACTERISATION GEOTECHNIQUE illite-smectite (< 30 %). Ces derniers ne sont tou-
GENERALE
tefois pas toujours présents.
Les Terres Noires non altérées peuvent être con-
sidérées comme des roches tendres [5]. Dans cet 4.2 Granularité
état leur résistance à la compression est de quel-
ques MPa. A l’interface avec l’atmosphère, elles Concernant les analyses granulométriques de la
s’altèrent rapidement en réponse aux conditions tranche altérée, une grosse différence existe entre
hydriques et aux cycles gel-dégel (voir plus loin). les résultats des essais « à sec » et « par voie
Elles deviennent alors un sol de moins en moins humide » ; car ces derniers perturbent davantage
dur, au fur et à mesure que progresse l’altération. la structure de l’échantillon, tandis que les résul-
Ce sol est constitué de grains en plaquettes plus tats à sec sous-estiment largement les fines. Il est
ou moins argileuses. La détermination de donc difficile d’indiquer des valeurs caractéristi-
l’épaisseur de la tranche altérée (le plus souvent ques : globalement, il y a peu de fines « libres »
de l’ordre de 1 à 2m) a fait l’objet d’études sys- dans les essais à sec (30% < 2μ ) et elles appa-
tématiques à Draix, où l’on a utilisé conjointe- raissent nettement pour les essais par voie hu-
ment des méthodes géophysiques (sismique, mide où le pourcentage inférieur à 2μ peut at-
électrique) et géomécaniques avec notamment de teindre 70 %.
nombreux essais [6] au pénétromètre dynamique
léger de type Panda (Figure 3).
4.3 Limites d’Atterberg. Valeurs de Bleu
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,1 1 10 100
Log(D) mm
Avant Gel
100
AprEs Gel 90
80
70
60
50
40
% Tamisat
30
20
10
0
0,1 1 10 100
Figure 9 : Etat final après essai de gel-dégel / Final state after
the freeze-unfreeze test Log(D) m m
.
Figure 11 : Granulométrie avant et après essai de gel-dégel /
L’évolution de la granulométrie peut Initial and final curves for the freeze unfreeze test
s’observer visuellement (Figure 8 et 9) avec une
374 J. Monnet et al. / Les “Terres Noires” du Dauphiné
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ABSTRACT
The paper proposes to geotechnical engineers a new concept to identify active clays based on the meaning of a graphical repre-
sentation – the soil chart – originated from a Romanian Standard, that unifies the Casagrande’s chart (LL-PI), the Skempton’s
chart (IA) with the granulometric curve of the investigated soil. The normalized area of the soil chart An = f(LL; PI; IA;P90 ;A2P)
is considered a composite indicator of the soil swelling-contraction potential. Thus, a new index is proposed, based on a similar
structure with the soil liquidity index (IL=1-IC) to estimate the soil swelling-contraction potential, as the activity coefficient. This
one correlates the normalized areas of the soil chart for two clays developing extreme behaviour, kaolinitic clay ( ACn ) and
montmorillonitic clay respectively ( AMn ), with the normalized area of the investigated soil ( AOn ), resulting in the activity coeffi-
cient (CA). This new and original concept has been calibrated by laboratory tests using kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clays
from Romania and as the investigated soil, and active clay present in the flat area of the Bahlui River, frequently found as the
foundation soil in Iasi city and county. The obtained results compared with the other indices ( UL; IA; A2¡; Cp; ws; Cv, w15; qmax;
pu) presented in the corresponding literature are considered relevant and useful to acknowledge the activity coefficient (CA) as a
new physical parameter integrating all the other classical ones, that characterizes the intensity of the swelling-contraction phe-
nomena anticipated during the geotechnical design on construction sites on active clays.
RÉSUMÉ
A partir de l'interprétation d'une représentation graphique appelée l'empreinte du sol, propre à un standard roumain, qui réunit le
diagramme Casagrande (LL - PI), le diagramme Skempton (IA) et la courbe granulométrique du sol étudié, le papier soumet a
l'attention des géotechniciens un nouveau concept d'identification des argiles actives. La taille de la superficie normalisée de
l'empreinte An = f(LL; PI; IA; P90 ;A2P) est considérée comme un indicateur composite du potentiel de gonflement-contraction
d'un sol. En conséquence, par la similitude de structure avec l'indice de liquidité (IL = 1-IC) des sols, on propose une nouvelle
grandeur physique pour l'estimation du potentiel de gonflement-contraction des sols, sous la forme d'un coefficient d'activité. Ce
coefficient met en corrélation les superficies normalisées de l'empreinte pour deux argiles avec des comportements extrêmes, ar-
gile kaolinique ( ACn ) et respectivement argile montmorillonique ( AMn ), avec la superficie normalisée du sol étudié ( AOn ), en ob-
tenant un coefficient d'activité (CA). Ce nouveau concept original a été calibré par des tests de laboratoire, utilisant les argiles
kaoliniques et montmorilloniques en provenance de Roumanie. Le sol étudié a été une argile active présente dans les plaines de
la rivière Bahlui, fréquemment rencontré comme terrain de fondation dans la ville et le comté de Iasi. Les résultats obtenus,
comparés avec d'autres indices (UL; IA; A2¡; Cp; ws; Cv, w15; qmax; pu) présents dans la littérature, sont considérés relevants et
utiles pour consacrer le coefficient d'activité (CA) comme une nouvelle grandeur physique intégrant les grandeurs classiques qui
caractérisent l'intensité des phénomènes de gonflement-contraction anticipés dans la fondation sur des emplacements contenant
des argiles actives.
Keywords: active clay, kaolinitic clay, montmorillonitic clay, soil chart, new and original coefficient of activity
1
Corresponding Author.
382 A. Stanciu et al. / A New Concept to Identify and Characterize Active Clays
3 PREDICTION AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ACTIVE
CLAYS
These are presently used for pottery making, be- The extreme values of the activity coefficient
cause it is considered that they provide a negligi- for a specific soil with the normalized surface of
ble shrinkage potential during the burning proc- the chart result as:
ess. x CA 0 – for AOn d ACn , fact that would in-
The average value of these charts will be de-
dicate that the soil does not possess a
noted with AC and normalized by being divided swell-shrinkage potential / inactive or at
to the reference circle surface, resulting in the most to the level of the kaolinitic clay.
ACn AC Acircle . For soils that would display x CA = 1 – for AO
n
AMn , fact that would
maximum variation of volume, the ones with indicate that the soil possess a maximum
montmorillonite with sodium complex will be swell-shrinkage potential, to the level of
considered. The average normalized surface of the montmorillonitic clay with a sodium
these soils corresponding chart will be denoted complex.
n
as AM AM Acircle . For values 0 < CA < 1 the activity domain has
An ordinary soil considered as the foundation been divided in 4 zones and thus:
soil ( AOn ), will behave, depending on the mois- x 0 < CA < 0.25 – soils with low activity;
x 0.25 CA < 0.50 – soils with medium ac-
ture content variation, in between the behaviour
tivity;
of the kaolinitic clay and the montmorillonitic
clay respectively. Thus, one considers that the x 0.50 CA < 0.75 – soils with high activ-
ity;
normalized surface of this soil ( AOn ) will fit in x 0.75 CA < 1.00 – soils with very high
between the two limits previously established, activity.
similar to the soil moisture content between the
two limits of plasticity ( PL d w d LL ) and re-
spectively ( ACn d AOn d AMn
). 4 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE
Representing the values of these normalized KAOLINITIC CLAY FROM SUNCUIUS
surfaces along the axis (figure 3) one can define
an activity coefficient ( C A ), similar as structure Samples have been extracted from deposit of
kaolinitic clay (kaolinite) located in the village
with the liquidity index ( I L 1 I C ), that would Suncuius, Romania, to establish the chart of the
characterize the swell-shrinkage potential for a n
kaolinitic clay ( AC ) that enters the relationship
certain clay with a relationship as it follows:
(1).
Laboratory investigations resulted in characte-
ristic geotechnical indices for the kaolinitic clay
with the following mean values:
x granulometric fraction less than 2 ¡
A2¡ = 18.45%
x plasticity index PI = 20.74%
x activity index IA = 1.12
x plasticity criterion Cp = 14.84
x free swell UL = 78.33%
One can conclude that by activity, depending
on the classical indices, the kaolinitic clay would
fit between the active and less active soils. Fig-
ure 4 presents the kaolinitic clay chart with the
Figure 3. Defining the activity coefficient and
characterization of soils activity according to Stanciu et all normalized dimensionless surface ACn 2.43 .
A. Stanciu et al. / A New Concept to Identify and Characterize Active Clays 385
Skempton’s activity index IA = 0.9, as being be- garding the scaling of the activity potential (e.g.:
tween 1.00 and 1.25. One can conclude that the after Van der Mewre – very high, after Skempton
clay from the Bahlui plain is very active. The – medium). The proposed activity coefficient
Bahlui clay chart is presented in figure 6, with a ( C A ), as a composite index that integrates the
normalized dimensionless surface AOn 5.09 . updated charts of Casagrande-Chleborad and
Skempton-Van der Merwe with the granulomet-
ric curve, is considered to better describe the in-
timacy of the swell/shrinkage phenomena and
that to provide a higher reliability than the previ-
ous ones. As a consequence of the above men-
tioned issues and in order to take into account the
specific characteristics specific to the formation
of each sedimentary deposit of clay, it is neces-
sary for using CA to establish the extreme nor-
malized surfaces of kaolinitic ( ACn ) and mont-
n
morillonitic with sodium complex ( AM ) clays.
These will be reference elements for clay activ-
ity, an intrinsical property as plasticity. C A in-
dex is alike as structure with I L 1 I C , the
and calculus requires only routine geotechnical
laboratory tests.
REFERENCES
Figure 6. Chart of the Bahlui clay, Romania
[1] A. Stanciu, I. Lungu, Foundations – I, Technical Pub-
The activity coefficient of the Bahlui clay, ac- lishing House Bucarest, Romania, 2006 (in Romanian)
cording to relationship (1) is based on the nor- [2] S. Andrei, S. Manea, - La systematisation, le stokage,et
la reutilisation de information geotechniques, Revue
malized surfaces of the kaolinite and sodium française de Géotechnique 78 (1997)51-61
bentonite charts (figure 4 and 5), resulting in: [3] *** STAS 1913/12, Determination of the physical and
mechanical characteristics for soils with swellings and
AOn ACn 5.09 2.43 shrinkages, Romanian Standardization Institute, 1988
CA 0.556
AMn
ACn 7.21 2.43 [4] C. Lucian - Geotechnical Aspects of Buildings on Ex-
pansive Soils in Kibaha, Tanzania:, Preliminary Study -
Based on the value ( C A 0.556 ) of the new Licentiate Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology Stock-
activity coefficient defined as a composite- holm, Sweden, 2006
[5] De Rattan Lal - Principles of Soil Physics, Taylor Fran-
integrating index (PI, IA, LL) and the proposed cis Publisher, 2004
characterization (figure 3) the clay from the plain [6] A.A. Abed - Numerical Modeling of Expansive Soil Be-
of the Bahlui River is a clay with high activity. havior - Institut für Geotechnik der Universität Stutt-
gart , Germany, 22, 2008
[7] A.F. Chleborad, M.A. Osman, E.M. Ali, Geotechnical
properties of selected materials from the Slimgullion
7 CONCLUSIONS landslide,http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b2130/Chapter1.html
[8] D.H. Van der Merwe, Contributions to Speciality Ses-
sion B, Current theory and practice for building on ex-
It often resulted from the analysis of the existing pansive clay: Proceedings of the 6th Reg. Conf. for Af-
indices from literature where active soils are rica on SMFE,(1975), Durban, vol.2
[9] N. Boti, Contributions on studying the shrinkage soils
identified and characterized, that there are some from the foundation ground in the Iasi city area, Doc-
contradictions on the final results, especially re- toral Thesis, Romania, 1974 (in Romanian)
2.1. Selection of Parameters
Sélection des paramètres
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 389
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-389
RÉSUMÉ
Un barrage en arc de 100 m d’hauteur (Barrage de Castrovido, Burgos, Espagne) a été fondé sur de limonites Weald rouges et
tendres avec des bancs inter stratifiés en grès. La stabilité du barrage est essentiellement contrôlée par la résistance au cisaille-
ment disponible des plans de sédimentation. Des échantillons en bloc ont été récupérés pour les différents types de contact iden-
tifiés. On les a testés dans une boîte de cisaillement d’haute capacité (30x30 cm) et dans des essais à grande échelle. La rugosité
du plan de cisaillement a été déterminée après chacun des essais. L’information additionnelle inclut les résultats de tous les es-
sais de résistance résiduelle effectués sur les remblais en argile dans un appareil de cisaillement annular.
Les résultats de tous les essais effectués sont comparés dans cet article, qui montre l'effet de la rugosité de surface. L’article
traite également de la procédure suivie pour sélectionner une enveloppe de résistance appropriée à des fins de conception sur la
base de toutes les informations disponibles. Le cas souligne la difficulté de choisir sans ambiguïté un calcul de résistance appro-
priée pour les surfaces de sédimentation critique malgré les efforts sur le terrain et en laboratoire.
Keywords: shear strength, sedimentation planes, dam foundation, insitu shearing tests.
1
Corresponding Author.
390 E.E. Alonso et al. / Foundation of a Gravity Dam on Layered Soft Rock
Family orientations
1m 20/154
3m 26/246
6m 75/266
Dam orientation
Table 1. Direct shear laboratory tests on sedimentary planes. A plot of shear load-shear displacements for
30×30 cm shear test box.
test MD-1 on the right abutment of the dam is
Type of Friction Residual shown in Figure 9. Shear behavior was ductile in
Observations
joint angle friction
all the tests performed. A limiting shear-stress
Sandstone
14º 14º Limited scale effect was usually found for very small relative dis-
+ mica
Sandstone- Residual friction placements (a fraction of 1 mm). In the case rep-
siltstone 19º 13º18º controlled by con- resented in Figure 10, four loading stages were
contacts tent of mica applied within the first 2 mm of shearing relative
Friction angle con-
displacements.
Planes in- trolled by rough-
side silt- 24º 14º20º ness/dilatancy
20
stone Residual friction
controlled by mica
16
4
A testing protocol was established to define the
0
preparation of the specimen, the methodology to 0 2 4 6
apply loadings and to measure displacements, Displacement (mm)
and the presentation of results. In all cases, sand- Figure 9. Insitu shear test results of sample MD-1 (right ab-
stone- siltstone contacts were selected. This utment of the dam).
choice facilitated the arrangement of the tests. 8
Sample MD-1
The joint was located on top of a sandstone layer, 7 Sample MD-2
Sample MI-1
block. Shear forces were applied in the direction Sample MI-2
5 Barton
of the dam thrust. The square 800×800 mm Sample MI-3
Barton-Choubey Criterion
Criterion
4
“sample” was aligned with the direction of dam
3
thrust. The rock was cut by means of a continu-
ous diamond-wire saw device, often used in 2
sandstone- siltstone contacts. A ductile response ring shear tests performed, despite the low plas-
was obtained in all cases. In general, the multi- ticity of the clay friction of siltstone.
stage testing technique provided non-linear enve- The proposal for a suitable strength envelope
lopes. Friction angles were relatively high for the sedimentation planes is given in Figure
(30º45º) for confining stresses in the range 16. It provides a variation of secant friction angle
00.1 MPa. However dam foundations are ex- with normal stress. It was obtained favoring the
pected to apply reflective normal stresses reach- large scale in situ tests and disregarding extreme
ing 1 MPa on the sedimentary planes immedi- values.
ately below the concrete foundations.
30
28
24
22
20
18
16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Efective normal stress (kp/cm2)
ABSTRACT
Rocks composed of parallel layers (sedimentation or schistosity) belong to the so-called cross-anisotropic materials. The deter-
mination of the material properties of these rocks requires laboratory tests in samples whose foliation has variable orientations
with respect to the loading axes. However this is often not feasible for rocks with pronounced foliation: the rock disintegrates
during the extraction of the samples.
Another possibility for the estimation of the material properties could be the execution of field tests which capture the beha-
vior of the rock mass in-situ, e.g. cavity expansion tests. An analytical solution describing the displacements of the cavity wall
with respect to the applied pressure and the orientation of the foliation is still missing. Thus, the determination of the material
properties by means of in-situ measurements has been impossible.
A new approximate solution is presented in this paper. Based on the known analytical expression for the ground line in elastic
isotropic rock, it is observed that the displacement of the cavity wall can be obtained by considering the stress state in the rock
adjacent to the cavity wall, i.e. the consideration of the entire stress field in the rock is not required. This result was transferred to
the case of linear-elastic cross-anisotropic rock and thus, yielded the approximate solution. Measurements from large-scale cavi-
ty expansion tests (radial jack tests) were used to back calculate the material constants.
RÉSUMÉ
Des roches composées de couches parallèles (sédimentation ou schistosité) font par des matériaux que l’ on appelle anisotropes
transverses. La détermination des propriétés des matériaux de ces roches nécessite des tests de laboratoire avec des échantillons
dont l’ orientation de la foliation est variable par rapport aux axes. Toutefois, ce n’ est souvent pas possible pour les roches avec
foliation prononcée: la roche se désintègre lors de l’ extraction des échantillons.
Une autre possibilité pour la définition des propriétés des matériaux pourrait être des essays sur site qui capture le comporte-
ment de la masse rocheuse in-situ, par exemple des tests à expansion de la cavité. Une solution analytique décrivant le displace-
ment de la paroi de la cavité par rapport à la pression appliquée et l’ orientation de la foliation est encore manquante. Ainsi, la
détermination des propriétés des matériaux a été jusqu’ à présent pas possible.
Une nouvelle solution approximative sera présentée dans se document. Sur la base de l’ expression analytique connue pour la
ligne de charactéristique du terrain pour la roche élastique isotrope, on constate que le déplacements de la paroi de la cavité peut
être obtenus en considérant l’ état de tensions dans la roche adjacente à la paroi de la cavité, c’ est à dire la prise en compte de l’
ensemble du champ de tensions de la roche n’ est pas nécessaire. Ce résultat a été transféré pour le fait de roches linéaires-
élastiques anisotropes transverses et a donné ainsi la solution approximative. Des mesures sur des tests d’ expansion de la cavité
à grande échelle (tests de la presse radiale) ont été utilisées pour recalculer les constantes du matériau.
Keywords: Cross-anisotropy, foliated rock, field tests, cavity expansion, material properties, back analysis
1
Corresponding Author.
396 A. Blioumi and D. Kolymbas / Deformation of Cylindrical Cavities in Cross-Anisotropic Rock
1.2 Determination of the material properties Figure 1. Definition of vector n, as well as strike and dip an-
gles.
9 p r02
ur
. (1)
2G r1
"p 2G
. (2)
"u r r0
where (İ=-ur/r0).
With Hooke’s law the radial stress is then ob-
tained as
u
r 2G% 2G r . (5)
r0
"p 2G
. (6)
"u r r0
a5 12 (# jk ni nl # ik nl n j
# jl ni nk # il nk n j ) .
2 A3 A4 A2 0 0 0/
2T11 / 0 - 2 E11 /
0 - 0 A4 A3 A2 0 0 0 -0 -
T
0 22 - E22 -
0 A2 A2 A1 0 0 0 -0
0T33 - 0 - 0 E33 -
0 -0 A3 A4 0
0 0 - 0 E12 -
-
0T12 - 0
0 0 0
-
0T - 2
0 - 0E -
0 23 - 00 0 0 0 A5 0 - 0 23 -
0
1T13 -
. 0 0 A5 -
0 . Figure 4. Vectors m and k0 .
1 E13 -
10 0 0 0 .
where:
A. Blioumi and D. Kolymbas / Deformation of Cylindrical Cavities in Cross-Anisotropic Rock 399
"T11
a1 a2 (n1n1 n2 n2 )
"E22 (13)
a4 n1n1n2 n2 .
p
r0
u r ; .
"T11 "T11 (14)
"E11 "E22
nr n k , n n (m k ), n z n m .
ditional measurements are required to calibrate of the International Society of Rock Mechanics Vol. 2.
Beograd, 1970, 509-516.
all 5 material constants.
[4] L. E. Malvern, Introduction to the mechanics of a con-
tinuous medium, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
1969.
CONCLUSIONS [5] D. Kolymbas, Tunnelling and tunnel mechanics: a ra-
tional approach to tunneling, Springer, Berlin, 2008.
[6] C. Truesdell & W. Noll, The Non-Linear Field Theories
This paper deals with the problem of the deter- of Mechanics (2nd ed.), Springer, Berlin, 1992.
mination of the material constants of cross- [7] D. Kolymbas, P. Wagner & A. Blioumi, Cavity expan-
anisotropic rock. For this purpose, in-situ cavity sion in cross-anisotropic rock, International Journal of
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics
expansion tests, e.g. radial jack tests, are sug- n/a, doi :10.1002/nag.998.
gested. The mathematical problem is presented
and a new approximate solution is introduced.
The new method aims at assessing the mate-
rial properties by assuming linear-elasticity and
plane strain deformation around the cavity. The
attempt to back calculate the material properties,
by means of the approximate solution and data
from radial tests, proved that measurements from
only one test are insufficient for the calibration.
We are currently trying to obtain the unique solu-
tion of the problem by consideration of con-
straints or by using data from other tests done in
the same material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
On the Buda side of Budapest the Metro line 4 is constructed in a length of several kilometres in the Oligocene clay forma-
tion known as Kiscell clay. For the line and the stations a great number of boreholes with continuous sampling was carried out.
Using core samples taken from depths of 10 to 40 metres triaxial compression tests were carried out on large diameter (10 cm)
specimens. The original objective of the tests was to obtain geotechnical parameters required for the design of the tunnel and the
station structure. The processing and evaluation of the results of the great number of tests made it possible to re-assess on the ba-
sis of available former investigations the shear strength, deformations and existing state of the highly overconsolidated stratum
which is as firm as soft rocks, which however experienced expansion to a degree decreasing with depth.
Our investigations have revealed that the in situ state of stress in the Kiscell clay is not exactly known and therefore the in-
terpretation of the obtained shear strength parameters is ambiguous and based on assumptions. In this clay, which appears ho-
mogeneous on the basis of the soil identification parameters, the strength and deformation characteristics may differ significantly
from the expected values depending on the location and the depth. The paper gives an explanation among others for the varying
degree of overconsolidation, the existing vertical-horizontal stress proportions, the interpretation of how shear strength parame-
ters develop during failure and the associated strains
RESUME
La nouvelle ligne de metro M4 de Budapest coté Buda, traverse sur plusieurs km la formation geologique de l’argile oligo-
cène, appelée argile de “Kiscell“. L’étude des tunnels et des ouvrages des stations avait demandé de nombreux sondages per-
mettant la prise d’échantillons continus les cehantillos de 10 cm de diamétre prélevés des profondeurs de 10 à 40 m ont été sou-
mis à des essais triaxiaux. Le but initial de ces essais était de déterminer les paramétres néccesaires à l’étude des tunnels et des
stations. L’étude détaille des résultats de ces essais nous a rendu possible de réviser la résistance au cisaillement, les déforma-
tions at l’état actuell (K0) de l’argile fortemenet surconsolidée et très expansible dansles zones plus profondes.
les résultats de nos essais récents ont mis évidence que, l’état de contrainte de l’argile “Kiscell“ située dans la zone des for-
mations originales, n’est past conne actuellement. Il en résulte que l’interprétation classique des paramétres de résistance au ci-
saillement nous est impossible. L’explication en est que les caractéristignes de contrainte et de déformation de l’argile jugée ho-
mogéne auparavant varient dans une large mesure en fonction de la profondeur et différent des valeurs attendus. Dans cette
exposée nous essayons de formular une explication entre autre sur le degré de surconsolidation sur l’état actuel de K0, sur
l’interprétation des paramétres observés au cours des essais à la rupture et sur les déformations des échantillors.
1
Corresponding Author.
402 Gy. Horváth and B. Móczár / Re-Assessment of the Shear Strength of the Oligocene Clay
We studied the lab test results from all bore- shows again as a function of depth, the major
holes made at four consecutive stations, involv- stress at failure V1 derived from a test starting
ing altogether some 60 samples covering a depth from hydrostatic stress conditions corresponding
domain of 10 to 36 m. Figure1 shows the change to the respective depth.
in moisture content with depth. Note, that almost
all the samples were quasi-saturated (Sr >0,9).
Figure 2 shows the change in density in terms of
void ratio.
ABSTRACT
Balancing risk and reliability engineers have to take variability of soil properties into account within the design process.
Reliability based design offers a scientific base, which is explained exemplarily within the evaluation of the tunnel face stability.
Within this framework, the variability of soil, geometry and construction process is considered in a comprehensive way.
Parametric studies enlighten the evaluation of the failure probability and help to understand this concept via showing the
influence of the different sources of variability.
RÉSUMÉ
Équilibrant les risques et la fiabilité, des ingénieurs doivent prendre en considération la variabilité des propriétés du sol déjà au
sein du processus de conception. Une base rationnelle et scientifique est offerte par une conception basée sur la fiabilité, ce qui
est expliqué de façon exemplaire au sein d’une évaluation de la stabilité du front de taille d’un tunnel. Dans ce cadre, la variabili-
té du sol, de la géométrie et du mode de construction est considérée en manière globale. Des études de cas mettent en évidence
l’évaluation de la probabilité de défaillance et aident à saisir ce concept en démontrant l’influence des diverses sources de
variabilité.
Keywords: tunnel face stability, soil variability, reliability based design, partial safety factors
1
Corresponding author.
408 M. Huber et al. / Advances in Tunneling Simulation – A Probabilistic Approach
D p
2 EVALUATION OF THE TUNNEL
HEADING STABILITY OF A SHALLOW
CIRCULAR TUNNEL Figure 1. Geometry of the tunnel.
tan
which describe the contribution of the random
(c’*|M’*)
ge
variable to the probability of failure. This can be
nt
g>0 g<0
interpreted also in a graphical way, as shown in g<0
Figure 2. The reliability index µ represents the Pc’
distance from the origin to the MPP in the
Gaussian space. The rst-order approximation of
the failure probability is then given by Figure 2. Definition of the design point within the FORM.
pf = (µ), where (•) is the standard normal
cumulative distribution function [5]. The values used in this paper for the statistical
The values c’* and M’* of the MPP corre- moments of the shear strength parameters belong
sponding to the tunnel face pressure p give an to the intervals proposed by the above cited.
idea about the partial safety factors of each of the
strength parameters in equation (2). 4.2 Reliabiltiy calculations
Jc = ¡c’/c’* The aim of the presented parametric studies is to
(2) evaluate the reliability of the face stability and to
JM = tan ¡M’/ tan M’* quantify its influencing factors.
0 (a)
10
-50
10
5
-100
0 10
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
-5 correlation coefficient between
0 10 20 30 40 50 cohesion c’ and friction angel M’
face pressure p [kN/m²] Uc’M’>@
Figure 3. Probability of failure pf in (a) and reliabiltiy index µ
in (b) versus increasing face pressure p by using a Figure 5. Limit state surfaces for p = 40 kN/m² , 70 kN/m²,
COV c’ = 10% and a COV M’ = 20 %. 100 kN/m² and 130 kN/m² in (a) and probability of failure
and correlation coefficient between cohesion c’ and friction
angel M’ for tunnel different face pressure p.
partial safety factors
(a)
0 1.6
Jc’ [-]
10 1.4
probability of failure pf [-]
1.2
-4 1.0
10
0 10 20 30 40 50
-8 face pressure p [kN/m²]
10
-12
10
(b)
partial safety factors
-16 3
10
0 40 80 120 160 2
JM’ [-]
Table 2. Soil properties of the parametric study 2 correlation between the cohesion c’ and the
lognormally friction angel ’ can be seen cleary. A positive
c’ = 2.5 kN/m² COVc’ = 20% distributed correlation ©c’,’ increases slightly the probability
lognormally of failure pf. The influence of a negative correla-
M’ = 35 ° COVM’ = 10 % distributed
lognormally tion is more severe. In this parametric study it
J’ = 18 kN/m² COVJ’ = 10 % can be found to be conservative to neglect a
distributed
lognormally negative correlation ©c’,’, because the probability
D = 10 m COVD = 10 % distributed of failure pf is higher in the presence of ©c’,’ = 0.
p = 50 kN/m² lognormally
COVp = 10 % distributed In Figure 6 the influence of cohesion c’ and
friction angle ’ on the probability of failure in
Table 3. Sensitivity factors
i values of parametric study 2
relation to the face pressure p is clearly depicted.
The influence is shown via the partial safety
-1
friction angle
M’ -1.30 10 factors Jc’ and JM’ derived in equation (2) in
-1 comparison to the partial safety factors presented
cohesion
c’ -6.16 10
face pressure
p
-1 in the DIN EN 1997 [1]. The comparision of
-7.77 10
-3
Figure 6 a and Figure 6 b proves that the failure
diameter
D’ 4.58 10 probability pf is more sensitive to the friction
-5
soil unit weight
J’ 4.58 10 angel ’ than to the cohesion c’. The scatter of
the partial safety factors in Figure 6 b can be
10
0 neglected. The comparison of Figure 4 and
Figure 6 clarifies the higher probability of failure
probability of failure pf [-]
in Figure 7. Herein the soil variability is in- ferum software. In Proc. of the 10th International
Conference on Structural Safety and Reliability
creased and compared to different levels of (ICOSSAR’09), Osaka, Japan, 2009.
variability of the face pressure p. Again, it can [5] C. Bucher. Computational Analysis of Randomness in
clearly be seen that a high level of variability of Structural Mechanics. Talor & Francis Group, 2009.
the variables causes a high probability of failure [6] C. Cherubini. Reliability evaluation of shallow
foundation bearing capacity on c’’soils. Canadian
pf. Geotechnical Journal, 37(1):264–269, 2000.
[7] C. Cherubini, I. Giasi, and L. Rethati. The co-
efï¬cient of variation of some geotechnical parame-
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ters. In Probabilistic methods in geotechnical engi-
neering, 1993.
[8] A. Kirsch. On the face stability of shallow tunnels in
The concept of reliability based design has been sand. PhD thesis, Universtität Innsbruck, 2009.
used to examine the stability conditions of the [9] E. Leca and L. Dormieux. Upper and lower bound
face of a shallow tunnel driven in a cohesive, solutions for the face stability of shallow circular tun-
frictional material. The results of two parametric nels in frictional material. Geotechnique, 40(4):581–
606, 1990.
studies show the influence of the variability of [10] P. Lumb. Safety factors and the probability distribution
soil, geometry and construction process on the of soil strength. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
probability of failure. 7(3):225–242, 1970.
The assumption of uncorrelated shear strength [11] G. Mollon, D. Dias, and A.H. Soubra. Probabilistic
Analysis and Design of Circular Tunnels against Face
parameters was found conservative (i.e. it gives a Stability. International Journal of Geomechanics,
greater probability of failure) in comparison to 9:237–249, 2009.
that of negatively correlated parameters. More- [12] G. Mollon, D. Dias, and A.H. Soubra. Face Stability
Analysis of Circular Tunnels Driven by a Pressurized
over, it was shown that the probability of failure
Shield. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmen-
is more sensitive on the friction angle than on the tal Engineering, 136:215–229, 2010.
cohesion. [13] K.K. Phoon, editor. Reliability-Based Design in
The results of the parametric studies suggest Geotechnical Engineering - Computations and Appli-
cations. Taylor & Francis, 2008.
that the strength parameters of soil and the tunnel
[14] K.K. Phoon and F.H. Kulhawy. Characterization of
face pressure have the major influence on the geotechnical variability. Canadian Geotechnical Jour-
probability of failure in comparison to the soil nal, 36:612–624, 1999.
weight and tunnel diameter. This contribution [15] K.K. Phoon and F.H. Kulhawy. Evaluation of geo-
technical property variabaility. Canadian Geotechnical
clearly showed the severe influences of soil
Journal, 36:625–639, 1999.
variability on tunneling. Therefore additional [16] N.M. Ruse. Räumliche Betrachtung der
studies will be carried out to get more experience Standsicherheit der Ortsbrust beim Tunnelvortrieb.
in modeling variability in geotechnical problems. PhD thesis, Institute of Geotechnical Engineering,
University of Stuttgart, 2004.
In addition to this, benchmark studies will be
[17] A.H. Soubra. Kinematical approach to the face
carried out to study the effects of spatial variabil- stability analysis of shallow circular tunnels. In 8th In-
ity. ternational Symposium on Plasticity, British Colum-
bia, Canada, pages 443–445, 2000.
[18] M.G. Speedie. Selection of design value from shear
REFERENCES test results. In Proceedings of the 2nd Australia-New
Zealand Conference on Soil Mechanics and Founda-
[1] CEN (2002): Eurocode: Basis of structural design. tion Engineering, pages 107–109, Wellington, 1965.
European standard, EN 1990: 2002, April 2002. [19] P.A. Vermeer, N. Ruse, and T. Marcher. Tunnel
[2] CEN (2004): Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design - Part 1: heading stability in drained ground. Felsbau, 20(6):8–
General rules. EN 1997-1:2004, November 2004, 18, 2002.
European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, [20] T.F. Wolff. Analysis and design of embankment dam
November 2004. slopes: a probabilistic approach. PhD thesis, Purdue
[3] G. Anagnostou and K. Kovari. Face stability condi- University, Lafayette, Ind., 1985.
tions with earth-pressure-balanced shields. Tunnelling [21] M.S. Yucemen, W.H. Tang, and A.H.S. Ang. A
and Underground Space Technology, 11(2):165–173, probabilistic study of safety and design of earth slopes.
1996. Technical report, University of Illinois Engineering
[4] J.-M. Bourinet, C. Mattrand, and V. Dubourg. A Experiment Station. College of Engineering.
review of recent features and improvements added to University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1973.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 413
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-413
K. Kast
Dr.-Ing. Karl Kast + Partner, Ettlingen, Germany
ABSTRACT
An important factor of the material behaviour of rockfill is the influence of the disintegration of the
rock grains, caused by geological processes. With the help of appropriate test methods, it is possible to
c1assify rock materials with regard to the micro-mechanical as well as the chemical degree of disinte-
gration. Investigations in the field of rockfill technology of three selected types of granite material,
covering the range of variations, from fresh to severely decomposed rock, provided quantitative infor-
mation regarding the influence of the geological degree of disintegration on the mechanical properties
of the fills. In addition to fundamental results regarding the different conditions in the stress-strain be-
haviour of dry and water-saturated materials, findings related to the influence of precompaction were
also obtained. In this case it was important to be able to produce realistic rockfill samples by using
suitable testing apparatus with sample diameters up to 800 mm.
RÉSUMÉ
L´influence de la désagrégation des grains de roche, provoquée par des processus géologiques, est un
facteur important du comportement des matériaux d´enrochement. Avec l´aide de mesures de test ap-
propriées, il est possible de classifier les matériaux rocheux en ce qui concerne la micromécanique aus-
si bien que le degré chimique de désagrégation.
Des investigations dans le domaine de la technologie d´enrochement menées sur une sélection de trois
types de granit, couvrant toute la plage de variations -d’un degré de décomposition léger à fort-, ont
fourni des informations quantitatives quant à l´influence du degré géologique de désagrégation sur les
propriétés mécaniques des remblais.
En plus de résultats fondamentaux relatifs aux différentes conditions dans le comportement « con-
trainte - déformation » des matériaux secs et saturés d´eau, des découvertes concernant l´influence de
la surcompression ont également été faites. Dans ce cas, il était important d’être capable de produire
des échantillons d´enrochement réalistes en utilisant des équipements de test appropriés avec des di-
amètres d’échantillons allant jusqu´à 800 mm.
Keywords : rockfill, disintegration, compaction, stress strain behaviour, saturation behaviour, point load test, compression test,
granite quality, decomposition
414 K. Kast / Mechanical Behaviour of Disintegrated Rockfill
3 OEDEMETRIC COMPRESSION
starts from the same initial density. In this con- 4 BEHAVIOUR UNDER TRIAXIAL LOAD
text it is important to note, that for different ini-
tial densities the compression curves are different
for both dry and wet states of the material [3]. 4.1 Sample diameter and test conditions
It is well known that the results in the stress
strain behaviour and shear resistance of triaxial
tests with rockfill material depend also on the
sample dimensions (diameter [6] and the diame-
ter/height relation [7]).
Fig. 5 shows that the largest sample dimen-
sion (800 mm sample diameter) leads to the low-
est shear resistance. That means, that in the given
case, all other tests with smaller samples lead to
an overestimation of the shear strength.
It should be mentioned, that all the test series
conducted in the study were done with an
equipment of lubricated end plates and D/H rela-
Figure 3. Compression behaviour of weathered rockfill in dry tions of 1/1. However, the tests were realized
and wet states
with a deviatoric stress path.
Figure 6: Stress-strain-curves of deviatoric triaxial tests on Figure 7: Stress-strain-curves of deviatoric triaxial tests (gra-
the different disintegrated granite types A, B and C in dry and nite type B) in different conditions (dry, water saturated and
water saturated condition as well. meanwhile saturation in different stages shear loading Ts)
Looking at fig. 7 at the behaviour of the satu- granitic rockfill qualities (caused by geological
ration effect in different shearing stages Ts = processes) on the mechanical behaviour of those
33% or 66 % of the shear resistance, fills.
K. Kast / Mechanical Behaviour of Disintegrated Rockfill 417
The first step was to determine the degree of pected in large areas of a dam body – the
geological disintegration. With the help of ap- rockfill shows mainly oedometric deforma-
propriate test methods, it was possible to classify tions, which means, that deformations occur
the tested rock materials with regard to the mi- only in the direction of the greatest main
cro-mechanical as well as the chemical degree of stress.
disintegration. Investigations in the field of rock-
f) Deformations due to saturation may be influ-
fill technology on three selected types of granite
enced by the application of “breakdown”
material covering the range of variations from
compaction and, if necessary, can be largely
fresh to severely decomposed rock, provided
avoided. Here, the inner structure resulting
quantitative information regarding the influence
from compaction is of great importance. In
of the geological degree of disintegration on the
general, in case of use of geologically disin-
mechanical properties of the fills.
tegrated rocks, the structure should have a
In addition to fundamental results regarding
low porosity, which provides almost no op-
the different conditions in the stress-strain behav-
portunity for the occurrence of deformations
iour of dry and water-saturated materials, find-
due to saturations. This is due to the wide
ings related to the influence of precompaction
spread gradation, which initially exists or is
were also obtained. In this case it was important
caused by the grain breakage due to the low
to be able to produce realistic rockfill samples by
strength of the rock aggregates.
using suitable testing apparatus with sample di-
ameters up to 800 mm.
The results can serve as a basis for further in-
The following main conclusions can be de- vestigations, to improve the results of numerical
rived from the investigations. analyses regarding the mechanical behaviour of
embankments compounded with rockfilI. There
is a need to integrate the relationships found in
a) During compaction, rockfill shows a more or
stress strain laws [7].
less intensive particle breakdown behaviour,
Within the framework of the given study, it
which depends on the specific geological de-
was possible to prepare analytical calculation
gree of disintegration.
methods to estimate saturation settlements of
b) By applying further compaction energy, the rockfill, which are to be expected due to initial
porosity of the rockfill decreases, due to fur- water-saturation.
ther grain breakage.
c) In general, water-saturated rockfill is more
REFERENCES
deformable and has smaler shear strength
than dry one. An initially dry fill deforms so [1] SMYKATZ-KLOSS, W & GÖBELBECKER, J: Au-
much when first saturated, that it equals the thor, Der chemische Verwitterungsgrad von Gesteinen
larger deformations, which would occur in als Maß für ihre Ingenieurgeologische Verwendbarkeit.
fills, if saturated from the start. In the case of Ingenieurgeol. Probl. im Grenzbereich zw. Locker- und
Festgesteinen, K.K. Heitfeld (Publisher), Springer Ver-
a further increase of stress, the saturated ma- lag, Berlin, Heidelberg , 1985.
terial follows the initially saturated curve of [2] KAST, K., BLINDER, A:, BRAUNS, J.: Verdichtungs-
the fill. , Verformungs-, und Sättigungsverhalten von Schüttun-
gen in Abhängigkeit von der geolog. Gesteinsentfesti-
d) Regarding similar stress levels, rockfill under gung. Ingenieurgeol. Probl. im Grenzbereich zw. Lo-
shear stress shows essentially more deforma- cker- und Festgesteinen, K.K. Heitfeld (Publisher),
tions due to saturation, than under isotropic Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1985.
[3] MARSAL, R.: Mechanical Properties of Rockfille Ma-
stress. terials. Embankment-Dam Engineering. Casagrande
Volume John Wiley a. Sons, New York, 1973.
e) In the case of shear stress - with an approxi- [4] KAST, K., BRAUNS, J.: Dynamic Compaction of
mate ratio of the main stresses as can be ex- Rockfill samples. Proc. X ICSMFE, Stockholm, 1981.
418 K. Kast / Mechanical Behaviour of Disintegrated Rockfill
ABSTRACT
A probabilistic problem of vibrational reliability of structures on the soil with significant uncertainty is stated. For the simplest
dynamic models the dependence of the response on the level of the elastic stiffness is investigated. The problems of reliability
determination for the deterministic and random loads are solved. The numerical results are obtained and analyzed.
RÉSUMÉ
Un problème de fiabilité probabiliste de vibration de structures sur le sol avec une grande incertitude est indiqué. Pour les plus
simples des modèles dynamiques de la dépendance de la réponse au niveau de la rigidité élastique est étudié. Les problèmes de
détermination de la fiabilité pour les charges déterministes et aléatoires sont résolus. Les résultats numériques sont obtenus et
analysés.
Keywords: Deterministic dynamic models, random system parameters, probabilistic model, failure probability, reliability, ma-
chine foundations, soil elasticity
1
Corresponding Author.
420 M.L. Kholmyansky / Vibrational Reliability of Rigid Structures on Soil
account by introducing partial safety factors for In case of harmonic dependence of excitations
soil parameters. Some publications based on that and responses on time t with angular frequency
approach are reviewed in [2]. This approach de- ω, i.e. Q = P exp(iωt), q = U exp(iωt) one ob-
scribes reliable operation by the condition of re- tains
liability [7], when the norms are set for probabil-
U = ( −ω 2 M + iωB + K ) P .
ity of failure or of reliable operation. −1
(2)
The paper is devoted to studying of failure
probability dependence of soil random stiffness.
In necessary cases dynamic load amplitude is Under linear dependence of all the compo-
supposed a random variable. The structure is nents of generalized force vector on one scalar
supposed rigid that is made rather often, for ex- value (Q = fg, f = F exp(iωt) and with single ob-
ample in vibration calculation of massive and served quantity u linearly dependent on general-
wall-like machine foundations [8]. ized displacement vector (u = lTq), the expres-
To achieve the stated goal the first task is es- sion u = A exp(iωt) is derived. The complex
tablishing a possibly simple dependence “system amplitude A is determined using the scalar trans-
response - soil stiffness level” in deterministic fer function:
case.
The second task is the probabilistic problem A = A(ω ) = HF = H (ω ) F (ω ) ; (3)
statement. Due to the shortage of data it is expe-
dient to choose the simplest models. Then the the expression for the transfer function (imped-
techniques for probabilistic problem solutions ance) may be found in [9]:
are developed, solutions obtained and analysed.
H (ω ) = l T ( −ω 2M + iωB + K ) g .
−1
(4)
2 DEPENDENCE OF RIGID STRUCTURE
VIBRATIONAL RESPONSE ON SOIL
STIFFNESS LEVEL 2.2 The single parameter of soil stiffness
Only simple dynamic models from the code [8]
are considered below. They imply the propor-
2.1 General equations
tionality of all the components of soil stiffness to
The matrix equation of small vibrations of the the main elastic characteristic of soil for spread
soil-structure system (a rigid body on a viscoe- foundations — coefficient of elastic subgrade re-
lastic soil mass) reads as follows: action Cz = C.
Elastic soil parameters determine not only
&& + Bq& + Kq = Q
Mq (1) system stiffness but its damping also. In dynamic
models [8] it is supposed that damping ratios are
where q and Q are column vectors of generalized dependent only on foundation inertial parame-
displacements and forces, M, B and K are the ters. This implies that damping matrix is propor-
matrices of inertia, damping, and stiffness of soil tional to C½. Therefore
correspondingly.
A = l T ( −ω 2 M + iωC 1/ 2 B0 + CK 0 ) gF ,
−1
Generally the system has 6 degrees of free- (5)
dom (3 translational and 3 rotational displace-
ments). In case of symmetry instead of vector
equation (1) several equations for vectors of where the matrices B0 and K0 do not depend on
lower dimension (or for scalars) may be derived; C = Cz.
the code [8] contains some solutions for the case It is easily established that the complex ampli-
of harmonic excitation. tude A is equal to the ratio of two homogeneous
polynomials of ω and C½; the degree of the nu-
M.L. Kholmyansky / Vibrational Reliability of Rigid Structures on Soil 421
2.3 Complex dynamic stiffness of the system Here au — vibration amplitude a limiting value,
Ru — reliability, Pf — failure probability, Ru —
Instead of using impedance, its inverse value, limiting reliability, and Pu — limiting failure
scalar dynamic stiffness D = D(C,ω) may be probability.
considered:
3.2 Deterministic parameters
A = F / D (C , ω ) ; (6)
Damping ratio depending both on damping and
stiffness is taken deterministic. That fact pro-
it is a complex quantity.
vides the correctness of equation (5) which gives
The most important variable describing sys-
the general dependency of response on soil elas-
tem response is the real amplitude a = |A|. It is
tic stiffness.
found by the equation
Remaining parameters of the soil-structure
system (dimensions, densities of structural mate-
a = F / D (C , ω ) . (7) rials and soil, machine parts masses) have sig-
nificantly less uncertainty and also are supposed
The dynamic stiffness is the ratio of a homo- deterministic.
geneous polynomial of degree 2n to a homoge-
neous polynomial of degree (2n–2) of C½. Hence 3.3 Dynamic load
follows that for large values of C dynamic stiff-
The amplitude of harmonically time-dependent
ness along with its modulus are is asymptotically
dynamic load may be taken deterministic. In case
proportional to C.
of machine foundations this assumption corre-
Henceforth we do not take into account the
sponds to crank mechanisms, cone and jaw
phase lags, suppose that the force amplitude F is
crushers etc.
real and consider only the real amplitude a.
The random amplitude of harmonically time-
dependent dynamic load corresponds to the ac-
tion of theoretically balanced machines with uni-
3 PROBABILISTIC PROBLEM formly rotating parts. There are some reasons to
STATEMENT AND MAIN FORMULAE suppose that this amplitude is a random variable
with well-known Rayleigh distribution. In par-
ticular, it may be derived with supposition that
3.1 Sufficient reliability condition the load is caused by random variations of iner-
The common condition of no failure [8] reads as tial and geometrical properties of the rotating
follows: parts. The random load is assumed statistically
independent of soil stiffness.
a ≤ au . (8)
3.4 Random stiffness
Under probabilistic problem statement it is Determining of failure probability requires estab-
changed for the condition of sufficient reliability: lishing the law of distribution of random parame-
422 M.L. Kholmyansky / Vibrational Reliability of Rigid Structures on Soil
ter C, determining the stiffness matrix. Earlier The method of determining of failure prob-
in [10] uniform and normal laws of distribution ability Pf depends on the type of the random
were adopted. load; the load may be either deterministic or ran-
Due to some limited experimental data [11] it dom variable.
may be supposed that the soil elastic stiffness
(affecting the vibration amplitudes) is log-
normally distributed random variable (i.e. with 4 FAILURE PROBABILITIES FOR
normally distributed logarithm) with the coeffi- DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADS
cient of variation close to 0.3 [9]. This distribu-
tion law corresponds to elastic stiffness deter-
mining using its correlation [8] to soil 4.1 Deterministic load
deformation modulus.
In case of deterministic dynamic loads (say, for
3.5 Sufficient reliability condition in terms of machines with crank mechanisms) the failure
loads probability is
F ≤ Fu = Fu (C ) , (11)
where Lj and Uj are lower and upper bounds cor-
where respondingly of nS failure intervals (Lj, Uj) of
stiffness axis where F > Fu(C);
Fu (C ) = au D (C , ω ) (12) (Fu(Lj) = Fu(Uj) = 0; see figure 1); QC(C) is the
cumulative distribution function for log-normal
distribution of C.
is the limiting value of the load. Figure 2 shows special cases for single degree
Equation (10) implies the following form of of freedom systems:
the condition of reliability: (a) L1 = 0: for zero stiffness the dynamic load
exceeds the limiting value;
Pf = Prob[ Fu (C ) < F ] < Pu . (13) (b) nS = 0, i.e. for any stiffness the load is
lower than the limiting value;
The problem of reliability determination is re- (c) general case.
duced to calculation of random event probability
(failure) and testing of sufficient smallness of
that probability. The failure consists in that the
load F, being a random variable in general, ex-
Fu(C)
ceeds its limiting value Fu.
The domain SCF of random parameters C and
F corresponding to failure is introduced and a se- F
ries of equations is derived:
Pf = ∫SCF
pC (C ) pF ( F ) dF dC =
= ∫0
∞
pC (C ) {∫ ∞
Fu ( C ) }
pF ( F )dF dC = . (14) L1 U1 L2 U2 C
∞
= ∫ pC (C )Prob [ F > Fu (C )] dC Figure 1. Failure intervals of stiffness axis for deterministic
0 loads and random stiffness.
M.L. Kholmyansky / Vibrational Reliability of Rigid Structures on Soil 423
1⎛ ( ln(C ) − μ )2 ⎞
pC (C ) = exp ⎜ − ⎟. (18)
Cσ 2π ⎜ 2σ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
C0 = e μ +σ ; CV = eσ − 1 .
2 2
/2
(19)
ξ = 0.1
CV = 0.1
ξ = 0.3
CV = 0.5
ξ=1
6 CONCLUSIONS ξ=1
For the both types of load closed form formu- [5] N.N. Yermolaev, V. V. Mikheev, Reliability of struc-
ture foundations, Stroyizdat, Leningrad, 1976. (In Rus-
lae are derived, calculations performed and their sian).
results analysed. [6] V.I. Sheinin, Yu. V. Lesovoi, V.V. Mikheev,
The results found provide the possibility of N.B. Popov, An approach to reliability assessment in
more sound decision making when designing engineering calculations of foundation beds, Soil Me-
with required reliability; fore some cases eco- chanics and Foundation Engineering, 27 (1990), 32–
36.
nomic benefit may be obtained by removing un- [7] V.V. Bolotin, Random vibrations of elastic systems, Ni-
necessary reserve. jhof, Hague, 1984.
[8] SNiP 2.02.05-87, Foundations for machines under dy-
namic loadings, TsITP, Moscow, 1988. (Soviet Build-
ing Code; in Russian).
REFERENCES [9] M.L. Kholmyansky, Vibration calculation of founda-
tions for machines with random dynamic loads as sys-
[1] F. Nadim, Tools and Strategies for Dealing with Uncer- tems with random parameters, Earthquake Engineering,
tainty in Geotechnics, Probabilistic Methods in Geo- 1998, 6–8. (In Russian).
technical Engineering (eds. D.V. Griffiths, V.A. Fen- [10] A.I. Tseytlin, N.I. Guseva, Statistical methods for cal-
ton), 2007, 71-95. culations of structures under group dynamic loading,
[2] M.L. Kholmyansky, Dynamic soil-structure interaction Stroyizdat, Moscow, 1979. (In Russian).
considering random soil properties, Proceedings of the [11] D.D. Barkan, Yu.G. Trofimenkov, M.N. Golubtsova,
12th International Conference of IACMAG, 2008, Relation between elastic and strength characteristics of
2704–2711. soils, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 11
[3] GOST 27751-88, Reliability of constructions and foun- (1974), 51–54.
dations. Principal rules of the calculations, Izdatel’stvo [12] M.L. Kholmyansky, Probabilistic method of calculation
Standartov, Moscow, 1989. (Soviet Standard; in Rus- of machine foundations under periodic loading, Proc.
sian). Russian Conference on Soil Mech. and Foundation
[4] EN 1997–1, Eurocode 7 – Geotechnical design, Part 1: Engng, 4 (1995), 669-674. (In Russian).
General rules, European Committee for Standardiza-
tion, Brussels, 2004.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 427
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-427
ABSTRACT
Within the framework of the Dutch SBW project “Strength and Loads on Dikes” extensive soil investigations, analysis, numeri-
cal simulation and stability calculations have been performed. The aim of the project is to investigate the design method for a
dike slope failure in a high water situation. Various locations in The Netherlands have been selected where the stability is criti-
cal. The authors are involved in a project concerning the Northern dike of the river Lek, east of Rotterdam.
One of the unique aspects of this project is that different tests have been performed on one same set of samples for two main soil
types, for example Classification tests, Constant Rate of Strain tests, Oedometer tests, Anisotropic Consolidated Undrained Tri-
axial tests and Direct Simple Shear tests. The main soil types are Holland peat (11 kN/m3) and Tiel Clay (16 kN/m3). Both layers
are Holocene deposits, very compressible, organic and anisotropic.
The strength and stiffness parameters have been derived from the laboratory tests. In addition, the advanced model parameters
have been adjusted by numerical simulation of the soil tests. Two sets of strength parameters are finally used in a stability analy-
ses of the river dike, both for drained as undrained conditions.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans le cadre du projet Hollandais "SBW - Strength and Loads on Dikes" (Résistance de rupture et Contraintes sur les Digues),
de nombreuses investigations de sols, analyses, simulations numériques et calculs de stabilité ont été effectués. L'objectif du pro-
jet est d'étudier la méthode de design pour une rupture de digue dans une situation où le niveau d'eau est élevé. Plusieurs endroits
des Pays-Bas ont été sélectionnés pour leur stabilité critique. Les auteurs sont impliqués dans le projet de la digue Nord de la ri-
vière Lek, à l'est de Rotterdam.
Un des aspects uniques de ce projet est que beaucoup d'essais différents ont été effectué sur un même set d'échantillons, pour
deux principaux types de sols, notamment des essais de classifications, essais de cisaillement à taux constant de déformation, es-
sais œdométriques, essais triaxiaux consolidés non drainés anisotropes, et des essais de cisaillement direct. Les principaux types
de sols sont Holland peat (tourbe) (11 kN/m3) et Tiel Clay (argile) (16kN/m3). Tous deux sont des dépôts Holocène, très com-
pressibles, organiques et anisotropes.
Les paramètres de résistance de rupture et de rigidité du sol sont dérivés des essais de laboratoire. De plus, les paramètres de
modélisation avancée ont été ajustés par simulation numérique des essais de sols. Deux sets de paramètres de résistance de rup-
ture sont ainsi utilisés dans les analyses de stabilité de la digue fluviale, autant pour les cas drainés que non drainés.
Keywords: Triaxial test (TA), Direct Simple Shear test (DSS), Constant Rate of Strain test (CRS), Soft soil, Organic clay, Peat,
Stability, River dike
1
Corresponding Author
428 H.J. Lengkeek and R. Bouw / Triaxial, DSS, CRS Tests and Numerical Simulations of Soft Soils
The Dutch SBW program “Strength and Loads An extensive geotechnical investigation program
on Dikes” is a research program for improve- is conducted, consisting of seven CPT’s and five
ment of knowledge of present defences. Within Boreholes with continuous sampling in one cross
the framework of the program a new calculation section of the dike. After the field work the fol-
method for macro-stability of inner slopes is va- lowing laboratory tests have been performed on
lidated. The new method consists of: the subsoil’s and dike material:
Slip plane analyses with Bishop and Finite Classification tests (50x)
Elements Methods. Conventional Oedometer tests (15x OED)
Shear strength model based on Critical Constant Rate of Strain Oedometer tests
State Soil Mechanics (CSSM). (15x CRS)
Single stage Triaxial tests and DSS tests for Anisotropic Consolidated Undrained Tri-
peat. axial tests (40x ACU-TA)
Shear strength at failure in combination Direct Simple Shear tests (40x DSS).
with a check of the deformations of the
dike. The main soil types are Holland Peat and Tiel
Clay (Figure 1). The typical unit weight of Hol-
Several specific locations in The Netherlands land Peat is 11 kN/m3 and of Tiel Clay 16 kN/m3.
have been selected where the stability is critical. Within a geological deposit the density (), water
The authors investigated the Northern dike along content (w) and the organic content (org) varies
the river Lek, east of Rotterdam [1]. The pore rather strong. Below the dike the unit weight is
pressure and deformation data from this location higher, beside the dike the water content and or-
are known over the period 1994-2000. ganic content are higher. In Table 1 and 2 some
The deformation measurements showed the statistics of both layers are given.
start of a slip plane, indicating that the stability is Both Holland Peat and Tiel Clay are Holocene
close to unity. Around 1999 the stability of the deposits, compressible and organic. The proper-
dike has been improved by reprofiling. The vali- ties under the dike are however much better than
dation has been done for the situation during the in the floodplains due to the high overburden
high water of 28 January 1994. pressure of the dike. This should be taken into
account in the design calculations.
CR, RR [-]
sotropic stress level (K0 = 0.5). 0,3
Execute Triaxial test until failure (strain
0,2
rate 1 %/hour) or 20% axial strain, to de-
rive peak and ultimate strength parameters. 0,1
0,0
10 100 1000
2.3 DSS test
w [%]
The DSS tests are executed on samples of the
same soil layer as the samples for the ACU-TA Tiel Clay, CR Holland Peat, CR
tests. Therefore the same consolidation stresses Tiel Clay, RR HollandPeat, RR
are applied to the saturated samples. The consol- CR Correlation
idation periods were typically 1 day. The initial Figure 3. Results CRS tests
height of the samples (before consolidation) was
25.4 mm and the diameter 63.5 mm. The rate of 3.2 Triaxial test
strain during the test was approximately 0.02
mm/min. The test is performed to a shear strain Thirteen samples were tested from the layer Tiel
of 40% to derive peak and ultimate strength pa- Clay and twelve samples from the layer Holland
rameters. Peat. The results (ultimate strength) are plotted in
Figure 4. Besides the test results, the linear trend
line per layer is shown.
3 RESULTS CRS, TRIAXIAL AND DSS 120
TEST
100
[kPa]
60
Table 3. Peak strength parameters ACU-TA tests
Soil c’ ’ cu/ c 40
[kPa] [,] [-]
Tiel Clay (-line) 0 44.0 0.46 20
Tiel Clay (Trend) 5.7 37.6
Holland Peat (-line) 0 60.4 0.50 0
Holland Peat (Trend) 0 61.0 0 50 100 150 200 250
v '[kPa]
Table 4. Ultimate strength parameters ACU-TA tests Tiel Clay Holland Peat
Soil c’ ’ cu/ c Trend (clay) Trend (peat)
[kPa] [,] [-]
Tiel Clay (CSL) 0 40.8 0.41 Figure 5. Results DSS tests (ultimate strength)
Tiel Clay (Trend) 7.9 32.8
Holland Peat (CSL) 0 56.3 0.43
Holland Peat (Trend) 0 55.0 Table 5. Peak strength parameters DSS tests
Soil c’ ’ cu/ c
[kPa] [,] [-]
The angle of internal friction and cu ratio are
large compared to soft soils, but not uncommon Tiel Clay (-line) 0 25.4 0.33
for organic soils, reference is made to Den Haan Tiel Clay (Trend) 14.1 20.5
Holland Peat (-line) 0 29.3 0.40
[2]. The cohesion is limited as can be expected Holland Peat (Trend) 2.5 26.2
for tests in the normal consolidated (NC) range.
The unit weight of the thirteen TA samples of
Table 6. Ultimate strength parameters DSS tests
Tiel Clay depends in a large extent on the organ-
ic content and varies from 12.3 kN/m3 to Soil c’ ’ cu/ c
[kPa]
17.7 kN/m3. The organic content also influences [,] [-]
the angle of internal friction. The angle of the Tiel Clay (CSL) 0 24.9 0.25
Tiel Clay (Trend) 9.4 20.7
CSL becomes for example 36.9, instead of Holland Peat (CSL) 0 31.7 0.39
40.8,, if the samples beside the dike with a unit Holland Peat (Trend) 5.4 26.2
weight below 14 kN/m3 (four in total) are not
taken into account. The DSS undrained shear strength is approx-
imately 75% of the TA undrained shear strength,
3.3 DSS test which is in line with literature. The DSS angle of
internal friction is significantly lower than for the
The DSS tests are executed on fifteen samples of
ACU-TA tests. The cohesion on the other hand is
Tiel Clay and eighteen samples of Holland Peat.
higher. The difference (approximately 50 %) in
The results (ultimate strength) are plotted in Fig-
angle of internal friction is expected to be largely
ure 5 and the strength parameters are given in
determined by anisotropy. This Holland Peat
Table 5 and 6. The effective strength parameters
layer and organic Tiel Clay have predominantly
are derived using Coulomb’s failure envelope:
horizontal oriented fibers, parallel to the DSS
shear plane and across the TA shear plane. The is
c' v' tan ' (1) causing a reinforcing effect for the TA test more
then for the DSS test.
432 H.J. Lengkeek and R. Bouw / Triaxial, DSS, CRS Tests and Numerical Simulations of Soft Soils
In addition another factor might be of influ- In the approach of the authors the E’50;ref is fit-
ence. In a ACU-TA test the total and effective ted with the SoilTest program to the laboratory
vertical stress increases. In an “undrained” DSS TA-test. To achieve the significant shear induced
test the height is kept constant. But due to the pore pressures as in the laboratory tests, the
consolidation beyond the pre-consolidation E’50;ref needed to be as high as possible, a factor
stress, the organic samples continues to creep 2.5 compared to the E’oed;ref. Also the model pa-
during shearing. To compensate this, the vertical rameter K0;nc has been increased compared to the
stress is automatically reduced. The reduction in default to achieve stiffer undrained behavior (Eu)
effective vertical stress is almost the same as the and lower undrained shear strength. The model
applied shear stress and almost 50% of the initial parameter Rf (hyperbolic factor) has been re-
vertical stress. Both effects, the reinforcing and duced compared to the default to achieve a peak
the creep account for the significant anisotropy strength at approximately 10% shear strain.
in angle of internal friction, more then for non
organic soils.
4 SOILTEST SIMULATIONS
cept for effective strength parameters. From the match well. The laboratory test however tends to
SoilTest module it appears that the angle of in- soften more, which is probably due to the ten-
ternal friction should not be derived with equa- dency of the sample to creep, as discussed in 3.3.
tion (1) but with the following equation:
5 STABILITY ANALYSES
sin (2)
'v The inner slope stability is calculated with the
computer program MStab (Bishop slope stability
Equation (2) is correct in case the shear stress calculation with uplift) and Plaxis (Finite Ele-
() is equal to the t’=( 1’- 2’)/2 and s’v is equal ment Method). Two constitutive models have
to s’=( 1’+ 2’)/2. This condition appears to be been used, the MC and HS model. The MC mod-
the case in SoilTest simulations, for typically this el has been used in undrained stability analyses
set of parameters and the HS-model. Care should (type b) in which stiffness is defined in terms of
be taken for other parameter sets of other soils effective properties and strength is defined as
and other constitutive models to generalize this undrained shear strength. The HS model has
condition. been used for drained and undrained stability
It should be noted that the values in Table 5 analyses (type a) in which stiffness and strength
and 6 have been derived with the Tangent (Cou- are defined in terms of effective properties. The
lomb criterion, project convention) instead of the stability factor in Plaxis has been determined
Sinus and underestimate the strength properties phi-c-reduction.
with approximately 15%. Reference is made to The advantage of the HS model type a
Wroth [5] on this subject. This also contributes undrained analyses is that both the deformations
to the large difference found with the ACU-TA and also generation of excess pore pressures due
angle of internal friction test results. to shearing are better calculated then in a MC
model. The advantage of the MC model type b
100 analyses (and also MStab) is the robustness of
the calculation. Due to near uplift behind the
75
dike the effective stresses are low and also the
stability factor is near unity. This creates numeri-
cal problems within the HS model. Additional
[kPa]
REFERENCES
RÉSUMÉ
Les formations de flysch sont généralement caractérisées par une hétérogénéité diverse et la présence de membres de faible ré-
sistance avec une structure tectonique perturbée. Ce développement de caractéristiques spéciales de massif de flysch au niveau
de sa structure et sa lithologie exige une caractérisation géologique plus délicate. Dans un premier temps ce document propose
une normalisation des caractéristiques géologiques qualitatives et une classification géotechnique. Or, dans un deuxième temps,
il présente une méthode d’évaluation de leur comportement pendant les excavations souterraines et une approche qualitative de
direction concernant les mesures de support principal pour les masses de flysch rocheux. Afin d'étudier les propriétés de flysch,
12 tunnels de l'autoroute d’Egnatia, dans le nord de la Grèce, ont été examinés prenant en compte les données de leur conception
et leur construction. Plus précisément, les formations de flysch sont ici classées dans 11 différents types des roches (I à XI) en
fonction de la participation de siltstone-grès et de leurs perturbations tectoniques. Un nouveau diagramme pour le GSI des roches
hétérogènes telles que le flysch est présenté, où un certain éventail de valeurs est proposé pour chaque type. Le comportement de
flysch en cours d’excavation du tunnel présente une large gamme, principalement en raison de l'hétérogénéité de la masse ro-
cheuse et ses perturbations tectoniques. En outre, pour chaque type du massif de flysch rocheux, un classement additionnel est
proposé par rapport à son comportement géotechnique, au cours d’excavation de tunnel, lié aux mécanismes de rupture (défor-
mation due à la surcharge, hors profils, chute de dièdres ou de type cheminée, on éboulement) et aux contraintes développées in
situ dans chaque cas. L’article conche avec des principes généraux et des recommandations pour le soutènement immédiat.
1
Corresponding Author.
436 V. Marinos et al. / Estimation of Geotechnical Properties
Figure 1. A new GSI classification chart for heterogeneous rock masses such as Flysch
Table 1. Suggested proportions of values for the “intact rock” properties estimation of each flysch rock type
Flysch type Proportions of values for the weighted “intact rock” property estimation
I, III Use values for sandstone beds
II, VI, XI Use values for siltstone or shale
Thin beds: Reduce sandstone values by 10% and use full values for siltstone
IV
Thick beds: Use equivalent values for siltstone and sandstone beds
V, VII, VIII Reduce sandstone values by 20% and use full values for siltstone
IX Use initial values for siltstone and sandstone beds without reduction according to their participation
X Reduce sandstone values by 40% and use full values for siltstone
Note: if adjusted values are found lower than the value of the weak layer, use that value.
relation to the orientation of the tunnel. As a re- may locally occur. As a result of the relatively
sult, there is a possibility of wedge detachment good “interlocking” of the rock mass due to its
and sliding. Sliding can occur along thin siltstone folded structure, extended falls are only expected
layers with low shear strength that are often in weathered parts in very small depths. Such
present on bedding planes, especially in Type III. cases need great care, as extended overexcava-
Type II. The behaviour of the rock mass is tion and chimney failures can be observed, due
controlled by the low strength of the siltstone and to weathering and foliated structure.
the excavation depth. In great depths limited de- Type IX. This rock mass type is not characte-
formation can develop, whereas in small depths ristic of a typical flysch, as siltstone formations
the tunnel is generally stable and, depending on do not usually exhibit brittle behaviour. It is
the orientation of the tunnel and the discontinui- however often encountered in meta-flysch like
ties, sliding and fall of wedges can occur. series, such as the “Athenian Schist” excavated
Type IV. The behaviour of the rock mass is for the Athens metro. The behaviour of the rock
anisotropic. In case of unfavourable discontinuity mass is isotropic, governed by the disintegrated
orientation, mainly of the bedding, in relation to structure, and after excavation it can start to col-
the tunnel orientation, detachment and sliding of lapse. Although the equivalent friction angle is
blocks can be observed, possibly along siltstone high, the equivalent cohesion of the disintegrated
layers. When the layers are close to horizontal mass is practically negligible, except if some
and especially when the rock mass is thin- secondary fine binding material gives a small
bedded, overexcavation problems can appear. In cohesion to the rock mass. In cases of open struc-
places where the rock mass is locally more loose ture and strong presence of water, raveling is
and weathered with no significant confinement, immediate and extensive and can not be easily
limited chimney type failures can occur. limited until the induced void creates a ground
Types V and VI. The rock mass behaviour is arch or reaches the ground surface. In great
close to isotropic concerning deformation. Beha- depths, as the intact rock has a considerable
viour is controlled by the low strength of silt- strength, no significant deformation is expected.
stone and limited deformation can develop under Types X and XI. The behaviour of the rock
medium overburden. In small depths the tunnel is mass is clearly isotropic, controlled by its low
generally stable, but depending on the orientation strength and high deformability that are respon-
of discontinuities, sliding and fall of wedges can sible for the development of important deforma-
occur. Close to the surface extended overexcava- tion, even under low to medium overburden. In
tion and chimney type failures can appear, due to greater depths, squeezing conditions can be ad-
weathering and foliation, especially in Type VI verse [6], [7], [8], causing sometimes failure of
(reduced sandstone presence). rigid support sections due to overloading of the
Type VII. The behaviour of the rock mass shell, especially in Type XI. This can lead to
can be well considered as isotropic. It is con- adoption of a yielding support that can undertake
trolled by the low strength of the intact rock and the high loads without failing. Additionally, par-
limited deformation starts to develop under me- ticular care is needed close to the surface, where
dium overburden. Yet, there is a possibility of important overexcavation can occur, due to wea-
local wedge detachment and sliding, enhanced thering and the foliated, fragile structure. Finally,
by the siltstone layers, if the geometry of joints an additional problem arises, regarding estima-
favours it. As a result of the relatively good “in- tion of intact rock parameters, as it is difficult to
terlocking” of the rock mass due to its folded take representative intact samples. Marinos et al.
structure, no extended falls are expected, except [6] and Grasso et al. [7] propose geotechnical pa-
only in weathered zones close to the surface. rameters values for flysch rock masses of Type
Type VIII. The rock mass behaviour is clearly XI through back analyses.
isotropic. Due to the low strength of the siltstone,
deformation starts to develop under medium
overburden. Detachments and slides of blocks
V. Marinos et al. / Estimation of Geotechnical Properties 439
Figure 2. General directions for the immediate support measures for every flysch type
440 V. Marinos et al. / Estimation of Geotechnical Properties
J. Mecsi
University of Pécs, Faculty of Engineering and Informatics
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the application of the cavity expansion theory for the determination of soil strengths and non linear deformation
parameters using pressuremeter tests. The developed cavity expansion theory takes into consideration the facts that even the initial soil
stress-strain state itself is anisotropic, and that due to expansion soil density increases. The deformation modulus is not in a linear cor-
relation with the soil pressure. By having introduced the deformation modulus, we have introduced two soil constants; (EO) that is the
basic deformation modulus, and (a): an exponent. The basic value of the deformation modulus depends first of all on the initial density
of the soil, and the exponent value “a” is in very close correlation with the angle of friction of the soil. The soil strength parameters,
namely cohesion (c) and angle of friction (I), as well as the deformation parameters represent the soil properties. We can determine
the combination of the interrelated and suitable soil parameters from the pressuremeter test. The paper presents an example, and
proves that the measured diagram very well approximates the theoretically calculated diagrams with different cohesion - basic defor-
mation modulus combinations.
RÉSUMÉ
L’exposé a pour objet le calcul des caractéristiques de résistance au cisaillement et de deformation non linéaire des sols. Ces calculs
reposent sur les résultats d’essais préssiométriques en exploitant la théorie des cavités cylindriques élargies dans le sol.
La corrélation entre modul de déformation et contrainte n’est pas linéaire. Avec la présentation de la correlation du modul de déforma-
tion, il convient d’introduire deux caractéristiques neufs, à savoir, deux constant (Eo) la valeur de base du modul de déformation du
sol et (a) une puissance. (Eo) sera fonction avant tout de la grandeur de la densité initiale, et (a) est en liaison étroite avec l’angle de
frottement du sol. Les paramèters de résistance, à savoir, la cohesion (c) et l’angle de frottement (I ainsi que ceux de déformation re-
présentent les propriétés de résistance et de rigidité des sols. Les corrélations théoriques traitées dans l’exposé permettent de détermi-
ner les différentes combinaisons des caractéristiques de sol, en exploitant les résultats des essais préssiométrques. Dans cette exposé
on trouve un exemple praqtique déjà publié dans la littérature précedente et on va démonstrrer que les diagrammes de cohésion/modul
de déformation établis suivant la théorie, coïncident bien avec les diagrammes basés sur les mesures praqtiques.
Keywords: pressuremeter test, plastic stress state, Mohr-Coulomb theory, non-linear deformability, volume change of soil.
The pressuremeter tests involve a fairly large vo- on of the diagram as ’quasi elastic’. In every ca-
lume of soil in its in situ condition and may be se, if the soil stresses increase in a way that this
the most suitable method for ground which is dif- stress level has never been reached before, an
ficult to sample. ’energy loss’ develops, that is a non-linear corre-
The Mènard type pressuremeter is popular in the lation occurs between the growing stress and the
geotechnical praxis. specific compaction.
Two basic test procedures can be differentiated: If we want to determine the diagram demon-
a procedure to obtain a pressuremeter modulus strating the expansion process of the basic (not
EM, and limit pressure, pLM, that may be used in derived) properties of the soil, we need to carry
design procedures formulated for the Mènard out a detailed analysis of the volumetric changes
pressuremeter; and a procedure to obtain other of the soil.
stiffness and strength parameters. The parameters of soil are in correlation with
This paper presents the possibility to determine each other. The deformation parameters are not
the soil strength and deformation paramameter independent from the soil strength parameters.
combinations by using the cavity expansion the- The relation between soil stress and specific
ory. compression is not linear, that is the deformation
modulus of the soil is not permanent, it depends
on the applied stress level and the stress envi-
2 SOME ELEMENT OF THE CAVITY ronment, too. The specific deformations are con-
EXPANSION THEORY
ceived as macro-variations and not micro-
Let us assume an axial symmetric stress conditi- variations, but the change in density results from
on in normally consolidated soil with incompres- the micro-movements of the individual soil
sible soil grains. At the initial stage we can find grains.
the compressive stresses in vertical direction
(Vv), and earth pressure at rest in horizontal di- 2.1 Mohr –Coulomb relationship
rection (VH), which means that the soil is an By making use of the unconfined compressive
anisotropic stress/strain condition, and that due
strength, Vu, (i.e. the maximum axial stress on an
to the expanding process enforces to increasing axially symmetric soil cylinder) we can derive a
of the extension of the zone where the soil densi- new expression for the relationship of the princi-
ty increases. The multi-phase granular or slight- pal stresses.
ly bonded media (soil) have a special behaviour,
which differs from that of solid and rigid bodies.
In the soil, a relatively small force may produce
plastic stress conditions whereby the density of
the medium increases.
It is evident that the pressure equals the stress ac-
ting along the surface of the cylinder and that the
radial displacement of the soil at the shaft of the
cylinder equals the expansion rate of the cylin-
der.
The expansion of the cylinder has a complex ef-
fect on the stresses, the displacement of soil gra-
nules and the soil compaction as well; the cavity
stress/-strain diagram is obtained as a result and
consequence of these effects. Figure 1. Mohr-Coulomb relationship.
In this diagram, we can not distinguish elastic or Let us write from the right-angled triangle ABC:
plastic sections, nevertheless, professional engi-
neering literature often refers to the initial secti-
J. Mecsi / Determination of the Physical Parameters of Soil from Pressuremeter Tests 443
V1 V 3 / 2 V u / 2 dVr Vr Vt
0 Vt [ Vr Vu Vr
sin I (1)
V1 V 3 / 2 V u / 2 dr
r
forceequilibrium
MohrCoulomb
(6)
soil
V1 1-sinI 3
W
Co
mp
act
ed the engineering calculations.
1
2 The specific deformations (strains) are defined
3
1 mr=0 as the compression (or dilation as the case may
mr=0 1 be) of a layer of soil of unit thickness. By con-
Initial stage
2 c Cohesion
Volume change
VH Vv V
vention, compression of the soil is taken as a po-
V -V V3
mr = i o minimum Normal stress sitive value, while loosening (expansion) will
Vo
Vu 1 Initial stage have a negative sign.
When the cylindrical hole in the soil is expanded,
Vu 2
At the beginning whwn the soil
unconfined compacting
compression strength
3 In the plastic stress/strain condition
and a certain grade of radial stress is reached, the
Vu V3 V3 plastic stage begins to develop.
Initial stage The radius to the boundary of the zone in which
Figure 2. Mohr-Coulomb relationships in the principal stress the plastic condition developed shall be identi-
coordinations. fied by U.
Along with increasing the continuous increase of
2.2 Force equilibrium the external pressure on the wall of the cylinder,
The force equilibrium differential equations on the pressures in the elementary soil cube also in-
the basis of the balance of forces exerted on the crease proportionally and the soil becomes ever
element of soil: denser and less compressible.
dV r V r V t The basis of the Mohr-Coulomb condition,
0 (5) that increments of the radial and tangential
dr r (ring-) stresses are in linear relationship with
The distribution of soil stresses within the com- each other, therefore, the relationship correlation
pacted (plastic stress) zone is statically determi- between the average soil pressure and volumetric
ned from the force equilibrium and the Mohr- deformation of the soil is similar to the correlati-
Coulomb condition (if rU: on which evolves between the radial pressure
and the radial specific deformation.
444 J. Mecsi / Determination of the Physical Parameters of Soil from Pressuremeter Tests
While the expansive pressure is increased, the • There is no volume change, no density chan-
radius of the compressed zone becomes ever ge
longer. So, the relation between specific radial At the border of the plastic stress zone:
deformation and radial soil stresses can be de- • The same effects apply as for the area outside
scribed in the following form: the zone, but they are supplemented
§ V ·
a2 • the Mohr-Coulomb relation has an effect.
H r a1 ¨¨ ¸¸ (8)
© Vref ¹ Effects applied within the plastic stress zone:
Vref is the reference stress introduced to keep • Force equilibrium differential equation,
dimensional consistency between the two sides • the Mohr-Coulomb relation,
of the equation. (Vref =100 kN/m2 ) • nonlinear relation between radial deformati-
By derivation and reversed we get ons and stresses (compression),
1 a
dV r Ve § V ·
2
§V·
a
(9,10) • nonlinear or linear relation between stress
¨ ¸ E r E o ¨¨ ¸¸
dH r a 1 a 2 ¨© V e ¸¹
and deformation depending on whether the
V
© e¹
,
stresses exceed the initial stress.
Er Eo
^ H [ ^© ^ u
H
^© (13)
mation. We can approximately calculate with the 1 a Eo
^H Eo
a H
It is practical to represent the sum of the com- The indirectly measured soil displacements, at
pression of the individual soil segments by be- the pressuremeter surface are:
ginning at the initial radius, because it is clear
that beyond a certain range the extent of soil
Calculated
n
compression is not considerable; therefore we uro Eo
, ¦A1
i (18)
can draw an asymptote to the curve of the aggre- measured
gate compression values. Figure 3. where n is the number of the sections of the ra-
dius.
§§ § ··
¨ ¨ V 1a V 1a ·¸ ¨ V 1a V 1a ¸ ¸
n n
r r
¦1 A i ¦1 ¨¨ ¨¨ 1 a ¸¸ ¨¨ 1 a ¸¸ ¸¸ i 2 i1
ri H ri 1 H
¨ ¨©
¸ ¨
¹ ©
¸¸
© 'Hr 'Hri 1 ¹¹
Calculated N
n
¦ A the average is
i
¦E
1
oi
Eo (19,20,21)
Eoi 1
n
uroi
,
measured
Table 1. Some details of the pressuremeter curve analysis 4 SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS
74 RR Vo
10
535
28,5m m
b
S L 3,14 21 74,07mm
72 Vro uro o
Vo 535 cm 3
70
68
68,10mm REFERENCES
65,70mm
66
63,11mm
63,78mm [1] J. Mecsi, Stress-strain condition around an expanded
64
64,63mm
62,05mm cylinder in the soil. PhD. Dissertation Hungarian
62 61,06mm
Initial diameter of the probe at σ Ho Academy of Sciences.1993 (In Hungarian)
60
58,00mm Pressure kPa [2] J. Mecsi, Stresses, displacements, volume changes
58 around the expansion cylinder in the soil. Proc of the
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
7
10th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Measured and from the theory fitted curves 6,09mm Foundation Engng. Florence. Volume IV. Special Bul-
Horizontal displacement [mm]
6 letin. 1992
Combination of soil parameters Infinite-finite length effect
5 Angle of friction φ=23,4o
[3] J. Mecsi, Some inspiring ideas for the application of the
Cohesion c=102 kPa cylindrical cavity theory, The Pressuremeter and its
4 Eo =16,5 MPa, a=0,44
Deformation modulus at
New Avenues, Ballivy (ed.) 1995. Fourth International
3,10mm 3,59mm
3
σ=228kPa Es =23,7 MPa Symposium of Pressuremeters (1995 May 16-19. Sher-
2,75mm
Measured 1,90mm
brook, Canada), Balkema, Pages 461-471. ISBN 90-
2 1,37mm 1,91mm 5410 545 3
"Calculated"
0,94mm
1 0,46mm
1,19mm [4] O. Reiffsteck, Bearing capacity and settlement of a
0,00mm 0,40mm 0,87mm Pressure kPa deep foundation presentation of the results of the pre-
0
diction exercise, ISP5 International Symposium of pres-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
suremeters. Paris Aug. 2005. Vol. 2. pp. 507-535
Figure 4a,4b,4c. Approximation of the pressuremeter curve.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 447
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-447
ABSTRACT
This paper addresses the applicability of geotechnical mapping using the Bayesian approach to compilate geotechnical informa-
tion obtained from comprehensive investigation of the SGGW Campus in Warsaw. The main engineering problem identified in
the case of deep excavations is the swelling of Warsaw clays and the effect of potential swelling on behavior of the clay. There-
fore, geotechnical design of deep excavation in Warsaw areas is widely regarded as being difficult engineering task. In order to
determine geotechnical parameters of layers distinguished in the foundations of Campus buildings the archival documentation,
aerial photographs, resistivity measurements, borehole data logging, and CPT, DMT tests results were all taken into account.
The first part of this paper focuses on the geological and geotechnical conditions in the SGGW Campus area and the theoretical
foundation of the Bayesian approach. In order to collect data for geotechnical mapping, integrated geospatial databases will be
transcribed generating the soil profile, including the accuracy of the soil classification and comparison between the results ob-
tained from the DMT and CPT experiments. The second part involves the application of the Bayesian theory to evaluate the cha-
racteristic strength and deformation properties for two layers of boulder clay existing in the SGGW Campus area using the dila-
tometer DMT and CPT test results and its variability in a given area. This paper is supplemented with conclusions and future
prospects. In general the conclusion is that all examples of applying Bayesian analysis show that it is a powerful and promising
statistical tool in decision-making processes related to geotechnical problems.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article traite de l'applicabilité de la cartographie géotechnique an appliquant de l'approche bayésienne pour compiler
l’informations géotechniques obtenus à partir de l'enquête globale du Campus SGGW à Varsovie. Le principaux problème
d'ingénierie identifiés dans le cas des excavations profondes est le gonflement des argiles de Varsovie et l'effet de potentiel de
gonflement sur le comportement de l'argile. Par conséquent, la conception géotechnique des travaux d'excavation profonde dans
les zones de Varsovie est largement considérée comme étant la tâche difficile d'ingénierie. Afin de déterminer les paramètres
géotechniques des couches de distinguer dans les fondations des bâtiments du campus de la documentation d'archives,
photographies aériennes, des mesures de résistivité, les données diagraphie et CPT, tests DMT résultats ont tous été pris en
compte. La première partie du présent document se concentre sur les conditions géologiques et géotechniques dans le domaine
SGGW Campus et le fondement théorique de l'approche bayésienne. Afin de recueillir des données pour la cartographie
géotechnique, bases de données géospatiales intégrées seront transcrites pour créer le profil du sol, y compris la précision de la
classification des sols et la comparaison entre les résultats obtenus à partir des expériences DMT et CPT. La deuxième partie
porte sur l'application de la théorie bayésienne pour évaluer la caractéristique de cisaillemnt et les propriétés de déformation pour
deux couches d'argile à blocaux vigueur dans le domaine SGGW Campus en utilisant le dilatomètre DMT et les résultats des
essais CPT et de sa variabilité dans une zone donnée. Cet article est complété par les conclusions et les perspectives d'avenir. En
général, la conclusion est que tous les exemples d'application montrent analyse bayésienne qu'il est un outil puissant et
prometteur statistiques dans les processus décisionnels liés à des problèmes géotechniques.
Keywords: geotechnical mapping, field investigation, CPT & DMT tests, Bayesian approach
1
Corresponding Author
448 S. Rabarijoely et al. / Geotechnical Mapping of the SGGW Campus in Warsaw
1 INTRODUCTION 48
qc [MPa]
B34 Parking
[m] B22 B33 48
38 0 10 20 30
B23 24
B37
B32 CPT1_III_IV
23
CPT3_III_IV
CPT4_III_IV
22 CPT5_III_IV
CPT0
layer No III 21
Elevation [m a. s. l]
layer No IV
20
19
18
Figure 2. 3D geotechnical model of the SGGW campus, nota-
tions like Fig. 1. 17
16
The depths of layers Nos III and IV and their thick-
nesses were determined using the kriging approach in 15
the Surfer program. The distribution of isolines show- 14
ing the thickness of layer No III - brown boulder clay
was presented in figure 3. Figure 4. Results of CPT tests at the SGGW campus
2600 ul.
isz
N ow
C
ou
ul.
rs yn
ow tometer modulus (ED) in ground tested were presented
B22 ska
2500 in figure 5.
B23 Ce
B33 B34
ntr
um
2400 DMT 2/H
"H"
OW 30/H
Material index ID Dilatometer modulus ED [MPa]
D MT1/H
Parking Biblioteka
2300 OW1/L
"F" "D" 0 0
B32 ID_DMT1
%
OW 12/F
CP T1/L
OW6/F
C PT3/F
D MT2/F
ID_DMT2 ED_DMT1
%
CP T3/M
ED_DMT2
C PT4/D
1
OW15/F
2200
OW2/M
ID_DMT3 1
CP T5/N
OW12/N
C PT7/F
ID=0.6 ED_DMT3
B37 "N"
CP T5/F
ID=1.8
2 2
OW 10/N
Ka C P T2/N
2100 ba
ty
Al.
3 3
N
J.
Ro
do
2000 wic
za
N
"A
no 4 4
dy" Limba "G"
D e p th [m ]
$
Ce
1900 ntr OW 3/G
um C PT4/G
OW6/G
5 5
-8900 -8800 -8700 -8600 -8500 -8400 -8300
6 6
Figure 3. Distribution of isolines showing the thickness of
boulder clays - layer No. III 7 7
3 SELECTION OF CLAY PARAMETERS applied, as specified for such a situation (normal dis-
WITH APPLICATION OF BAYESIAN tribution of the parameter).
APPROACH
3.2 Design values of Wfu and M parameters
Statistical analysis has been applied to measure-
3.1 Background ment results obtained from the CPT/DMT field tests.
In the first case, CPT field tests’ results have been ana-
In the present paper Bayesian analysis has been
lyzed. The cone resistance (qc) has been measured 64
adopted for a case when an unknown distribution pa-
times in 5 profiles in the layer III (first group of tests)
rameter is to be estimated and T is the mean in a nor-
and 71 times in 5 profiles in the layer IV (second
mal population. The standard deviation V0 is known, group of tests) at SGGW campus. As a second case,
on the other hand. It is derived from the prior knowl- DMT field tests’ results have been analysed. Besides
edge that the mean ¬ is a normal random variable with A, B, p0 and p1 coefficients, material index (ID), dila-
parameters m1 and V1. If, in turn, the average of an n- tometer modulus (ED) and horizontal earth pressure
element sample drawn from the population is equal to index (KD) have been measured. For each of indicators
m2, the posterior distribution of the random variable ¬ there were 239 measurement results (in 17 screenings)
is also normal, with mean m and standard deviation V, in the layer III (third group of tests) and 320 results (in
calculated as follows: 15 tests) in the layer IV (fourth group of tests). The
§ 1 · § n · (1) measurement results can be treated as observations of
¨ ¸m ¨ ¸m
¨ V2 ¸ 1 ¨ V2 ¸ 2
0
DMT tests similar analysis was performed for the pa-
CPT 1 CPT 2 CPT 3 CPT 4 CPT 5
rameter KDMT and quantities IDMT, EDMT , in the teststests
consecutively included to
consecutively included to
layer lll and layer IV. calculations; the final credible
calculations; the final credible
Some assumptions about parameter distributions set: (7,88; 8,70), prob.: 0,95)
set: (7,88;8,70), prob.:0,95
were checked and formulae from Bayes’ theorem were Figure 7. Statistical parameters calculated for the mean of in-
dicator qc on Bayes' approach basis (layer IV).
S. Rabarijoely et al. / Geotechnical Mapping of the SGGW Campus in Warsaw 451
ABSTRACT
In this paper, some general features of freezing behaviour of frost susceptible soils are presented and discussed to improve the
compatibility between field and laboratory characteristics. As an engineering approach, a theory for establishing frost-heave pa-
rameters is a modified segregation potential theory. The model of frost heaving at a site, back-calculation of frost heave co-
efficient, as well as estimation of the parameter from the results of frost heave testing in the laboratory is discussed.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans cet article, certaines caractéristiques générales du comportement de gel, le gel des sols sensibles sont présentés et discutés
pour améliorer la compatibilité entre les caractéristiques de terrain et de laboratoire. Comme une approche d'ingénierie, une
théorie pour établir les paramètres de soulèvement dû au gel est une théorie modifiée du potentiel de ségrégation. Le modèle de
soulèvement dû au gel sur un site, le rétro-calcul du coefficient de soulèvement dû au gel, ainsi que l` estimation du paramètre à
partir des résultats des tests de soulèvement dû au gel en laboratoire sont discutés.
Keywords: Laboratory tests, frost heave, frost susceptibility, freezing index, segregation potential
1
Corresponding Author
454 S. Saarelainen et al. / Aspects on the Laboratory Frost Heave Testing Procedure
2 SITE BEHAVIOUR
k2 h (1)
SP
( 0.09wvol )
2 ( z z0 ) Figure 2 Frost heave and frost penetration in situ vs. square
where root of freezing index. Joensuu, snow-free street 1982-83 [2].
SP Frost heave coefficient, mm2/Kh
k Frost penetration coefficient, mm/ Kh
wvol Volumetric moisture content
z0 Thickness of the non frost-susceptible 3 ESTIMATION OF FROST HEAVE CO-
embankment, mm EFFICIENT SP USING CLASSIFICATION
PROPERTIES OF THE FREEZING SOIL
z Frost penetration k F , mm
h Frost heave, mm
Frost heave coefficient SP can be estimated us-
F Freezing index, Kh
ing the characteristics of the freezing soil [3], [4].
In Finland, the relationship between SP and clay
content, based on back-calculated values from
site observations, confirmed using laboratory
testing is illustrated in Fig. 3 ([4], representative
specimens). Estimation may be applied for pre-
liminary design, in the generalisation of labora-
tory test results as well as in the quality control
of laboratory testing.
S. Saarelainen et al. / Aspects on the Laboratory Frost Heave Testing Procedure 455
For a good practice of frost heave testing, fol- Reconstituted, not bound (laboratory
lowing aspects should be considered: compacted)
Installation in the cell
Specimen preparation Unfrozen specimen
In situ- specimen, unfrozen Frozen specimen
Frozen, drilled from frozen ground Testing conditions
Reconstituted, bound (stabilised etc.) o Temperature scale (minimum and maxi-
mum temperature, precision)
S. Saarelainen et al. / Aspects on the Laboratory Frost Heave Testing Procedure 457
In order to improve the comparison between The size of the specimen height, di-
results from different test procedures, a mutually ameter) should be related to the
approved frost heave theory is needed. maximum grain size of the tested ma-
terial.
The needed resulting test parameters
6 CONCLUSIONS should be determined.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results from high pressure triaxial tests, creep tests and swelling tests performed on a clayey marl to mar-
ly sandstone within a tunnel project. Analysis of deformability, strength, creep and swelling properties is based on the know-
ledge of marls behaviour as well as the experimental results obtained on similar hard soils. Part of the mechanical properties
scattering in each type of test is explained by the variability of the marl density. But it depends also on local variations of the ma-
terial lithology.
RÉSUMÉ
La communication présente les résultats d'essais triaxiaux à haute pression, de fluage et de gonflement qui ont été réalisés sur
une marne argileuse à gréseuse dans le cadre d'un projet de tunnel. L'analyse des propriétés de déformabilité, de résistance de
fluage et de gonflement s'appuie sur la connaissance du comportement des marnes et fait référence à des résultats expérimentaux
obtenus sur des sols indurés similaires. La dispersion des propriétés mécaniques observée dans chaque type d'essais s'explique en
partie par la variabilité de la compacité de la marne. Mais elle dépend largement aussi des variations lithologiques locales du ma-
tériau.
1
Corresponding Author.
460 J.F. Serratrice / Propriétés mécaniques d’une marne
mécaniques mesurées à l'occasion de ce pro- tillon. Mais la plupart des mesures ont été effec-
gramme expérimental. Dans ce qui suit, pour tuées sur les éprouvettes découpées dans les
simplifier, l’ensemble des divers faciès molas- échantillons.
siques sera dénommé marne.
Des analogies étroites peuvent être établies à
l'issue de ce travail entre les propriétés des ter-
rains marneux étudiés ici et ceux rencontrés sur
un site de tunnel en Savoie [1].
sont comprises entre 0 et 80 %. Pour beaucoup autre) des matériaux testés dans une large
de mesures, ces grandeurs sont complémentaires gamme de pressions [2].
(% CaCO3 = 100 – 17 VB).
Le programme d'essais comprend des essais Les essais triaxiaux UU HP, réalisés pour des
triaxiaux CD, CU+u et UU à haute pression (HP) pressions de confinement comprises entre 1 et
en compression, pour des pressions effectives 4 MPa donnent des cohésions non drainées com-
moyennes comprises entre 0,5 et 10 MPa (CD prises entre 270 et 1400 kPa. Malgré une grande
éprouvettes consolidées drainées, CU+u éprou- dispersion, les résistances en compression
vettes consolidées non drainées avec mesure de uniaxiale c dépendent de l'indice des vides e,
la pression interstitielle, UU éprouvettes non c -8 e + 3,1 (en MPa), ce qui est un signe sup-
consolidées non drainées). plémentaire de l'analogie entre ces terrains et
Les graphiques de la figure 2 montrent les ré- ceux prélevés en Savoie.
sultats d'un essai triaxial CU+u réalisé sur six
éprouvettes consolidées sous des pressions effec-
tives isotropes comprises entre 0,7 et 10 MPa.
Deux cycles de chargement-déchargement ont
été effectués sur l'éprouvette consolidée sous
6 MPa (au début et en fin de chargement).
Les chemins des contraintes effectives (p, q)
de la figure 2b (p pression effective moyenne, q
déviateur) montrent une réponse typique de la
marne, de type surconsolidée à basse pression
(pics de résistance et dilatance) et normalement
consolidée à haute pression (pas de pic et con-
tractance). La droite de Coulomb représentée sur
le graphique a pour pente Mc = 0,79, soit un
angle de frottement interne ' = 20,4 °, sans co-
hésion (c' = 0).
Figure 3a. Résistances dans le plan des contraintes effectives.
3.2 Récapitulation des résistances
La figure 3a récapitule les résistances de la
marne dans le plan des contraintes effectives
(p, q) et pour l'ensemble des éprouvettes testées
au moyen d'essais triaxiaux CD HP et CU+u HP.
Quelques points ont été écartés, qui représentent
des marnes plus denses et gréseuses ou des
marnes fissurées (losanges creux). Des enve-
loppes de forme parabolique encadrent les résis-
tances à basse pression et se raccordent sur la
droite de Coulomb de pente Mc = 0,79 à haute
pression. Ces enveloppes courbes représentent le
dos de la courbe d'état limite de la marne en
compression [3], [4], [2].
La figure 3b récapitule les résistances mesu-
rées pendant les essais triaxiaux CU+u HP (lo-
sanges) et pendant les essais de compression Figure 3b. Résistances dans le plan des contraintes totales.
4 ESSAIS DE FLUAGE
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The geotechnical engineering parameters determined from in situ testing are not affected by the level of disturbance and degra-
dation then results of laboratory testing of soil samples obtained from conventional soil borings. In this paper talk will focus on
the Piezocone Penetration Test (CPTU), Seismic Cone Penetration Test (SCPTU), Resistivity Cone Penetration Test (RCPTU)
and Dilatometer Test (DMT). The tests were performed in the Warsaw area subsoil which is located within the tectonic unit
known as the Mazovian Basin, a vast depression developed during the Tertiary glaciation’s period. Tertiary comprises the Pli-
ocene deposits represented by clays, silts and locally sands. Pliocene clay behavior constitutes a significant threat to foundation
systems and underground structures. In DMT test the pressures required to expand the membrane provide a direct measurement
of the soil modulus (stiffness). Shallow and deep foundation design can then be performed by using the derived geotechnical da-
ta. A main benefit of the dilatometer test is that it directly measures the soil modulus (stiffness). This parameter controls founda-
tion design since almost all foundations are designed based on their potential for settlement and not bearing capacity (i.e. fail-
ure).
RÉSUMÉ
Les paramètres géotechniques de sols déterminés sur l’essais en place ne sont pas dérivés par l’influence des perturbations pos-
sibles au cours du prélèvement des échantillons. Ce papier se fixe sur le Test de Pénétration de Piezocone (CPTU), le Test de
Pénétration de Cône Sismique (SCPTU), le Test de Pénétration de Cône de Résistivité (RCPTU) et le Test de Marchetti de Dila-
tometer (DMT). Les essais ont été faire in Varsovie, sur les sols formés pendant la période de la glaciation Tertiaire et localisés
au Basin de Mazovien. Ces dépôts sont représentés par des argiles, des limons et localement des sables, en général définies
comme les argiles bariolées. Le comportement des argiles pliocène a influence sur les systèmes de fondations et les structures
souterraines. Le DMT test, par le rembourrage de la membrane, laisse mesurer en directe du modulus de sol (la raideur). C’est la
principale valeur du DMT test parce‘que presque toutes les fondations on n’est pas projeté sur leur capacité portante (c.-à-d.
l'échec) mais sur leur potentiel tassement.
Keywords: Soil stiffness, in situ testing, cone penetration test, dilatometer test, initial shear modulus.
1
Corresponding Author
466 Z. Skutnik et al. / Stiffness of the Soil Determined from in Situ Testing
2 IN SITU TESTING
The second study area is located in Bielany in
the northern part of Warsaw. On the basis of the
2.1 Tested sites
results of field investigations (boreholes, RCPTU
tests, SDMT tests) and laboratory investigations
The study area lies within a regional geomorpho- the surface soil conditions should be regarded as
logic unit called the Warsaw Basin. The test sites complex. The stratigraphy consists of Quaternary
are located in Warsaw in the Vistula River valley deposits. Generally, they are represented by
(Fig. 1). boulder clay described as grey and dark grey,
The Stegny site is the place where for the last clayey sands and sandy clays. To the depth of
few years a wide research program is executed approximately 10 – 15 m under the ground sur-
by the Warsaw University of Life Sciences and face there are lacustrine sandy deposits which are
other research institutions. The main purpose of not suitable for any construction purposes. The
these investigations is the estimation of the phys- water table stabilizes at depths from 4 m below
ical properties and mechanical parameters of Pli- ground surface to 6.3 m below ground surface.
ocene clays. The Stegny site is located in the Typical borehole profiles from Stegny and Bi-
southern district of Warsaw. The stratigraphy elany sites are shown in Figure 1.
consists of Quaternary deposits developed as fine
and medium dense sand layers of thickness not
2.2 Test procedures and equipment
exceeding 4,5 m, underlain by overconsolidated
Pliocene clays. The clay beds reveal a clear The in-situ testing program was very extensive
layered structure characterized by different color and depends on the site. It consisted of both pie-
of the particular layers. The free groundwater ta- zocone penetrometer tests (RCPTU and SCPT)
ble is at a depth of 3.2 m. and dilatometer tests (DMT and SDMT), which
are continuous or at least near continuous soil
profiling techniques to delineate subsurface stra-
tigraphy and soil properties. The CPTU data re-
Z. Skutnik et al. / Stiffness of the Soil Determined from in Situ Testing 467
quires a good estimation of correlation coeffi- Elastic wave theory relates the small strain
cients to determine geotechnical parameters [1]. shear modulus (G0) using:
These coefficients depend on the geologic forma- G 0
Vs 2
tion and can be site-specific. The DMT is a cali- (2)
brated static deformation test. The lift-off pres- where: G0 – initial shear modulus [MPa], – soil
sure, p0, and the pressure at full expansion, p1, mass density [Mg/m3], Vs – shear wave velocity
are measured. These two independent parameters [m/s].
are used to compute other soil parameters The RCPTU cone is equipped with the mod-
through triangulation (two variables to get a third ule made of two electrodes separated by insula-
variable). Marchetti’s correlation [2] was used to tors. The measuring system of the penetrometer
calculate the constrained modulus and shear enables registration of electrical conductivity
modulus. These module are obtained after com- within the range from 0 to 400 mS. The mea-
bining the dilatometer modulus, ED, with the ho- surement is carried out with AC current at the
rizontal stress index, KD, which is an indicator of frequency level of 2000 Hz. The conductivity
stress history. measurement gives additional information about
There are several kinds of geophysical tests the type of soil or sometimes allows for the de-
that can be used for the delineation of stratigra- tection of the probable presence of certain sub-
phy and determination of soil parameters. Re- stances (conatamination).
cently, techniques, which are the combination of SCPT and RCPTU cones have the advantage
standard geotechnical tests with the geophysical of providing continuous shear wave velocity and
module, have been used in the field. The combi- electrical conductivity measurements in combi-
nation of seismic measurements and standard pe- nation with all traditional CPTU data.
netration tests and Marchetti’s dilatometer has
cable oscilloscope
made a significant improvement to the CPTU
and DMT test. The measurement of shear wave hammer
velocity gives the possibility to obtain the initial
shear modulus of soil at a very low strain level. upper
geophone
Knowledge about the G-modulus is important in
practical geotechnical solutions, particularly in
the prediction of soil structure interaction [3],
[4]. The shear wave velocity is calculated from
lower
the fundamental relationship: geophone
h shear
Vs (1) slope
sensor wave
upper
geophone
t
where: Vs – shear wave velocity [m/s], t – travel
strain guages for
time of seismic waves between the transmitter friction load cell
(hammer) and the receiver (geophone) [s], or in friction sleeve
the case of SCPT with two geophones – travel strain guages for lower
cone load cell geophone
time from 1st (upper) to the 2nd (lower) geo- pressure transducer
phone, h – distance between transmitter and re- porous filter
t
ceiver (geophones) [m] (Fig.2). conical tip
seismic
The seismic dilatometer is the combination of cone
the traditional flat dilatometer with a seismic
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of SCPT probe (a) and schemat-
module placed above the blade. The SDMT ic layout of the SCPT test (b).
module is a probe equipped with two geophones
spaced 0,5 m. The SDMT procedure for obtain-
ing the shear wave velocity is the same as SCPT
probe.
468 Z. Skutnik et al. / Stiffness of the Soil Determined from in Situ Testing
2.3 Tests results The CPT, RCPTU and SDMT tests at Bielany
site were carried out in 11 profiles to the depth of
The example of CPT and RCPTU tests results
about 20 m (CPT and RCPTU tests in 9 profiles
carried out at Bielany site are presented in Fig-
and SDMT tests in 2 profiles). The selected re-
ures 3 and 4. The in situ penetration tests were
sults of SDMT performed at Bielany site are pre-
carried out by using Van den Berg Penetrometer
sented in Figures 5 and 6.
type Hyson 200kN.
5 4
6 5
7
6
8
7
9
8
10
11 9
12 RCPTU_BIELANY 10
13 11
CPT_BIELANY
14
12
15
13
16
17
14
18 15
19 16
20
17
21
18
22
19
23
24 20
Figure 3. Example of RCPTU soundings at Bielany site. Figure 5. Example of SDMT soundings at Bielany site.
5
4
6 5
7 6
8
7
9
8
10
11 9
12 10
13
11
14
12
15
16
13
17 14
18 15
19 Rix and Stokoe (1991)
16
20 Sanneset et al. (1988)
17
21 Mayne and Rix (1993)
22 18 elastic wave
23 19
theory
Hryciw (1990)
24
20
Figure 4. Plots of conductivity, pore water pressure and esti- Figure 6. Plots of constrained modulus shear wave velocity
mated shear modulus from RCPTU at Bielany site. and estimated shear modulus from SDMT at Bielany site.
Z. Skutnik et al. / Stiffness of the Soil Determined from in Situ Testing 469
according to
tivity plot correlates with shear wave velocity, 6 elastic wave
theory
cone resistance and friction ratio plots. The shear 7
ED [MPa] KD [MPa]
0,1 1
ID [-]
10 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 5 10 15 20 25
is very difficult to collect a good quality undis-
0
1
turbed soil sample for laboratory tests.
2 The Bielany site is located near the second
3
6
investigate the dynamic interaction between soils
7 and foundations [9]. The value of the shear mod-
8
9
ulus G0 received by means of empirical formulas
10
11
from CPT and DMT results differ from values
12 obtained on the basis of direct measurement of
13
14
the seismic wave velocity in SDMT. The value
15 of G0 for sand and clay at Stegny site was calcu-
16
19
The MDMT, ED and GDMT were obtained from
20 DMT results. Figures 10 and 11 confirm the ap-
plicability of Hryciw formula [5] for G0 estima-
Figure 9. Example of DMT soundings at Stegny site. tion from DMT results if the subsoil is homo-
gonous.
14 25
sand
12 sand
clay 20
10 clay REFERENCES
G0/MDMT
15
G0/ED
0,6 clay
modulus of soil. Proceedings of the 16th International
0,4 Conference on Soil Mechnics and Geotechnical Engi-
0,2 neering, Osaka, Millpress, Rotterdam, 2005, 751-754,
[5] R.D. Hryciw, Small Strain Shear Modulus of Soil by
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Dilatometer, JGED, ASCE, Vol. 116, N°. 11 (1990),
KD
1700-1716,
[6] G.J Rix, & K.H. Stokoe, Correlation of initial tangent
Figure 11. Ratio GDMT/M0 vs. KD for sand and clay from modulus and cone resistance, Calibration Chamber
Stegny site. Testing, Elsevier, New York, (1991), 351-362,
[7] K. Senneset, N. Janbu & G. Svanø, Strength and de-
formation parameters from cone penetration tests. Pro-
ceedings of the 2nd European Symposium on Penetra-
3 CONCLUSIONS tion Testing, Vol. 2, (1982), 863-870,
[8] P. W. Mayne, & G. J. Rix, Gmax and qc Relationships for
Clays, Geotechnical Testing Journal, 16(1), (1993), 54-
In situ tests CPTU and DMT supplemented with 60,
additionally measured parameters like resistivity [9] R.J. Jardine, D.M. Potts & A. Fourie, & J.B. Burland,
in RCPT, shear wave velocity in SCPT or SDMT Studies of the Influence of Non-Linear Stress-Strain
is probably the best way of geotechnical parame- Characteristics in Soil-Structure Interaction, Geotech-
nique, Vol. 36, N°.3 (1986), 377-396.
ters estimation. Especially for soils from which it
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 471
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-471
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 477
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-477
ABSTRACT
The study evaluates the value of the correlation factor between unconfined compressive strength and the point load index for five
different rocks encountered in North Africa through statistically sufficient number of field and laboratory tests.
RÉSUMÉ
Cette étude évalue la valeur du coefficient de corrélation entre la résistance à la compression simple et l'indice de charge ponc-
tuelle pour cinq types de roches différents en Afrique du Nord par un nombre statistiquement suffisant d' essais in situ et en labo-
ratoire.
1
Corresponding Author.
478 E. Togrol and F. Kıran / On the Shear Strength of Weak Rocks
In order to determine the behaviour of the causing failure by the development of tension
rock mass it is important to know its mass prop- cracks parallel to the axis of loading (ASTM
erties. Such properties are determined by the D5731-95). The load is steadily increased to
combined properties of the intact rock and natu- reach failure in 10 to 60 s.
rally occurring discontinuities. To exacerbate as- The point load index is given by
sessment, classification systems for intact rock
and rock mass do not always coincide.
This study compares sample data obtained (2)
from weak rocks encountered in North Africa.
Unconfined compressive strength obtained from
point load tests was compared with unconfined where P is the load at rupture, and D is the
compressive strength as determined from uniaxi- distance between the cones. The point load index
al tests. is reported as the point load strength of a 50 mm
It is interesting to note that the value of C was rock core.
found to be much smaller than the generally rec- The point load index is correlated to uncon-
ommended value of 24 for weak rocks. fined compressive strength by
tion sediments and which unconformably settled Overlying sandstone layers are encountered at
down on the Al Khums Formation. various depths and are occasionally interbedded
The Gargaresh Formation makes steep cliffs by sand as well as silty sand layers.
along the shore of the Mediterranean coastline. Claystone layers are commonly encountered
The Formation typically consists of calcarenite, between sandstone layers.
calcareous sandstone, detrital limestone, thin Comparison of unconfined compression test
layers of siltstone and claystone including shell and point load test results
fragments and minor sandy grains which are in- Point load tests and unconfined compression
terbedded with occasionally silty sand, sandy tests were performed on a sufficiently large
lean clay and silty clayey sand layers. number of calcarenite, calcareous sandstone,
The Calcareous Crust mainly consists of ca- claystone, detrital limestone, and caliche sam-
liche. These sediments are derived from the sur- ples. Except for caliche samples, test results of
face weathering of rocks under arid conditions all samples recovered both from depths above
and subsequent cementation of the weathered and below ground water level were evaluated
material. separately. The results of the unconfined com-
Al Khums Formation typically comprises pression tests and point load tests are given in
slightly to highly weathered layers of calcareous Table 1.
sandstone, siltstone and claystone. The color of Unconfined compressive strengths and point
this unit varies from light green to light grey, and load indices of samples recovered from levels
is generally strong with the inclusion of shelly above and below ground water level varied as
fossil fragments with solution cavities. The For- well (Table 2).
mation is also generally composed of calcareous
sandstone and sandy limestone with gypsum
beds.
RQD values at the same depths as unconfined means (i.e., for RQD values, one relates to un-
compressive strength test samples or point load confined compression test results, the other, to
test samples are also compared (Table 3). point load indices), and that the difference found
To use singular ratios in comparing uncon- between measurements is, therefore, accidental
fined compressive strength as obtained from un- and insignificant. It is shown that two RQD
confined compression tests and unconfined com- populations belong to the same gross population
pressive strength calculated from point load with a level of significance of 0.05 (Table 3).
indices may be somewhat misleading. Hence un- From that result we can infer that Table 1 corre-
confined compressive strength and point load in- lation factors, between unconfined compressive
dex were determined on a large number of sam- strength and point load index are reliable.
ples. In order to discover whether two groups
differ sufficiently in mean performance, we
compared their RQD values which are related to 4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
samples used in tests to determine unconfined
compressive strength and point load index. The In this study a large number of field and labora-
confidence with which the results will be re- tory tests were evaluated in order to determine
jected or retained depended upon the level of the correlation factor C between unconfined
significance reached. compressive strength and point load index of five
The reliability of the RQD mean value de- different weak rocks, namely, calcarenite, calca-
pends upon the variability of the separate meas- reous sandstone, detrital limestone, claystone and
ures around the obtained mean. Reliability is thus caliche. It is shown that the value of C could be
always relative and can be stated in terms of very different from the commonly used value of
probability. A given difference is called reliable 24.
or significant when probability is high and dif-
ference cannot be explained as temporary or ac-
REFERENCES
cidental. Several arbitrary standards of levels of
significance, of which 0.05 and 0.01 levels are [1] [1] Pease, K.A. , F.H. Kulhawy (1984). “Load transfer
the most frequent, were used. The confidence mechanisms in rock sockets and anchors”, EL-3777,
with which the results are rejected or retained Research Project 1483-1, Electric Power Research In-
depends upon the level of significance reached. stitute, California,
[2] [2] Kulhawy, F.H., G.E. Goodman (1980). “Design of
In other words we assert that both RQD popula- foundations on discontinuous rock”, Proc.Int.Conf.on
tions belong to the same gross population. There Structural Foundations on Rock, Sydney, Vol.1,
is no true difference between two population pp.209-222.
[3] [3] Tomlinson, M.J. (1995). Foundation Design and
Construction. 6th Ed. Longman, 536p.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 481
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-481
ABSTRACT
Large area of the north part of the Czech Republic is covered by Most clays, tertiary over consolidated fissured clays, stiff to
hard consistency, thickness of which is up to 400 m. Very often this clay overlays brown coal seams. Geotechnical problems are
not only connected with material properties in situ but also after the excavation and re-deposition. Therefore the clay properties
as a function of depth will be described in more detail as well as the problems of stability of high excavation slopes or the set-
tlement of structures situated on this material. Special attention is devoted to the changes of properties after excavation and also
to the changes after re-deposition, as the amount of excavated material is extremely high, part of the material is deposited in the
form of outer spoil heaps and limited part is used for other purposes. Therefore the problems of spoil heaps deformation and sta-
bility will be mentioned together with problem of utilization of surface of spoil heaps for new construction as well as the utiliza-
tion of this material as construction material even for geo environmental earth structures.
RÉSUMÉ
Une grande partie de la région nord de la République Tchèque est constituée d’argile de Most, argile tertiaire reconsolidés
dont la consistance va de solide à dur. Son épaisseur peut aller jusqu’à 400m. Très souvent, cette argile recouvre des veines du
charbon brun. Les problèmes géotechniques ne sont pas seulement liés aux propriétés matérielles de l’argile sur site mais aussi
après son extraction et sa réimplantation. Par conséquent, les propriétés de l’argile en fonction de la profondeur seront décrites
en détails ainsi que les problèmes de stabilité des pentes d’excavations hautes ou les contraintes sur les structures situées sur ce
matériau. Une attention particulière est portée au changement des propriétés de l’argile après l’extraction ainsi qu’aux
modifications après réimplantation car la quantité de matériaux d'excavation est extrêmement élevée. La majorité de la matière
est déposée sous forme de terrils et une petite partie est utilisée à d’autres fins. En conséquence, les problèmes de déformations
et de stabilités des terrils seront décrits plus précisément. L’utilisation des surfaces des terrils pour de nouvelles constructions ou
l’utilisation de l’argile extrait comme matériaux de construction (par exemple pour les constructions de terre géo-
environnemental) est aussi discutée.
Keywords: tertiary over consolidated fissured clays, mechanical properties, slope stability, deformation characteristics after re-
deposition.
1
Corresponding Author.
482 I. Vaníček / Geotechnical Experiences with Most Clay
toring can start immediately after the end of fill- [5] I.Vaníek, S. Chamra. The influence of extreme rainfall
on the stability of spoil heaps.In: Proc. 10th Int. Symp.
ing but in fact the initial (zero) measurement is
on Landslides and Engineering Slopes. Xian, 2008,
usually done after certain time delay. The accu- Chen et al. (eds), Taylor and Francis Group, London,
racy to forecast the further settlement develop- pp. 1653 – 1658.
ment depends on the duration of monitoring. 5 [6] I.Vaníek. Behaviour of soil of the high clayey spoil
heap. In: Proc. 8th DEC SMFE, Nurnberg, DGD,
years seams to be minimum time.
pp.235-240
Different functions st = f(t) was checked, es- [7] I. Dykast. Properties and behaviour of high clayey spoil
pecially these in which the accession of settle- heaps in the North-Bohemian Brown-Coal District. (In
ment drops down logarithmically of exponen- Czech), Ph.D. thesis, CTU Prague, 1993, 126 p.
[8] I. Dykast, R.Pg ímek, E.Pichler, M. !eho ,
tially. Now the equation
M.Havlíek, I.Vaníek. Ervenice corridor – 130 , high
spoil heap from clayey material – with transport infra-
st = a + b. ln t ( on its surface. In: Proc. XIIIth EC SMGE,
structure
Prague, 2003, Vol. 4, pp. 57-76
is recommended in which a and b are parame-
ters determined from the firsts measurements,
[7] .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
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490 P.J. Vardanega and M.D. Bolton / Predicting Shear Strength Mobilization of London Clay
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ABSTRACT
This study reports about the correlation between the petrographic and textural characteristics of some Sicilian calcarenites of
Quaternary age and their mechanical behaviour. The composition and the texture of the different lithotypes are analysed by
means of optical microscopy. The pores texture is the basis of the proposed classification. Laboratory tests are carried out for the
determination of physical properties such as porosity; the mechanical behaviour is assessed by isotropic tests. Results indicate
that the type and the distribution of the pores between the grains greatly influence the mechanical behaviour, specifically at the
onset of yielding.
RÉSUMÉ
Cette étude présente la corrélation entre les propriétés pétrographiques et la structure de certains calcarénites siciliennes du Qua-
ternaire et le leur comportement mécanique. La composition et la structure des différents lithotypes ont été analysées par micro-
scope optique et elles sont à la base de la proposition de classification décrite dans la mémoire. Autres investigations de labora-
toire ont été effectuées pour la détermination de propriétés physiques, parmi lequel la porosité. Le comportement mécanique a
été évalué avec des d'essais isotropes. Les résultats indiquent que le type et la distribution des pores entre les grains influence
grandement le comportement mécanique au début de la limite d’élasticité.
1
Corresponding Author
494 M. Zimbardo et al. / Petrographic and Textural Characteristics and Mechanical Behaviour
at a point called true yielding, there will be a 2.1 Materials and methods
second yield point, or gross yielding, at the onset
Samples of calcarenites from the different loca-
of particle breakage [2].
tions were retrieved from hand corings, commer-
According to [1], the yield stress, as well as
cial ashlars, and drilling holes. Specimens for the
the position of the NCL, depends on the grains
laboratory tests were prepared by means of hand-
strength, hence on the mineralogical composition
saw and diamond disk saw. The petrographic and
of the rock, on the initial void ratio, which is a
textural characterization was carried out by
measure of the number of contacts between the
means of reflected light optical microscopy
grains, and on the grains contact stress. At low
(O.M.) on selected specimens and by transmitted
void ratio, the number of contacts between parti-
light microscopy (PPL: plane polarized and XPL:
cles increases. The external load is distributed
cross polarized light) on thin sections. Thin sec-
over larger contact areas, and lower contact
tions were prepared from samples of the natural
stresses result. It follows that the individual par-
rock before testing, and, in some cases, also from
ticles, subjected to the same external loads, are
the specimens subjected to mechanical tests. In
less susceptible to breakage. The contrary occurs
addition to the mineralogical composition, great
when the void ratio is high [3].
care was taken in the qualitative analysis of po-
An experimental investigation was carried out
rosity. In particular, the pores were classified on
on different Sicilian calcarenites outcropping in
the basis of their size compared to grain size, and
Sicily, to verify whether the previous theoretical
with reference to their textural location, inter-
framework may be adopted to describe their me-
granular or intragranular. Pore size is referred to
chanical behaviour. The present contribution re-
the area intersected by the plane of the thin sec-
fers to the studies conducted up to now on some
tion. Those pores whose area is almost five times
calcarenitic lithotypes coming from the territo-
the characteristic grain size were classified as
ries of Palermo and Marsala (Fig.1).
macropores; the ones having size comparable to
that of the grains were identified as mesopores.
Micropores are not visible at the microscope
maximum magnification (200x). On the basis of
the previous size classification, the ratio between
macropores and mesopores was evaluated. In the
following paragraph, the different textural types
of calcarenites are labelled with capital letters.
Physical and mechanical characterisation was
performed by means of determination of particle
Figure 1. Location of the Calcarenites density and dry unit weight, Js, Jd, uniaxial com-
pression tests and isotropic tests. For the iso-
2 SICILIAN CALCARENITES tropic compression tests, a testing programme
using triaxial apparatuses with maximum confin-
Calcarenitic lithotypes of Quaternary age widely ing pressure of 10 MPa or 70 MPa was carried
outcrop in the coastal plains and low hills of Sic- out [7]. In both cases increments of stress be-
ily. Since ancient ages, most of them are being tween 0.5 MPa and 1 MPa were applied, and the
extracted as construction materials to produce stress increment was kept constant for time peri-
ashlars for masonry. Besides calcarenite forma- ods ranging from 1 day to 5 days, depending on
tions constitute the bedrock of many important the variation of specific volume.
towns near to the sea coast. Table 1 lists the initial void ratio of the sam-
The wide natural outcropping formations, to- ples tested in isotropic compression. The label
gether with quarries and drilling holes for foun- indicates the provenance of the samples, which
dation purposes, allow sampling of different are subdivided according to the textural classifi-
lithotypes in Western Sicily. cation described in the following.
M. Zimbardo et al. / Petrographic and Textural Characteristics and Mechanical Behaviour 495
Table 1. List of isotropic compression test bridges between grains are from 0.025 to 0.1 mm
Litothype Provenance code v0 thick. Porosity is due to uniformly spreaded
10ic 1,38 mesopores, while macropores are rare, less than
Palermo c14 1,29
A Cala 2%.
15ic 1,25
c8 1,35
mb1 1,72
B1 Marsala cmb2 1,71
mb3 1,70
ma1 2,03
B2 Marsala ma1b 2,18
ma2 1,99
mc1 2,60
C Marsala mc2 2,64
mc3 2,63
mc4 2,68
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Figure 2. Textural classification. Type A “dense” ; Type B
3.1 Textural and petrographic characterisation
“sponge”: B1 total area of macropores << mesopores; B2 total
Three main textural groups (fig.2) have been area of macropores > mesopores; Type C “card-house” total
area of macropores >> mesopores
identified on the basis of macropore/mesopore
evaluated ratio:
A) dense: no or rare macropores are present, in
any case less than mesopores. Intergranular In the lithotipes B1 e B2, 60% of clasts are
interstices and intragranular voids are almost rounded fragments of rhodolites, with micritic
or totally obstructed by carbonatic cement, texture, 30% are foraminifera, fragments of
with few spread mesopores; shells (mollusca, anellida, echinodermata, brio-
B) sponge: macropores are a little less (Type B1), zoa), and the grains of carbonatic rocks are about
as much as or a little more (Type B2) than 8%. Quartz monocrystalline grains, high in
mesopores. Mesopores are widespread since sphericity and medium in roundness, are no more
the cement patina that wraps the grains does than 2%. The grain size varies from 0.025 to
not fills totally the intergranular interstices; 1.5 mm, the mode is about 0.05 mm. The contour
intragranular voids are open or partially filled of the clasts is not sharp because of muddiness of
or obstructed; cement and indentation between the grain sur-
C) card-house: macropores are widespread and face and the microsparitic crystals of the cement.
much more than mesopores; intragranular In B1 macropores are rare, less than 5%. On the
pores are open. contrary, mesopores are numerous because they
are localized in the areas of divergence of granu-
In the lithotype A, 50% of clasts are quartz lar contours, even though many of the inter-
monocrystalline grains, highly spherical and granular voids are filled by cement. The cement
rounded; 40% are rounded fragments of bridges have a thickness of 0.025 mm to 0.3mm.
rhodolites, with micritic texture, and the last 10% The lithotipe C is composed of about 45%
are foraminifera, fragments of shells (mollusca, fragments of rhodolites, few molluscs fragments
anellida, echinodermata) with some grains of (prevali lamallibranca), with not more than 10%
carbonatic rocks. The grain size varies from entrochs and anellida. Quartz monocrystalline
0.025 mm to 1 mm, the mode is about 0.035 mm. grains, are very rare (0,1%) and their size is
The contour of the clasts is very sharp. Cementa- about 0.05 mm. Grain size varies from 0.8 to
tion is made of microsparitic calcite. It forms a 0.15 mm, with mode at about 0.25 mm. The po-
thin coating all around the grains. The cement rosity is mainly due to macropores.
496 M. Zimbardo et al. / Petrographic and Textural Characteristics and Mechanical Behaviour
In all the calcarenite lithotypes, the thin coat- as EM and EL. Their strength and stiffness are
ing of clear microspar cement (dog tooth shaped) clearly influenced by the structure of the material
wrapping the clasts could be interpreted as pri- (Zimbardo et al, 2010).
mary cement; in the lithotypes A and B this pat-
ina is 25- 27 Pm thick, in C its thickness is not
more that 10 Pm. The microspar mosaic which
fills intergranular voids, could be originated in a
secondary phase of cementation (i.e. vadose).
A B C
Particle density and dry density of the lithotypes 3.4 Yielding of the Calcarenites in isotropic
investigated are summarised in Table 2. compression
The data indicate slight differences in specific
weight. In particular, for the calcarenites of the Specific volume recorded with time at increasing
groups B2 and C specific weight is identical to cell pressure on the sample c14 (lithotype A) is
that of calcium carbonate. Slightly higher values shown in the diagram (Q-log t) in Figure 5. The
were determined, however, for the calcarenites of curves show the onset of a destructuration proc-
the groups A and B1. ess at a cell pressure of 18 MPa, which further
developed at the pressures of 22 MPa and 26
Tab. 2. Mean unit weights of the four lithotypes. MPa.
lithotype Js (kN/m3) Jd (kN/m3)
A 27,6 20
B1 27,5 17
B2 27,4 14
C 27,4 10
of the primary coating of dog tooth crystals), intergranular cement, since the coating of pri-
yielding occurs at very high stress levels. The mary cement keeps tied to the clasts surfaces.
low slope of NCL indicates a different deforma- Because the clasts are not affected by fractur-
tion mechanism which, anyway, does not cause ing, the mineralogic composition of the studied
grains breakage, and which gives no evident ef- calcarenites, both for quartz rich calcarenites and
fects on the texture of the pores, as confirmed by carbonate biocalcarenites, does not influence the
O.M. observations. deformation process during isotropic tests.
The position of the yield points with respect to With respect to the previous technical litera-
their own NCL is the main difference between ture, particularly as for the conceptual behaviour
the studied lithotypes. To stick with the settled ascribed to strong and weak bonding, the results
nomenclature of the pertaining literature [3], cal- of the study suggest to consider in deeper detail
carenites B and C fall in the category of strong the role of the cementing pattern, rather than
bonding, while type A in the category of weak simply the clasts/cement relative strength.
bonding, even if its yield stress is higher than
that of the B and C types.
In the cases studied, strong or weak deforma- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
tion process, do not concern the strength of the
This research was supported by the Università
grains. In fact they keep intact both in the case of
degli Studi di Palermo with its share of the re-
rich quartz calcarenite, and in the case of prevail-
search funds assigned by the MIUR – Ministero
ing carbonate bioclasts. The mechanism of de-
Istruzione, Università e Ricerca (Ercoli and No-
formation involves only the cementing pattern.
cilla - Miur ex 60%). Regrettably, this and other
research works could be not further developed
5 CONCLUSIONS due to the drastic cuts - made for the years from
2010 onwards - by the Government and the Par-
The analyses performed by optical microscopy liament of the Repubblica Italiana to the funds
corroborate the interpretation of the results of the for University, Public Education and Scientific
isotropic tests, since they allow for correlating Research.
the observed mechanical effects to the primitive
texture of the calcarenites, and to explain
changes occurring in porosity during the iso- REFERENCES
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for the stress levels achieved, the textural charac- carbonate sands, Gèotechnique 43 (1993), 53-67.
teristic sensitive to isotropic compression, in the [2] M.R Coop, S.M. Willson, On the behaviour of Hydro-
different calcarenitic lithotipes of Sicily, is the carbon Reservoir Sands and Sandstones, ASCE, J. of
Geot. and Geoenvi. Eng. 129 (2003), 1010-1015.
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rosity and the macroporosity do not undergo any (1997b), 491-508.
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stress reached in the present investigation. [6] S. Leroueil, PR Vaughan, The general and congruent
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For the Sicilian calcarenites, with non uni- Geotechnique 40 (1990),467–488.
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[8] M.Zimbardo, N.Nocilla, A.Evangelista, M.Ramondini,
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2.2. Modelling
Modélisation
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 501
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-501
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 507
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-507
ABSTRACT
The combination of the micro- and macro- structural characteristics of hard soils – soft rocks control their mechanical behaviour.
In the absence of macro fissures, the micro structural characteristics have a dominant role and the use of soil mechanics ap-
proaches surpass those of rock mechanics. In particular, the concept of soil structure is applicable to the modelling of their me-
chanical behaviour. To portray this, the recently proposed constitutive Model for Structured Soils – 2 (MSS-2) was applied to
the modeling of the laboratory test data of a hard soil (Todi clay). The model simulated satisfactorily the mechanical behaviour
of both reconstituted and natural soil samples.
RÉSUMÉ
La combinaison des caractéristiques micro- et macro- structural des sols dures - roches tendres désigner leur comportement mé-
canique. En l'absence de fissures macro, les caractéristiques micro structurelles ont un rôle dominant et l'utilisation d'approches
de mécanique des sols dépassent les roches mécanicien. En particulier, le concept de la structure du sol est applicable à la modé-
lisation de leur comportement mécanique. Pour illustrer cela, la récente proposition de modèle de comportement pour les sols
structurés - 2 a été appliqué ici aux données expérimentales matériau de sol dur (Todi clay). Le modèle simule de façon satisfai-
sante le comportement mécanique à la fois des échantillons reconstitués et naturels du sol.
and bonding (e.g. cementation, aging, thixotro- one reference surface: the Intrinsic Strength
py), which result in increased interparticle resis- Envelope (ISE) to model the characteristics
tance (compared to the corresponding structure- of the corresponding structureless state.
less state) and can influence the anisotropic M
SSE PYE
characteristics of material response. L M
The effect of bonding has been experimentally s SE c
investigated by comparing the mechanical re-
= +
*=22
*
Each Intrinsic Compression Line corresponds vp is the plastic volumetric strain increment,
to a radial stress path *=s/ =constant or
*=(s:s/ 2)0.5=constant, where “:” stands for the qp U 2
3
e p : e p is the modulus of the plastic
internal tensorial product.
deviatoric strain increment), ( vp , qp ) are the ac-
2.2 Characteristic surfaces properties cumulated plastic and deviatoric strains, c and
s are the intrinsic compressibility parameters
The SSE defines the region of all possible ma-
terial states and it generally encompasses ISE (as during virgin compression and rebound and Vv,
it happens in structured soils), while ISE *v, Wq, Vq, *q, are structure degradation constants.
represents a lower boundary of the SSE (when all Equation (3) ensures that as plastic strains ac-
cumulate the scalar (– ) diminishes towards
*
effects of structure are eliminated – typically by
intense straining). Thus, in structureless soils, the zero upon complete destructuring.
SSE and ISE coincide and the model reduces to a The kinematic hardening rules control the
Cam-Clay type twin-surface model with a ro- evolution of the kinematic hardening variables
tated-distorted bounding surface (ISE) and an in- ( K) and ( L) of SSE and PYE respectively ([9]).
ternal bubble (PYE). Hardening variable ( K) controls the orientation
Therefore, for the structured material the size of SSE and therefore both stress and structure in-
( o= K+) of the SSE is greater than the size duced anisotropy. Hardening variable ( L) con-
( o*= K*+*) of the ISE, and the scalar (–*) is trols the position of the PYE (i.e. the elastic re-
a measure of the magnitude of structure. The size gion) within the SSE ([9]).
(*) corresponds to an equivalent structureless
state ([9]) given by: 2.4 Dilatancy
The plastic flow rule incorporates a phase para-
1 ln v ln N * meter (X ), with respect to a Phase Transition
* o* / 2 exp (2)
2 c Line (PTL, see Figure 3):
X =1- PTC/ (4)
2.3 Destructuring
lnv
The above features are modeled by coupled iso- N* X =1- A< PTC: X A<0
tropic and kinematic hardening rules for the yield N** B= PTC: X B=0
surfaces. Following classical plasticity, it is as- S C> PTC: X C>0
sumed that the material hardens only during plas- S* X >0
tic deformation. X <0
The isotropic hardening rule controls the evo- vcurrent
lution of the size () by an exponential structure SCL
degradation mechanism ([6], [9]) of the SSE: ICL
PTL
CSL
1 p A B= PTC C o ln
T v ( * )( Av vp Aq qp ) (3)
c s Figure 3. Definition of the Phase Transition Line.
Jefferies [10] is that the phase parameter () de- 3 SIMULATION OF STIFF TODI CLAY
pends on the magnitude of bonding. This is con-
trolled by the position of the PTL in the ln - lnv Experimental data of the hard Todi clay have
plane (variable S) with respect to a Structure been chosen as an application of the model. Ac-
Compression Line (SCL, see Figure 3), which cording to Burland et al [5], Todi clay has the
depends on the size ( o) of SSE: index properties shown in Table 1.
lnS=lnN*– (lnN**–lnS*) (5) Table 1. Index properties of stiff Todi Clay according to Bur-
land et al [5]
where N*=exp(lnvcurrent–cln o) is for the SCL. wL (%) wP (%) Ip (%) Gs
Moreover, X is defined with respect to stresses. 67.2 39.1 28.1 2.78
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
Hydraulic fracturing is studied, mainly in the context of compensation grouting. It appeared that different from hydraulic fractur-
ing in rock and clay, the flow from the fracture to the surrounding subsoil cannot be neglected. Due to this flow there is a mini-
mum thickness over length ratio of a fracture in sand, which is a function of the drainage of fracture fluid and the percentage of
solid material in the fracture fluid. A description will be given as well as experimental results confirming the theory developed.
The necessary injection pressure and the shape of the fracture, depends on the properties of the injection fluid, the permeability
of the surrounding soil material and the discharge rate during injection. A consequence is that the grout bodies made in compen-
sation grouting differ from what is usually assumed.
RÉSUMÉ
La fracturation hydraulique est étudiée, principalement dans le cadre de la compensation par cimentation. Il est apparu que
contrairement au cas de la fracturation dans la roche ou l’argile, le débit de la fracture vers le sous-sol environnant ne peut pas
être négligé. En raison de cet écoulement il y a un minimum pour le ratio largeur sur longueur de la fracture dans le sable, qui
est une fonction du drainage du fluide de fracture et du pourcentage de solides dans le fluide de fracture. Une description sera
donnée ainsi que des résultats expérimentaux confirmant la théorie développée. La pression d'injection nécessaire et la forme de
la fracture, dépend des propriétés du fluide injectée, de la perméabilité du sol environnant et du debit d'injection. Une consé-
quence est que les corps de coulis dans le cas de la compensation par cimentation diffèrent de ce qui est habituellement estimé.
1
Corresponding Author.
514 A. Bezuijen and A.F. van Tol / Mechanisms of Hydraulic Fracturing in Clay, Sand and Rock
material without cohesion, like in clay and rock, The theory describing the mechanisms that
and that sand has a much higher permeability play a role (Smith and Shlyapobersky, 2000) as-
than clay of rock. sumes that the fluid exerts a pressure on the two
Due to the higher permeability of sand, the sides of a fracture and this pressure cause the
fracturing process will be (partly) drained. Con- fracturing of the rock. The width of the fracture
sequence of this drained behaviour is that when a is determined by the viscosity of the fracture
liquid is injected in sand to create a fracture, the fluid and the pressure necessary to propagate the
first result will be that due to the increased effec- fracture and the elastic properties of the rock, see
tive stress at the injection point, the strength of Figure 1.
the sand against plastic deformation increases. Vsoil
Another consequence is that there will be an in-
teraction between the injected liquid and the soil, s
as will be explained later. d Pnet=P-Vsoil
Experiments on sand fracturing have been P fracture
performed to study compensation grouting in 'P pressure in fracture
sand. In compensation grouting bentonite-cement
slurry is used as fracturing fluid. This slurry
normally has a significant solid particle content Vsoil
that appears to influence the fracture properties Figure 1. Definition sketch, fracture dimensions stresses and
and the injection pressure. Experiments have pressure distribution.
shown that the injection pressure can be a factor
4 different when fracturing sand with the same According to Smith and Shlyapobersky, the
relative density and confining stress (see for ex- following relations apply:
ample Figure 6 that will be discussed later). The
difference is caused by differences in the injec- s/d 'P /(2W y ) (1)
tion fluid only.
This paper briefly describes the fracture for the fluid flow and for the width:
mechanisms that can be expected in clay and
d max 2 Pnet L / E ' (2)
rock and focuses on the fracture mechanism in
sand, especially on the interaction between sand Where s the length of the fracture, d the width of
and the injection liquid, the influence of cake the fracture, 'P is the pressure drop in the frac-
building in a fracture on the injection pressure ture, Wy the yield stress, dmax the maximum width,
and the fracture shape. Experiments will be pre- Pnet the fracture pressure minus the minor in situ
sented that show the various mechanisms. soil stress, L the largest length in the fracture
(can be length or height) and E’=E/(1-Q2), the
plain strain modulus. Q is Poisson’s ratio. In frac-
2 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING IN
ture experiments in rock the injection pressures
IMPERMEABLE SOILS
will be at least in the order of 10-100 MPa, the
yield stress of the usually used injection fluid is
2.1 Hydraulic fracturing in rock less than 1 kPa. Assuming a pressure drop of
Hydraulic fracturing of rock is a quite often used 20% in the fracture, according to Eq. 1, the frac-
in oil industry. The purpose is to enhance the tures will be very thin with a thickness that is
flow of oil from a reservoir to an oil well. Frac- only 0.1% of the length. Thus a fracture with a
turing increases the surface area in the reservoir. length of 1 m has a width of only 1 mm or less.
This facilitates the flow of oil from the reservoir According to (Eq. 2) such a fracture would need
to the well. After hydraulic fracturing, the frac- an average net injection pressure of approxi-
ture is kept open by injection of permeable sand. mately 65 kPa above the minor initial soil stress.
In reality also the ‘fracture toughness’ of the rock
A. Bezuijen and A.F. van Tol / Mechanisms of Hydraulic Fracturing in Clay, Sand and Rock 515
plays a role and the fluid tip does not reach the that fluid will penetrate into the soil around the
end of the fracture. Therefore, the injection pres- fracture; see Figure 2, where a fracture is created
sure will be higher and a fracture starts around by the injection of cement-bentonite slurry. The
1.5- 2 times the confining pressure. water from the slurry and some (small) bentonite
Smith and Shlyapobersky (2000) describe the particles penetrate into the sand. The larger ce-
possibility of fluid loss and how this can be re- ment particles will be blocked by the sand grains
duced by using a ‘wall building’ fracture fluid and make a filter cake with the bentonite parti-
that makes an external (in the fracture itself) and cles in the slurry. A calculation model has been
internal (in the soil around the fracture) filter developed to understand the mechanism during
cake. However, the possible consequence that the grout injection and the resulting injection pres-
thickness of the filter cake determines the shape sure. The model, see Bezuijen et al. (2010) for
of the fractures is not considered. details, describes the deformation of the sand as-
suming cavity expansion around the fracture, and
2.2 Hydraulic fracturing in clay thus elasto-plastic soil behaviour around the frac-
ture and not only elastic behaviour as in the
Fracturing clay is done in compensation grouting
model described for rock. It further assumes that
or occurs as an unwanted mechanism in tunnel-
the fracture is wide enough for full filter cake
ing and horizontal directional drilling.
development. Also in this model, as in the elastic
When fracturing clay, the permeability of the
model shown in Eq. 2, the injection pressure will
soil material will be too low to have direct inter-
be higher as the d/s becomes larger and thus a
action between the fluid in the fracture and the
thicker filter cake will lead to higher injection
soil to be fractured, therefore thin fractures are
pressures.
possible (Jafari et al. 2001).
Here another interaction was found. The de-
formation induced by a hydraulic fracture into
normally consolidated clay may lead to excess
pore pressures (Jafari et al. 2001). Consolidation
of these excess pore pressures will lead to long (external filter cake)
term settlements. It was shown that the applica-
tion of compensation grouting in soft normally
consolidated clay may lead to a temporary heave,
but that at the end it has only increased settle-
ments. It is therefore advised by Au et al. (2002)
that when compensation grouting is necessary in
soft unconsolidated clay, to create only limited (internal filter cake)
heave with each injection and to try to heave the
surface that has to be heaved as horizontal as
possible and avoid the generation of shear
Figure 2. Sketch of the formation of a filter cake (the larger
stresses in the clay. grout particles filtered by the sand) (Gafar et al. 2008).
4 EXPERIMENTS
oil industry capable of building a rather thin and The results of the calculation model have
impermeable filter cake. been compared quantitatively with results of
model tests. Only four suitable tests (Kleinlug-
tenbelt, 2005) could be selected from the model
tests series performed in Delft, because the
model only simulates the external filter cake and
not the internal. The tests of Sanders (2007) were
performed with a higher WCR (water cement ra-
tio) value and had, due to infiltration of fines also
an internal filter cake and could therefore not be
used for the comparison. Since the shear
modulus of the sand was not known, this value
was used as a fit parameter. For one of the tests,
the value of the shear modulus in the calculation
was adapted in a way that the calculated injection
pressure corresponded with the measured one.
The sand preparation procedure and relative den-
sity was the same for all tests selected and there-
Figure 4. Set-up of the experiments. Note that changes in fore it was assumed that also the shear modulus
pore volume and sand volume can be measured as changes in was the same for all tests. The parameters from
the water levels. (dimensions in mm) Table 1 were used in all tests and furthermore for
each test the values presented in Table 2 were
used to calculate the injection pressure. These re-
sults were compared with the measured values –
see Figure 7 - and although quite different con-
fining stresses were applied and the permeability
of the grout cake (which was measured for each
experiment) also varied quite significantly, there
was reasonable agreement.
3,500
3,000
test nr:
injection pressure (kPa)
2-4
2,500
2-7
2,000 2-8
2-9
1,500
2-10
1,000
500
-500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
time (s)
P_theory (kPa)
lead to lower injection pressures. The formation 1,250
of a thick filter cake as described in this section 1-6
1,000 1-5
will lead to high injection pressures. Since a high
injection pressure leads to a thicker filter cake 750
because the driving force for filtration, the injec- 500
tion pressure, is higher, small differences in cir- 250
cumstances can lead to significant differences in
0
injection pressure.
0 1,000 2,000
P_test (kPa)
Table 1. Parameters with constant values in the calculations.
Figure 7. Calculated maximum pressures compared with
Parameter Value Dimension measurements, calculation fitted for Test 1-8.
shear modulus 125 MPa
injection speed 10 l/min
height of fracture 0.5 m
Friction angle 40 deg. REFERENCES
Table 2. Parameters used to calculate injection pressures. [1]. Bezuijen A., Tol A.F. van, (2011). Compensation grout-
ing, Mechanisms determining the shape of the grout
No ne ni Permeab. Conf. Press. Press. body. To be published proc. IS TC28 Roma.
gr. cake stress Calc. meas. [2]. Bezuijen, A.,Tol, A.F. van and Sanders, M.P.M (2010),
(-) (-) (m/s) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) Compensation grouting research, the influence of the
1-5 0.53 0.74 9.6*10-8 24 500 845 physical model. Proceedings of the International Con-
1-6 0.55 0.77 4.7*10-8 50 1000 1000 ference on Physical Modelling in Geotechnics 2010
1-7 0.55 0.77 4.7*10-8 100 1400 2002 (ICPMG 2010).1309-1314
1-8 0.59 0.8 2.7*10-8 116 1500 1500 (fit) [3]. Bezuijen A., (2010). Compensation and corrective grout-
ing in sand, Experiments, field experiences and mecha-
nisms. Phd-Thesis. Delft University of technology.
[4]. Gafar, K., Soga, K., Bezuijen A., Sanders M.P.M. and
5 CONCLUSIONS Tol A.F. van, (2008). “Fracturing of sand in compensa-
tion grouting.” Proc. 6st Int. Symposium on Geotch. As-
Although the principle of hydraulic fracturing is pects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground,
Shanghai. 281-286
comparable in rock, clay and sand, the dominant [5]. Jafari, M.R., Au, S.K.A., Soga, K., Bolton, M.D. and
mechanism is different. The fracture in rock and Komiya, K. (2001). “Fundamental laboratory investiga-
clay will have a small d/s ratio and the soil de- tion of compensation grouting in clays,” Geotechnical
formation can be approximated with an elastic Special Publications No. 113, American Society of Civil
Engineers, pp. 445-459
model. Fracturing sand with grout as normally [6]. Kleinlugtenbelt, R. (2005). Compensation grouting,
used in compensation grouting in sand may lead laboratory tests in sand. MSc thesis. Delft University of
to relatively high injection pressures. This is be- Technology.
cause the filter cake formation develops faster [7]. Rietdijk, J., Schenkeveld, F.M., Schaminée, P.E.L.,
Bezuijen, A., (2010). The drizzle Method for Sand Sam-
during fracturing and requires wider fractures in ple Preparation. Proceedings of the International Con-
sand than occur in rock or clay material. ference on Physical Modelling in Geotechnics (ICPMG)
Compensation grouting in sand in the field re- 267-272.
sults in large variations in the injection pressure, [8]. Sanders, M.P.M (2007). Hydraulic fracture grouting,
laboratory tests in sand. MSc thesis. Delft University of
likely because of variations in the thickness of Technology.
the external filter cake. This will lead to varia- [9]. Smith M.B. and Shlyaporbersky J.W. (2000) Basics of
tions in the fracture shape and thus in variations hydraulic fracturing, Chapter 5 from Reservoir Stimula-
of the area over which heave is created from one tion, Economides M.J. and Nolte K.G. (ed.) John Wiley.
ISBN 0471491926
injection location.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 519
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-519
ABSTRACT
Hard soils/ soft rocks (HSSR) are natural materials where the bonds between particles have important contribution
to their strength and stiffness. Progressive rupture of these bonds affects irreversibly the hydro-mechanical beha-
vior of these materials. Most of the existing models follow the idea that bond degradation depends on accumulated
plastic strains. Such is the case of the model used to describe the mechanical behavior observed in oedometer and
isotropic compression tests performed on marls.
RÉSUMÉ
Les roches tendres/sols durs sont des matériaux naturels ou ses particules minérales ont des liaisons permanentes
qui contribuent de façon importante pour sa résistance et rigidité. La rupture progressive de cette structure affecte
irréversiblement le comportement hydromécanique de ces matériaux. La majorité des modèles actuels suit l'idée
d’une dégradation de liaisons, associé aux déformations plastiques accumulées. Tel est le cas dans le modèle utili-
sé pour décrire le comportement mécanique observé dans les essais de compressibilité exécutés sur des marnes.
1
Corresponding Author.
520 L. Caldeira et al. / Use of a Damage Parameter to Model the Mechanical Behavior of Marls
pletely destructured material. Size difference re- relatively high plasticity (wL=49% and PI=25%)
duces for decreasing bonding. Several other au- consistent with the nature of the minerals present
thors [2,3,4] reproduced the transition between (mainly chlorite, kaolinite, bentonite, illite and
elastic and elasto-plastic behavior by adopting gypsum, quartz, feldspar, calcium carbonate and
kinematic hardening models with bounding sur- mica) [8]. Some other relevant properties are a
face plasticity (bubble models). porosity of 37% for in situ water content of 17%
Bond loss can also be introduced in constitu- (saturation degree of 77%) and unit weight of
tive models by considering explicitly the rupture 27.4kN/m3. The saturated permeability is
of connections. This micromechanical approach k=810-14m/s.
was used by Alonso & Alcoverro [5] adopting a A marked volume dependence on water con-
model for double structured materials, in which tent was registered [8]. Also, when wetted the
the microstructure represents the bonded clay material exhibits volume increment and micro-
minerals of the HSSR, where bonds act restrain- cracking (porosity increment). The water reten-
ing their swelling deformations, and the macro- tion curve was measured for three drying-wetting
structure is the rock matrix. Progressive bond cycles (Fig. 1), in which degradation due to wet-
breakage caused by loading history (both stress ting with the increment of the saturated water
and suction changes) allows larger deformations content was observed. This physical degradation
and therefore it results in increasing irreversible was confirmed in Environmental Scan Electron
deformations of the matrix. Another approach Microscope photographs.
can treat HSSR as composite materials made of a
clay matrix interlocked with a bonding material 1000.00 Rock - drying
(cement) [6,7]. The clay matrix is described with Rock - wetting
a constitutive model for unbonded clayey soils 100.00 Rock after 3 cycles - drying
Rock after 3 cycles - wetting
such as Cam Clay Model. The behavior of the
Total suction (MPa)
Remoulded - drying
bonds or cements is described by an elastic dam- 10.00
Remoulded - wetting
age law typical of quasi-brittle materials. The
1.00
elastic stiffnesses are therefore reduced with remoulded
damage, which is considered in the definition of
0.10
the elastic mechanical properties of the bonds as
if it was reducing the bonded area which is re- 0.01
Rock
sisting to loading. ?
Rock (3 cycles)
?
This paper presents the results of oedometer 0.00
tests and isotropic compression tests performed 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56
water content (%)
in samples dried in laboratory environment. The
results of the tests are reproduced using a consti-
Figure 1. Evolution of the water retention curve [8].
tutive model for structured materials incorporat-
ing a damage parameter to reproduce structure
Figure 1 shows the evolution of the curves
loss caused by loading. The model adopted in the
with increasing cycles, as well as the curve
work presented is accordingly to the proposal by
measured for the material prepared with water
Alonso & Alcoverro [5] and will be described
content w=1.5wL (destructured material). The
with some detail in the paper. It is shown that the
convergence of the curves to this boundary case
model is able to reproduce the main features of
in terms of bonding (complete breakage of bond
the behavior observed in the tests.
connections) illustrates well the structure loss
suffered by the marls when subjected to suction
cycles. The curves were fit using Van Genuchten
2 MARL CHARACTERIZATION
[9] expression (Sr definition in Eq. 1) (drying:
P=0.3MPa, Y=0.2; wetting: P=0.9MPa, Y=0.2).
Abadia marls studied (upper Jurassic formation
Swelling tests were performed on specimens
of Abadia, Arruda dos Vinhos, Portugal) have a
L. Caldeira et al. / Use of a Damage Parameter to Model the Mechanical Behavior of Marls 521
with different initial suctions and under different values of 4 (0.003, 0.004 and 0.005 for the first,
vertical stress [8]. The results of these tests al- second and third cycles) and Y (Y=0.015) were
lowed the quantification of constant necessary measured. Then the specimen was reloaded to
to calculate effective stresses (Eq. 1) [10]. In the vertical stress of 7.4MPa and then fully satu-
Equation 1, p’ is the isotropic effective stress, p rated and unloaded (4=0.017). This last part of
is isotropic total stress, s is suction and Sr is the the test was performed to show the high sensi-
saturation degree (Eq. 1) calculated with the wa- tivity of the marls to suction changes. Figure 2
ter retention curve for the bonded material (first shows the large contrast between the elastic
cycle). It was found =4.56 [8]. compressibility indexes obtained before and after
full saturation.
Y
2 1 /
0 X 1Y -
p ' p sS r with Sr 1 (1) 1.31
0 P -
10 .- 1.30
specific volume, v
1.29
1.28
1.27
3 EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
1.26
Full saturation
1.25
Several oedometric tests were performed in sam- followed by collapse
ples (3cm diameter, 1.8cm high, initial void ratio 1.24
0 1 10 100 1000 10000
e=0.29) where different loading cycles (including
net mean stress, p (kPa)
stress and suction) were applied. In a first set,
three specimens were initially dried (relative
Figure 2. Oedometric test of specimen S4 [8].
humidity RH=45%, s=124MPa, w=3.4%) and
then vertical stress was applied in dry (specimen The compressibility of the destructured ma-
S1) and in fullt saturated conditions (S2), or after terial was also investigated because it corres-
partial wetting to s=0.5MPa (S3) [8]. A marked ponds to the situation when the bonding effect
swelling deformation was observed when the restraining the deformations of the clay minerals
marl was fully saturated under small vertical in the rock matrix is lost. It was found Y=0.250
stress, which allowed to measure the elastic and 4=0.030.
compressibility index for suction changes Isotropic compression tests were also per-
4s=0.007 [11]. The horizontal stresses were as- formed (see the companion paper [12]). The spe-
sumed to be half of the vertical stresses. As ob- cimens (approx. 5cm diameter, 10cm high, initial
served for unsaturated materials, stiffness in- void ratio e=0.29) were dried in laboratory envi-
creases with suction, as well as the size of the ronment before testing, which corresponds to
elastic space measured by the yielding stress. s=100MPa. Maximum isotropic stress applied
BBM constants [11] were determined with the was 12MPa and loading cycles were applied at
results of these three tests (Y(0)=0.027, r=0.65, 4MPa, 8MPa and 12MPa (Fig. 3).
b=0.05MPa-1, p0*=858kPa, pc=280kPa). The test allowed to obtain 4 (increasing aver-
In a second set of tests, the specimens were age values: 0.002, 0.003 and 0.004) and Y
initially dried to s=124MPa and then subjected to
(Y=0.017). As observed when loading cycles
different loading paths [8]. Only one test where were applied in oedometric conditions, elastic
stress cycles were applied under this constant stiffness reduces with increasing cycles. The val-
suction is studied in this paper (S4). The speci- ues found in this test are very similar to those
men was loaded until 7MPa but three unload- measured in the oedometric test.
reloading cycles were applied for increasing
stresses of 2.2MPa, 4.4MPa and 7.4MPa. The
522 L. Caldeira et al. / Use of a Damage Parameter to Model the Mechanical Behavior of Marls
(3) described.
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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526 F. Cotecchia and C. Vitone / On Model Requirements to Predict Behaviour of Fissured Clays
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 531
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-531
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 537
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-537
ABSTRACT
The mechanical behaviour of natural geomaterials is often anisotropic. Sedimentary rocks usually show a limited form of aniso-
tropy, called cross-anisotropy. This paper presents an original constitutive model based on a hardening Drucker-Prager elasto-
plastic framework that has been adapted to consider cross-anisotropic elasticity as well as an anisotropic plastic criterion. The
cohesion is a function of the angle between the direction of the major compressive stress and the normal to the bedding plane.
This original model consists in a relatively simple upgrading of a well-known elasto-plastic model, well-adapted for sedimentary
hard soils or soft rocks. The ability of the model to reproduce the directional dependency of the elasto-plastic response of clay
rocks, as observed in triaxial tests, is proved by numerical simulations of experimental tests.
RÉSUMÉ
Le comportement mécanique de géomatériaux naturels est souvent anisotrope. Les roches sédimentaires ont la plus part du
temps une forme d’anisotropie limitée, appelé anisotropie transverse. Ce papier présente un modèle de comportement original
basé sur un modèle élasto-plastique de type Drucker-Prager à écrouissage qui a été adapté pour considérer l’élasticité anisotrope
transverse ainsi qu’un critère de plasticité anisotrope. La cohésion dépend de l’angle entre la direction de la contrainte majeure
de compression et la normale au plan de stratification. Ainsi, ce modèle original constitue une adaptation relativement simple
d’un modèle élasto-plastique bien connu, bien adapté pour les matériaux sédimentaires tels que les sols indurés ou les roches
tendres. La capacité du modèle à reproduire la dépendance directionnelle de la réponse élasto-plastique des roches argileuses,
comme observé dans les essais triaxiaux, est évaluée grâce à des simulations numériques.
2 MECHANICAL CONSTITUTIVE MODEL Figure 1. Transformation of the global axis (E1, E2, E3) into
anisotropic axes (e1, e2, e3). e1 and e2 are orthogonal axis in
Because of elastic anisotropy, the elasto-plastic the bedding plane while e3 is the normal to bedding plane.
The elastic component of the strain rate %ij is
*e
stress-strain relations are more convenient to be
expressed in the anisotropic axis, as indicated by
T T
linked to stress rate through the Hooke law :
the star in exponent ( ij and % ij ). In the more
general situation, the reference axes do not coin-
%ij Dijkl kl
*e e T
(3)
cide with the axes of anisotropy and the expres-
T
sion of ij and % kl can be obtained from ij
*
e
The Dijkl matrix considers cross-anisotropic
and % kl expressed in the system of reference:
elasticity which requires 5 independent parame-
ters [3]. The elastic compliance matrix is:
T T
ij Rki Rlj kl ; % ij Rki Rlj % kl (1)
2 1 //// Z // /
with R being the rotation matrix: 0 E E// EZ -
0 // 1 Z // -
0 //// 0 -
2 cos cos sin cos sin / 0 E// E// EZ -
0 // Z // Z 1 -
R 0 sin cos W cos cos W sin W cos - (2) 0 -
0 sin W sin cos sin W sin sin
- e
Dijkl 0 E// E// EZ
1 //// - (4)
01sin W sin sin sin cos W cos cos W - 0 -
cos sin cos W sin W cos . 0 E// -
0 1 -
0 0 -
is the rotation angle around the axes E 3 2G// Z
0 1 -
(rotation in the ( E 1 , E 2 ) plane), the angles 0 -
1 2G// Z .
and W defines the rotation around the axes e 2
where the subscripts // and Z indicates, re-
and e1 , respectively (Figure 1). The positive di-
spectively, the direction parallel to bedding (di-
rection of rotation is counter-clockwise. rections 1 and 2) and perpendicular to bedding
E1 , E2 , E3 and e1 , e2 , e3 are the reference (direction 3). The symmetry of the stiffness ma-
axes and the anisotropic axes, respectively. trix imposes that
B. François et al. / An Extended Drucker-Prager Hardening Model for Cross-Anisotropy 539
2 sin I 3c 0
f II ˆ tan (6) The used model is a hardening Drucker-
3 3 sin Prager model that allows hardening/softening
processes during plastic flow. This is introduced
where c and are the cohesion and the fric- via an hyperbolic variation of the friction angle
tion angle. I and II ˆ are the first stress tensor and the cohesion between initial ( 0 and c0 ) and
invariant and the second deviatoric stress tensor critical state ( f and c f ) values as a function of
invariant, respectively.
the Von Mises equivalent plastic strain % eq [4]:
p
The material cohesion depends on the angle
between major principal stress and the normal to
the bedding plane ( ). Three cohesion values 0 % eq
p
c c0 % eq
p
(9)
0 ; c c0
1 f f
an angle of 45° ( 45, ) with respect to the where B p and Bc are materials parameters.
1
g II ˆ I 0 (7) exhibit the highest rigidity but they are more brit-
3 3 sin X tle. For the Tournemire shale, the shear strengths
540 B. François et al. / An Extended Drucker-Prager Hardening Model for Cross-Anisotropy
4 CONCLUSIONS 50
1 = 90°
Deviatoric stress [Mpa] 40
In many applications the anisotropic character of 1 = 0°
100
3 = 20 MPa
REFERENCES
80
Peak strength [MPa]
ABSTRACT
Repeated small amplitude dynamic loading of the soil in the vicinity of buildings, as arising from traffic or construction activi-
ties, may cause differential foundation settlements and structural damage. In this paper, an accumulation model for settlements
due to vibrations at small strain levels in granular non-cohesive soils is proposed. It is assumed that the dynamic part of the
stresses is small with respect to the static part. As plastic deformation in the soil is only observed after a considerable amount of
dynamic loading cycles, only the accumulation of the average plastic deformation is considered. The accumulation model is ca-
librated by means of cyclic triaxial tests. However, the stress conditions in the cyclic triaxial tests are an approximation of the
complex loading paths in the soil under traffic induced vibrations, that are intrinsically multi-axial and transient signals. There-
fore, a rainflow counting algorithm is used to relate traffic induced vibrations to the triaxial test conditions. The model is applied
to compute the differential settlement of a two-story building founded on loose sandy soil under repeated passages of a truck on
a nearby speed table. Results demonstrate that vibrations may give rise to significant long term settlement of structures.
RÉSUMÉ
Un chargement dynamique répété du sol à proximité de bâtiments, dû au trafic ou à des activités de construction, peut produire
des tassements différentiels et des endommagements structuraux. Dans cet article, un modèle est proposé pour estimer l'accumu-
lation de déformations dans les sols granulaires non-cohésifs sous chargement dynamique répété de basse amplitude. Il est sup-
posé que la partie dynamique des contraintes est négligeable par rapport à la partie statique. Comme la déformation plastique
dans le sol n'est observée qu’après un nombre important de cycles de chargement dynamique, seule la valeur moyenne de la dé-
formation plastique est considérée. Le modèle d'accumulation est calibré à l'aide d'essais triaxiaux cycliques. Toutefois, les con-
ditions expérimentales, liées à l’utilisation d’essais triaxiaux cycliques, diffèrent des conditions de chargement complexes ren-
contrées dans le sol sous l’effet de vibrations, induites par le trafic, qui sont intrinsèquement des signaux multiaxiaux et
transitoires. Par conséquent, un algorithme rainflow est utilisé pour relier les vibrations induites par le trafic aux conditions de
l'essai triaxial. Le modèle est appliqué pour calculer le tassement différentiel d'un bâtiment sous l’effet du passage répété d'un
camion. Les résultats montrent que les vibrations peuvent donner lieu à d'importants tassements à long terme des structures.
Keywords: Strain accumulation model, low level vibration, granular soil, long-term behavior
1
Corresponding Author.
542 S. François et al. / Long Term Accumulation of Deformation in Granular Soils
impinge on the foundations of nearby structures. paths in the soil under traffic induced vibrations,
For small amplitude dynamic loading with result- that are intrinsically multi-axial and transient
ing strain amplitudes below , no (measura- signals. In order to demonstrate this, the free
ble) residual deformation is observed for a single field vibrations during the passage of the truck
load cycle and the constitutive behavior of the over a speed table is computed with the numeri-
soil can be described by linear visco-elastic cal prediction model proposed by Lombaert [7].
models. After a large numbers of events, howev- A two-axle truck with a wheel base of
er, permanent deformation is observed in many passes at a vehicle speed on the
cases. speed table. Figure 1 shows the vertical dis-
To describe the long term accumulation of de- placement at the point in
formation, a number of constitutive models have the free field. The four peaks correspond to the
been developed that only describes the accumu- front and rear axles driving on and off the speed
lation of the average permanent deformation per table. The stress and strain history during the
load cycle. In this paper, the accumulation model passage of the truck is follows a similar complex
developed by François et al. [2] and Karg et al. loading path.
[5] is employed.
The results of cyclic triaxial tests are used to
calibrate phenomenological models for the calcu-
lation of foundation settlements. However, the
stress conditions in the cyclic triaxial tests are
only an approximation of the complex loading
paths in the soil under traffic induced vibrations,
that are intrinsically multi-axial and transient
signals.
Niemunis et al. [6] have proposed a metho-
dology to relate complex loading signals to the Figure 1. Displacement history at the point
cyclic loading amplitude in a cyclic triaxial test in the free field.
by means of a tensorial amplitude. However, the
tensorial amplitude is not particularly suited for In order to adopt the one-dimensional accu-
transient signals, since only the peak value of the mulation model to the multiaxial loading as ob-
time history of the signal is accounted for, neg- served in practice, the loading history should be
lecting the fact that a transient signal is a compo- represented as a one-dimensional measure of
sition of cycles with small and large amplitudes. stress or strain. In this paper, the signed Von
Therefore, an alternative methodology is pro- Mises strain is used, which is defined as the Von
posed, based on a rain flow counting algorithm, Mises strain that takes the sign of the maximum
decomposing the transient loading signal into a absolute principal strain. Figure 2 shows the
number of equivalent sinusoidal signals. signed Von Mises strain history at the point
The proposed accumulation model is imple- (Figure 4) in the free field.
mented in a finite element framework. The Next, a rainflow counting algorithm is applied
model is applied to compute the differential set- that decomposes the signed Von Mises strain his-
tlement of a two-story building founded on loose tory into a number of simple cyclic loads [8].
sandy soil under repeated passages of a truck on Figure 3 shows the histogram of strain amplitude
a nearby traffic plateau. for a single passage of a truck as obtained with
the rainflow counting algorithm. Miner’s rule [6]
is applied that states that the sequence of the load
2 RAINFLOW COUNTING ALGORITHM cycles has no influence on the total accumulation
of deformation.
The stress conditions in the cyclic triaxial tests
are an approximation of the complex loading
S. François et al. / Long Term Accumulation of Deformation in Granular Soils 543
4 CONCLUSION
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 551
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-551
ABSTRACT
In this article, the modeling of soft rock time dependent behavior is studied within the framework of the Finite Element Method,
in a thermodynamically consistent manner. The well known Hoek-Brown failure criterion, which is a nonsmooth yet convex mul-
tisurface plasticity model, is adopted to define the yielding of the rock mass. The nonsmoothness of the elastic domain introduces
severe numerical complexities, that are bypassed by integrating the constitutive equations in the principal stress space. Post-yield
behavior is assumed to be characterized by perfect plasticity and the rate-dependent behavior is accomodated by a suitable genera-
lization of the Duvaut-Lions viscoplastic model. Aspects referring to overstress functions, dilatancy and brittleness are also ad-
dressed. Two numerical examples are provided to demonstrate and validate the proposed model.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans cet article, on étudie dans le contexte de la méthode aux éléments finis et de manière consistent du point de vue de la ther-
modynamique, le comportement dépendent du temps de rocher mou. Le critère de rupture de Hoek-Brown, critère convexe mais
non régulier, est adopté en tant que critère de résistance pour le rocher. Les difficultés numériques dues à la présence de points
non réguliers sur le contour du domaine élastique sont surmontées en intégrant les équations du modèle dans l’espace des con-
traintes principales. Le comportement anélastique est caractérisé par un modèle de plasticité parfaite et la dépendance par rapport
au temps est régie par une généralisation du modèle viscoplastique de Duvaut-Lions. Quelques questions concernant les fonctions
d’overstress, la dilatation et la fragilité sont adressées. Deux exemples numériques servent pour la validation du modèle proposé.
Keywords: Soft rock, viscoplasticity, perfect plasticity, Hoek-Brown, Duvuat-Lions, principal stress space.
1
Corresponding Author.
552 F.E. Karaoulanis and Th. Chatzigogos / Elasto-Viscoplastic Modeling
In this article, the modeling of soft rock time smoothness of both yield criteria introduce se-
dependent behavior is studied within the frame- vere complexities that lead to different numerical
work of the Finite Element Method, in a thermo- approaches, proposed algorithms and computer
dynamically consistent manner. A nonsmooth implementations [15].
convex multisurface yield criterion, namely the The extension of classical plasticity models to
Hoek-Brown failure criterion, is adopted to de- accommodate non-smooth yield surfaces goes
fine the elastic domain. Post-yield behavior is as- back to the fundamental work of Koiter [16].
sumed to be characterized by perfect plasticity Later formulations of plasticity employing con-
while the rate-dependent behavior is accommo- vex analysis as in Moreau [17] encompass these
dated by a suitable generalization of the Duvaut- classical treatments as a particular case. Recent
Lions viscoplastic formulation. formulations are usually based on the work of
Simo [8] where the standard Kuhn-Tucker com-
plementarity conditions are used to provide the
2 STATE OF ART characterization of plastic loading/unloading.
In this work, the above treatment is reformu-
Several authors have employed elastic visco- lated and implemented using the spectral decom-
plastic models to predict the stress-strain-time position of the stress tensor. It is then applied to
behavior of rock either excluding [4] or includ- the elastic-perfectly plastic Hoek-Brown yield
ing some form of hardening [5, 6, 7]. The yield criterion and finally is extended to accommodate
criteria and the corresponding plastic potentials rate-dependent behavior, following the Duvaut-
used involve either single [6] or multiple surfac- Lions approach [18]. All the complexities intro-
es [4, 5, 7]. However, all the above mentioned duced by the non-smooth yield surface eliminate
approaches follow the Perzyna formulation, and a general, simple and extremely robust algo-
while it can be proven not always to reduce to rithm is obtained, capable of modeling soft rock
the rate-independent solution [8]. time dependent behavior.
The original Hoek-Brown yield criterion was
introduced in 1980 [9], focusing on the design of
underground structures. Based on similar yield 3 NUMERICAL IMPLEMENTATION
criteria for concrete, the significant contribution
that E. Hoek and E.T. Brown made was to link
the equation to geological observations, initially 3.1 Governing equations
to Bieniawski’s Rock Mass Rating and later to
the Geological Strength Index GSI [10]. The Let İ\^ denote the total strain tensor at a fixed
original criterion is considered strongly biased point of a solid ȋ\Ǻ, Ǻ\^ndim, where
towards hard rock, therefore a generalized ver- ndim\{1,2,3}. In the infinitesimal case, the
sion was subsequently introduced [11], which is strains İ are simply identified as the symmetric
a superset of the original one but can also de- part of the gradient of the displacement vector
scribe the behavior of poor or extremely poor and are assumed additively decomposed, as
rock masses.
From a computational standpoint, limited ef- İ İe İe (1)
fort was made towards the implementation of the
Hoek-Brown yield criterion (see e.g. [12] for a where İe and İp are referred to, as the elastic and
smoothed approximation or [13] for an algorithm plastic strain parts respectively. Assuming a
based on the geometrical properties of the crite- hyperelastic material, İe is related to the stress
rion). The main research was focused on using tensor through a stored energy function,
the Mohr-Coulomb criterion with parameters
based on curve fitting processes between the "W
Mohr-Coulomb and the Hoek-Brown surfaces ı Cİ e (2)
"İ e
[14]. However, singularities rising due to non-
F.E. Karaoulanis and Th. Chatzigogos / Elasto-Viscoplastic Modeling 553
while the plastic part is given from the flow rule, 3.2 Numerical integration
which according to Koiter [16] reads for the mul-
If isotropy in the elastic response is assumed,
tisurface plasticity:
then it can be easily shown that the strain spec-
tral directions coincide with the stress spectral
"g (ı )
İ p Y (3) directions and therefore a solution algorithm can
"ı be formulated in the principal stress space. Em-
ploying a backward Euler integration procedure
Functions gĮ(ı):^Qı_^, Į , define a plastic and a Newton-Raphson integration scheme the
potential, which dictates the direction of the plas- following residual vector, Jacobian matrix and
tic flow. The parameters Ȝ are nonnegative sca- vector of unknowns yield:
lars, called the consistency parameters, which
are assumed to obey the following Karush– 2 e mact
/
(k )
0% A % A Y " ı A g -
e ,trial a a
Kuhn–Tucker complementarity conditions and
the consistency requirement: r (k ) 0 a 1 - (8)
0f a -
1 . n1
Ya ` 0, f a ) 0, Ya f a 0, a f a 0 (4) (k )
2 1 mact a /
0c Y " ı Aı A g "ı A g -
a a
J (k ) 0 (9)
Finally the functions with fĮ(ı):^Qı_^, Į , a 1 -
are usually known as yield functions, assumed to 01 "ıA f 0 -.
n 1
intersect non-smoothly in what follows and de- (k ) (k )
fine the so called elastic domain, i.e. the follow- 2#ı A / 2ı trial /
x (k )
0 a- x (0)
0 A,n1 - k d k 1 (10)
ing convex set, 1#Y . 010 -.
b {ı \ ^ n : f (ı ) ) 0, aa \ [1,2, m]} (5) The working set of the active yield surfaces is
assumed fixed during the iteration procedure.
m being the number of the active constraints. Of Admissibility of the solution is checked w.r.t. the
special importance is the case where fĮ U gĮ, Karush–Kuhn–Tucker complementarity con-
which goes by the name associative flow rule. dtions and the set of active yield surfaces is up-
Now recall that according to the Spectral dated accordingly.
Theorem, the spectral decomposition of the
stress tensor is given as: 3.3 Viscoplasticity
It can be easily proven that the Perzyna viscop-
ı n1 ı c ( n1) m ( A) , m ( A) n ( A) : n ( A) (6) lastic formulation is not suitable for multisurface
plasticity, since it does not always reduce to the
where ıǹ and nA are the principal Cauchy rate-independent case [8]. Therefore a viscoplas-
stressses and directions respectively, A={1,2,3} ticity formulation, closely related to a model
and Einstein’s summation convention is as- originally developed by Duvaut-Lions [18] is uti-
sumed, except for indices in parentheses. There- lized, which in first order accuracy gives for the
fore, gradients of f and g, may be defined as: stresses:
"f "g A n 1 ( t / * ) ı n 1
ı trial
" f m A , " g m (7) ı n 1 (11)
"ı A "ı A 1 t / *
a
f 1 3 ci mb 3 s (12)
ci Figure 1. The Hoek-Brown yield surfaces in the Haigh-
Wastergaard stress space.
where ıci is the uniaxial compressive strength of
the impact rock and mb, s and Į empirically de-
termined parameters [11]. Considering the sign
convention used in rock mechanics, the follow-
ing six equations can be used, to describe the
yield criterion in the principal stress space (see
Fig. 1). However, assuming that ı1 ı2 ı3, only
the following three equations can be used [19],
namely f1, f2 and f3, defining the sextant shown in
Fig. 2.
a
f1 1 3 ci s mb 1
ci
a
f 2 2 3 ci s mb 1
(13)
ci
Figure 2. The Hoek-Brown yield surfaces in the ʌ-plane.
a
f 3 1 2 ci s mb 1
ci
4 EXAMPLES
Dilatancy can be included in the model, as-
The proposed model has been incorporated into
suming gf and supplementing an additional set
the general purpose finite element program ne-
of the empirically defined parameters, namely
mesis [20], developed by the first author. In order
mbg, sg and Įg. Finally brittleness is introduced
to study the hard soil/soft rock time dependent
using a reduced set of material parameters, after
behavior, a material with properties given in Ta-
the initial yield [4].
ble 1 is chosen and subjected to two numerical
experiments. The first one refers to a typical tri-
axial test, while the second one examines the
case of a cylindrical hole in an infinite elastop-
lastic medium.
F.E. Karaoulanis and Th. Chatzigogos / Elasto-Viscoplastic Modeling 555
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
New constructions of foundations for rotating and reciprocal machines are offered. These constructions are called the combined
massive plate foundations. They consist of deepened massive rigid blocks or a rigid frame with attached thin horizontal plates at
various levels. The finite element dynamic analysis is conducted using the SAP4 package. Experimental investigation of the
foundations is provided to verify the obtained solution. New calculation methods for combined massive plate foundations are
developed.
RÉSUMÉ
Des nouvelles configurations des fondations pour les machines à piston à mouvement rectiligne et avec des organes en mouve-
ment rotatifs sont proposées. Des fondations combinées à blocs et plaques se composent de blocs pas grands noyés ou de cadres
indéformables, auxquelles des plaques horizontales effilées sont attaches à quelques niveaux. L’analyse dynamique par éléments
finis est effectuée en utilisant le programme SAP4. Des recherches expérimentales sur les nouvelles fondations sont présentées
également. Des méthodes de calcul des fondations combinées à blocs et plaques ont été développées.
Keywords: Combined massive plate foundations, viscoelastic bases, vibrations of foundations, finite element dynamic analysis
under dynamic loadings. Plate foundations re- problem is studied, and then perturbation method
quire more complex calculations as any system is used to take into account the influence of resi-
with distributed parameters. A problem of devel- dual factors. The mathematical model of MPF
opment and investigation of dynamic calcula- vertical oscillations is a concentrated mass with
tions for plate foundation on an elastic half-space either plates or beams on a viscoelastic base.
is still an important issue. However, the applica- Integral transformations for horizontal oscilla-
tion of plate foundation for machines with dy- tions of the frame and plates are considered as a
namic loading is quite limited due to plate flex- problem of beams or plates on a viscoelastic base
ibility. Recently it was shown that massive plate using asymptotic and transformation methods.
foundations (MPF) are much more efficient The advantage of such mathematical models is
compared to conventional block-type founda- that they allow calculation of the MPF free and
tions. A simple sketch of an MPF is presented in forced oscillations as well as its eigenfrequen-
Fig. 1. Frequency response of the MPF has lower cies. Analytical solutions for the MPF dynamic
vibration level due to optimal choice of construc- behavior were derived for the following cases:
tional foundation characteristics. Vertical and horizontal forced oscillations
The MPF is deepened into a soil and consists of an MPF on a viscoelastic base;
of either light solid blocks or rigid frame with Free vertical oscillations of an MPF on a
horizontal thin plates attached at different levels. viscoelastic base;
The dynamic characteristics of these foundations Vertical and horizontal forced oscillations
vary based on the size and position of the plates. of group block foundations coupled by a
plate on a viscoelastic base;
Vertical and horizontal forced oscillations
2 METHODS of block foundations coupled by an in-
finite plate on a viscoelastic base;
In this paper, an analytical method of dynamic Forced vertical oscillations of an MPF on a
analysis of massive plate foundations for rotating viscoelastic inertial base.
and reciprocal machines under dynamic loadings
is applied. The considered spatial construction 2.1 Finite element analysis of the massive
consists of a rigid frame with attached flexible plate foundations
plates on a viscoelastic base. Therefore, the dy-
namic contact problem for spatial viscoelastic 2D finite element analysis of the MPF for ma-
system with distributed parameters has to be chines with periodic loading is conducted using
solved. In order to derive the solution, the fol- the SAP-IV package. A foundation in the plane
lowing assumptions are used. Plates can be con- stress state is modeled for various sizes of plates
sidered as plates or beams. Sharp distinction be- and blocks.
tween blocks and thin plates is used and
asymptotic method is applied. First, a simple
50
0 m 3 CONCLUSIONS
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
Figures 12. Amplitude-frequency response of the combined [1] D.D. Barkan, Dynamics of Bases and Foundations,
massive plate foundations under vertical periodic loadings: 1- MCGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1962.
distance between plates– 0.5 m; 2 – 1m. [2] O.A. Savinov, Foundations under Machineries
SPCLCiv.Eng.@Arc, Moscow, 1955.
The vibration experiments of a soil base were [3] Y. Kirichek, Combined Massive and Plate Foundations
for Dynamic Loaded Machines, Soil Mechanics and
conducted using a die. The soil characteristics Foundations 5 (2000), 292-299.
were determined using the compression dynamic [4] I. Andrianov, J. Awrrejcewich, Y. Kirichek, G. Koblik,
tests. Asymptotyc Study of Half-plane with Embedded
The effective massive plate foundations allow Punch, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
45 (2007), 5-14.
adjusting the dynamic characteristics in a wide [5] Y. Kirichek, V. Bolshakov, About oscillations of dee-
range in correspondence with the current dynam- pened combined massive and plate bodies on visco-
ic loadings. This permits to minimize the vibra- elastic basement, Proceedings for 4-th Euromech Solid
tion of machines under dynamic loadings. Mechanics Conference in Metz (2000), 632-640.
[6] Y. Kirichek, Construction of Combined Massive and
Hence, theoretical investigation of the com- Plate Foundations under Dynamic Loaded Machineries,
bined massive plate foundations is conducted us- Civil Engineering, Material Science and Machinery
ing analytical and numerical methods. To verify construction 5 (1998), 16-21.
the obtained results, the field and laboratory ex-
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 563
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-563
ABSTRACT
Behavior of bonded geomaterials such as soft rocks and sensitive clay is characterized by the yielding and structural degrada-
tion. Leroueil and Vaughan(1990) pointed out the congruent effects in two materials, soft rocks and sensitive structured clay
based on the experimental laboratory test results. Kimoto and Oka(2005) developed an elasto-viscoplastic model for soft clay
considering rate dependency and degradation due to straining. Then the model can describe the strain softening and rate depen-
dency due to the structural change and degradation and it has been successfully applied to the analysis of soft clayey ground
such as consolidation and excavation. In this paper considering the congruent behavior of soft rocks and structured clay, we have
applied the elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model for clay to the triaxial compression behaviors of sedimentary soft rock called
Ohya stone in Japan with different confining pressures, which exhibits both distinctive strain-softening under the low confining
pressures (Adachi and Oka,1995). Simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental results. For example, Fig. 1
shows the simulated and experimental results for Ohya stone under the confining pressure of 5 kPa. We have found the model
can applicable to both soft clay and soft rocks. The model is numerically stable, and is thus highly suitable for computational
analysis and design tools.
RÉSUMÉ
Comportement de geomaterials en liaison tel que pierres douces et l'argile sensible est caractérisée en le cédant et déchéance
structurelle. Leroueil et Vaughan (1990) ont signalé les effets conformes dans deux matières, les pierres douces et argile structu-
rée sensible ont basé sur les résultats de l'épreuve du laboratoire expérimentaux. Kimoto et Oka (2005) ont développé un modèle
de l'elasto-viscoplastic pour argile douce étant donné dépendance du taux et déchéance dû à tendre. Alors le modèle peut décrire
l'adoucissement de la tension et dépendance du taux dû au changement structurel et déchéance. Il a été appliqué avec succès à
l'analyse d'argileuse terre douce tel que consolidation et excavation. Dans ce papier étant donné le comportement conforme de
pierres douces et argile structurée, nous avons appliqué l'elasto-viscoplastic modèle constitutif pour argile aux comportements de
la compression du triaxial de pierre douce sédimentaire appelés qu'Ohya lapident au Japon avec pressions confinant différentes
qui exposent les deux tension-adoucissement distinctif sous les basses pressions confinant (Adachi et Oka,1995). Les résultats de
la simulation sont dans bon accord avec les résultats expérimentaux. Par exemple, Figue. 1 spectacles les résultats simulés et ex-
périmentaux pour Ohya lapident sous la pression confinant de 5 kPa. Nous avons trouvé la boîte modèle applicable à argile
douce et pierres douces. Le modèle est numériquement stable et est donc très convenable pour analyse computationelle et outils
du dessin.
Keywords: Soft rock, Constitutive model, elasto-viscoplasticity, bonding, degradation, strain softening
1
Corresponding Author.
564 F. Oka et al. / Elasto-Viscoplastic Constitutive Modeling of Soft Sedimentary Rocks
ponent, % v
e in which * T(0) is the relative stress ratio defined
as:
1 (3)
% ije eije % ve# ij
3 * T(0) (*ijT *ijT(0) )(*ijT *ijT(0) ) (9)
F. Oka et al. / Elasto-Viscoplastic Constitutive Modeling of Soft Sedimentary Rocks 565
2.4 Hardening and softening rule where my( s ) denotes the mean effective stress in
the static equilibrium state, in which no viscop-
The hardening - softening rule for the OC boun-
lastic deformation occurs.
dary is defined as:
The volumetric strain hardening - softening
follows the following rule
1 e0 vp maf ( mai maf )exp( z ) ( s )
mb ma exp %v (10)
my( s )
myi exp
1 e0 vp
%v
Y 4
mai Y 4
(15)
in which Y and 4 are the isotropic consolida- It can be seen that if my decreases, the static
tion compression and swelling indices. yield function shrinks due to structural collapse.
The parameter ma is defined as: The parameter M T in Equation (16) is assumed
ma maf ( mai maf )exp( z ) (11) to be constant in the NC region. In the OC re-
gion, it varies as follows:
566 F. Oka et al. / Elasto-Viscoplastic Constitutive Modeling of Soft Sedimentary Rocks
"f p (19)
*ijT(0)*ijT(0) (17) % ijvp Cijkl
j ( f y )
mc mb exp " kl
M mT
where
In case of isotropic consolidation, *ijT(0) 0 .
Hence, mc = mb . fj ( f y ) if f y k 0 (20)
j( f y ) h
i 0 if f y ) 0l
2.6 Visoplastic potential function in which j is a material function for rate sensi-
The viscoplastic potential function is given as tivity, f y 0 denotes the static yield function
follow: and f p 0 denotes the viscoplastic potential
function. The value of f p is assumed to be posi-
tive for any stress state in this model. In other
f p * T(0) M T ln( m 8 mp ) 0 (18)
words, the stress state always locates outside the
static yield function, thus the viscoplastic defor-
Figures (2) shows the shape of the OC boun- mation always occurs. Based on experimental re-
dary surface f b 0 , the static yield function sults of constant strain rate triaxial tests (Adachi
f y 0 , and the viscoplastic potential function and Oka 1982, Kimoto and Oka 2005), the ma-
f p 0 for *ijT(0) 0 in NC region and OC re- terial function j can be defined as:
gions. 2 T /
* (0) M ln( m( s ) ) -
T
j( f y ) C m exp 0 m
10 my .-
m
C0 m exp[m (* T(0) M T ln( mai ) )]
myi( s ) ma exp( A3% vvp )
(21)
where
1 e0 (22)
A3
Y 4
1 mb . " ij
(24)
2.8 Numerical results and discussions In the present paper, we have found that the elas-
to-viscoplastic model is applicable for the soft
Oka and Adachi (1985) proposed an elasto-
sedimentary rocks , which can describe degrada-
plastic constitutive model for soft rocks and car-
tion of the material, i.e., strain softening. In the
ried out a series of test on Ohya porous tuff (To-
future study we will reconsider the material pa-
chigi, Japan) in order to validate the model. Four
rameters and the behavior with different strain
triaxial drained test series were carried out at the
rates.
same strain rate of 0.025%/min. under four dif-
ferent confining pressures.
est results as well as Adachi and Oka’s simula-
tion results are shown in Figures 6, 7, 8, 9. REFERENCES
The experimental results clearly showed that
[1] S. Leroueil and P. Vaughan, The general and
both strain softening and dilatancy are evident in
congruent effects of structure in natural soils and
the cases of CD-1 and CD-5. As confining pres- weak rocks, Geotechnique, 40, 3, 1990, 467-488.
sure increases, dilatant behavior gradually be- [2] F. Oka and T. Adachi, An elasto-plastic constitu-
come insignificant. Strain softening still exists tive equation of geologic materials with memory,
under high confining pressures, however the sof- Proc. 5th Int. Conference on Numerical Methods
tening scales are significantly reduced. in Geomechanics, Nagoya, Kawamoto, T. and
Ichikawa, Y. eds., Balkema, 1, 1985, 293-300.
In the following, numerical simulation using [3] T. Adachi and F. Oka, An elasto-plastic constitu-
tive model for soft rock with strain softening, Int.
the model by Kimoto (2005) will be presented. J. N. Anal. Meth. in Geomechanics, 19, 1995,
The experimental results by Oka and Adachi 233-247.
(1995) will also be used for the validation of the [4] S. Kimoto and F. Oka, An elasto-viscoplastic
model. Table 1 shows the parameters used for model for clay considering destructuralization
the simulation. Besides the parameters already and consolidation analysis of unstable behavior,
determined by Oka and Adachi (1995), the newly Soils and Foundations, 45, 2, 2005, 29-42.
introduced parameters: Viscoplastic parameters
m and C0 can be obtained from undrained tri-
axial tests with different strain rates; structural
parameters maf and are selected by curve
fitting methods, as mentioned previously.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a novel approach to model the shear strength of highly overconsolidated, stiff clays in numerical analysis.
The multilaminate framework of the model is explained, and details of the yield surfaces, plastic potential functions and harde-
ning rules are given. Comparison of undrained stress paths predicted by the model and laboratory test results shows that the mo-
del is well suited to predict peak strength and dilatant behavior typical for overconsolidated soils.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article présente une approche originale pour modéliser numériquement la résistance au cisaillement des argiles raides forte-
ment surconsolidés. Le modèle multi-plan est expliqué et les surfaces seuils de plasticité, les potentiels plastiques et les lois
d’écrouissage sont détaillés. La comparaison des chemins de contrainte non-drainés prédits par le modèle d’une part et résultants
d’un essai de laboratoire d’autre part, montre que le modèle est bien adapté à la prédiction du pic de résistance et du comporte-
ment dilatant typique des sols surconsolidés.
1
Corresponding Author.
570 B. Schädlich and H.F. Schweiger / A Multilaminate Soil Model for Highly Overconsolidated Clays
C gl 3
Ti
C i,loc
TiT
wi (3) dİ ipl,loc Yi
"g i
(8)
i "ı i ,loc
f trial
Cnn 0 0 Yi (9)
"f i 1 "g i "f i "g i
C loc 0 Ctt 0 (4)
C i,loc
0 "ı i,loc "ı i,loc "İ pl "ı i,loc
0 Ctt i ,loc
1 2 1 3
Cnn
E
; Ctt
E
(5)
pl
dİ gl 3
Ti
dİ ipl,loc
wi (10)
i
The factor of 3 in front of the summation can be
derived from the principle of virtual work by The new global trial stress is then calculated with
comparing the sum of local work contributions the difference of the total strain increment and
and the macroscopic work. The weight factors wi the plastic strain increment.
depend on the chosen integration rule. In this
study an integration rule based on 2 × 33 planes
[1] is used, which proved to balance well be-
pl
ı gl ,trial C gl
dİ gl dİ gl ı gl ,old (11)
tween accuracy and computational cost. This iterative procedure is repeated until the
The transformation matrix Ti contains the de- plastic strain increment of the current iteration is
rivatives of the local stress components with re- less than 1% of the total plastic strains calculated
spect to the global stress state. Using a fixed set in that step.
of local coordinates represented by the unit vec-
tor niT = (ni,1, ni,2, ni,3) normal to the plane i and
two unit tangential vectors within the plane, siT =
4 HVORSLEV SURFACE MODEL
(si,1, si,2, si,3) and tiT = (ti,1, ti,2, ti,3), these derivates
take on constant scalar values.
4.1 Yield functions and hardening rules
"ı i,loc
Ti
"ı gl The yield surfaces are defined on plane level in
local tangential (shear) stresses and normal
ni2,1 ni,1
s i,1 ni,1
t i,1
(6) stresses n. Plastic strains and mobilization of the
n2 ni,2
s i,2 ni,2
t i,2
i,2
yield surfaces are allowed to differ from plane to
2
n i ,3 n i ,3
s i ,3 n i ,3
t i ,3 plane, resulting in strain induced anisotropy dur-
2ni,1
ni,2 ni,1
s i,2 ni,2
s i,1 ni,1
t i,2 ni,2
t i,1 ing plastic loading.
2 n i , 2
n i ,3 n i ,3
s i , 2 n i , 2
s i ,3 n i ,3
t i , 2 n i , 2
t i ,3 In the model three yield surfaces are defined.
n i ,1
n i , 3 n i , 3
s i ,1 n i ,1
s i , 3 n i , 3
t i ,1 n i ,1
t i , 3 The elliptical, strain hardening cap yield surface
By projecting the global trial stress vector gl,trial controls compression behavior in the normally
with the transformation matrix T i on plane i, the and lightly overconsolidated range.
local trial stress vectors i,loc are obtained for all
planes.
n ,i e 'CS
lin
re
ı i,loc s,i Ti
ı gl ,trial T ilu
(7) MCP· nc fa
'm
t , i
fHV
Plastic strains are calculated locally based on
elastic fcap
strain hardening elastoplasticity. Back- fcone
region
transformation and summation of all local plastic
strains delivers the global plastic strain incre- n,CS nc - n
ment. Figure 2: Local yield surfaces
572 B. Schädlich and H.F. Schweiger / A Multilaminate Soil Model for Highly Overconsolidated Clays
tan e
K
3
(14) c HV B
1
n,ve (19)
2 1 tan CS
3
1 2 /-
p ref
0
0 E ref ref
E ur - ref
1 oed . 1 m E
n,ve 2 nc oed
...
01 ref
E ur (20)
m
p'
ref
E oed ref
E oed
p ref
(15)
...31 2
1n m 1nc m 6 1 /(1 m )
8 n,ve
critical 'CS 'max
state line
'CS
fHV ac
e 'm
fcap surf Xm ine
'e B lev tate l
v ors al s
cHV H ritic
C
B/tan'CS & n8 n,ve Xmax
Figure 3: Normalized local shear strength contours
q/ e [kPa]
Experimental and calculated undrained stress
0.4
paths for the normally and overconsolidated
samples are compared in Figure 6. The model
0.2
predicts the dilatant/compressive behavior of the
overconsolidated and normally consolidated
0.0
samples with good accuracy. If normalized by 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
the equivalent pressure pe, both experimental and
p/pe [kPa]
calculated overconsolidated stress paths do not
reach the critical state line (Figure 7). In the ex- Figure 7: Normalized undrained stress paths
periment such behavior can be attributed to the
formation of shear bands, triggering local in-
crease in volume and subsequent loss of shear 6 CONCLUSION
strength. Similarly, in the calculations planes at
the most critical orientation preferably develop A novel approach to model deformation behavior
plastic normal strains, resulting in reduced and strength characteristics of highly overconso-
strength on these planes. lidated, stiff clays has been presented. The model
is based on the multilaminate framework and au-
tomatically takes into account anisotropy in-
800
duced by plastic strains. Peak shear strength in
(a) the highly overconsolidated range is defined by a
600 Hvorslev surface whose size depends on the de-
q [kPa]
ABSTRACT
When designing deep excavation pits next to waterways that are still being operated, verifying hydraulic heave safety is crucial
to determine the necessary length of the pit walls. To reduce their embedment depth, a surcharge filter can be installed.
However, studies based on numerical groundwater computations show that verification standards for hydraulic heave safety are
not applicable for excavation pits with an installed surcharge filter. Standard approaches neglect significant vertical flow below
the wall toe. A method which considers these flow forces was developed based on the numerical flow computations to determine
reliably the necessary thickness of the surcharge filter. To examine this theoretical approach and the failure mechanism, several
laboratory tests were performed which were evaluated with various methods.
RÉSUMÉ
Pour des excavations à proximité immédiate des canaux de navigation en service, la vérification de la stabilité contre des renards
est déterminante pour la longueur nécessaire de la cloison de l’excavation. En installant un filtre de surcharge au fond de
l’excavation, on peut réduire la profondeur nécessaire de la cloison. Pourtant, analyses conduites sur la base des calculs
numériques des courants de l’eau souterraine montrent que les vérifications conventionnelles ne sont pas applicables pour des
excavations avec un filtre au fond de l’excavation, parce qu’elles ne prennent pas les courants verticaux au-dessous du pied de la
cloison en compte, qui, en ce cas, sont très signifiants. C’est pour cette raison qu’une méthode fiable a été développée sur la base
des calculs numériques des courants de l’eau souterraine pour déterminer l’épaisseur nécessaire du filtre de surcharge qui prend
les forces des courants en compte. Pour vérifier cette approche et analyser le mécanisme de la défaillance, de nombreux d’essais
de laboratoire ont été exécutés et exploités moyennant de différentes méthodes.
1
Corresponding Author.
576 P. Schober et al. / Research on Hydraulic Heaves at Excavations with Surcharge Filters
embedment depth of the pit walls due to a filter. The relevant width, however, according to
surcharge filter installed inside the excavation [3] corresponds only to a half of the embedment
pit. Odenwald and Herten [2] already depth of the wall below the pit bottom. In this
documented the results of the performed analyses case, the weight of the surcharge filter needs to
in detail. Based on these, the Bundeswehr be considered as an additional stabilizing force.
University Munich conducted comprehensive The installed surcharge filter needs to be filter
laboratory tests and evaluated these using various stable against the soil below the pit bottom and
methods. may only cause a slight decrease of the
groundwater potential.
2 VERIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC
HEAVE SAFETY 3 NUMERICAL GROUNDWATER FLOW
COMPUTATIONS
Lowering the groundwater level inside an
excavation pit down to its bottom leads to
groundwater flow to the excavation pit with an 3.1 General
upward flow direction from the wall toe to the The numerical groundwater flow computations
bottom of the excavation pit. If the thus caused were performed based on a steady state, vertical-
flow force S suspends the buoyant weight of the plane groundwater model under simplified
soil G’ as well as other possible stabilizing forces assumptions. This refers in particular to the
R, hydraulic heave results. This can lead quickly assumptions of a groundwater potential at both
to the flooding of the excavation pit due to sides of the pit wall at the height of the terrain or
regressive erosion around the toe wall as well as pit surface (below the surcharge filter) and of a
to the collapse of the excavation pit. homogeneous and isotropic ground. Thus, in
Based on the German geotechnical codes, cases of flow in direction of the pit, the
hydraulic heave safety is verified according to groundwater potential can be described by only
approaches by Terzaghi-Peck [3] or Baumgart- considering the quotient of the pit wall’s
Davidenkoff [1] they use a simplified unstable embedment depth below the pit bottom and the
block to determine the relevant forces. Both groundwater potential difference 'h.
methods only compare the flow force S and the According to Terzaghi-Peck’s or Baumgart-
buoyant weight of the soil G’. Possible friction Davidenkoff’s approaches, the flow force results
forces are neglected. Terzaghi-Peck’s approach from the residual potential difference 'hr
determines the forces with the help of a prismatic between the lower edge of the unstable block at
soil block whose height corresponds to the the wall toe and the pit bottom. Considering the
embedment depth t of the wall below the pit applied simplified assumptions, the ratio of the
bottom and whose width corresponds to half of residual potential difference and the total
the embedment depth (b = t/2). Baumgart- potential difference 'hr/'h can be specified as a
Davidenkoff’s approach uses a block whose function of t/'h (Figure 1). As the length of the
width is negligible and whose height is also the applied unstable block only corresponds to the
distance between the pit bottom and the wall toe. distance from the pit bottom to the lower edge of
Since, in cases of undercurrent flow, the the wall, the residual potential difference drops
groundwater potential at the wall toe is always down to zero with decreasing embedment depth
higher than the mean potential at the lower edge t. If an unstable block starting at the wall toe is
of the unstable block according to Terzaghi- used for the computations, vertical flow in the
Peck’s approach, Baumgart-Davidenkoff’s ground below the wall toe is not considered.
approach is always more conservative.
Applying the functional relation of 'hr/'h and
When using a surcharge filter, the height of
t/'h also allows determining the necessary
the unstable block is the distance between the
thickness of the surcharge filter dF depending on
wall toe and the upper edge of the surcharge
P. Schober et al. / Research on Hydraulic Heaves at Excavations with Surcharge Filters 577
t/'h. For the equilibrium state without any safety continuously decreasing embedment depth down
factors, a dimensionless variable including the to zero. Apparently, verifying hydraulic heave
quotients dF/'h and JF/JW (JF: unit weight of the safety for a construction which involves a
surcharge filter material; JW: unit weight of surcharge filter by using an unstable block that
water) is specified for a ratio JS’/JW = 1.0 (JS’ only reaches to the wall toe is inadequate to
buoyant unit weight of the soil) depending on determine the necessary wall embedment in the
t/'h (Figure 2). ground.
and a quotient of the buoyant unit weight of the depth t of the wall and the thickness of the
soil and the unit weight of water JS’/JW = 1.0. As surcharge filter dF were varied.
opposed to the approach using an unstable block
that starts at the wall toe, computations based on 4.1 Experimental observations of failure mode
the new approach, using an extended unstable
block, concluded that even if the embedment We observed the failure mode of the hydraulic
depth is reduced down to zero a surcharge filter heave during the test series using several
is still needed. However, a maximum is also measurement techniques. The used measurement
reached here, which means that at constant techniques and instruments were: 3 water
potential difference, a further reduction of the pressure sensors around the base of the partition
embedment depth requires a less thickness of the panel, 3 displacement sensors in the middle of
surcharge filter. To verify this apparently the test box, fluid flow meter behind the outlet of
contradictory statement, laboratory tests were the test box and the Particle Image Velocimetry
performed that are described in the following. (PIV) method.
Two different temporal failure processes of
hydraulic heave, depending on the thickness of
the surcharge filter dF, were observed. During the
tests with a thickness of the surcharge filter dF =
2 cm, relevant elevations were already detected
some potential steps before the hydraulic heave
occurred. As for the tests with the surcharge
filter sizes dF = 4 cm or dF = 6 cm, the hydraulic
heave occurred 1 to 3 minutes after the first
elevation could be observed. Therefore, it can be
assumed that the thickness of the surcharge filter
dF has a significant influence on the fracture
behavior.
potential difference. The penultimate image the test box. The displacements were detected by
displays the displacements at the beginning of displacement transducers. Transducer 1, which is
the potential step, the last image show it briefly located at a distance from the partition panel of 5
before the hydraulic heave occurs. The same cm, also shows the first significant elevations at
failure behavior was observed in almost all tests. the potential difference of 'h = 48 cm - 50 cm.
Furthermore, the yield line of the unstable This corresponds to the observations in Figure 5.
block can be visualized by the PIV method for
all potential differences. Hence, the geometry of
the unstable block for several potential
differences 'h can be determined. For further
investigation, the results of the analysis can be
used as a basis to develop the theoretical
approach and adapt the unstable block.
4.1.3 Water pressure conditions considered. The assumption and the idealized
The recorded pressure curves were used to unstable block in the theoretical approach cause
control the duration of a potential step. the differences between the theoretical approach
Comparing the curves of the water pressure and the experimental tests.
sensors with the illustration of the absolute
displacements detected with the PIV method
(Figure 4), it can be seen that the first relevant
displacements in front and at the base of the
partition panel occur at the potential difference
of 'h = 42 cm where the irregular run of the
curves begins (sensor 1 and 2 in Figure 8).
Hence, relocations and/or displacements in the
test sand can be detected by observing water
pressure curves. At the beginning of the test, the
hydraulic differences are relatively small. Hence, Figure 9. Results of experimental series
no relocations or displacements occur and the
pressure curves run regularly ('h = 12 cm – 42
5 CONCLUSION
cm in Figure 8). If the curves show jerky leaps or
run irregularly, it can be assumed that relocations The result of the numerical computation with
and/or displacements occur around the pressure an extended unstable block and the results of the
sensor ('h = 42 cm – 54 cm in Figure 8). experimental series show qualitative similar
results. If the ratio between the embedment depth
of the wall and the potential difference t/'h falls
below a defined value, the required thickness of
the surcharge filter dF drops. The relatively high
quantitative difference between the results of the
numerical computation and the experimental
tests causes from assumptions in the theoretical
approach. The development and the adaptation of
the theoretical approach will be object to further
investigation. With the applied measurement
Figure 8. Water pressure u [mbar] techniques, the failure figure could be visualized
and the failure mode was observed.
4.2 Results of experiments
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 9 shows the results of the experimental
series and the theoretical approach as a function The project was sponsor by the Federal
of dF/'h and t/'h. Similar to the results of the Waterways Engineering and Research Institute
theoretical approach, the test results show that Karlsruhe, Germany.
the required thickness of the surcharge filter dF
drops down from a defined ratio between the
embedment depth of the wall and the potential REFERENCES
difference t/'h. [1] Davidenkoff, R., 1970. Unterläufigkeit von
The results of the test series are clearly below Stauwerken, Wernerverlag, Düsseldorf
the results of the theoretical approach. Hence, the [2] Odenwald, B., Herten, M., 2008. Hydraulischer
theoretical approach can be assessed as being Grundbruch: neue Erkenntnisse, Bautechnik 85, Heft 9,
S. 585 -595
very conservative. In the theoretical approach, [3] Terzaghi, K, Peck, R. B., 1948. Soil Mechanics in
only the weight of the unstable block is Engineering Practice, John Wiley and Sons, New York
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 581
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-581
ABSTRACT
Hardening Soil model (HS) available in numerical computer program Plaxis is widely used in geotechnical practice for modeling
both cohesive and non cohesive soils. The basic characteristics of the model are stress dependent stiffness according to a power
law, plastic straining due to primary deviatoric loading, plastic straining due to primary compression, elastic unloading/reloading
and failure according to the Mohr-Coulomb model. In this paper parameters of HS model are evaluated for Erksak sand. The tri-
axial tests database used consists of 15 drained and 31 undrained tests and it covers wide range of sand density and isotropic
consolidation pressure. Results of simulations show that relative density has to be accounted for to be able to simulate the sand
behavior for different states. Some relationships to relative density are proposed for reference secant stiffness, effective angle of
internal friction and angle of dilatancy. Great advantages of HS model, but also some limitations are presented in this paper, both
for drained and undrained conditions.
RÉSUMÉ
Le modèle Hardening Soil (HS), disponible dans le code de calcul Plaxis, est largement utilisé pour modeler le comportement
des sols cohérents et incohérents. Les caractéristiques essentielles du modèle sont la rigidité qui dépend des contraintes selon une
loi de puissance, les déformations plastiques dues au chargement déviatoir primaire, les déformations plastiques dues à la com-
pression primaire, le chargement/déchargement élastique et la loi de rupture selon Mohr-Coulomb. Dans cet article les para-
mètres du modèle HS ont été évalués pour le sable Erksak. On a utilisé les résultats des essais triaxiaux, 15 essais drainés et 31
essais non drainés, avec une grande variété de la pression de consolidation isotrope, sur les échantillons du sable ayant une
grande variété de la densité. Les résultats des simulations ont montré que pour le propre comportement calculé du sable aux états
différents, on doit prendre compte de l’indice de densité. On propose des relations entre l’indice de densité d’une part et la rigidi-
té sécante de référence, l’angle de frottement effectif et l’angle de dilatance d’autre. Les grands avantages et aussi quelques limi-
tations du modèle HS sont présentés pour les conditions drainées et non drainées.
Keywords: sand modeling, hardening soil model, triaxial test, critical state, dilatancy, Plaxis software
tion. It can be observed from drained triaxial where Rf is failure ratio (ultimate deviatoric
tests on the dense and loose sand, starting from stress qf divided by asymptotic stress qa), while
the same isotropic consolidation pressure, that E50 (the confining stress dependent stiffness
for high rate of shear deformation both samples modulus for primary loading) and qf (the ulti-
dilate toward the same final density reaching the mate deviatoric stress) are given by:
critical state [2]. In the critical state the sand is
shearing under the constant rate of stresses re- m
c cos '3 sin
taining the same volume. For different isotropic E50 E50ref (2)
c cos p sin
ref
pressures different critical state voids are
reached, that can be well approximated by the
critical state line [3-5]. For dense sand it is cha-
racteristic to reach the peak strength at relatively 2 sin
small shear deformation and to reduce the q f (c cot ' 3 ) (3)
strength for further shearing, while the loose
1 sin
sand reaches the critical state strength gradually.
The effect of peak strength caused by dilatancy is where E50ref is a reference stiffness modulus cor-
less pronounced at higher isotropic pressure [6]. responding to the confining pressure pref, power
For both dense and loose sand the stress-strain m is amount of stress dependency and c and
relationship can be relatively good approximated are strength parameters (see Figure 1).
by hyperbola [7]. The shear hardening flow rule in HS model is
All the characteristic of real sand behavior linear and depends on mobilized dilatancy angle
mentioned above can be well observed on triaxi- Xm which takes value:
al tests on Erksak sand [5]. The database of tests - for = 0 and sinm < 3/4 sin, Xm =0
consist of 15 drained and 31 undrained triaxial - for sinm ` 3/4 sin and X ) 0, Xm = X
tests in wide range of sand density and consoli- - for sinm ` 3/4 sin and X > 0
dation pressure which gives the great opportunity
to validate the capabilities of Hardening soil sin m sin cv
model (HS) to model the real sand behavior. sinX m max ,0 (4)
1 sin m sin cv
2 HARDENING SOIL MODEL where cv is critical state friction angle, X is soil
parameter and m is mobilized friction angle
HS model available in numerical computer pro- adopted from stress-dependent theory [10]:
gram Plaxis was originally developed for model-
ing real sand behavior [8]. The basic characteris- '1 ' 3
tics of the model are stress dependent stiffness sin m (5)
according to a power law, plastic straining due to '1 ' 3 2c cot
primary deviatoric loading, plastic straining due
to primary compression, elastic unloading and
reloading, dilatancy and failure according to the
Mohr-Coulomb criteria [9]. The basic idea for
the formulation of the HS model is the hyperbol-
ic relationship between the vertical strain %1 and
the deviatoric stress q in drained triaxial loading:
1 q
%1 (1)
2 E50 (2 R f ) 1 qR f / q f
Figure 1. Hyperbolic stress-strain relation for HS model [9].
I. Sokolić and Ž. Skazlić / Triaxial Test Simulation on Erksak Sand Using Hardening Soil Model 583
3 TRIAXIAL TESTS ON ERKSAK SAND The limiting void ratios are emin = 0.521 and emax
= 0.747, average grain size D50 = 0.33mm, con-
The database of triaxial test on Erksak sand con- tent of fines 0.7 % and critical state friction angle
sists of 15 drained and 31 undrained triaxial tests cv = 31.5 degrees.
in the wide range of effective isotropic consoli-
dation pressure (60kPa < p’0 < 8100kPa) and ini-
tial void ratio (0.588 < ei < 0.820). The change of 4 TRIAXIAL TEST SIMULATION
void ratio of samples and the effective isotropic
stress due to shearing in drained and undrained The results of triaxial tests on Erksak sand were
conditions are shown on Figure 2. It can be seen used to calibrate the parameters of HS soil model
that all the samples are changing the initial void and to evaluate the capabilities of HS model to
ratio ei towards the critical state line (CSL) ap- simulate the behavior of Erksak sand for differ-
proximated by log-log relationship [11]. In ent initial densities, in wide range of initial con-
drained conditions initially dense samples below solidation pressure and for different type of drai-
the CSL line (‘dry’ region [3]) are dilating, while nage conditions.
the loose samples above the CSL line (‘wet’ re- As hyperbolic stress-strain relationship of HS
gion) are compacting. In undrained conditions model is defined for drained shearing, the results
the volume of the initial sample remains constant of drained triaxial test were used to derive the
while the isotropic pressure is increasing for parameters of the model. For each drained triaxi-
samples in ‘dry’ region or reducing for samples al test the stress-strain results were used to define
in ‘wet’ region. the ultimate friction angle , ultimate shear stress
For all the tests in database the stress-strain qf, 50% of ultimate strength qf(50) and corres-
relation is available together with basic mechani- ponding axial deformation %1(50). The confining
cal and physical characteristics of Erksak sand. stress dependent stiffness modulus for primary
loading E50 was calculated using the equation:
q f (50 )
E50 (6)
% 1(50)
emax ei
ID (7)
emax emin
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R. Tamagnini et al. / Cemented Soil Modelling Based on the Principles of Thermodynamics 589
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590 R. Tamagnini et al. / Cemented Soil Modelling Based on the Principles of Thermodynamics
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592 R. Tamagnini et al. / Cemented Soil Modelling Based on the Principles of Thermodynamics
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ABSTRACT
Due to increasing height of buildings and development of the underground space hard proterozoic deposits now are used quite
often as subsoils of structures in Saint Petersburg. For high-rise buildings embedding pile ends into hard soils often is the only
possible option of foundation design, since the depth of rocks in central Saint Petersburg is more than 200 m. One of the main
tasks of pile foundation design subjected to big loads is estimation of settlements of such foundation. Meanwhile, deformation
properties of hard soils are not studied well yet.
Research of these deposits was conducted by the authors on several sites in Saint Petersburg. It consisted of laboratory testing in
triaxial cells, and in-situ tests. Results of investigations on one test site in the centre of Saint Petersburg are presented in the
paper. Some results of soil-structure interaction modeling of a high-rise building are also presented.
RÉSUMÉ
En raison de développement d’hauteur des edifices á Saint-Peterbourg et construction souterrain, dépôts protérozoïques durs
devient le sou-sol plus souvent. Pieus des bâtiments élevés doivent atteindre ces depots pour autant que roches au centre de
Saint-Peterbourg se trouve au fond de 200 m. En cas des charges grandes sur le sous-sol le problème principal est le calcul des
tassements de foundation sur pieux qui repose sur les argiles durs. Cependant les propriétés de déformation sont étudieés
insuffisamment.
Les auteurs de cet article investigueaient les dépôts protérozoïques durs en quelques sites á Saint-Peterbourg. Ils font le
complexe d'epreuves, y compris les epreuves triaxial de laboratoire et les epreuves sur les puits de reconnaissaissance. Dans cet
article quelque calculs de système “sous-sol - edifice” sont présentéés.
Keywords: Wendian clays, triaxial tests, soi-structure interaction analyses, high-rise building
1
Corresponding Author.
594 V.M. Ulitsky et al. / Specifics of Behavior of Subsoils Consisting of Hard Proterozoic Deposits
2 3
Figure 1. Change of shear strength (kPa) of Wendian clays with depth. According to various test schemes (dots represent soil
samples): 1 – Unconsolidated-undrained (UU), 2 – Consolidated-undrained (CU), 3 – Consolidated-drained (CD) tests.
V.M. Ulitsky et al. / Specifics of Behavior of Subsoils Consisting of Hard Proterozoic Deposits 595
2
1
Figure 2. Change of vertical relative strain of Wendian clay samples (kPa) at failure with depth. According to various test
schemes (dots represent soil samples): 1 – Unconsolidated-undrained (UU), 2 – Consolidated-undrained (CU),
3 – Consolidated-drained (CD) tests.
Figure 3. Change of degree of saturation of Wendian clay samples with depth. Variously shaped points correspond to various
soil elements and boreholes.
596 V.M. Ulitsky et al. / Specifics of Behavior of Subsoils Consisting of Hard Proterozoic Deposits
2
1
Figure 4. Dependency of strength on saturation in triaxial tests according to various test procedures:
1 – Unconsolidated-undrained (UU). y = 7E+07x-4.3017, R2 = 0.7152; 2 – Consolidated-undrained (CU),
y = 1E+08x-4.431, R2 = 0.7225; 3 – Consolidated-drained (CD) tests, y = 5E+07x-4.2041, R2 = 0.6611.
Fig. 5 shows comparison of dependencies of first and foremost, to the scatter of natural physi-
reached axial strain of samples on water content cal soil properties.
based on triaxial tests at various schemes of hard Absence of significant differences during hard
clay behaviour. There was no significant differ- clay tests according to different schemes presuma-
ence in strength or deformability of hard clay bly means that the volumetric strain component is
samples in various testing schemes. Thereat, immaterial. Thus, the behaviour of hard clay sam-
however, a considerable scatter of both strength, ples can be described based on various conditions
and deformability is observed, which is related, (of both drained and undrained testing modes).
3
1
Figure 5. Dependency of max. vertical strain on degree of sample saturation in Wendian clays according to various testing
procedures: 1 – Unconsolidated-undrained (UU), 2 – Consolidated-undrained (CU), 3 – Consolidated-drained (CD) tests.
V.M. Ulitsky et al. / Specifics of Behavior of Subsoils Consisting of Hard Proterozoic Deposits 597
3 SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION rettes, pilecap slab and external core walls with
MODELLING OF A HIGH-RISE spatial finite elements; modelling the internal
BUILDING core walls and intermediate floors with plate fi-
nite elements; modelling the columns and beam
The designed high-rise building (having about 80 cells with spatial rod elements.
floors) is of core and frame type. Its overall sta- General outlook for the superstructure calcula-
bility is ensured by joint action of the central tion profile is presented in Fig. 6 (`).
monolithic reinforced concrete core and steel Soil-structure interaction analysis of the de-
columns along the building perimeter, the col- signed high-rise building and its subsoil was per-
umns being joined into a single system by means formed according to several scenarios of subsoil
of steel beam cells, along which intermediate behaviour:
floor discs are placed; additionally there are spe- 1. Calculating structures of the building on elas-
cial outrigger beams in three levels of mainte- tic subsoil, as per requirements contained in
nance floors. In such a layout the main element currently applicable codes and in agreement
responsible for assuming the vertical and hori- with assumptions adopted on limiting depth of
zontal components of the loads is the core. compressible stratum in the subsoil of the de-
Square area of the central reinforced concrete signed building.
core decreases with height together with the 2. Calculations with account of subsoil behav-
square area of individual floors, which likewise iour based on non-linear models, which permit
decreases as the building becomes higher. automatic limitation of the depth of com-
As the purpose of our analyses was the con- pressible stratum.
sideration of interaction of the designed super- A considerably important issue in assessing
structure and the subsoil, the necessity arose to settlements of the high-rise building under con-
adequately represent the building superstructure, sideration will be the proportion of subsoil de-
wherewith to ensure the required calculation ac- formation brought about by volumetric and shear
curacy (Ulitsky et al, 2005, Shashkin, 2006). strains of hard clays. With this consideration in
Modelling the action of subsoil and barrettes im- mind, two conflicting hypotheses in respect of
plied obtaining accurate loads distribution onto volumetric compressibility of hard clays were
barrettes, as well as an account of their interac- used in our analyses:
tion with the surrounding soil, which made it 1. there is no volumetric compressibility at all;
necessary to model the barrettes with spatial fi- 2. volumetric compressibility corresponds to the
nite elements. Pressure is transferred onto bar- obtained compression curves within the inter-
rettes through the foundation mat, and consider- val of stresses from natural pressures to acting
ing the thickness of the slab as being 3,6 m, for a stresses in subsoil.
reliable assessment of loads distribution onto The first hypothesis corresponds to an as-
barrettes, again, it was necessary to model the sumption of there being no considerable voids
pilecap slab with spatial finite elements. The ma- filled with air or free pore water in natural soil.
jor portion of loads onto subsoil from the de- The assumption of overconsolidated state of hard
signed high-rise building is generated by concen- clays can lead to a similar conclusion as well. At
trated loads from its core. In the underground overconsolidation ratio OCR=2 or more, addi-
part of the designed building the thickness of the tional loading with the building’s own weight
external core wall is 2 m. Moreover, in places will not exceed preconsolidation pressure, and,
where the core width changes, the width of the correspondingly, volumetric compressibility will
core walls reaches 3,5 m. be at its minimum and will be defined by the
In this case while constructing a 3-D scheme unloading-reloading modulus.
for the building to perform soil-structure interac- In respect of strength parameters (as well as of
tion analysis it was decided to build up the finite shear deformability) three various hypotheses
element profile according to the following se- were put forward:
quence: modelling behaviour of subsoil, bar-
598 V.M. Ulitsky et al. / Specifics of Behavior of Subsoils Consisting of Hard Proterozoic Deposits
1. strength depends, largely, on physical proper- Table 1. Settlement and relative settlement differentials for
ties (natural degree of saturation) of samples various foundation options.
and only weakly depends on total pressure; Subsoil behaviour Option with barrette toe level at
thereat strength is defined directly based on scheme 105 m from ground surface/ Set-
triaxial tests (same as in undrained condi- tlement
tions); max., cm Min., relative dif-
2. strength depends on total confining pressure cm ferential
(i.e. increases with depth), in calculations an Elastic calculation 12,5 9 0,001
through layer-by-layer
account is made of angle of internal friction, summation method
effective stresses in soil skeleton (considering (compressible stratum
also the water column in total absence of a equals ½ of subsoil
confining layer); width)
1 Unconsolidated- 6,5 5 0.0006
3. strength depends on total confining pressure undrained (u-
(i.e. increases with depth), in calculations an lowered)
account is made of angle of internal friction, 2 Consolidated-drained 11 9,6 0.00055
stresses in soil skeleton equal total stresses with account of effec-
tive stress
(not accounting for water). 3 Consolidated-drained 6,5 5 0.0006
effective stress equals
total
The first assumption, as far as its physical
sense is concerned, corresponds to the hypothesis As can be seen from Table 1, various models
of there being no considerable volumetric com- of non-linear foundation-subsoil produce provi-
pressibility of soil. Indeed, there being a depend- sionally close values of settlement from 7 to 11
ency of clay strength on pressure is connected cm. Contours of vertical movements in subsoil
not so much with friction as such, as with soil and superstructure of the designed building, with
compaction under load. An increase in density account of non-linear character of its subsoil be-
leads to a corresponding increase in quantity and haviour according to consolidated-drained
quality of contacts between clay particles and, scheme, are contained in Fig.6 (b) and Fig.7. Dif-
correspondingly, to an increase in strength. If ferences in settlement values calculated based on
there is no considerable volumetric compressibil- possible schemes of subsoil behaviour are condi-
ity, growth of strength at increasing loads is also tioned largely by accounting for or disregarding
hardly probable. In this case strength properties the volumetric component of strain. Here it is
will be defined by natural density of soil, formed necessary to point out that the settlement input
at this or that depth by acting natural stresses. contributed by the volumetric portion of strain in
Prior to calculating superstructure of a build- hard clays will take a rather long time to develop.
ing on non-linear foundation-subsoil we selected As this component of deformations will be en-
parameters of soil models, with which intention tirely defined by consolidation process in hard
we modelled triaxial tests of soil samples. clays, then, bearing in mind low values of per-
Results of calculations performed according to meability coefficient (approximately 10-6 m/day)
various schemes of subsoil behaviour are con- and long permeability paths, this settlement
tained the following table: component will take a long time to develop,
which makes it of secondary importance for con-
sideration over the building lifetime.
V.M. Ulitsky et al. / Specifics of Behavior of Subsoils Consisting of Hard Proterozoic Deposits 599
(`) Figure 6. (`) Calculation profile of The most important for design is distribution
the building superstructure;
b) Settlement contours (m) of the
of loads unto barrettes and stresses in the super-
designed high-rise building with structure. Based on performed calculations, val-
account of non-linear character of ues of loads in future building structures were
its subsoil behaviour according to chosen as the least favourable for the considered
consolidated-drained scheme with
account of dividing pressure into
schemes of subsoil behaviour.
effective and hydrostatic – accord- One of the important moments in foundation
ing to Scheme 2 – Option with bar- design for high-rise buildings is the criterion of
rette toe level at 105 m from the permissible values of absolute subsoil settlement.
ground surface. (Contours spaced
at 0.01 m.)
In this case the ultimate value criterion for foun-
dation settlement was limited to the value of
10 cm. To observe this criterion of ultimate set-
tlement, the barrette toe level in subsoil of the
high-rise building must be approximately 100-
105 m. If the criterion of ultimate settlement de-
velopment of the high-rise building is lowered,
the length of barrettes can be considerably re-
duced.
Another not less significant issue defining re-
liability of foundation-subsoil design is the guar-
antee of adequate bearing capacity of the bar-
rettes. This issue for the site in question was
studied separately and the results of this study
are published in a separate paper.
Thus, analyses of various models of subsoil-
(b)
foundation behaviour provided the possibility to
evaluate the possible range of absolute settle-
ments of the high-rise building, as well as the
range of relative settlement differential of its in-
dividual structures. This in turn allowed defini-
tion of loads distribution range onto barrettes and
the corresponding loads in the structures of the
high-rise building.
-0.01
-0.01
-0.11
-0.01
-0.03 -0.02
-0.02 -0.06
-0.04
-0.1
-0.02
-0.02 -0.1
-0.1
-0.01
-0.04 -0.11 -0.04
-0.1
-0.1 -0.1
-0.039 -0.07 -0.02
-0.01
-0.02
-0.01
-0.01
Figure 7. Contours of barrette settlement (m) when calculating building on non-linear subsoil according to consolidated-drained
scheme with account of dividing pressure into effective and hydrostatic according to Scheme 2 – Option with barrette toe level at
105 m from the ground surface. (contours spaced at 0.01 m).
ABSTRACT
The paper aim was to analyze the influence of fly ash grain-size distribution (representing by the effective sizes, uniformity and
curvature coefficients) and specific density on its compaction curve shape. The tested fly ash was compacted by the Standard
and Modified Proctor methods at various water content ranging over wopt ±5%. The attempt of applying the artificial neural
networks type MLP for fly ash compaction curve points was made. ANNs several inputs (grain-size distribution as D10–D90 and
uniformity and curvature coefficients, compaction method, fly ash specific density) were used. The output vector was presented
by co-ordinates of generated compaction curve points. Using ANN modelling method, models which enable establishing the
approximate compaction curve shape were obtained.
RÉSUMÉ
Le but de cet article est d’analyser l'influence des cendres volantes granulométrie (représentant par la taille effective et les
coefficients d’uniformité et de la courbure) et la densité des particules solides sur la forme de la courbe de compactage. Les
testés cendres volantes ont été compactés par la méthode Proctor Standard et méthode Proctor Modifié à teneur en eau différents
allant plus que wopt ±5%. Un essai d’utilisation des réseaux de neurones artificiels MLP pour les cendres volantes points de la
courbe de compactage a été effectué. Plusieurs entrées d’ANNs (granulométrie comme D10–D90 et coefficients d'uniformité et de
la courbure, méthode de compactage, la densité des cendres volantes de particules solides) ont été utilisés. Le vecteur de sortie a
été présenté par la coordination de la courbe de compactage de points générés. En utilisant la méthode de modélisation ANN,
modèles qui permet d'établir la forme approximative de compactage courbe ont été obtenues.
Keywords: Compaction curve, fly ash, fly ash compactibility, geotechnical parameters, artificial neural networks, neural
modelling
1 INTRODUCTION
Ud
Soil compactibility is defined as an ability to Is (1)
U d max
obtain maximum possible dry density of solid
particles, ρd, and is dependent on compaction
energy, the way that is used, as well as the type where ρd is the dry density of solid particles
of soil and its moisture content. Soil compaction determined for soil compacted in an
is measured by the degree of compaction Is: embankment, ρdmax the maximum dry density of
1
Corresponding Author.
602 K. Zabielska-Adamska and M.J. Sulewska / Neural Modelling of the Fly Ash Compaction Curve
solid particles determined in the laboratory for density–water moisture relationships is very
the same material as ρd. important. Additionally, fly ash compaction tests
Laboratory compaction test requires us to have to be conducted on separately prepared
carry out compaction in standardized ways at virgin sample – each point of fly ash compaction
various moisture contents and as a result of that curve (w, Ud) should be compacted once only in a
plotting the relationship between dry density of Proctor’s mould. Fly ash samples compacted
solid particles (or unit weight) and moisture many times can not be considered as
content. The moisture content at which representative – values for maximum dry density
compacted soil reaches the maximum dry density of solid particles increase with number of
of solid particles is called optimum water repeated compaction at decreasing optimum
content, wopt. Compaction curves ρd(w), which water contents, in comparison with samples
are obtained at various values of compaction compacted only once under the same conditions.
energy, run asymptotically to the line of Spherical ash grains, crushed during compaction,
maximum compaction, called the zero air voids can be stuffed with smaller grains, which
line, calculated assuming that soil pores are improve their packing [2]. This phenomenon
completely filled with water, as well as the line motivates a necessity of determination of fly ash
of saturation degree Sr =1, which determines the compaction curve on virgin samples, so the
degree of saturation when the soil sample is procedure is time-consuming and laborious.
completely saturated. The paper aim is to analyze the influence of
The use of fly ash as a material for earth fly ash grain-size distribution (representing by
structures involves its proper compaction. the effective sizes and curvature coefficients) and
Compaction is the most common method of the specific density on its compactibility parameter
mechanical improvement of soil condition. It values, and to determine the relationship between
increases soil density, improves its strength and physical parameters of tested fly ash and its
penetration resistance, as well as decreases compaction curve shapes. The attempt of using
compressibility and permeability. In engineering the artificial neural networks type MLP for fly
practice materials built-in road subgrade and ash compaction curve points was made. Results
embankment have their own specifications, enable us to predict the shape of the tested fly
which are dependent on type of earth structure ash compaction curve. Consequently, on the
and soil plasticity characteristics. Construction of basis of size-grain distribution and specific
mineral sealing layers usually requires cohesive density of fly ash we can model the compaction
soil compaction to obtain 90 or 95% of curve shape.
maximum compaction, relating to the Standard
and Modified Proctor methods. Concern should
be taken not to use degree of compaction, Is, as 2 TESTED FLY ASH PARAMETERS
the only parameter to assess compaction of
material in a sealing layer or road structure. The Tests were performed on a fly ash and bottom
permeability and mechanical properties of ash mixture from a dry storage yard, which are
compacted cohesive soils are dependent on referred to as fly ash because there is only a
moisture content during compaction, as are vestige of bottom ash in the mix. Fly ash is a by-
properties of fly ash. Consequently, different product of hard coal combustion at the Bialystok
values of geotechnical parameters are obtained Thermal-Electric Power Station. The scheme of
for water content, w, on either side of the carried out laboratory tests, which results are
optimum water content, wopt, on the compaction taken into analysis, is shown in Figure 1.
curve, for the same dry densities, ρd. This applies The grain-size distribution of the tested Class
to both cohesive soil and fly ash [1]. It explains, F fly ash (according to ASTM C618) in most
not only a great importance of compaction cases corresponds to sandy silt, except same
parameters, but also compaction curve shape, so cases of silty sand. On the whole, according to
establishing fly ash compaction curves as the criterion that mineral soils are estimated by
K. Zabielska-Adamska and M.J. Sulewska / Neural Modelling of the Fly Ash Compaction Curve 603
Fly ash
1.15
U d, g/cm3
Standard Proctor Modified Proctor Grain-size Specific
compaction compaction analysis density 1.10
Grain-size 1.05
Compaction curve distribution curve ρs
1.00
Figure 1. Scheme of tests carried out on fly ash samples. Figure 2. The compaction curves from laboratory tests.
by the means of the various error measure determination coefficient, R2, independently for
analysis. In the paper both the root mean squared L, V, and T subsets were shown. ANNs with the
1 P best prediction accuracy along with values of
¦ di yi , where di are the
2
error, RMSE error measures are shown in Table 4.
Pi 1
actual values and yi the predicted ones, and the
Table 4. ANNs of the best prediction accuracy and their error measures.
Output Inputs ANN Epochs RMSE R2
L V T L V T
wopt PC1–PC6 6-3-1 787 0.057 0.122 0.123 0.925 0.671 0.743
wopt5% PC1–PC6 6-2-1 324 0.130 0.094 0.122 0.615 0.697 0.579
wopt2.5% PC1–PC6 6-4-1 264 0.055 0.091 0.117 0.933 0.823 0.709
wopt+2.5% PC1–PC6 6-4-1 184 0.112 0.136 0.125 0.697 0.575 0.564
wopt+5% PC1–PC6 6-3-1 289 0.117 0.109 0.167 0.632 0.557 0.584
ρdmax PC1–PC2, PC4–PC6 5-3-1 117 0.053 0.100 0.096 0.949 0.839 0.867
ρdmax (wopt-5%) PC1–PC5 5-3-1 101 0.051 0.083 0.080 0.929 0.903 0.741
ρdmax (wopt-2.5%) PC1–PC2, PC4–PC6 5-3-1 517 0.077 0.088 0.100 0.880 0.878 0.906
ρdmax (wopt+2.5% PC1–PC6 6-3-1 138 0.064 0.094 0.079 0.927 0.837 0.874
ρdmax (wopt+5%) PC1–PC6 6-3-1 993 0.075 0.087 0.083 0.867 0.916 0.914
Figure 3. Exemplary values obtained from laboratory tests and calculated by ANNs in all data set: (a) wopt values along with 10%
relative errors areas, (b) Udmax values along with 5% relative errors areas.
1.24
actual curves
1.22
predicted curves
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The paper presents the results of an experimental programme carried out in order to measure the soil-water characteristic curve
(SWCC) of two structured soils. Two methods of suction control were used ; the axis translation technique up to 1500 kPa and
the salt solutions method for total suction values between 4 and 150 MPa. The experimental investigation included
measurements of the SWCCs of the two soils when these were reconstituted and reconsolidated (termed as recomposed) in order
to compare these curves with their counterparts measured on the undisturbed samples. The most important conclusions are the
difficulties associated with measuring the SWCC of undisturbed samples of structured soils and the comparisons of these curves
to those measured on reconstituted and reconsolidated samples of the same materials.
RÉSUMÉ
L’article présente les résultats d'un programme expérimental réalisé afin de mesurer la courbe caractéristique sol-eau (CCSE) de
deux sols structurés. Deux méthodes de contrôle de succion ont été utilisés, la technique du déplacement d’axe jusqu'à 1500 kPa
et la méthode des solutions salines pour les valeurs de succion totale entre 4 et 150 MPa. L'investigation expérimentale a
compris des mesures de la CCSE des deux sols lorsque ces ont été reconstitués et reconsolidés (appelé recomposé) afin de
comparer ces courbes avec leurs homologues mesurées sur des échantillons intacts. Les conclusions les plus importantes sont les
difficultés associées à la mesure de la CCSE des échantillons non remaniés de sols structurés et les comparaisons de ces courbes
à celles mesurées sur des échantillons reconstitués et reconsolidés du même matériau.
Keywords: unsaturated soil, soil structure, soil-water characteristic curve, axis translation, salt solutions, recomposed soil.
1
Corresponding Author.
610 M. Bardanis and S. Grifiza / Measuring the SWCC of Structured and Recomposed Soils
paper the SWCC of two marls measured in their ries, the low plasticity and the higher plasticity
undisturbed and reconstituted and then reconso- ones [2, 3]. In this paper the results on the low
lidated state is presented. The aim of the experi- plasticity marl are used, as this material was
mental programme performed and presented was available in larger quantities and therefore more
to study the influence of the structure of natural thoroughly tested.
soils on the soil-water characteristic curve. Fol- The Chalkoutsi Marl constitutes a formation
lowing other researchers, ‘structure’ in this paper found close to the city of Chalkoutsi 35km to the
is regarded as the combination of ‘fabric’, i.e. the north of Athens. High steep slopes are formed in
arrangement of the component particles, and the material by erosion of their toe by the sea
‘bonding’, i.e. those interparticle forces that are with occasional landslides and lanslips occurring
not of a purely frictional nature [1]. along the 5km coast that the formation forms the
highest slopes. As in the case of Corinth Marl,
samples were taken from a distance less than 1m
2 THE SOILS TESTED from the actual seaside and at an altitude less
than 0.5m.
Two soils were tested, the low plasticity Corinth Initial suctions on the samples of the two soils
Marl and the Chalkoutsi Marl. Both of them were 9kPa and 25kPa respectively, measured by
were chosen on the basis that fully saturated means of a SoilMoisture Quickdraw tensiometer.
samples could be found in-situ. This meant that In the case of the Chalkoutsi Marl, a chilled-
samples had to be taken from locations in close mirror hygrometer was also available and used to
proximity to water bodies. It was anticipated that measure the total suction in the samples. This
although it would be easier to find naturally oc- was found in the order of 3 MPa (measurements
curing structured soils away from water bodies, on 3 different samples including the one that the
the prevailing climatic conditions in Greece matrix suction was measured using the Quick-
would probably cause them to be initially unsatu- draw tensiometer) indicating a very high osmotic
rated. As a result, comparisons between the component of suction practically of the same or-
SWCC of the naturally occurring structured soil der. This is probably due to the proximity of the
and its reconstituted and reconsolidated counter- sample location to the seaside and the dip direc-
part would not be straightforward if the struc- tion of the slope it was obtained from. The dip
tured soil had an initial degree of saturation direction of the slope is north to north-east in an
smaller than 100% on top of its structure. In the area with prevailing north winds and therefore
present study this requirement narrowed the wave and spray from the same direction. Thus it
available materials close to the city of Athens to is expected that the salt content in the pore water
the Corinth Marl and the Chalkoutsi Marl. of the material is not just the one determined by
The Corinth Marls are a very well-studied capillary forces acting on the sea water in a very
formation [2] through which the Corinth Canal close distance from the sea but also the remnants
was excavated in 1893. The canal lies approxi- of drying sea water and spray from waves falling
mately 60km to the west of Athens. The exis- on the sample location. Prior to measuring the to-
tence of the 80m high canal slopes offers the op- tal suction in the laboratory it was verified that
portunity to obtain high quality samples at the matrix suction had not changed using a labo-
various elevations, including positions close to ratory tensiometer on the samples.
sea level, as has happened during various ex- Index properties of the two soils tested are
perimental investigation programmes under- summarized in Table 1. The low plasticity Cor-
taken. These have allowed the extensive study of inth Marl is characterized as ML according to
the material including its soil-water characteristic USCS. The Chalkoutsi Marl on the other side is
curve [3]. During the latest programme samples characterized as CH. The grain size distribution
were taken from a distance less than 1m from the curves for the two soils are shown in Fig. 1 (tests
actual seaside and at an altitude less than 0.5m. from two samples were available for the Corinth
These could be classified in two broad catego- Marl). Both soils are fine-grained with the Cor-
M. Bardanis and S. Grifiza / Measuring the SWCC of Structured and Recomposed Soils 611
inth marl having a smaller sand fraction although Chalkoutsi Marl samples were performed on
a significantly less plastic material. The clay pneumatic oedometers with 50mm diameter
fraction of the Chalkoutsi Marl is almost three fixed-ring cells and a maximum vertical stress of
times as much as that of the Corinth Marl. Both 7.6 MPa. In both cases the inner surface of the
soils have a calcite content in the range of 60 to cutting rings was slightly lubricated to avoid fric-
70%. Both grain size distribution curves appear tion and ensure one-dimensional conditions of
unimodal in their geometric shape leading to an loading on the sample.
expectation of a unimodal SWCC [4]. In Fig. 2 the one-dimensional compression
curves measured on the undisturbed and reconsti-
Table 1. Index properties of the soils tested. tuted sample of Corinth Marl and Chalkoutsi
Soil wL Ip Gs Clay Silt Sand
Marl are shown respectively. In the case of Cor-
(%) (%) (%) (%) inth Marl two tests were performed on undis-
Corinth
turbed samples, while in the case of Chalkoutsi
30.5 5.5 2.67 6.5 84.7 8.8 Marl one. Corinth Marl exhibits significant yield
Marl
Chalkoutsi
51 30 2.69 20.5 64.2 15.0
between 1.6 and 3.2 MPa, while Chalkoutsi Marl
Marl does so between 450 and 900 kPa. The one-
dimensional compression curves of both soils in
Clay Silt Sand Gravel their undisturbed state lie initially below the in-
100 trinsic compression curve, as vertical stress in-
80 creases they cross it and then exhibit yield and
Passing (%)
Chalkoutsi Marl
60
Corinth Marl-1 0.90 Nat-1
40 Corinth Marl-2 Nat-2
0.80
20 Rec
0.70
e
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.60
Nominal diameter (mm)
0.50
Figure 1. One-dimensional compression curves of undis- 10 100 1000 10000
turbed and reconstituted: a) Corinth Marl, and b) Chalkoutsi (a) Vertical stress (kPa)
Marl.
1.10
0.70
mined both on undisturbed samples of the soils
and on reconstituted ones. Reconstituted samples 0.60
were prepared by mixing samples of undisturbed 0.50
soil with the necessary amount of water to bring
the initial water content of the slurry to 1.5 times 0.40
the liquid limit. The tests on Corinth Marl sam- 10 100 1000 10000
ples were performed on conventional front- (b) Vertical stress (kPa)
loading oedometers with 50mm diameter fixed-
Figure 2. One-dimensional compression curves of undis-
ring cells, a lever arm of 11:1 ratio and a maxi- turbed and reconstituted: a) Corinth Marl, and b) Chalkoutsi
mum vertical stress of 6.4 MPa. The tests on Marl.
612 M. Bardanis and S. Grifiza / Measuring the SWCC of Structured and Recomposed Soils
start moving towards the intrinsic compression Table 2. Characteristics of salt solutions used for total suction
control.
curve. In both cases, although the maximum ver-
tical stress was quite significant, the one- Salt RH Total Total Molarity sa-
dimensional compression curves of the undis- from suction suction turation of
litera- from lit- meas- the solution
turbed samples never reached the intrinsic com- ture erature ured is achieved at
pression curves. The intrinsic compression curve (%) (MPa) (MPa) (M)
of the Corinth Marl is convex while that of K2SO4 97.0 4.18 4.10 1
Chalkoutsi Marl is concave as expected from the BaCl2 90.3 14.0 14.1 2
differences in their plasticity [5, 6]. KCl 84.2 23.6 23.6 5
NaCl 75.1 39.3 39.0 6
It is clear from Fig. 2 that both soils tested are Mg(NO3)2 52.8 87.7 85.5 9
strongly structured. This has been attributed to MgCl2 32.7 153.5 151.7 15
their high calcite content that acts as a bonding
agent [2, 3]. Given this result, their SWCCs were suction. Once equilibrium had taken place, the
determined in order to study the effect of struc- sample was taken out of the pressure extractor or
ture on this fundamental property of unsaturated the chamber with the saturated salt solution and
soils. For this to be more formally established the one part of it was used for moisture content mea-
SWCCs were determined also on samples recon- surement, with the other immersed in molten pa-
stituted and reconsolidated to a low void ratio, raffin wax for total volume and therefore void ra-
preferably the same as that of the undisturbed tio measurement. In the case of total suction
samples. Reconstituted and reconsolidated sam- control with salt solutions a small piece of each
ples are going to be referred to as ‘recomposed’ sample was also placed in the chilled-mirror hy-
samples in this paper. grometer in order to measure the actual value of
total suction imposed in the chamber the sample
was kept in. At the beginning of the experimental
4 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD & RESULTS programme only the axis-translation technique
was available and these curves are plotted in Fig.
For the measurement of the soil-water character- 3 for multiple samples. When the salt solutions
istic curve, two methods were employed; the axis method became available, only a limited amount
translation technique in a SoilMoisture pressure of Corinth Marl was still available and was used
extractor with 1500 kPa air-entry value porous for monitoring the change in moisture content on
ceramic disks and the salt solutions method for a single sample that all suction values were ap-
total suction control. Saturated solutions of the plied. That is why there are values for high suc-
salts presented in Table 2 were used. The satura- tions only for the single recomposed sample.
tion molarities were measured experimentally. The SWCC of Chalkoutsi Marl is shown in
Molarities of the solutions prepared for actual Fig. 4 in terms of moisture content vs suction,
use for total suction control were increased by degree of saturation vs suction and void ratio vs
1M to ensure the ability of the solutions to re- suction. Both for undisturbed and recomposed
main saturated after applying the required suc- samples a different sample was used for each
tion value to the samples. Saturation molarities value of suction.
are presented in Table 2. The total suction corre- In the case of Corinth Marl the undisturbed
sponding to the equilibrium relative humidity of samples exhibited the ability to retain higher de-
the salt solutions prepared was measured in a grees of saturation and water content at the same
calibrated Decagon Devices chilled-mirror hy- suction relative to their recomposed counterpart.
grometer and is also presented in Table 2. The scatter of measured values is larger for the
The SWCC of Corinth Marl is shown in Fig. 3 undisturbed Corinth Marl, almost at the point of
in terms of moisture content vs suction, degree of rendering the results meaningless. Still the higher
saturation vs suction and void ratio vs suction. water retention of the undisturbed Corinth Marl
Both for undisturbed and recomposed samples a indicates that it probably desaturates at a higher
different sample was used for each value of suction than the recomposed one and retains a
M. Bardanis and S. Grifiza / Measuring the SWCC of Structured and Recomposed Soils 613
higher degree of saturation for the same suction SWCCs for the two types of the material practi-
after desaturation of both materials. These differ- cally coincide although the undisturbed soil had
ences were clear in the case of Corinth Marl a higher initial void ratio than the recomposed
where both undisturbed and recomposed samples
have the same void ratio at the beginning of dry- 25 Rec/Rec-Multiple
ing. Rec/Rec-Single
In the case of Chalkoutsi Marl the SWCCs of 20 Nat
the undisturbed and recomposed samples practi-
.
cally coincide in terms of moisture content vs 15
suction and degree of saturation vs suction
w (%)
(though the curves for the recomposed material 10
lie slightly to the right in Fig. 4a & 4b). Yet the
undisturbed soil maintains a clearly higher void 5
ratio than the recomposed soil as at the beginning
0
of drying it had a higher void ratio than the re-
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
composed samples. Given this difference in ini- (a) Suction (kPa)
tial void ratio the recomposed samples would
have been expected to exhibit a higher air-entry 100
pressure and retain higher degrees of saturation
and higher water contents for the same suction 80
after desaturation. Still this does not happen and
the SWCCs practically coincide in Fig. 4a & 4b,
.
60
indicating that the SWCC measured on the un-
Sr (%)
0.4
e
0.3
5 CONCLUSIONS
0.2
The SWCCs measured on both undisturbed and Rec/Rec
0.1
recomposed samples of two marls have been pre- Nat
sented. In the case of Corinth Marl the undis- 0.0
turbed samples exhibited the ability to retain 10 100 1000 10000
higher degrees of saturation and water content at (c) Suction (kPa)
the same suction relative to their recomposed
Figure 3. Soil-water characteristic curves of Corinth Marl in
counterpart with the same initial void ratio prior terms of a) moisture content-suction, b) degree of saturation-
to drying. In the case of Chalkoutsi Marl the suction, and c) void ratio-suction.
614 M. Bardanis and S. Grifiza / Measuring the SWCC of Structured and Recomposed Soils
10
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5
Mr Konstantakis of “Periandros S.A.” provided
0
assistance for obtaining samples of Corinth marl.
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Tests on Corinth Marl samples were performed
(a) Suction (kPa)
in the Foundations Laboratory of the Civil Engi-
100 neering Faculty of NTU, Athens. Tests on Chal-
Nat
koutsi Marl were performed in the EDAFOS
80 S.A. laboratory. The help received from Mr G.
Rec/Rec
Pirgiotis of the Foundations Laboratory and Mr
60 M. Tsoukaladakis of the EDAFOS S.A. labora-
Sr (%)
0 REFERENCES
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
(b) Suction (kPa) [1] R.J. Chandler, Clay Sediments in Depositional Basins:
the Geotechnical Cycle, Q. J. of Eng. Geol. and Hydro-
0.8 geology 33 (2000), 5-39.
0.7 [2] M.J. Kavvadas, A.G. Anagnostopoulos, V.N. Geor-
giannou, M.E. Bardanis, M. E., Characterisation and
0.6 engineering properties of the Corinth Marl, Tan et al
0.5 (eds.), Proc. Int. Workshop ‘Characterisation and En-
gineering Properties of Natural Soils’, Singapore,
0.4
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 621
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-621
RESUME
Les sols argileux semi-secs que l’on trouve dans les régions à climat aride absorbent très activement l’eau et la laissent diffi-
cilement partir par évaporation.
Nous avons étudié le mécanisme de gonflement du sol et le comportement de fondations, reposant sur le sol gonflant dans
son état naturel (non saturé) et au cours de l’humidification.
Nous avons reçu la solution du problème mixte de la résistance plastique et élastique d’un massif du sol, possédant différents
pouvoirs de diffusion des contraintes lesquelles provoquent différentes déformations du sol au-dessous de la base de fondation et
nous avons établi des formules analytiques pour le calcul de l’amplitude et de la vitesse du gonflement du sol.
ABSTRACT
Semi dry, clay-based soils found in arid regions absorb water very easily yet do not readily release moisture during the eva-
poration process. We have carefully studied and analyzed the complex relationship between ground swelling and the behavior of
foundations under such a condition, in both the natural and humidified conditions. We have the solution of the problem mixed to
the plastic and elastic resistance of soils, possessing different properties of dispersing applied external pressure, which cause
various deformations of soil under the base of the foundation.
We were able to establish analytical formulas for the calculation of both the amplitude and speed of soil swelling.
1. INTRODUCTION place, qui est comparée ici aux résultats des essais
de laboratoire.
Le laboratoire Public d’Essais et d’Etudes
(LPEE) a organisé une étude en vraie grandeur du
gonflement des argiles sous des fondations superfi- 2. LE SITE EXPERIMENTAL D’OUARZAZATE
cielles. Cette étude, réalisée à Ouarzazate, a com-
mence par une étude en laboratoire du comporte- Les terrains sont constitués d’argile et limons
ment des sols. Les observations faites lors de alluvionnaires du quaternaire.
l’humidification de la zone d’essai ont permis
d’établir la courbe de gonflement de l’argile en
1
Corresponding Author.
622 H. Ejjaaouani et al. / Etude experimentale du comportement des sols gonflants
Pour étudier de la déformabilité des sols gon- Figure (1) Tassements de la fondation FS-1 au cours du
flants dans leur état naturel des essais de temps
chargement ont été exécutés sur la fondation FS-
1, de section 1m x 1m, placée à la surface du sol,
au fond de la zone excavée, h = 0,5m.
Le chargement a été effectué au moyen d’un
vérin hydraulique par paliers.
Sous chacune des charges appliquées, on a
mesuré le tassement de la fondation en fonction
du temps, jusqu’à ce que l’on obtienne une va-
H. Ejjaaouani et al. / Etude experimentale du comportement des sols gonflants 623
La figure (3) présente les données expérimentales avance sur la propagation du front de gonflement, et
sur l’évolution au cours du temps de la profondeur que la différence augmentait avec la profondeur.
du front de gonflement et du front Du fait de l’influence du poids propre du sol
d’humidification à proximité de la semelle FS-1. et de la nécessité de dépasser la contrainte natu-
rel V=Jz, sous la surface libre de l’excavation et
la contrainte V=V0+Jz sous les semelles (appli-
quant une surcharge de V0), le front de gonfle-
ment doit nécessairement être en retard sur le
front d’humidification.
L’évolution de la profondeur de gonflement
figure (3) peut être représentée par la formule
(1).
nt
§t ·
Ht Hf ¨¨ ¸¸ (1)
© tf ¹
dans laquelle H(t) est la profondeur de la zone
active au temps t, Hf est la profondeur maximale (fi-
nale) de la zone active, nt est un paramètre
d’amortissement de l’évolution de H(t) qui dépend de la
Figure (3) Évolution du front d’humidification et du
front de gonflement au cours du temps (à proximité de la durée de l’humidification et est déterminé d’après la
fondation FS-1) courbe de la figure (4).
La valeur maximale Hf de la profondeur de la
zone active peut être définie, de façon générale,
d’après :
n
§ V ·
H g V a H go ¨1 a ¸ (2)
¨ Vg ¸
© i ¹
avec le comportement du massif du site ex-
périmental en calculant le gonflement de la sur-
face du sol par intégration de l’équation (2) sur
l’épaisseur de la zone active Ha, (3).
Cette intégration se fait en tenant compte de
l’évolution avec la profondeur de la contrainte où :
totale verticale z et d’une autre fonction (1- a et b : sont les longueurs des côtés de la se-
z/Ha) qui décrit l’observation que le gonflement melle de fondation ;
n’a pas la même intensité sur l’épaisseur de la a : est la pression transmise au sol par la
couche active. fondation :
L’intégration de la fonction de gonflement a été zi : est la profondeur de la base de la couche i,
effectuée numériquement, en découpant le sol en : est le poids volumique du sol,
couches. L’expression (3) est pour cette raison : est l’angle de diffusion de la charge dans
écrite pour la i-ème couche du sol : le sol. Ejjaaouani H, Shakhirev V (2007).
(3)
n
où § V ·
m
zi § z · (3) L’influence du temps peut être représentée par
'h gi H go ³ ¨1 zi ¸ ¨¨ 1 ¸ dz
H a ¸¹
z i 1 ¨ ¸ la même fonction :
© V gi ¹ © mt
§ t ·
'h g t 'h go ¨¨ ¸¸ (6)
H go : est la valeur de la déformation relative de © tf ¹
gonflement libre à l’œdomètre, Ou
V zi : est la contrainte verticale totale au milieu
de la couche, créée par le poids volumique du sol
et par la diffusion de la charge appliquée en sur-
face par la fondation (Ejjaaouani H, Shakhirev
V., 2007).
ab
V Zi (4)
a 2 z i tan E b 2 z i tan E
Cette équation (7) possède un caractère uni-
versel et est valable tant pour le gonflement en
n : est un paramètre de la loi de variation de la
place que pour le gonflement en laboratoire. Pour
déformation avec la pression z ;
décrire le cas d’une éprouvette œdométrique, il
m : est un paramètre de la fonction décrivant
convient d’éliminer l’effet de la dispersion de
l’influence du temps ;
charges (tan = 0) et de négliger l’influence du
zi-1 et zi : sont les profondeurs des limites de la i-
poids volumique du sol. L’expression (7) peut
ème couche ;
être écrite avec une seule couche d’épaisseur h
gi: est la pression de gonflement du sol dans la i-
égale à la hauteur de l’éprouvette œdométrique,
ème couche ;
soit :
z : est la variable d’intégration (profondeur cou-
m n
rante dans la couche), § t · ª Va º
t
La durée du gonflement sur le site expérimen- Figure (5) Poste de mesure et équipement de la fondation
tal à Ouarzazate est de 24 jours. FS-1
H. Ejjaaouani et al. / Etude experimentale du comportement des sols gonflants 627
6. CONCLUSION
ABSTRACT
The paper describes a case history from of 500 m long and up to 40 m deep cut in stiff clays from Miocene era from Slovenia,
where softening of bedrock influenced the stability of retaining wall during construction and additional supporting measures
were necessary to ensure safety. Bedrock properties, determined during the geotechnical investigation for the main design are
compared with the properties, determined soon after the first unpredicted deformation occurred as well as with the properties,
determined after construction. The results show that during construction a significant reduction in strength appeared. An attempt
is made to describe the softening process using the soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) and the deformation behaviour of the
wall is described with numerical modelling.
RÉSUMÉ
L’article présente un historique d’une fouille d'une longueur de 500 mètres jusqu'à 40 m de profondeur, réalisée dans les argiles
rigides du Miocène de la Slovénie, où l’adoucissement du socle rocheux a eu un impact sur la stabilité du mur de soutènement en
cours de construction et des mesures de soutien supplémentaires ont été nécessaires pour assurer la sécurité. Les propriétés du
socle rocheux, déterminées lors de l'étude géotechnique pour la conception principale, sont comparées aux propriétés, détermi-
nées peu de temps après que la première déformation imprévue est survenue, aussi bien qu’avec les propriétés déterminées après
la construction. Les résultats montrent une diminution significative de la résistance pendant la construction. Une tentative est
faite pour décrire le processus d’adoucissement utilisant le SWCC et le comportement en déformation de la paroi est décrit par le
modelage numérique.
1
Corresponding Author.
630 M. Maček et al. / A Contribution to Improve the Understanding of Softening
during the construction of a 520 m long and 40 m ing to the modified Hoek & Brown (H&B) crite-
deep motorway cut in NE Slovenia, where the ria (Table 1).
extent of supporting measures, needed to main-
tain the stability of the slope during construction Table 1. Shear strength parameters obtained by H&B criteria
increased by more than 100% in comparison [7]
with the designed measures. Depth (m) c (kPa) (°)
3.9-5.8 13-20 17
5.8-35 15-126 26
2 GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
The deep cut is located inside the hilly area 3 RETAINING STRUCTURE
formed by layered sediments of Miocene age.
Marls prevail over soft siltstone and sandstone. The retaining structure was designed as a unique
Layers are horizontal or slightly inclined toward system of prefabricated concrete structures, fitted
NE. The ground water is present inside the top- up along the slope in the longitudinal distance of
weathered zone while the bedrock sediments ap- 4 to 5 m and anchored (Figure 1). A step by step
pear as “dry”. According to the national landslide excavation in segments, from the top down-
susceptibility model, the whole region is identi- wards to the bottom was proposed [8]. The exca-
fied as moderately to highly susceptible to vation of each new step was allowed to start not
landslides. The most typical mode of sliding is earlier than when the previous segment was fin-
sliding of 3 - 5 m thick layer of soil or softened ished and anchored. The slope was cut with two
marl along the sliding plane in the bedrock. 5 m wide berms. Each concrete structure, fit at
Geological investigation for the main design the slope between two berms, was anchored by
for the deep motorway cut was performed in two approximately 20 m long pre-stressed an-
1996 [7] when there were no experiences with chors. To protect denudated marls against ero-
deep cuts in comparable geological environ- sion and softening, special concrete beams were
ments. Six bore-holes with total length of 192 m constructed to support the vegetation soil (Figure
confirmed geological conditions similar to those 2).
from the surroundings. At the upper part of the
hills, the bedrock appeared under a thin layer of
soil, while at the base of the slope, the soil cover
was up to 7 m thick. The RQD values of wea-
thered bedrock in marls and siltstone were 48 -
64% and inside the intact bedrock in the range of
64 - 98%.
In situ packer test gave the coefficient of per-
meability in the range of 10-6 m/s to 10-7m/s,
while the laboratory test gave values in ranges of
10-10 m/s to 10-11 m/s, which indicate a signifi-
cant anisotropy in permeability. Two types of
water influx into the cut were forecast, from the
soil cover and from the random sources in be- Figure 1. View to retaining wall OZ-05 during construction.
drock. However, the total influx was estimated as
considerably small. The described types of structures have already
In the laboratory, unconfined compression been used in deep cuts in Slovenia with a great
tests (UCS), performed on 102 samples of marls extent, however, never in comparable bedrock
identified values of 0.2 - 13.8 MPa. These values formation. Therefore, an extensive monitoring
were used in the calculation of strength accord- system with inclinometers, control anchors, and
M. Maček et al. / A Contribution to Improve the Understanding of Softening 631
As early as the first segment for the wall was ex- 100
displacements (mm)
cavated and the first test anchors were installed excavation additional
in 2006, it became clear, that the volume stability 80 IN 7 anchoring
of the bedrock was strongly underestimated dur- IN 8
60
ing the geological investigation (Figure 3). Wet- IN 9
ting and softening of the “dry” bedrock appeared 40
in two stages: firstly saturation was observed in-
side the sandy layers and after that, wetting pro- 20
gressed continuously, from the top to the bottom. 0
The wetting was accompanied by fissures, which 1.9.06 1.9.07 31.8.08 31.8.09
were opened along the contact between the sandy date
and the clayey layers inside the bedrock, and
with slaking. In the second stage, stiff marls and Figure 4. Displacement of inclinometers heads. IN-7 is just
poorly cemented sandstones were transformed behind retaining structure, IN-8 is in the middle part of the
into loose and/or plastic soil. At that time locally retaining structure and IN-9 is app. 25 m behind the crown.
limited landslides also occurred.
As the deep cut was also the main source of Anchor forces were increasing although the ex-
fill material for embankments, the excavation cavation was temporary stopped and the addi-
phase overtook the construction of supporting tional anchors were installed (Figure 5). In the
wall and the requirements for the step by step anchors, which were installed at the final phases
execution of the work remained forgotten. of construction, when the whole structure had al-
Already the first monitoring results showed ready been reinforced with the additional con-
excessive horizontal displacements and the anc- crete slab in the longitudinal direction, the forces
horing forces started to increase. remained inside the designed values.
632 M. Maček et al. / A Contribution to Improve the Understanding of Softening
u1
H (m AMSL)
700 330
anchor force (kN)
H (m AMSL)
and 2 - additional anchors). 330 1997 2007 2009
320
The construction was completed after 3 years in 310
May 2009. According to the main design, 417
300
anchors in the total length of 8336 m should have
been installed. At the end, 717 anchors in the to- 290
tal length of 18 545 m and the additional rein- 280
forced concrete slab of several hundred meters 270
were necessary to keep the structure in stable po- 0 5000 10000 qu (kPa)
sition. During the construction, several incli-
nometers failed and additional borings were nec- Figure 7. UCS in marls before (1997) and after construction
essary to maintain the monitoring system. (2007-2009).
5.2 Strength – SWCC relationship app. 1500 kPa. On the basis of more than 150
tests Petkovšek found the simple relationship be-
Liquid limit (wL) of tested samples varied be-
tween the strength and the water content or suc-
tween 40% and 65%. The soil water characteris-
tion for specific Oligocene clay:
tic curve (SWCC) was obtained for material with
liquid limit 40% and 53%, which represents the
upper and lower boundary material (Figure 9). cu KX tan (1)
The water contents of inundated samples in the
oedometer apparatus represent the expected where ¤ is soil suction and K is correlation pa-
highest water content. rameter (K=1 for Oligocene clay).
The suction of intact samples was compared Therefore, the idea of the additional tests of
to SWCCs. It could be observed that only few samples from Miocene bedrock was also to
samples have higher water content than those check, weather the simple equation (1) can be
measured on inundated samples and the majority widely used in a different stiff clay formation.
of suctions lies near the proposed SWCCs. The suction and UCS were drawn with respect
Measured suction in 2009 for samples above the to water content (Figure 10). Although high scat-
bottom of excavation is between 200 and 1000 ter is observed, a clear trend is obvious. Both
kPa and for samples below the bottom of excava- UCS and suction decrease with increasing water
tion it is between 300 and 2300 kPa. From ob- contents. However, due to differences in material
servations given by Petkovšek [9] small effects and scatter of results equation (1) could not be
of relaxation are still expected. used successfully in layered bedrock or should
be improved by other coefficients.
w (%)
25 IN-9 13m
VG-1 UCS
qu, suction (kPa)
10000
20 IN-15 clay
suction
IN-17 clay
15 IN-19 clay
inundated soil
10 1000
0
100
10 100 1000 10000 100000
suction (kPa) 5.0 10.0 15.0 w 20.0
(%)
Figure 9. SWCC for two materials and suction on intact sam- Figure 10. Relationship between water content, UCS and suc-
ples. The inundated oedometer samples represent possible tion for Miocene marls.
water contents at zero suction.
It is important to stress, that the first deep cut 5.3 Numerical modelling
into the stiff Oligocene marly clay was made in
Slovenia in 1950 to construct the Moste under- A 2D finite element numerical model (Plaxis
ground power station. Soon after the end of con- v8.2) was made to observe possible increases in
struction in 1952, fissures appeared in the con- anchor forces due to progression of excavation or
crete walls and deformation continued through due to soil swelling.
the years. Šuklje [3] explained the deformation The hardening soil model was used to model
as the consequence of swelling and slow creep of soil behaviour (=21 kN/m3, E50= 160 MPa, Eur=
the stiff overconsolidated clay, while Petkovšek 600 MPa, m= 0.5, pref= 100 kPa, ¥ur= 0.2, c=35
[9], [10] found out, that the swelling disappears kPa, =39°), which was similar to that from de-
when the water content equilibrates at suction of sign stage. The material relaxation was modelled
634 M. Maček et al. / A Contribution to Improve the Understanding of Softening
through the expected volume deformations as observed due to material softening and deteriora-
observed in oedometer tests and SWCCs. The re- tion. It was found out that the majority of the ma-
sults of numerical modelling are presented in terial deterioration is the consequence of suction
Figure 11. The calculated anchor forces have the equilibration.
same trend, although the anchor forces differ, es- The suction equilibration should be consi-
pecially for anchors near the bottom of excava- dered in the design stage when stiff clays and
tion. In situ observed forces increased from 450 marls form bedrock. The predicted shear strength
to 600 kN, which is smaller than the calculated after suction equilibration should be used in cal-
force of 1000 kN when swelling was considered culations, as well as the possible influences of
in calculations and higher than the expected 460 swelling deformations on retaining structures.
kN in the design stage. The difference between During monitoring of the retaining structure
observed and calculated anchor forces could be the possible maximum displacement and the ex-
the result of increased thickness of sandy inter- pected development of the displacement through
layers, which are not prone to swelling and were time due to the swelling should be acknowl-
not considered in calculations. edged.
The results of numerical modelling show that
not only the reduction of shear strength [11] but
also the swelling due to suction equilibration in- REFERENCES
creases the anchor forces.
[1] V.C. Mc Guffey, 1982. Design of Cut Slopes in Over-
consolidated Clays. Transportation Research Record
u1 m1 l1 873 (1982), 8 – 11.
[2] M.W. Oakland & C.W. Lovell, Standarized Tests for
u2 m2 l2
Compacted Shale Highway Embankments. Transporta-
u1 calc m1 calc l1 calc tion Research Record 873 (1982), 15 – 22.
u2 calc m2 calc l2 calc [3] L. Šuklje, Zemeljski pritiski na podzemno strojnico
750 Moste. Gradbeni vestnik, 29 (1980), 202 – 212.
[4] S. Leroueil. & P. Vaughan, The general and congruent
anchor force (kN)
ABSTRACT
The loess in north Afghanistan behaves very hard in dry season. In rainy season, loess becomes saturated and in consequence
relatively soft. Under external loads, even under the gravity load the loess subsoil wetted throughout presents very large collapse
settlements, which damage the buildings upon the subsoil. To investigate the physical and mechanical properties of the loess in
north Afghanistan and furthermore to avoid the damages to buildings due to the collapse settlements, undisturbed loess samples
in different depths in north Afghanistan were obtained for laboratory investigations. The aim of the study is to develop a new de-
sign method which enables the estimation of prospective settlement of a collapse prone loess soil.
RÉSUMÉ
Le lœss au nord d’Afghanistan est très résistant pendant la saison sèche. Par contre, pendant la saison des pluies, le lœss est satu-
ré et par conséquent relativement mou. Etant mouillé sous des charges d’exploitation et même sous son poids propre, le lœss
génère des dommages importantes et des effondrements des constructions à cause de sa grande déformabilité. Afin d’étudier les
propriétés physiques et mécaniques du lœss, des échantillons de lœss non perturbés étaient prélevés à différentes profondeurs.
Ensuite, les échantillons de lœss étaient étudiés au laboratoire. L'objectif de l'étude est d’établir une nouvelle méthode pour éva-
luer les tassements pour la construction des nouvelles colonies.
Keywords: loess soil, collapse behaviour, collapsibility, water content, settlement, microstructure
extensive triaxial pressure tests in a dynamic cell between 26% and 28%, the plastic limit wP be-
were carried out. tween 13% and 19%, thus the plasticity index IP
ranges between 8% and 14%. With the measured
natural water content w, liquid limit wL and plas-
2 LABORATORY TESTING tic limit wP the consistency index IC was calcu-
lated. According to Germany Standard DIN
To improve the understanding of the complex 18122 the loess soils are in a “hard state”. The
mechanical properties of this kind of soil, initial grain size fractions of the loess soils were deter-
laboratory tests (index tests) were carried out. mined according to Germany Standard DIN
These tests are necessary to get an impression of 18123. The grain size distribution curves of the
the specific gravity of soil grain, the density of loess soils are very similar. The fraction of silt
soil, natural water content, grain size, liquid and grains is for all of the loess soils ranges between
plastic limit. To get the optimum water content 56% and 70%. The sand grain fraction is above
with the associated density, standard proctor test 16%. The rest is the clay fraction. The grain size
were made. The knowledge about the optimum fractions are the typical compositions of loess
water content bear relevance to the collapse be- soils in middle Asia (Boley & Zou 2007).
haviour under static, as well as under dynamic
loads. Table 1. Optimum water content wopt and maximum dry den-
sity dmax
2.1 Index tests _________________________________________________
MP1* MP2** MP3*
The specific gravity s of soil particles of the _________________________________________________
loess soils from the three trial pits were deter- specific gravity of soil particles
mined according to Germany Standard DIN s [g/cm³] 2,73 2,72 2,71
18124. The test results are listed in Table 1 (MP
water content
= point of measuring and taking samples). The w [%] 5,00 8,13 4,41
average value of the particle density is s = 2.72
g/cm³, which is the typical value of clay contain- wet density
ing silts. The natural water contents w of the [g/cm³] 1,59 1,56 1,47
samples were measured in laboratory. The values dry density
of natural water contents are listed in Table 1 as d [g/cm³] 1,51 1,45 1,41
well. The values of the natural water content w
decreased with increasing depth. The average void ratio
e [-] 0,80 0,88 0,94
value of the natural water content is w = 4.77%,
which is a typical value of loess soils in dry area. degree of saturation
The wet densities of the undisturbed soil sam- Sr [%] 17,93 22,95 11,50
ples with natural water content were measured in
liquid limit
laboratory. The dry densities d of the soil sam- wL [%] 27,30 26,20 27,00
ples are calculated by wet density and natural
water content w. Their values are also listed in plastic limit
wP [%] 13,50 14,50 18,20
Table 1. The dry density with the average value
of d = 1.46 g/cm3 is relatively low. The calcu- plasticity index
lated values of void ratio e of the most samples IP [%] 13,80 11,70 8,80
are higher than 0.8, which is relatively high for
consistency index
silts. The calculated degree of saturation Sr IC [-] 1,63 1,43 2,55
ranges between 10% and 30%. The liquid limit
wL and plastic limit wP of the loess soils were de- grain fractions:
termined in the laboratory according to Germany sand [%] 16,50 70,00 13,50
silt [%] 25,00 56,00 19,00
Standard DIN 18122. The liquid limit wL ranges
C. Meier et al. / Structure and Collapsibility of Loess Soils in Middle Asia 637
clay [%] 17,00 69,00 14,00 tion to the vertical pressure p for three different
samples (MP1, MP2 and MP3). The collapse de-
_________________________________________________
formations %c increase with increasing vertical
*average values of 3-sample-testing
**average values of 2-sample-testing pressure p. The collapse deformations %c of the
three samples for p = 200 kN/m² is larger than
2.2 Compaction tests 7%. Thus, the loess soils belong to “high collaps-
ible loess soils” according to the Chinese Stan-
In order to determine the compaction properties dard. The in-situ overburden pressure of the
of loess soils, standard proctor tests were per- samples is p = 16.0 kN/m² approximately. The
formed in the laboratory according to Germany collapse deformation %c of the sample MP3 for p
Standard DIN 18127. The optimum water con- = 16.0 kN/m² is smaller than 1.5%, thus the sam-
tents wopt and the maximum dry density dmax of ple is “not collapsible loess under overburden
loess soils are listed in Table 2. The range for pressure” according to the Chinese Standard. Be-
water content for the degree of compaction DPr > cause the collapse deformation %c of the samples
95%, obtained from the compaction curves is MP1 and MP2 for p = 16 kN/m² is larger than
relatively large. 1.5%, the two samples belong to “collapsible
loess under overburden pressure”.
Table 2. Optimum water content wopt and maximum dry den-
sity dmax 3.2 Dynamic triaxial tests
_________________________________________________
MP1 MP2 MP3
In addition to the modified uniaxial oedometer
_________________________________________________ tests, extensive triaxial pressure tests in a dynam-
wopt [%] 13,7 14,0 16,2 ic cell were carried out in order to analyze the
dmax [g/cm³] 1,90 1,86 1,79 settlement behavior under cyclic load.
Ranges of water
content for
DPr > 95% 10 – 18 10 – 18 12 – 20
_________________________________________________
3 SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOUR
4 MICROSTRUCTURE
5 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
tents VCa in the loess soils are listed in Table 3. Eluate were mixed for 24 hours and the negative
Their values are above 23%, which is very high. and the positive ions were determined. Table 4
shows the results of the ion eclusion.
Table 3. Lime Content Vca
_________________________________________________ Table 4. Results of the ion exclusion
MP1* MP2** MP3* _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________ Kations mg/Kg Anions mg/Kg
lime content _________________________________________________
Vca [%] 23,90 24,70 34,60 Ca 1391 Cl 407
_________________________________________________ Mg 195 F 13
*average values of 3-sample-testing Na 644 NO2 27
**average values of 2-sample-testing Al 6 SO42- 3778
Fe 3 PO43- 1
The results shown in Table 3 are based on an K 51
_________________________________________________
analyses, which measured the gassing. This gass-
ing should be the result of a chemical reaction
between hydrochloric acid and lime. As it is As can be seen from the results, calcium (Ca)
known, lime is not the only soil component is the dominating kation. With the applied me-
which reacts with hydrochloric acid. So it was thod it was not possible to measure carbonate.
necessary to confirm the reliability of the results Consequently sulfate (SO42-) is the dominating
(Table 3) on the basis of a second independent anion but its content don’t exceed the carbonate
method. content. The result shows, that salt content is not
For this the content of carbon dioxide was de- insignificant.
termined. Afterwards carbonate content was cal- If the contained salt is easily water soluble, it
culated with the help of molar masses. would make a contribution to the collapse set-
tlement, as it is common accepted. But to find
out the amount of the fraction of easily water so-
MCO2 = MC + 2x MO (1) luble salt, minerals and other compounds, more
research was necessary.
= 12,0107 g/mol + 2x 15,9994 g/mol 8106
1600 Q
= 44,0095 g/mol
°2W(CuK)
With a determined CO2 content of about 22,2%, Figure 6. X-ray diffractometrical analysis of loess (sample:
the content of carbonate CO3 comes to 30,27%, 08-106)
which confirms the results from the gassing test. X-ray diffractometrical analysis was selected
To figure out, if it is really lime (CaCO3), to get a detailed mineral disintegration of the
comprehensive ion exclusion was necessary. loess soil. Afterwards the soil was dissolved in
640 C. Meier et al. / Structure and Collapsibility of Loess Soils in Middle Asia
water (eluate) and X-ray diffractometrical analy- soils belong to “high collapsible loess
sis was made again. So it was possible to com- soils” and they can be considered as “col-
pare the results from the solid matter analysis lapsible loess under overburden pressure”.
with the eluate analysis to find out, if the salt The first results of the triaxial pressure tests
fraction is easily soluble. in a dynamic cell show, that in a range be-
As can be seen in Figure 6, quartz crystal (Q) tween 2 and 8 hertz (Hz), the frequency has
and calcite (C) are the dominating fractions. The no influence on the deformation behavior.
sum of carbonate (predominantly calcite and do-
lomite) is about 37%. Other fractions are quartz The unexpected result, that solely 2.1 weight per
crystal (16%), feldspar (16%). The sum of clay cent are easily water soluble, lead to the assump-
minerals, predominantly illite, muscovite and tion that the collapse effect is based upon the dis-
kaolinite, is about 15%. solving of salt and lime bonding forces.
The result of solubility testing devoted, that For further research, especially settlement be-
just 2.1 weight per cent of this kind of loess soil havior under dynamic load, also mechanical and
counts of easily water soluble minerals. not chemical bonding forces have to be consi-
dered.
6 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
From the test results the following mechanical
properties of the loess soils have been deduced: [1] C. Boley; C. Meier; Y. Zou, Collapse and deformation
behaviour of alluvial loess soil with special respect to
the conditions in the Marmal-mountains, Afghanistan,
The natural water content of the loess soils Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Geo-
with the average value w = 4.77% is rela- technics of Soft Soils University of Strathclyde, Glas-
tively low. The dry density with the aver- gow, Scotland, 2007
[2] C. Meier; C. Boley; Y. Zou, Practical Relevance of
age value d = 1.46 g/cm³ is relatively low. Collapse Behaviour and Microstucture of Loess Soils in
The void ratio with the average value Afghanistan, Proceedings of the 17th International Con-
e = 0.87 is relatively large. The salt and ference on Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineer-
lime contents with the average value Vca = ing, Alexandria, Egypt, 2009
[3] V. Mikulitsch; G. Gudehus, Uniaxial tension, biaxial
24.3 is very high. loading and wetting tests on loess, Proceedings of the
Most of the grains in the loess soils are silt First International Conferende on Unsaturated Soil Par-
grains with sizes between 0.002 and is, France, 1995
0.06mm. Due to a relatively high clay con- [4] L. Tungsheng, Loess in China, Berlin, Germany, 1988
[5] A. Scheidig, Der Löss und seine geotechnischen Eigen-
tent and according Germany Standard DIN schaften, Dresden, Germany, 1934
18122 the loess soils can be characterized
as “low plastic clay”. In the state with natu-
ral water content the consistency index Ic is
higher than 1. Thus, the loess soils with
natural water content are in the semisolid
state.
The strength of the loess soils in their natu-
ral state is very high. After watering but
without consolidation (collapse) the
strength is very low.
After watering and under certain pressure
the deformations (collapse) of the loess
soils were very large. According to the
Chinese Standard GBJ 123-88 the loess
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 641
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-641
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ABSTRACT
Mechanical properties of soft rocks such as marls are strongly affected by suction, directly connected with wetting and drying
cycles resulting from climate actions. An extensive experimental programme was carried out in order to characterize the physical
and mechanical properties of Abadia marls, used in the A10 motorway near Arruda dos Vinhos (Portugal). The experimental
programme consisted of laboratory unconfined compression and Brazilian splitting tests, oedometric tests and triaxial tests, all of
them performed under controlled suction.
RÉSUMÉ
Les propriétés mécaniques des roches tendres, comme les marnes, sont fortement affectées par la succion, directement associée
avec les cycles de mouillage/séchage résultants des actions climatiques. Un programme d’essais en laboratoire est mené pour ca-
ractériser les propriétés physiques et mécaniques des marnes de Abadia, utilisées dans l’autoroute A10 près de Arruda dos Vin-
hos (Portugal). Le programme expérimental a été constitué par des essais de compression uniaxiale, essais brésiliens de traction,
essais oedométriques et essais triaxiaux, exécutés dans des conditions de succion contrôlée.
Keywords: Soft rocks, marl, suction, mechanical properties, unconfined compression and triaxial tests
1
Corresponding Author.
648 J. Muralha et al. / Hydro-Mechanical Characterization of Jurassic Marls
2 ABADIA MARLS
other characterization tests were also performed During the tests, loading-unloading cycles
[3], and other properties are presented in [1]. were applied until failure occurred. Independ-
Water adsorption tests performed by Jeremias ently from suction, samples showed ductile be-
[2] at 95% relative humidity and 25ºC (96 hours haviour since relatively high values for axial
of exposure) indicated good capacity for water strain (larger than 0.5%) were reached (Figure
absorption. This capacity increases with the de- 3). Plastic and hysteretic behaviour was also dis-
gree of weathering. played, being more significant for lower suctions.
A marked volume dependence on water con-
16
tent was registered (Figure 2), associated with s=230MPa
micro-cracking. The water retention curve was
measured for three drying-wetting cycles, in 12
0,50 Sr=100%
and so may be looked at as damage. Stiffness de-
0,40 creases progressively with increasing strains.
Dryer samples exhibit higher stiffness, but also a
0,30 higher relative reduction with the loading cycles.
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Water content (%) However, stiffness values for the dryer samples
are always higher than those measured in the
Figure 2. Void ratio dependence on water content [3]. other samples.
The large variability of the results found in all
4 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TESTS the unconfined compression tests can be seen in
Figure 4. The relation between the water content
Unconfined compression tests with unsaturated measured in each sample after the test and uniax-
marl samples following ASTM Standard D 7012- ial compressive strength c is shown in the fig-
07 were performed. Samples kept with the in situ ure. Water contents of pieces of the broken sam-
water content (around 9.2% corresponding to a ples were measured revealing that samples from
suction of 14 MPa) were tested, along with other the same desiccators had slightly different water
samples kept in the three above mentioned contents, which can be accounted for part of the
standard salt solutions.Standard loading and variability of the results.
measuring equipment was used; the axial stress Uniaxial compressive strength results were
was measured using a load cell and the axial averaged after considering the samples for which
strains by external displacement transducers visual inspection before the test had shown nei-
placed along the middle part of the samples. Due ther relevant cracking nor heterogeneity identi-
to the duration of the test (strain rate about fied by colour differences. The relation between
0.005%/min) the samples (around 50 mm in c and suction s is presented in the equation (1).
diameter and 125 mm in height) were loosely
c 0.0276 s 6.14 (MPa) (1)
wrapped with a thin plastic film to maintain the
water content.
650 J. Muralha et al. / Hydro-Mechanical Characterization of Jurassic Marls
12
10
rated under a relatively low vertical stress
(253 kPa), after which three unloading-reloading
8
cycles up to 2.2, 4.4 and 7.6 MPa were applied
6
(Figure 5). A similar test procedure was adopted
4 in test 2 [1], but in this case the sample was kept
2 in dry conditions.
Tensile strength
0
0,33
-2
Full saturation
-4 nd
2 unloading
0,32
0 2 4 6 8 10
Water content (%) 0,31
Unloading
Void ratio
Figure 4. Results of the unconfined compression and Brazili- points
0,30
an splitting tests. st
1 unloading
0,29
5 BRAZILIAN SPLITTING TESTS
3rd unloading
As for the stiffness and strength determined in Figure 5. Oedometric test. Specimen saturated at 253 kPa.
unconfined compression, tensile strength t de-
creases with water content (or increases with Both tests show that under constant suction
suction). Its relation with water content measured the elastic compressibility index Cs increases
for each sample after the tests is also presented in with the cycles (from 0.019 to 0.025 in test 1,
Figure 4. In spite of the dispersion, increasing and from 0.007 to 0.010 in test 2). Larger Cs val-
strength for the dryer samples can be observed. ues were measured in fully saturated conditions,
Orientation of low strength strata relative to showing that wetting seems to be more relevant
the diametral loading force, natural heterogeneity for structure degradation than loading stresses.
of the marl matrix in some samples revealed by Tests revealed similar values for the elastoplastic
colour differences, and the existence of micro- compressibility index Cc: 0.042 for the dry sam-
cracks explain the variability of the results. Con- ple and 0.046 for the wet sample.
sidering only the results of representative sam-
ples chosen by visual inspection after the tests al- 7 TRIAXIAL TESTS
lowed establishing the relation between tensile
strength and suction presented in equation (2). Laboratory triaxial tests are commonly per-
formed to assess intact rock strength under axi-
t 0.0066 s 1.01 (MPa) (2) symmetric conditions. Due to the high pressures
usually required, rock triaxial cells tended to be
6 OEDOMETRIC TESTS heavy and difficult to handle, so Hoek and
Franklin [4] developed a simpler cell (commonly
Oedometric tests were performed in totally satu- referred to as Hoek triaxial cell) that only applies
rated and dry conditions marl samples where the lateral pressure, and is used with a conven-
stress cycles were applied [3]. The specimens tional compression testing machine to apply axial
(3 cm in diameter and 1.8 cm thick) had an initial force to the specimen. The main advantage is
J. Muralha et al. / Hydro-Mechanical Characterization of Jurassic Marls 651
that it does not require complex and time con- Figure 7 displays the relations between net
suming preparation for assembling and de- mean stress and volumetric strain during the iso-
assembling the cell between tests. tropic stages of all tests. As expected, these
As pointed out in the introduction, the main graphs show for all samples an approximately
aim of this experimental programme is to allow linear behaviour during the loading and unload-
modelling of stress-strain behaviour of the Abadia ing-reloading cycles. The strains related to these
marls, based on the accurate measurement of the latter cycles are almost always recovered, show-
volumetric and shear strains. So, the triaxial tests ing an elastic behaviour with a small hysteresis.
were performed using a triaxial cell that enables 12
the measurement of the axial and diametral de-
formations of the specimens. Diametral dis- 10
16
8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
12
unconfined Some interesting results from several types of
8 tests performed to characterize Abadia marls
4 brazilian were presented. The results of the tests under dif-
0 ferent load paths (uniaxial compression, brazilian
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 splitting, isotropic compression, oedometric, and
Net mean stress (MPa) shear in triaxial compression) revealed that the
Figure 8. Results of triaxial tests. Stress paths in the devia- Abadia marls are soft rocks with a remarkable
toric stage (s=39MPa). ductile behavior.
40
Oedometric tests, where suction paths were
also imposed, shown that it is not possible to de-
35
scribe adequately the mechanical behavior of the
Deviatoric stress (MPa)
4
-3
6
Sample 8 [1] L. Caldeira, E. Maranha das Neves and R. Cardoso, Use
Sample 12 of a damage parameter to model the mechanical beha-
8 vior of marls. XV European Conference on Soil Me-
chanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Greece, 2011
10
[2] F.T. Jeremias, Geological controls on the engineering
12 properties of mudrocks of the north Lisbon area. PhD
thesis, University of Sheffield, U.K. 2000.
14
[3] R. Cardoso, Hydro-Mechanical behaviour of com-
16 pacted marls, PhD thesis, Instituto Superior Técnico,
Lisbon 2009.
.Figure 9. Results of triaxial tests. Deformational behaviour [4] E. Hoek and J.A. Franklin, A simple triaxial cell for
in the deviatoric stage (s=39MPa). field and laboratory testing of rock. Trans. Inst. Mining
and Metallurgy 77 (1968), A22–A26.
Both graphs show that the deformational behav-
iour of all samples is remarkably similar, with a
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 653
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-653
ABSTRACT
Under increasing moisture conditions, retaining structures in expansive clays experience swelling stresses. The magnitude of
theses stresses varies with the amount of moisture increase and the extent of soil confinement imposed by the retaining struc-
tures. This paper describes a systematic study of this problem for three types of retaining structures, namely drilled-shaft, tie
back and soil nailed walls. Its approach involves laboratory testing to characterize the swelling properties of the high plasticity
clays encountered in South Texas and finite element simulation of the structural interaction between the soil and the retaining
structures due to the moisture changes observed at an instrumented wall site. The magnitude of swelling pressures was found to
decrease with depth following the diminishing increase in moisture with depth. The amount of soil confinement effected by the
wall significantly increased clay swelling pressures.
RÉSUMÉ
Sous des conditions d’humidité accrues des argiles expansifs, les stuctures de soutien développent des stress au gonflement.
L’ampleur de ces stress varie avec l’accroissement de l’humidité et l’importance de la compression du sol imposée par les struc-
tures de soutien. Cet article décrit l’étude systématique de ce problème pour trois types de structures particulières soit les murs à
puits forés, les murs avec attaches arrières et les murs à ancrages. L’approche utilisée implique des tests en laboratoire pour ca-
ractériser les propriétés de gonflement des argiles à haute plasticité rencontrées dans le sud du Texas et pour déterminer par si-
mulation par éléments définis l’interaction entre les sols et les structures dus aux changements d’humidité observés dans un mur
sur site équipé d’instruments. On a déterminé que la magnitude des pressions de gonflement diminue avec la profondeur suivant
l’amenuisement de l’augmentation de l’humidité avec la profondeur. La mesure de la restriction des sols appliquée par le mur
augmente de façon significative les pressions de gonflement des sols.
Keywords: Unsaturated, earth pressure, drilled shaft, tie-back, soil-nailed, walls, soil-water characteristic curve, finite element.
1
Corresponding Author.
654 A.T. Papagiannakis et al. / Retaining Structures in Expansive Clays
drained shear strength parameters. The current samples were subjected to laboratory testing to
TxDOT design procedure does not account for obtain the properties necessary for the FEM
the lateral pressure due to the expansion of the modeling. These included the SWCC, hydraulic
high plasticity clays, which may be significant conductivity, initial and final void ratios, com-
[4]. pression index, swelling index, elastic modulus,
Although considerable research has been car- shear strength parameters, etc. Data for develop-
ried out on the swelling potential of expansive ing the SWCC was obtained through filter paper
clays, there is limited literature on accounting for and pressure plate techniques (Figure 1).
these pressures in designing retaining walls.
Solving this problem needs to address the inter- 2.2 Monitoring the Moisture Content Change
action between the retaining wall and soil. This
paper summarizes a study addressing this prob- Thermocouple psychrometers were installed at
lem. It involves: different depths (5ft, 10 ft, 15 ft, and 20 ft) at the
Moisture measurements obtained during field site to monitor the change in moisture con-
and post construction using psychrometers tent of the high plasticity clay due to seasonal
at a tie-back wall site constructed in San variation. The psychrometers were monitored
Antonio, TX. using a data logger at 2-week intervals over a pe-
Laboratory characterization of the swell- riod of 18 months.
ing properties of the clay samples ex-
tracted from this site. 2.3 FEM Simulation Approach
Finite element modeling (FEM) of the After the spatial discretization of the models, two
wall-clay system for three types of retain- preliminary FEM analyses were carried out to es-
ing walls, namely tie-back, drilled-shaft tablish the stress distribution due to the overbur-
and soil-nailed wall. den weight of the soil and the initial pore water
pressure distribution throughout the domain.
The resulting stress and pore water pressure dis-
2 METHODOLOGY tributions were imported as initial conditions into
the FEM stress analysis. Then the change in
The FEM software package GeoStudio was used moisture content/suction profile measured at the
to simulate the three wall types considered. This field site was used as the final condition to the
package includes both stress and flow analysis FEM stress analysis model to estimate the hori-
models. The stress model accepts the soil-water zontal pressure and deflection distribution of the
characteristic curve (SWCC) as input and com- retaining structure.
putes the stress changes resulting from the mois-
ture content changes. The latter can be input or 2.4 Simulation of Drilled Shaft Wall
estimated from the flow analysis. The geometry
of the three wall types to be analyzed was mod- The drilled shaft wall was allowed to move hori-
eled after the San Antonio site (20-ft tall wall zontally, being retained only by the resistance of
with another 20 feet embedded into the soil). the soil along its embedded length. Non-contact
The overall size of the geometry analyzed was 90 elements were inserted between the wall and the
feet high by 140 feet wide. soil being retained to prevent tensional stresses
between them. The mesh for the model was au-
2.1 Soil Characterization tomatically generated and refined manually at lo-
cations of high stress concentration. The outer
Undisturbed soil samples were collected from
vertical boundaries were constrained horizontally
every foot of soil from two boreholes drilled at
while the outer horizontal boundaries pinned in
the. One of the boreholes (Borehole-1) was lo-
both directions.
cated 8 ft away from the tied-back wall and the
other was 35 ft away from the Borehole-1. Soil
A.T. Papagiannakis et al. / Retaining Structures in Expansive Clays 655
0 0
5 5ft
No Swell
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
20ft 40
15
20'
20 60 20' 90'
25
80
30 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
envelope.
No Swell
10
Swell at field
As demonstrated later, the state of soil dryness at
construction is crucial in estimating the magni- Depth (ft) 20
tude of the in-service stress increase due to soil 20'
15
Swell at field
Depth (ft)
40
30
60
45
80
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
60
Horizontal Stress (psf)
\
(a) (a)
0
Displacement (ft)
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
No Swell 0
10 Swell at field
No swell
5
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
Swell at field
20
10
30
15
40
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 20
Displacement (ft)
(b) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Horizontal stress and (b) horizontal displace- Figure 5. (a) Horizontal stress and (b) horizontal displace-
ment of the tied-back wall for swelling of soil due to the ment of the soil-nailed wall for swelling of soil due to the
maximum change in suction measured at the field site. maximum change in suction measured at the field site.
lower changes in suction (i.e., the horizontal walls constructed in high plasticity expansive
stresses decrease from scenarios A to D). The soils. The measured soil properties and the
horizontal stresses near the ground surface (3000 change in moisture content/suction profile for a
psf) behind the wall for the Case-A are lower typical field site were used in finite element
compared to the stress in the middle of the wall models.
(6,500 psf). This can be explained by the large The seasonal variation of moisture contents is
displacements at the top of the drilled shaft wall maximum near the ground surface and dimin-
as discussed next. ishes with depth. The active zone at the field site
was found to be 25-30 ft. The horizontal pres-
sure and deflection increases as the water content
increases for all types of retaining structures.
The horizontal deflection decreases with depth,
while the change in horizontal stress increases up
to a depth of 15-20 ft and decreases. Below the
depth of active zone, the horizontal stress is gov-
erned by the overburden weight of the soil.
The horizontal pressure increases if the hori-
zontal movement of the wall is restrained. A
drilled shaft wall that does not have any mecha-
nism to restrain the horizontal movement may
not be used in the field site because of its high
horizontal movement For other two types of
walls, the horizontal deflection could be mini-
mized by using bigger size (length and diameter)
Figure 6. Moisture profile change scenarios
tie rods or soil nails.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the test results such as index properties, Proctors compaction, swelling and unconfined compression strength ob-
tained on expansive clays mixed at different proportions of fly ash and stone dust are presented and discussed. From the results,
it is observed that at optimum percentages, i.e., 30% stone dust and 25% fly ash, it is found that the swelling of expansive clay is
almost controlled and also noticed that there is a marked improvement in the strength of soil. The combination of stone dust and
fly ash is more effective than the addition of stone dust alone to the expansive soil in controlling the swelling nature. The combi-
nation of 20% stone dust and 25% fly ash addition at the optimum moisture content to the expansive soil is found to be a suitable
measure to reduce the swelling and increase the strength of the two expansive soils tested.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans cet article, les résultats des tests tels que propriétés de l'index, le compactage surveillants, de l'enflure et la force de
compression libre obtenus sur des argiles gonflantes mélangés à des proportions différentes de cendres volantes et de poussière
de pierre sont présentées et discutées. D'après les résultats, on constate que les pourcentages optimale, c'est à dire, la poussière de
pierre de 30% et 25% de cendres volantes, il est constaté que le gonflement de l'argile gonflante est presque contrôlée et aussi
remarqué qu'il ya une nette amélioration de la résistance du sol. La combinaison de poussière de pierre et des cendres volantes
est plus efficace que l'ajout de poussière de pierre seul au sol expansif dans le contrôle de la nature de gonflement. La combinai-
son de poussière de pierre de 20% et 25% de cendres plus de cendres à la teneur en humidité optimale du sol expansif se trouve
être une mesure appropriée pour réduire l'enflure et augmenter la résistance des deux sols gonflants testé.
Key words: Stabilization, expansive soil, swelling, strength, flyash, stone dust
1
Corresponding Author.
660 T.L. Ramadas et al. / Study of Swelling and Strength Characteristics of Expansive Soil Treated
Stabilization of expansive soils using admixtures cluded that both high –calcium and low calcium
controls the adverse effects on the foundations class C fly ashes can be recommended as effec-
and structures. Experimental studies have been tive stabilizing agents for improvement expan-
carried out in the laboratory by adding admix- sive soils.
tures such as flyash and stone dust to the expan-
sive soils at different proportions. The expansive Phanikumar and Sharma (2004) presented the
soils tested are collected from Bhimavaram in effect of fly ash on free swell index, swell poten-
A.P., India. tial, swelling pressure, plasticity, compaction,
strength and hydraulic conductivity of expansive
To achieve the desired grading, sometimes the soil. It is concluded that increase in flyash con-
soils with coarse particles are added or the soils tent reduces plasticity characteristics and the FSI
with finer particles are removed. The blended was reduced by about 50% by the addition of
soil possesses both internal friction and cohesion. 20% fly ash. The undrained shear strength of the
When properly placed and compacted, the expansive soil blended with flyash increases with
blended material becomes stable and also load the increase in the ash content. Soosan et al.,
carrying capacity is increased. Chemical modifi- (2005) studied the effect of quarry dust on three
cation by adding lime and lime-pozzolana mixes types of soils (Red earth, kaolinite and Cochin
has been practiced very effectively. Flyash is a marine clay) to improve the geotechnical proper-
waste by product from thermal power plants, ties of soils for highway construction. He found
which uses coal as fuel. It is estimated that about that, addition of quarry dust improved the CBR
120 million tones of flyash is being produced value of soil and the optimum proportion being
from different thermal power plants in India con- 40% of quarry dust to 60% of soil.
suming several thousand hectares of precious
land for it’s disposal causing severe health and Praveen Kumar et.al (2006) conducted Cali-
environmental hazards. In order to utilize flyash fornia Bearing Ratio (CBR) and static and cyclic
in bulk quantities, ways and means are being ex- triaxial tests on the four most frequently encoun-
plored all over the world to use it for the con- tered local materials—fly ash, coarse sand, stone
struction of embankments and roads. In spite of dust, and river bed material (RBM)—for their
continuous efforts made and incentives offered use in the subbase layer of a flexible pavement.
by the government, hardly 5-10% of the product The CBR of stone dust was the maximum value
ash is being used for construction purposes like of all, but its behavior under dynamic load in tri-
brick making, cement manufacture, soil stabiliza- axial tests was inferior to that of the other materi-
tion and as fill material (Boominathan and Hari, als. Fly ash has low CBR, but better stress-strain
1999). behavior than stone dust.
In Andhra Pradesh, large numbers of crusher
However, these techniques are successful only
units are available, which produces huge quantity
to a partial extent and hence the attempts to de-
of stone dust. Stone dust not only pollutes water,
vise better techniques are still going on. In the
air or land but also their disposal is a great prob-
present work, an attempt is made using flyash
lem. In the recent past some of the researchers
and stone dust for the two expansive soils col-
have brought out interesting notes on utilization
lected from Bhimavaram in Andhra Pradesh. The
of stone dust and flyash for soil stabilization. Er-
swelling and strength characteristics of two ex-
dal Cokca (2001) studied the effect of Flyash on
pansive soils are presented and discussed. Also,
expansive soil. From the experimental findings
the variations in liquid limit, plastic limit, and
confirmed that the plasticity index, activity and
compaction characteristics obtained for heavy
swelling potential of the samples decreased with
compaction such as OMC and MDD are pre-
increasing percent stabilizer and curing time and
sented and discussed. The CBR results under
the optimum content of flyash in decreasing the
soaked condition are also presented.
swell potential was found to be 20%. Also con-
T.L. Ramadas et al. / Study of Swelling and Strength Characteristics of Expansive Soil Treated 661
28
Stone Dust
80 6.2
Stone Dust
Flyash
FSI (%)
70
5.2
C.B.R (%)
60
4.2
50
3.2
40
2.2
30
0 10 20 30 40 50 1.2
% Admixture 0 10 20 30 40 50
% Admixture
90 220
FSI (%)
Flyash
200 St one dust
80
Swell pressure (kPa)
180
70 160
140
60
0 5 10 15 20 25 120
% Admixture
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 7 Influence of Stone Dust and Flyash combination on
FSI. Admixt ure (%)
From this plot, it is noticed that at 50% addi- Fig.9 Influence of Stone Dust and Flyash on SP
tion of admixture (i.e., 25% stone dust + 25%
flyash) to the clay, the reduction in FSI is 35%. Swell Potential
Hence, it is notable to adopt the combination of
flyash and stone dust in addition to the in-situ 20
clay for construction purpose. 18 Fly ash
Stone dust
16
12
6
plot, it is observed that as the percentage admix-
4
ture such as flyash/stone dust increases, the CBR
2
also increasing in a reasonable trend. The opti- 0
mum value of CBR is found at 23% of flyash and 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Fig.10. Influence of Stone Dust and Flyash on Swell potential x The swelling characteristics are decreased
20 with increasing of flyash/stone dust
18 Fyash+Stone dust x The optimum percentages of flyash and
stone dust observed are 25% and 30% re-
Sw ell potentila (%)
16
spectively for improving the properties of
14 expansive soils.
12
x It is observed from the study that the per-
formance of stone dust is much more effec-
10
tive when compared to flyash.
8 x There is a maximum improvement in
6
strength properties for the combination of
0 5 10 15 20 25 flyash and stone dust when compared to
flyash/stone dust individually.
Admixture (%)
220
REFERENCES
200 Flyash+Stone dust
[1]. Bhoominadhan. A., and Hari S., (1999),“Behavior of
Swell pressure (kPa)
RÉSUMÉ
La courbe caractéristique sol-eau joue un rôle principal dans la description du comportement hydraulique et mécanique des sols
non saturés. Dans la présente étude, les équations Fredlund et Xing et van Genuchten ont été utilisées pour modéliser les courbes
caractéristiques sol-eau des sols typiques grecs dont trois sols dures - roches faibles. Il est tenté de corréler les paramètres opti-
males de la courbe d'ajustement avec des caractéristiques physiques des sols et de comparer les paramètres des courbes caracté-
ristiques sol-eau des sols intacts et recomposés.
Keywords: unsaturated soil, soil-water characteristic curve models, regression analysis, structured soil, recomposed soil.
1
Corresponding Author.
666 P. Sitarenios et al. / Modelling the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve
the latter the SWCC of both the undisturbed and SWCC measured on their recomposed counter-
the recomposed samples were modeled, to allow parts.
for comparisons and conclusions on how struc-
ture may affect modelling parameters. Table 1. SWCC equations used to fit the experimental data.
tics
Corinth Marl
Kifissia Marl
Marl (CHM)
Kifissia Clay
Chalkoutsi
Silt (ILS)
(KC)
method for controlling total suction between 4 to the global minimum. Estimating a proper set of
150MPa were used. The data acquired are plotted starting parameters is even harder in the case of
in Fig. 1. More information on the examined SWCC models because it is often possible to get
soils and the SWCC measurements can be found a few parameters combinations that produce al-
in Bardanis and Grifiza (2011) [8] and Bardanis most the same curve.
and Kavvadas (2008) [9]. Thus, in the present study a stochastic search
technique has been implemented using the Mat-
100 lab programming code. A genetic algorithm was
Corinth Marl_Rec
Chania Silty Clay used to identify promising areas in the search
80 Kifissia Marl
Ioannina Lake Silt
space where the global minimum of the objective
Kifissia Clay function may lie. The proposed optimization
60 Corinth Marl_Nat
scheme involves 100 individuals in the first pa-
W (%)
Chalkoutsi Marl_Nat
Chalkoutsi Marl_Rec
rental generation randomly selected in between
40
the deterministic boundaries of an initially se-
20
lected appropriate search space.
The reliability of each calculated set of best-fit
0 parameters was quantified through the coeffi-
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04
Soil Suction (kPa)
1.E+05 1.E+06
cient of determination (R2):
100 100
80 80
60 60
W (%)
W (%)
Corinth Marl_Nat
40 40
F&X (Best fit)
van G. (Best fit)
Chania Silty Clay
20 Corinth Marl_Rec 20
F&X (Best fit)
F&X (Best Fit)
van G. (Best fit)
van G. (Best fit)
0 0
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
a Soil Suction (kPa) b Soil Suction (kPa)
100 100
80 80
60 60
W (%)
40 W (%)
40
100 100
80 80
60 60
W (%)
W (%)
Chalkoutsi Marl_Nat
40 40
F&X (Best fit)
van G. (Best fit)
Kifissia Clay 20 Chalkoutsi Marl_Rec
20
F&X (Best fit) F&X (Best Fit)
van G. (Best fit) van G. (Best fit)
0 0
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
e 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03
Soil Suction (kPa)
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 f Soil Suction (kPa)
Figure 2. Experimental data and fitted curves for the: a) undisturbed and recomposed Corinth Marl, b) recomposed Chania Silty
Clay, c) recomposed Kifissia Marl, d) recomposed Ioannina Lake Silt, e) recomposed Kifissia Clay and f) undisturbed and re-
composed Chalkoutsi Marl.
40000
Table 3. Calculated optimum parameters and associated R2 F&X (1994) REC
values for Fredlund & Xing equation. F&X (1994) NAT
30000
van G. (1980) REC
Soil a n m R2
a , 1/a
2
Table 4. Calculated optimum parameters and associated R2
values for van Genuchten equation. 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
b wPI
Soil a n m R2
CM_REC 0.014 1.005 0.567 0.999346
7
CM_NAT 7.70*10-4 1.397 0.476 0.988080 F&X (1994) REC
6
F&X (1994) NAT
CSC 2.89*10-5 0.527 2.477 0.999754 5
van G. (1980) REC
KM 3.65*10-4 3.385 0.824 0.999750 4
van G. (1980) NAT
m
3
ILS 0.0763 3.386 0.095 0.993716
2
KC 1.80*10-4 0.664 1.043 0.999793 1
CHM_REC 0.0035 9.2076 0.0327 0.998437 0
c 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
CHM_NAT 0.0078 1.4815 0.1952 0.986041 wPI
In Fig. 3a the inverse of van Genuchten pa- Comparison between the curve-fitting pa-
rameter a has been plotted in order to compare rameters of structured and recomposed soils may
with Fredlund and Xing a parameter. It can be by no means be considered conclusive. There
observed that both models provide almost the seems to be indication however that in the ab-
same a,1/a and n values, while some differences sence of the effect of a different initial void ratio
are observed in the m values. This explains the prior to drying, a (1/a for the van Genuchten
different shape that some of the fitted curves, equation) and n are higher while m is lower for
corresponding to the same soil, exhibit after the structured soils.
second inflection point.
The significant scatter of the points in Fig. 3
indicates that probably there is no relation be-
tween the calculated optimum parameters and the REFERENCES
particular correlation parameter despite its wide-
spread use. A second attempt to correlate the [1] N.T. Burdine, Relative permeability calculations from
data was made by excluding from the analysis pore size distribution data, Trans. AIME 198 (1953),
71–77.
the SWCCs associated with Chania Silty Clay [2] W.R .Gardner, Some steady state solutions of the un-
and recomposed Chalkoutsi Marl, due to their saturated flow equation with application to evaporation
‘inconsistent’ results. Although some trends were from a water teble, Soil Sci. 85(4) (1956)., 228–232.
observed after eliminating the aforementioned [3] W. Brutsaert, Probability laws for pore size distribu-
tions, Soil Sci. 101., 85–92.
data, still no statistically reliable correlations [4] Y. Mualem, A new model for predicting hydraulic con-
could be observed. ductivity of unsaturated porous media, Water Resour.
Res., 12(3), 513–522.
[5] M.Th.van. Genuchten, A closed form equation predict-
ing the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils, Soil
6 CONCLUSIONS Science Society of America Journal (44),(1980),892–
898.
Eight soil-water characteristic curves were mod- [6] D.G. Fredlund, A. Xing, Equations for the soil-water
characteristic curve, Can. Geot. J.,(31),(1994),521–
eled using the Fredlund and Xing and van 532.
Genuchten equations. Both models where found [7] E.C. Leong, H. Rahardjo, Review of soil-water charac-
capable of providing fair fits to the experimental teristic curve equations, ASCE J. Geotech. Geoenvi-
data. No correlations between the parameters of ronmental Engng 123(12),(1997),1106–1117.
[8] M.E. Bardanis, S. Grifiza, Measuring the soil-water
the fitted equations and the soil properties were characteristic curve of structured and recomposed
found. It seems that the existence or non- soils, XV ECSMGE, Athens,(2011).
existence of correlations with index properties [9] M.E. Bardanis, M.J. Kavvadas, Soil-water characteris-
needs to be further investigated with all the index tic curves and void ratio changes relative to suction for
soils from Greece, proc. Unsaturated Soils: Advances in
properties. It is hoped that this elaboration on Geo-Engineering, Toll et al. (eds), Proc. 1st Eur. Conf.
correlating parameters and the addition of more on Unsaturated Soils, Durham, UK, (2008), 263-269.
SWCCs measured on soils from Greece will lead [10] C.E. Zapata, N.W. Houston, L.S. Houston, D. K.
to at least rationally indicative correlations for Walsh, Soil-Water Characteristic Curve Variability, in
Shackelford, C. D., Houston, S. L., Chang, N. Y., “Ad-
the prediction of a, m & n curve-fitting parame- vances in Unsaturated Geotechnics”, GSP 99, ASCE
ters. (2000), Reston, Virginia, 84-124.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 671
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-671
ABSTRACT
Lime addition is a very wide spread technique to improve the engineering behaviour of soils. It is known to reduce the swelling
potential of expansive soils. This property would be of interest since lime might be used to prevent swelling of expansive soils in
earthworks. However, the durability of this lime effect is questionable. It is essential to evaluate the durability of treatment ef-
fects when the initially expansive stabilised-soil is subjected to a succession of wetting and drying cycles, which is the main pur-
pose of this study
Two lime contents were used to stabilise the selected expansive soil: 2 and 5 %. After a curing period of 28 days, the treated soil
has been subjected to wetting and drying cycles. To impose these cycles, the controlled oedometer by osmotic method, technique
of unsaturated soils mechanics, have been used. The swelling / shrinkage potential and the oedometric compressibility have been
determined as a function of the number of hydric cycles.
These results showed that the efficiency of lime stabilisation on the swelling potential is altered by successive hydric cycles. It
appeared that the lower the lime-content, the higher the alteration of lime stabilisation effects. The amplitude of the wetting and
drying cycles is also a key factor.
RÉSUMÉ
Le traitement à la chaux est une pratique courante d’amélioration des sols. Le traitement induit la création de composés cimen-
taires qui vont modifier le comportement mécanique du sol et réduire son potentiel de gonflement. Cette dernière propriété pour-
rait être exploitée pour permettre le réemploi des matériaux très argileux en les rendant insensibles vis-à-vis des fluctuations de
teneur en eau. Il est cependant indispensable d’évaluer la pérennité des effets du traitement lorsque le sol gonflant traité est sou-
mis à une succession de cycles hydriques, ce qui est l’objet principal de cette étude.
Deux dosages en chaux ont été retenus pour traiter le sol argileux gonflant sélectionné : 2 et 5 %. Après une période de cure de
28 jours, le sol traité a été soumis à des cycles hydriques. Pour imposer ces cycles, des œdomètres à succion contrôlée par mé-
thode osmotique, technique de la mécanique des sols non saturés, ont été employés. Le potentiel de gonflement / retrait ainsi que
la compressibilité œdométrique ont été déterminés à la fin des cycles hydriques.
Les résultats obtenus montrent que l’efficacité du traitement sur le potentiel de gonflement est altérée par des cycles hydriques
successifs. Cette altération est d’autant plus forte que le dosage avant le premier cycle est faible. Elle est aussi directement fonc-
tion de l’amplitude des cycles hydriques.
Keywords: Expansive soils, cementation effect, lime stabilisation, durability, chemo-hydro-mechanical couplings.
1
Corresponding Author.
672 G. Stoltz et al. / Impact de cycles hydriques sur le comportement hydromécanique
1,4
0%CaO
1,2 2%CaO-28j
2%CaO-128j
1 5%CaO-28j
e
5%CaO-128j
0,8
0,6
1 10 100 1000 10000
ı
>N3D@
Fig. 1. Courbes œdométriques de l’argile non traitée et traitée à 2 et 5% de chaux (28 jours de cure).
En conclusion, si le dosage de 2 % de chaux
L’argile non traitée présente un potentiel de
suffit à prévenir le gonflement de l’argile après
}
¯¶¯0 de 15,5% à la diffé-
28 jours de cure, il n’est pas suffisant pour in-
rence de celui de l’argile traitée qui est quasi nul
duire une augmentation des propriétés méca-
¯¶¯0 $ 0%). Ce résultat indique que l’ajout de
niques selon un temps de cure prolongé, 128
chaux à l’argile gonflante étudiée, en respectant
jours.
un temps de cure de 28 jours, permet de suppri-
mer son caractère gonflant lors de
4 EFFET DES CYCLES HYDRIQUES
l’humidification. Il est intéressant de noter qu’un
dosage de 2 % de chaux suffit à atteindre
l’objectif de supprimer le potentiel de gonfle- L’impact des n cycles hydriques successifs sur le
ment de l’argile. comportement volumique de l’argile et sur la
La contrainte de préconsolidation de l’argile compressibilité seront successivement abordés.
non traitée est évaluée à 40 kPa et alors que la 4.1 Sur le retrait / gonflement
contrainte de préconsolidation apparente de
l’argile traitée avec 2 et 5% de chaux, ayant eu Sept cycles hydriques ont été appliqués sur les
28 jours de cure, est de l’ordre de 700 kPa. Cette éprouvettes traitées à la chaux. Cependant, le
contrainte de préconsolidation est qualifiée septième cycle n’a pas pu être appliqué sur
d’apparente pour le matériau traité car elle prend l’argile traitée à 5% de chaux pour des raisons de
en compte, non seulement « l’histoire » méca- vieillissement prématuré de la membrane osmo-
nique du matériau, mais aussi l’effet des cimen- tique.
tations induites par le traitement à la chaux. Dans un premier temps, l’analyse des résultats
L’ajout de chaux permet ainsi d’étendre le do- est portée sur le suivi de la hauteur de
maine élastique du matériau. l’éprouvette au cours des cycles par rapport à sa
Les résultats obtenus permettent d’apprécier hauteur initiale H0 (Fig. 2.). Le premier cycle a
l’effet d’un temps de cure prolongé de 128 jours débuté par une phase de dessiccation avec
sur les propriétés mécaniques. Dans le cas de l’imposition d’une succion de 8 MPa (cycle
l’argile traitée à 2% de chaux, la contrainte de n=½). Les résultats obtenus au cours de cette
préconsolidation apparente reste stable entre 28 première dessiccation ont permis d’évaluer
et 128 jours de cure. Par contre, pour l’argile l’effet du traitement sur le retrait des matériaux
traitée à 5% de chaux, la contrainte de préconso- étudiés. Que ce soit pour l’argile non traitée ou
lidation apparente passe de 700 à plus de pour l’argile traitée à la chaux (2 ou 5%),
1000 kPa après 128 jours de cure. l’amplitude du retrait est du même ordre de
grandeur, avec ¯¶¯0)n=½ compris entre -4,5%
G. Stoltz et al. / Impact de cycles hydriques sur le comportement hydromécanique 675
et -5%. L’ajout de chaux à l’argile, avec 28 jours tion des propriétés de retrait / gonflement au fur
de cure, ne permet donc pas de supprimer le re- et à mesure des cycles, diminution qui ne stabi-
trait induit par l’imposition de la succion 8 MPa. lise pas après 7 cycles.
La fin du premier cycle (n=1) correspond à 10
une humidification avec l’imposition d’une suc- gonflement
cion nulle. Le premier cycle se traduit par
l’apparition d’un retrait irréversible de l’ordre de
ǻ++n [%]
1% pour le dosage de 2% de chaux, et de l’ordre
de 3,5% pour le dosage de 5% de chaux. A la 0
différence de l’argile non traitée,
l’humidification n’entraine qu’un gonflement li- 0%CaO-4C
2%CaO-28j-n=7
mité de l’argile traitée. retrait 5%CaO-28j-n=6
5 -10
0%CaO-4C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2%CaO-28j-n=7
nombre de cycles n
5%CaO-28j-n=6
ǻ++0 [%]
environ 600 kPa (Fig. 4b). Cette valeur est à deur que celui du même sol non traité. Par ail-
comparer à celle déterminée après 128 jours de leurs, les cycles hydriques successifs appliqués à
cure qui était supérieure à 1000 kPa. l’argile traitée montrent que son comportement
Ainsi, les cycles hydriques ont donc entraîné reste dépendant des variations hydriques même si
une dégradation significative des propriétés mé- une diminution des propriétés de retrait et de
caniques de l’argile traitée à 2 et à 5 % de chaux, gonflement est observée au cours des cycles, no-
leur impact semblant être plus limité pour tamment pour le dosage en chaux le plus fort.
l’argile traitée à 5% de chaux. 2 – Le rôle du dosage en chaux a également été
5 mis en évidence. Si une augmentation des per-
(a) formances mécaniques est recherchée à long
0 terme, le dosage de 2% de chaux est insuffisant à
la différence de celui de 5% de chaux. Le dosage
-5 de 2% de chaux permet néanmoins d’augmenter
0 [%]
0 [%]
0.
%
*
%
%
9.
%
6(
!
W " W "v
<" )%
g " # a"vbv
" '()"*(
"- ,
-
%
-
%.
.-
4
-,
.,
-
, ,.
)7'0&7
0,,%%
%
9
%9
. ,
.%
%
9
%.99
%
%
:
&.
,
%
HI.I,%,
*9
9
,,
.
9
$-
3*%
!
*
,"
678 D.G. Toll and Z. Ali Rahman / Unsaturated Behaviour of a Cemented Sand
(
-
% .
(
% - %
%
- ,
,
% >!@
" % 4
3
,
- ¯
HNRP3!?PI - LEE
*
L
(
°(%
- ,
%.
.
% ,
%% %+ ,
,
%
,%
- %
,
H
.
,
%
% ,I
.
.-
>R@
-
%
%
.
.
.
,.
&
.
,
%
,%>?@
-
. .
, .- -
¯. ,° .-
H+ , !I
,
H .
.
,I .
%
-
2 %
-
X -
.
%
. , *
'
%
,
%-
-
H,
I
%
,
D.G. Toll and Z. Ali Rahman / Unsaturated Behaviour of a Cemented Sand 679
? (1'()1'0('
'
-
4
%
- + ,?LH
+ ,!&
,
-
TLE!EE?EE
I(
%HTEF%,
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D.G. Toll and Z. Ali Rahman / Unsaturated Behaviour of a Cemented Sand 681
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 683
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-683
ABSTRACT
A series of single model pile tests were performed in a laboratory environment to study the influence of matric suction on the
pile shaft resistance in a compacted fine-grained soil. The model piles were loaded in the soil compacted with constant water
content condition to assure uniform suction value over the entire depth. The model piles were loaded to failure under both satu-
rated and unsaturated conditions under different drainage conditions. The test results show that there is a significant contribution
from suction towards the shaft resistance of model piles. The conventional D method by Skempton (1959) and ȕ method by Bur-
land (1973) that are used for interpreting the piles in saturated conditions were modified to interpret the total shaft resistance of
piles under unsaturated conditions.
RÉSUMÉ
Des essais sur des pieux individuels à échelle réduite ont été menés en laboratoire afin d'étudier l'influence de la succion sur la
résistance du fût d'un pieux enfoncé dans un sol fin compacté. Les pieux ont été soumis à une charge tout en maintenant cons-
tante la teneur en eau afin d'assurer une succion uniforme sur toute la profondeur. Les pieux ont été chargés jusqu'à la rupture
dans des sols saturés aussi bien que non-saturés en utilisant différentes conditions de drainage. Les résultats des essais démon-
trent que la succion peu contribuer de manière significative à la résistance de fût de pieux à échelle réduite. La méthode conven-
tionnelle D de Skempton (1959) et la méthode ȕ de Burland (1973) qui sont utilisées pour interpréter la résistance de pieux dans
des conditions saturées ont été modifiées pour interpréter la résistance de fût totale de pieux dans des conditions non-saturées.
Keywords: Unsaturated soils, compacted soils, matric suction, model piles, shaft resistance, modified method, modified ȕ me-
thod
1
Corresponding Author
684 S.K. Vanapalli and Z.N. Taylan / Model Piles Behaviour
fluence of matric suction. In other words, the strength parameters and interface strength pa-
mechanics of unsaturated soils should be used in rameters (i.e., soil and pile material) were deter-
the rational design of foundations. There are mined from the direct shear tests. The effective
some studies reported in the literature with re- shear strength parameters (c’ and I’), the SWCC,
spect to the design of shallow foundations using and the interface shear strength properties are re-
unsaturated soil mechanics [1] & [2]. However, quired for interpreting and predicting the varia-
there are limited studies reported in the literature tion of total shaft resistance of the model pile
that discuss the design of pile foundations taking with respect to matric suction under drained
account of the influence of matric suction in fine- loading conditions [6].
grained soils [3]. A modified null-pressure plate apparatus [7]
In this study, a series of single model pile tests was used for determining the matric suction of
were performed in a laboratory environment to the compacted soil specimens using the axis-
study the influence of matric suction on the pile translation technique. The undrained strength, cu
shaft resistance in a compacted fine-grained soil. of compacted soil specimens under saturated and
The model piles were loaded in the soil com- unsaturated conditions were determined using
pacted with constant water content condition to conventional unconfined compression equip-
assure uniform matric suction over the entire ment. The undrained strength, cu and matric suc-
depth. The model piles were loaded to failure tion value of the compacted soil are required for
under both saturated and unsaturated conditions interpreting the shaft resistance of the model
using different drainage conditions (i.e., un- piles in undrained loading conditions. The varia-
drained and drained loading conditions). The test tion of undrained strength, cu with respect to suc-
results show that matric suction contributes sig- tion can be predicted using the cu of under satu-
nificantly towards the shaft resistance of model rated condition and the SWCC [8].
piles. The conventional D method [4] and ȕ me- The sections that follow provide the testing
thod [5] used for interpreting the piles placed in procedures details along with a brief description
saturated soils were modified in this study to in- of the equipments used in the laboratory testing
terpret the total shaft resistance of model piles program for determining the shaft resistance of
loaded in unsaturated soils. model piles in fine-grained soils.
2.2 Soil Preparation and Compaction bend (see ུ in Fig. 1) which is connected to the
Indian Head till collected from the field was air- base of the HAED with pore-water pressure
dried for several days and subjected to gentle equal to atmospheric pressure tends to go into
pulverization using a wooden mallet. The pulver- tension. This translates movement of water in the
ized soil that was passed through a sieve with an tube from its original position, which is ap-
opening size of 2 mm (i.e. #10 sieve) was col- proximately at a level equal to the mid height of
lected and used for the entire testing program. the soil specimen placed on the HAED. The ten-
The soil was prepared in a single batch to ensure dency of the water to go into tension is resisted
uniform conditions. The prepared dry soil was by increasing air pressure in the pressure cham-
mixed with distilled water at predetermined ini- ber. Eventually, an equilibrium condition is
tial water contents in the laboratory at room tem- reached and water in the specimen does not go
perature. The soil-water sample mixture was into tension (i.e., attains a “null” condition). The
placed in tightly covered double plastic bags and applied air pressure in the chamber to achieve
stored in a humidity controlled box in the labora- “null” condition is the matric suction value as
tory for at least 3 days to ensure uniform mois- water pressure is equal to zero.
ture conditions.
The compaction curve was obtained by pre-
paring statically compacted individual specimens
at different water contents using 350 kPa of
stress in specially designed compaction equip-
ment. The equipment consists of a brass mold in
which a specimen of 50 mm in diameter and 20
mm height can be prepared. The inner lining of
the mold has teflon layer to reduce friction while
compacting the soil sample. The samples were
compacted into steel specimen rings in a single
layer. The ring was fixed securely to the mold on Figure 1. Modified null pressure plate apparatus for meas-
a brass base plate with screws such that there is urement of suction using the axis translation technique (
brass chamber ཱ acrylic base, ི pressure gauge ཱི peri-
no movement during compaction of the sample. staltic pumpུglass tubeཱུdimmer switch) (after Power
and Vanapalli, 2010)
measurement of SWCCs of different soil samples cedure was followed for the different matric suc-
at the same time. tion values chosen in the present study. At each
equilibrium stage, the degree of saturation of the
compacted specimen was calculated from the vo-
lume-mass relationships for the different matric
suction values to plot the SWCC relationship
(Fig. 3).
90
hole without overstressing the nearby soil down
80
to a depth of 220 mm. The diameter of the cas-
70
ing tube was 18.8 mm with a wall thickness
60
equal to 0.9 mm. The loading was continued un-
50 til 220 mm length of the casing tube was embed-
40
Indian Head till winitial=13%
ded into the compacted soil. The casing along
30 with the soil embedded column was removed out
1 10 100 1000
from the compacted soil carefully by working the
Matric Suction (kPa)
equipment in opposite direction. The outer di-
Figure 3. SWCC for the Indian Head till with an initial com- ameter of the casing is slightly less than the
paction water content equal to 13%. model pile diameter, which is 20 mm. This tech-
nique ensures a good contact between the soil
The mass of the specimens were determined and the surface of model pile shaft for determin-
after achieving equilibrium conditions. This pro- ing the total shaft resistance.
S.K. Vanapalli and Z.N. Taylan / Model Piles Behaviour 687
The sampling tubes and model piles were spe- 4 TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
cially designed such that they can be securely
fastened on to the horizontal beam of the loading The total shaft capacity of piles in unsaturated
frame (see Fig. 4). under undrained loading conditions can be esti-
mated by modifying the conventional D method
[4] using Eq.1 [6]. The form of this equation will
be same as in [4] if matric suction, (ua - uw) is set
to zero.
Eq. (1) can also be used to predict the varia-
tion of total shaft resistance of pile, Qf(us) with re-
spect to matric suction. The required information
using this equation are the undrained shear
strength under saturated condition, cu(sat) and the
SWCC.
ª (ua uw ) X º
Q f (us ) D cu ( sat ) «1 S / P»S d L
Figure 4. Equipment set up for loading the model pile test ¬ ( Pa /100) ¼
tank, ཱ model pile, ི load cell, ཱི LVDT, ུ adjustable
(1)
height loading frame.
where, cu(sat), cu(unsat) = undrained shear strength
The casing tube was inserted into the com- under saturated and unsaturated conditions, re-
pacted soil after saturating it to determine the spectively, Pa = atmospheric pressure (i.e. 101.3
model piles capacity. The compacted soil in the kPa), (ua - uw) = matric suction, S = degree of sa-
tank was subjected to saturation by gradually al- turation and Q, P = fitting parameters which are
lowing downward flow of water from top of the equal to 2 and 9, respectively [8].
soil through the compacted plate which had drai- The D value for saturated and unsaturated
nage holes. Possible volume changes associated conditions was chosen as 0.9 and 0.75, respec-
with saturation were restricted using a column tively using the adhesion factor versus undrained
connected to the top of the compaction plate and shear strength relationship [11]. More details of
fastened to the loading frame. The saturation was the use of this relationship for unsaturated soils
checked with the help of a piezometer that was are discussed in [6].
attached to the side of the tank. This was assured Vanapalli and Taylan (2011) [6] also pro-
by checking the water level in the piezometer posed the modifications to the E method that can
and the tank were close to surface. In addition, be used for estimating the shaft resistance of
tensiometers reading value of zero also ensured model piles under drained loading conditions.
that the soil reached saturated conditions (i.e. (ua
- uw) = 0 kPa). Qf (us) ¦^H cc E V c ª¬ u
a z a `
uw (S N )(tan G c)º¼ S d L
(2)
After the borehole drilling was completed for
both saturated/unsaturated samples in the tank,
steel model piles was jacked down to a prede- where, ca' = adhesion component of cohesion,
termined depth of 200 mm following the same H= reduction parameter is chosen as 0.4, ' = in-
procedures used for penetrating the casing tube. ternal friction angle between pile and soil, ȕ =
A void of 20 mm in length was intentionally left Ko tan ’ and where Ko= (1-sin ') which is the
below the pile toe to be able to directly measure mean lateral earth coefficient at rest.
the total shaft resistance without any tip resis- The adhesion component of cohesive strength,
tance. The model piles were tested under drained ca’, and the internal friction angle, ', between
and undrained loading conditions using a strain the soil and the pile material was measured by
rate equal to 0.0120 mm/min [10] and 1 mm/min conducting interface direct shear tests for both
respectively. saturated and unsaturated soil specimens under
688 S.K. Vanapalli and Z.N. Taylan / Model Piles Behaviour
drained loading conditions (see Table 2). The grained soils both in the laboratory and in the
shearing rate used for conducting these tests was field with respect to the proposed D and ȕ meth-
the same as the rate of loading the model piles ods.
(i.e., 0.0120 mm/min). Since the internal friction
angle, ' did not vary much with respect to suc-
tion, the ȕ coefficient value of 0.3 was used for REFERENCES
both saturated and unsaturated conditions.
The relationship between the fitting parame- [1] Costa, Y.D., Cintra J.C. & Zornberg, J.G. 2003. Influ-
ter, N and plasticity index, Ip was used for pre- ence of matric suction on the results of plate load tests
performed on a lateritic soil deposit, Geotechnical Test-
dicting the shear strength unsaturated soils by ing Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2:219-227.
[12]. [2] Vanapalli, S.K. & Oh, W.T. 2010. Interpretation of the
The key results of the model pile load tests bearing capacity of an unsaturated soils extending the
along with other experimental results are effective and total stress approaches. Fifth International
Conference Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT 2010,
summarized in Table 2. More details related to Barcelona, Spain, Vol. 2:1223-1229.
the modified D and E methods are available in [3] Georgiadis, K., Potts, D.M. & Zdravkovic, L. 2003.
[6]. The influence of partial soil saturation pile behaviour.
Géotechnique, Vol. 53, No. 1: 11-25.
Table 2. Model pile load test results [4] Skempton, A.W. 1959. Cast-in-situ bored piles in
London clay. Géotechnique, Vol. 9, No. 4:153-173.
Meas. Estim. [5] Burland, J.B. 1973. Shaft friction of piles in clay- a
Test* D E ß cu ' c'a simple fundamental approach, Ground Engineering,
condition Qf (us) Qf
- - kPa kPa ° kPa kN kN Vol. 6, No.3: 30-42.
[6] Vanapalli, S.K. & Taylan, Z.N. 2011. Modeling the
S-UD 0.9 - 0 11.5 - - 0.10 0.13
load carrying capacity of single piles in unsaturated
S-D - 0.3 0 - 27 20 0.16 0.11 soils using the modified Dand the ȕ methods. 13th Int.
US-UD 0.75 - 203 68 - - 0.68 0.60 Conf. of the Int. Assoc. for Computer Methods and Ad-
US-D - 0.3 203 - 30 102 0.80 0.73 vances in Geomechanics 2011, Australia (accepted for
*
S: Saturated, US: Unsaturated, UD: Undrained, D: Drained; publication).
ß = matric suction [7] Power, K. and Vanapalli, S.K. 2010. Modified null
pressure apparatus for measurement of matric suction.
ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, American Society
of Testing Materials, 33(4): 335-341.
5 SUMMARY [8] Oh, W.T. & Vanapalli, S.K. 2009. A simple method to
estimate the bearing capacity of unsaturated fine-
Model pile tests were conducted on a statically grained soils, 62nd Canadian Geotechnical Conference,
compacted Indian Head till in the laboratory to September 2009:234-241
[9] Hilf, J. W. 1956. An investigation of pore water pres-
determine the shaft resistance in saturated and sure in compacted cohesive soils. Ph.D. dissertation.
unsaturated conditions. Conventional D [4] and E Tech. Memo. 654, U.S.B.R. Denver. 654.
[5] methods were modified to interpret the con- [10] Vanapalli. S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E. &
Clifton, A.W. 1996. Model for the prediction of shear
tribution of matric suction on the total shaft resis- strength with respect to soil suction. Canadian
tance of model piles in undrained and drained Geotechnical Journal, Vol.33, No. 3: 379-392.
loading conditions, respectively [6]. The load [11] Sowers, G.B. & Sowers, G.G. 1970. Introductory soil
versus deflection data demonstrated that the peak mechanics and foundations. The Macmillan Company,
New York.
shaft resistance is mobilized prior to 20 mm pe- [12] Vanapalli, S.K. & Fredlund, D.G. 2000. Comparison of
netration of the pile which is consistent with ear- empirical procedures to predict the shear strength of un-
lier studies in the literature [13]. saturated soils using the soil-water characteristic curve.
The total shaft resistance of piles in unsatu- Proc. of Unsaturated Soil session of Geo-Denver
2000, 5 - 8 August, ASCE Special Publication, 99: 195-
rated conditions is significantly higher in com- 209.
parison to saturated conditions for both drained [13] API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing
and undrained loading conditions (see Table 2). and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-Working
More studies are necessary to check the validity Stress Design. 2A-WSD-2000.
of the proposed methods on different fine-
3.1. Shallow Foundations
Fondations superficielles
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 691
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-691
ABSTRACT
At the seashore of Brazil ThyssenKrupp CSA built in 2006 - 2009 a steel plant including a 380.000 m2 stockyard for raw materi-
als comprising stockpile beds and runways for stacker/reclaimers similar to the heavy excavators in open mining. The lowland
area consists of saturated soft soils of low bearing capacity. Both the stability and serviceability of stockpile beds and runways
had to be ensured. The optimized solution employs full area basal high-strength geosynthetic reinforcements combined in the
coal/coke zone with geotextile encased columns below the runways and with strip drains below the beds. During construction
measurement programs were performed on test embankments. Measurement programs are installed also for the operation stage.
They serve to decide about the allowable height of stockpiles because of the insufficient subsoil consolidation below the beds on
strip drains at the start of operation. This is a specific case of application of the observational method in Eurocode 7. After a
short overview the paper focuses on the measurement programs and experience gained. So far they confirm the suitability of the
solutions and methods applied.
RÉSUMÉ
Au bord de mer du Brésil, Thyssen Krupp CSA construit en 2006 - 2009 une aciérie incluant une surface de stockage pour les
matières premières de 380.000 m² et des pistes pour les « bacs récupérateurs »; semblables aux excavatrices lourdes des exploita-
tions ouvertes. Le site entier recompose sur des sols compressibles saturés à très faible portance. Tant la stabilité globale que le
l’utilisation régulières de la réserve de stockage et des pistes ont dû être assurés. La solution optimale trouvée était un renforce-
ment horizontal par des geosynthétiques à très haute résistances, combinés sous les pistes par des colonnes encapsulées par un
géotextile associé à un tapis drainant. Des programmes de mesure ont été installés aux différentes phases. Ils servent pour se dé-
cider de la hauteur permise de réserves des stocks à cause de la consolidation de sous-sol insuffisante au début d'opération. C'est
un cas spécifique d'application de la méthode d'observation dans l'Eurocode 7. Après une vue d'ensemble courte, l’article se con-
centre sur les programmes de mesure et l'expérience acquise.
Keywords: Soft soils, soil reinforcement, geosynthetics, soil improvement, observational method, field measurements
1
Corresponding author
692 D. Alexiew et al. / Foundation of a Heavy Loaded Stockyard on Problematic Subsoil
1 INTRODUCTION
3 STOCK YARD
2 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
W E
4 TEST EMBANKMENTS Figure 7. Southern high test embankment (see also contour
“Test section coke-yard” in Fig. 8); piezometric curves in “b”
correspond to the piezometers P in “c” from top to bottom
After completion of two stockpile beds (strip
drains & horizontal reinforcement) and of one
RW (GECs & horizontal reinforcement) between
them (Fig. 6) instrumented test embankments 5 OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
were built using slag to simulating the future
coal/coke piles for verification of the foundation
concept, adjustment of assumptions and optimi- 5.1 Concept
zation of solutions for the rest of stockyard. In
Figure 7 only the southern one is shown for brev- The stringent application of the observational
ity. The systems behavior generally confirmed method in terms of DIN 1054:2005 is a key ele-
the concept. Most important comments: the pore ment of the design and safety concept for the
water overpressure dissipated relatively slowly foundation of the stockyard. In a first phase in-
despite the strip drains (Fig. 7b), but was signifi- strumented test fields were installed and used to
cant only in the first 5 to 6 m below surface; set- calibrate and validate assumptions and calcula-
tlements (Fig. 7d) were in the range of low- tion models (see Chapter 4). Moreover, the op-
er/upper boundary predictions; the “spreading” erational phase is accompanied and controlled by
(Fig. 7c) was smaller than expected, may be due a comprehensive geodetic and geotechnical
to the very flat 1:3 slopes of slag fill; to the left monitoring program during the early years.
D. Alexiew et al. / Foundation of a Heavy Loaded Stockyard on Problematic Subsoil 695
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of laboratory model tests on the behaviour of a strip footing supported on a row of soil nail and
single geotextile layer-stabilized sandy slope. A comparison between the bearing capacity improvements in the two cases was
made to study the most efficient of them. The parameters varied in the study include depth of the reinforcing layer, the edge
distance of the footing, location of soil nail row, and location of the footing relative to the slope crest. Initially the bearing
capacity of non-stabilized cases were determined and then compared with those of stabilized slopes. The results were then
analysed to study the effect of each parameter. The results indicate that stabilizing earth slope using a row of soil nail or single
geotextile layer has a significant effect in improving the bearing capacity of the strip footing. This improvement in bearing
capacity increases when soil nail spacing decreases. However, the overall improvement when using single geotextile layer to
stabilize earth slope is much better than that when using a row of soil nail.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article présente les résultats des essais sur modèle en laboratoire pour le comportement d'une semelle filante en charge sur
une rangée de clous de sol et unique couche de géotextile-pente de sable stabilisé. Une comparaison entre les améliorations de
capacité portante dans les deux cas a été faite à l'étude la plus efficace d'entre eux. Les divers paramètres dans l'étude
comprennent la profondeur de la couche de renfort, la distance au bord de la semelle, l'emplacement de la rangée de clous de sol
et l'emplacement de la semelle par rapport à la crête de la pente. Initialement, la capacité portante de cas de non-stabilisée ont été
déterminés et comparés à ceux de pistes stabilisées. Les résultats ont ensuite été analysées pour étudier l'effet de chaque
paramètre. Les résultats indiquent que la stabilisation des talus de terre à l'aide d'une rangée de clous de sol ou simple couche de
géotextile a un effet significatif dans l'amélioration de la capacité portante de la semelle filante. Cette amélioration augmente la
capacité portante du sol lorsque l'espacement des clous diminue. Toutefois, l'amélioration globale de l'utilisation de la seule
couche de géotextile afin de stabiliser la pente de terre est ben meilleure que celle lors de l'utilisation d'une rangée de clous de
sol.
Keywords: strip footing, geotextile, soil nailing, and bearing capacity ratio.
of footing on the slope (e.g. Selvadurai et al., tank, and a sand raining box. The test box
1989; Sawicki et al. , 1991; Dash et al., 2003; having internal dimensions of 2.00 x 0.60m in
Boushehrian and Hataf, 2003; El Sawwaf., plan and 0.60m in depth is made from steel with
2005; Alamshahi et al., 2009; Lee and the front wall made of 20mm thick glass and is
Manjunath., 2000; Abdrabbo et al., 2008, and supported directly on two steel columns. These
Yoo C.,2001). These investigations have columns were firmly fixed in two horizontal
demonstrated that not only the slope stability steel beams, which were firmly clamped in the
can be increased but also both the ultimate laboratory ground using four pins. The glass side
bearing capacity and the settlement allows the sample to be seen during preparation
characteristics of the foundation can be and sand particle deformations to be observed
significantly improved by the inclusion of during testing. The tank box was built
reinforcement layers of geogrids, strips or sufficiently rigid to maintain plane strain
geotextile in the earth slope. conditions by minimizing the out of plane
Moghaddas Tafreshi and Khalaj, displacement (Omar 2006).
(2008) performed an experimental study to
investigate the beneficial effect of geogrid on 2.2 Model footing
the deformation of small diameter pipes and on
the settlement of the soil surface when subjected A model strip footing made of steel with a hole
to repeated loads that simulated vehicle loading. at its top center to accommodate a ball bearing
They reported that the precentage of vertical was used. The footing was 580mm in length,
diameter change and settlement of soil surface 50mm in width and 20mm in thickness. The
can be reduced significantly by using geogrid footing was positioned on the sand bed with the
reinforcement. length of the footing running the full width of
El Sawwaf (2007) investigated the the tank. The length of the footing was made
behaviour of strip footings on geogrid reinforced almost equal to the width of the tank in order to
sand over a soft clay slope. Test results indicated maintain plane strain conditions. The two ends
that the inclusion of geogrid layers in the of the footing plate were polished smooth to
replaced sand not only significantly improves minimize the end friction effects. A rough base
the footing performance but also leads to a great condition was achieved by fixing a thin layer of
reduction in the thickness of the reinforced sand sand onto the base of the model footing with
layer that is required to achieve the allowable epoxy glue. The load was transferred to the
settlement. footing through a bearing ball. Such an
The main purpose of this investigation arrangement produced a hinge, which allowed
was to compare between the bearing capacity the footing to rotate freely as it approached
improvement in the two cases and to evaluate failure and eliminated any potential moment
the effect of bearing capacity with different transfer from the loading fixture.
footing location. In this study, 45 laboratory
model tests were carried out to investigate the 2.3 Materials tested
bearing capacity of a rigid strip footing placed 2.3.1 Geotextile
on top of an air-dried sand slope with and The geotextile used in this study is shown in Fig.
without layers of geotextile and soil nails. 1. A non-woven-geotextile reinforcing material
was used with a thickness of 3.5mm under
2kN/m² and its grab elongation >100%. Typical
2. LABORATORY MODEL TESTS physical and technical properties of the
geotextiles were obtained from the
2.1 Model box manufacturer’s data sheet of Makarm Tex,
The main elements of the laboratory apparatus Egypt, Cairo and are given in Table 1.
were a tank, a horizontal steel beam over the
E.A.O. Belqasem Altalhe / Strip Footing Behavior on Geotextile Reinforced 699
4. CONCLUSIONS
Unreinforced Sand Slope, GeoCongress, ASCE (2008), [10] C. Yoo, Laboratory investigation of bearing capacity
25-32. behaviour of strip footing on geogrid – reinforced sand
[3] A. Sawicki and D. Lesniewska , Stability of Fabric slope, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 19 (2001), 279-
Reinforced Cohesive Soil Slopes, Geotextiles and 298.
Geomembranes, 10 (199), 125-146. [11] E. A. Omar., Behavior of strip footing on reinforced
[4] J.H. Boushehrian, and N. Hataf, Experimental and earth slope, M. Sc. Thesis, Alexandria University,
numerical investigation of the bearing capacity of Egypt, 2006.
model circular and ring footings on reinforced sand, [12] C. Huang, F. Tatsuoka, and Y. Sato, Failure
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 21 (2003) (4), 241– mechanisms of reinforced sand slopes loaded with a
256. footing, Soils and Foundations 24 (1994) (2), 27-40.
[5] S. Dash, S. Sireesh, and T. Sitharam, Model studies on
circular footing supported on geocell reinforced sand [13] S.N. Moghaddas Tafreshi, O. Khalaj, Laboratory tests
underlain by soft clay, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, of small-diameter HDPEpipes buried in reinforced
21(2003)(4), 197–219. sand under repeated load, Geotextiles and
[6] M. El Sawwaf, Strip footing behavior on pile and sheet Geomembranes 26 (2008) (2), 145–163.
pilestabilized sand slope, Journal of geotechnology and
geoenvironmental engineering, 131 (6) (2005), 705-
715.
[7] M. El Sawwaf, Behavior of strip footing on geogrid-
reinforced sand over a soft clay slope ,Geotextile and
geomembranes , 25 (1) (2007), 50-60.
[8] K.M. Lee, and V.R. Manjunath, Experimental and
numerical studies of geosynthetic – reinforced sand
slopes loaded with a footing, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 37(2000), 828-842.
[9] A.P.S. Selvadurai, and C.T. Gnanendran, An
experimental study of a footing located on a sloped
fill:influence of a soil reinforcement layer, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal , 26 (1989), 467-473.
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 705
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-705
ABSTRACT
Current offshore technology is being transferred successfully to the renewable energy sector but there is clearly scope to develop
foundation systems which are more efficient, economic and satisfactory for the particular case of a wind turbine. One such ap-
proach is that foundation systems are developed which combine several foundation elements to create a ‘hybrid’ system. In this
way it may be possible to develop a foundation system which is more efficient for the combination of vertical and lateral loads
associated with wind turbines. In many of the proposed offshore European wind farms sites, it is often the case that the surficial
seabed deposits are underlain by a weak rock. This paper presents the results of a series of small scale single gravity tests to in-
vestigate the performance of a monopile and combined monopiled and bearing plate foundation where the pile is socketed into a
weak rock. In the model studies the weak rock layer is modelled by a weak sand and gypsum mix. The results of the study pro-
vide an insight into the effect of the various foundation elements (i.e. pile, plate and rock socket) and their contribution to the
overall performance of the foundation system.
RÉSUMÉ
La technologie actuelle utilisée en offshore est reutilisée avec succès dans le secteur de l’énergie renouvelable, cependant il est
possible de développer des systèmes de fondations plus efficaces, économiques et statisfaisants dans le cas des éoliennes. Une
approche du problème consiste à développer un système de fondation qui combine plusieurs éléments de fondation pour créer un
système hybride. De cette façon, il peut être possible de développer un système de fondation qui soit plus efficace pour des eo-
liennes qui subissent une charge laterale et verticale. La plupart des parcs éoliens Européens proposés se trouvent dans le cas ou
les dépôts des fonds marins reposent sur une roche molle. Cet article présent les résultats d'une série de tests à petite échelle et de
même gravité. Ce document a pour but d’étudier la performance d'une pile et le cas d’une pile combinée avec une plaque, où la
pile est encastrée dans une roche tendre. Dans cette étude, la roche molle est réalisée par le mélange de gypse et de sable faible.
Les résultats donnent un aperçu de l’effet des différents éléments de fondation et leur contribution à la performance globale du
système de fondation.
Keywords: Offshore turbine, weak rock, monopile, rock socket, laterally loads.
1
Corresponding author
706 S. Arshi and K.J.L. Stone / An Investigation of a Rock Socketed Pile with an Integral Bearing Plate
farms is also extending into deeper water as the The effect of the pile cap or bearing plate is to
supply of shallow near shore sites is exhausted. provide a degree of rotational restraint at the pile
Similarly the capacity of wind turbine generators head, leading to an improvement in the lateral re-
is also increasing requiring significant develop- sistance of the pile. It has also been shown that
ment in foundation approaches to generate eco- the use of a relatively thick pile cap leads to an
nomic and practical solutions to the installation increase in the lateral resistance through the de-
of these deep water wind farms. velopment of passive soil wedges [7], in a simi-
The loadings associated with wind turbines lar way to the behaviour of skirted foundations
consist of relatively low vertical loadings but [8].
high lateral loads resulting in very large over- The lateral response of piles is well reported
turning moments. The preferred foundation sys- in the literature, and various methods of analysis
tem to date has been the monopile which has have been proposed by numerous researchers,
been successfully employed for the majority of [9],[10],[11],[12],[13],[14],[15]. The bearing ca-
the offshore wind farms installed to date. The pacity problem has also been investigated under
popularity of this type of foundation is due to its different loading conditions relevant to offshore
employability in a variety of different soil condi- foundations, see for example refs [16],[17].
tions.
In many of the proposed offshore wind farm
locations, it is often the case that the surficial
seabed deposits are underlain by rock, generally
weak rocks such as mudstones and chalk. Con-
sequently it becomes necessary to install the mo-
nopiles, generally by driving, to significant depth
into the rock to achieve adequate lateral stiffness
and moment resistance to carry the applied loads.
This paper presents the results of a series of
small scale single gravity tests to investigate the
performance of a rock socketed pile installed in a
weak rock and fitted with an integral bearing
plate, schematically shown in Figure 1. The ob-
jective is to investigate the effect of the bearing
plate on the lateral response of the monopile. It
is hoped that the results of the study will provide
some insights into the effect of the various foun-
dation elements (i.e. pile, plate and rock socket)
and their contribution to the overall performance Figure 1. Schematic arrangement of monopile-footing with
of the foundation system. rock socketed pile.
In the monopile plate foundation a circular
plate is rigidly attached to the monopile at the Pervious investigations carried out at one
mudline. The 2-D analogy of this system is that gravity in ‘sand box’ tests [18], [19], [20] has
of a retaining wall with a stabilising base [1]. shown that the lateral stiffness and ultimate ca-
Where the plate diameter is relatively small then pacity of the monopole is enhanced by the addi-
the system is similar to a single capped pile, for tion of the bearing plate. Centrifuge model tests
which methods have been developed for analys- have also indicated that for cohesionless soils the
ing the influence of the pile and pile cap under ultimate lateral capacity of a monopole is en-
axial loading [2], and the effect of the pile cap on hanced by the presence of a bearing plate [20].
the lateral performance of single piles has also However, centrifuge tests performed on clay
been investigated by others [3], [4], [5], [6]. samples did not indicate much improvement in
the lateral performance of the monopole due to
S. Arshi and K.J.L. Stone / An Investigation of a Rock Socketed Pile with an Integral Bearing Plate 707
the soil surface, and the other at a higher loca- response of the foundation suggesting a yielding
tion. of the soft rock.
The model test program comprised of a total
of three pairs of tests. Each test pair consisted of
a single monopile and a monopiled-footing foun-
dation, and were performed in the same prepared
soil model. In order to assess the influence of
the rock socket, three socket depths were tested
corresponding to 0%, 5%, and 20% of the total
embedment length of the pile. Table 1 shows a
summary of the model tests performed.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
We are presenting an analytical method to calculate the resistance to punching of the spreading layers made of a subgrade, pos-
sibly strengthened by a compacted backfill and situated between the foundation and the rigid inclusion. This vertical element op-
erates to support a backfill or concrete structure.
The calculation method is based on a plan of failure in logarithmic spiral which is developed in the thickness of the spreading
layer and in taking care of the side effects.
A justification of the method with a “Finite Elements” calculation is presented.
For the exemple of concrete structure (like paving) we propose an analytical method for the calculation of induced bending mo-
ment in the structure under surface load.
RÉSUMÉ
On présente une méthode analytique de calcul de la résistance au poinçonnement d’un matelas de répartition constitué par une
couche de forme éventuellement renforcée par un remblai compacté et situé entre l’ouvrage à fonder et les inclusions rigides. Cet
élément vertical est mis en œuvre pour supporter soit un remblai soit une structure en béton.
La méthode de calcul est basée sur un schéma de rupture en spirale logarithmique se développant dans l’épaisseur du matelas de
répartition et en tenant compte des effets de bord.
Un calage de la méthode avec des calculs aux Eléments Finis est également présenté.
Pour le cas d’une structure en béton de type dallage, on propose également une méthode analytique de dimensionnement du
moment induit dans la structure sous un chargement réparti.
Mots-clés : Interaction Ouvrage - Organe de transfert - Tête d’inclusion - Interaction - Sol renforcé - Matelas intercalaire
Keywords : Interaction Work – Transfer Organ – Inclusion Head - Interaction – Reinforced Soil – Insert Layer
1
Corresponding Author.
712 P. Berthelot et al. / Comportement d’un matelas de répartition au-dessus d’inclusions rigides et supportant
1 INTRODUCTION
2.1 Description de la spirale logarithmique x une zone I de poussée avec H= S/4 + )/2
x une zone II délimitée par une spirale loga-
Soit le cas d’un chargement correspondant à une rithmique d’équation r = ro eStan(I) avec Tqui
contrainte moyenne q. On considère en première varie entre 0 et 90°
approche que la tête de l’inclusion est susceptible
de reprendre une contrainte q1 et que la contrainte x une zone III de butée selon Rankine avec
résiduelle entre les inclusions est égale à q2. P= S/4 - )/2
Le schéma de gauche de la figure 3 représente une La figure 5 représente plusieurs surfaces de rupture
répartition de contrainte en sous face de la struc- avec un angle ) variant entre 0° et 45°.
ture en béton et le schéma de droite représente la
répartition simplifiée des contraintes q1 et q2 en
sous face du matelas.
x critère de limitation des tassements sous la se- Dans la zone I en poussée, nous avons par ail-
melle imposé par l’ouvrage. leurs :
Pour le matelas, nous avons considéré les 3 zones ª I
VB= q2. tan( i ) VB contrainte majeure) (11)
et nous avons repris les équations de Prandtl de la 4 2
façon suivante, avec L = d1+d2 : ª I
x si L S Lmin, on peut utiliser directement Nq dé- q1 = VA . tan( i ) VA contrainte mineure) (12)
4 2
duit de l’équation (3) avec ) = )m ; (avec i = m pour le matelas et i = t pour le terrain
x si 0,5 Lmin L < Lmin, la zone de butée de en place).
Rankine (figure 4) de la zone III s’opère dans
le terrain naturel caractérisé par )t, la zone de
poussée (I) et le « saut de Prandtl (figure 10) »
(II) s’opèrent dans le matelas caractérisé par
)m :
ª I ª I
"$ tan( t ).tan( m ).e ªtan(Im) (8)
4 2 4 2
x si L = 0, la zone de poussée I s’opère dans le Figure 11. Equilibre des contraintes
matelas et les zones II et III s’opèrent dans le
terrain naturel : 3 CALCULS DU MATELAS AUX ELEMENTS
FINIS
ª It ª I
Nq2= tan( ).tan( m ).e ªtan(It) (9) Pour vérifier ces approches analytiques, nous
4 2 4 2 avons réalisé plusieurs calculs mettant en œuvre la
méthode aux éléments finis 2D axisymétriques en
x et pour 0 < L < 0,5 Lmin, on peut établir une in- faisant varier )m, la cohésion c ainsi que la
terpolation linéaire entre Nq1 et Nq2 longueur L et en imposant q2. Nous avons comparé
ensuite les valeurs obtenues par les calculs Plaxis
q1(P) avec celles obtenues par les formulations
analytiques q1(A). On peut constater que cette
approche est correcte et légèrement conservative
puisque le rapport q1(P)/ q1(A) est légèrement
supérieur à 1.
4 MOMENT DANS LE DALLAGE : MODELE téristiques du matelas. Meilleures sont ces caracté-
ANALYTIQUE ristiques, plus grande est la diminution du
tassement mais plus fort est le moment induit dans
Sous chargement réparti q, une partie de la charge
le dallage. Il faut donc travailler en fourchette sur
« Q » est transmise en tête d’inclusion (Q < q A).
ces caractéristiques.
Cette concentration de charge induit des moments
Ces moments se cumulent avec ceux induits par
dans le dallage qui dépendent de l’épaisseur du
des chargements dissymétriques ou des charge-
matelas « e », de l’angle de diffusion D des con- ments ponctuels.
traintes dans ce matelas, du diamètre %de la tête
d’inclusion et du maillage d. 6 CONCLUSIONS
Pour calculer le moment induit par cette charge
concentrée Q, on peut modéliser le comportement Sous un ouvrage sur inclusions rigides, nous avons
du dallage comme celui d’une plaque circulaire de voulu montrer le rôle important joué par le matelas
diamètre %1, encastrée sur les bords, avec une de répartition en fonction de ses propres caractéris-
charge répartie égale à Q, s’appuyant sur une sur- tiques mais surtout en fonction de toutes ses di-
face circulaire centrée de diamètre %2, avec les mensions.
équations suivantes développées par Timoshenko Nous avons mis en évidence la part importante
[5] (Mr = moment radial) : prise par la présence ou l’absence de débord du
matelas granulaire surtout dans le cas de semelles
(ouvrages rigides de dimensions finies).
4.1 Dans l’axe de l’inclusion L’obtention de caractéristiques en rupture élevées
M r (1 /) Q[(1 B2 2 /B12 41n(B1/B2)]/(16S) (13) (figures 5 et 12) impose une bonne mise en œuvre
4.2 En périphérie de maillage de ce matériau granulaire, très délicate sous ce
M r Q[(1 B2 2 / B12 ] /(8S) (14) type d’ouvrages.
Enfin, nous avons proposé une méthode analytique
%1 = d (4/S)0,5 (15) abordable facilement afin d’estimer dans un dal-
%2 =%+ 2 tg(D) e (16) lage la part de moment induit par la présence
Q coefficient de Poisson du dallage. d’éléments rigides verticaux.
ABSTRACT
The Tsakona bridge is a two-span (90m and 300m) steel arch structure, which will be part of the National highway connecting
Tripolis and Kalamata, in southern Greece. It is planned to pass over and therefore avoid a large landslide, which in 2003 dis-
rupted completely the traffic in the highway. The paper briefly describes the geological and hydro-geological conditions of the
area, as well as the triggering instability mechanism of the landslide. Design criteria for the adoption of such a unique bridging
solution are reviewed and the approach followed for the foundation design of the bridge, covering both the selection of appropri-
ate locations and suitable types, is presented. Design and construction processes are described with particular reference on the
foundation of the middle pier, which consists of a system of four caissons connected with a large and very thick raft. The de-
tailed geological-mapping that was carried out during construction is also presented which verified fundamental design assump-
tions regarding ground conditions and geotechnical parameters.
RÉSUMÉ
Le pont de Tsakona est un pont en arc en acier qui comprend deux travées (90m et 300m) et fera partie de l’Autoroute Nationale
reliant Tripoli et Kalamata, au sud de la Grèce. Le pont est prévu de passer au-dessus et ainsi évitez un glissement important de
la région, qui a perturbé complètement le trafic sur l'autoroute en 2003. L’article décrit brièvement les conditions géologiques et
hydrogéologiques de la région, ainsi que le mécanisme qui a déclenché l'instabilité du glissement de terrain. Les critères de con-
ception, pour l'adoption d'une telle solution unique de traverser, sont passés en revue et l'approche suivie pour la conception de la
fondation du pont est présentée, couvrant à la fois la sélection des emplacements et des types appropriés. Les processus de con-
ception et construction sont décrits avec particulière référence a la fondation de la pile intermédiaire, qui se compose d'un sys-
tème de quatre caissons liés à un radeau grand et très épais. La cartographie géologique détaillée qui a été réalisée lors de la
construction est également présentée. Cette cartographie a vérifié les hypothèses fondamentales de conception en ce qui con-
cerne les conditions du sol et les paramètres géotechniques.
Keywords: Bridge foundation, landslide, caisson, numerical modeling, geological mapping, design verification.
1
Corresponding Author
718 I.F. Fikiris et al. / Foundation of the arch bridge in the landslide area of Tsakona, Greece
6 CONSTRUCTION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Complex engineering projects demand conti- The design and construction of the project is
nuous evaluation of the encountering ground being supervised by authorities of the Ministry of
conditions as construction progresses. Infrastructure, Transport and Networks (DMEO,
At the foundation locations of Tsakona bridge, D1, EYDE/DDP). The bridge is currently under
all geotechnical and geological data collected construction, by the Greek – Austrian J/V,
during construction verified basic design as- Alpine BAU GmbH – Terna S.A. The structural
sumptions regarding the ground, at an area of an design of the bridge was carried out by DOMI
extremely adverse geotechnical environment. S.A. Their co-operation is greatly acknowledged.
Detailed and continuous geological mapping
was an essential part of the construction process
for all the excavated surfaces. A typical mapping REFERENCES
presenting encountered geological flysch types at
the perimeter of the excavated surface of the [1] L. Sotiropoulos, E. Lymperis, A. Sigalas, A. Ntouroupi,
15m-deep shaft “No.1” is presented in Fig. 10. K. Provia, G. Dounias, Landslide at Tsakona area in
Arkadia prefecture. Geological conditions and activa-
All the support measures and the retaining tion mechanism, Bulletin of the Greek Geol. Society
structures that were constructed proved adequate. vol. XXXVI, Proc 10th Int. Congress (2004), 1862-1871.
However, due to the relatively open structure of [2] G. Dounias, G. Belokas, P. Marinos, M. Kavvadas, The
the main discontinuity sets of the rockmass be- large landslide of Tsakona at the Tripoli – Kalamata na-
tional road, Proc. 5th Hellenic Conf. on Geot. &
hind abutment A1, a grouting improvement Geoenv. Eng., (2006), 27-34.
scheme was considered necessary. [3] G. Dounias, G. Belokas, Investigation of the Tsakona
An instrumentation network has been installed large landslide with limit equilibrium analyses, Proc.
and the whole area is under continuous monitor- 6th Hell. Conf. Geot. & Geoenv. Eng. (2010), 139-146.
[4] P. G. Marinos, E. Hoek, GSI: A geologically friend tool
ing. The landslide, eight years after its major for rock mass strength estimation, Proc. of
reactivation, still undergoes creep movements GeoEng2000, Melbourne, (2000), 1422-1446.
along the failure surface, with a rate of 2mm per [5] E. Hoek, P. Marinos, Estimating the geotechnical prop-
month. Such peculiarity introduces one more en- erties of heterogeneous rock masses such as flysch, Bul-
leting of Engineering Geology 60, (2000), 85-92.
gineering challenge that has to be dealt with, dur- [6] D. C. Wyllie, Foundations on rock, E & FN Spon, 1999.
ing the construction phase, for the erection of the [7] R. K. Rowe, H. H. Armitage, Theoretical solutions for
steel arch bridge over the landslide. the axial deformation of drilled shafts in rock, Cana-
dian Geotechnical Journal 24, (1987), 114-142.
[8] H. G. Poulos, Pile bahaviour-theory and application,
Geotechnique Vol. 39, No. 3, (1989), 365-415
[9] K.G. Stagg, O.C. Zienkiewicz, Rock mechanics in En-
gineering Practice, John Wiley & Sons, N. York, 1968.
[10] M. J. Tomlinson, M.J, R. Boorman, Foundation design
& Construction. 7th Ed, Pearson Education ltd, 2001.
[11] B. Ladanyi, Discussion of Friction and end bearing tests
on bedrock for high capacity Socket design, Can. Geo-
tech. Journal, vol. 13, (1977).
[12] P. Rosenberg, N.L. Journeaux, Friction and end bearing
tests on bedrock for high capacity Socket design, Can.
Geotech. Journal, Vol. 13, (1976).
[13] Rowe R. K. & Armitage, H. H. (1987). “Theoretical so-
lutions for the axial deformation of drilled shafts in
rock”. Can. Geotech. Journal, 24, pg. 114-142.
[14] L. Zhang, Drilled shafts in rock, Balkema Publ. 2004.
[15] M.F. Randolph, The response of flexible piles to lateral
loading, Geotechnique 31 (1981).
[16] J.P. Carter, F.H. Kulhawy, Analysis and design of
drilled shaft foundation socketed into rock, Report EL-
Figure 10. Engineering geological mapping of the excavated
5918, Electric Power Research Inst. California (1988).
surface around the perimeter of shaft No.1 – Unfolded view.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 723
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-723
ABSTRACT
An analytical upper bound plasticity solution is presented for the calculation of the seismic bearing capacity of footings placed at
the crest or near the crest of clay slopes. The effect of seismic loading is taken into account through vertical and horizontal pseu-
do-static body forces acting on the soil and on the footing. Results are presented for horizontal ground surface and for footings
on or near slopes in terms of normalized vertical failure loads and normalized horizontal – vertical interaction diagrams. Based
on these results, simple modifications to existing bearing capacity equations are proposed which take account of the effect of soil
inertia. Finally, the influence of problem geometry and soil parameters on seismic bearing capacity is discussed.
RÉSUMÉ
Une solution analytique de plasticité à limite supérieure est présenté pour le calcul de la force portante sismique des fondations
sur ou à proximité de talus. L'effet du chargement séismique est pris en considération par les forces corporelles pseudo-statiques,
verticales et horizontales, agissant sur le sol et sur la fondation. Des résultats sont présentés pour la surface horizontale de la terre
et pour les fondations sur ou à proximité de talus, du point de vue de charge d'échec normalisées verticales et de diagrammes
interactives normalisées horizontales –verticales. Basé sur ces résultats, des modifications faciles d’équations existantes de la
force portante sont proposées, qui tiennent compte de l’effet de l’inertie du sol. À la fin, l'influence du problème géométrie et des
paramètres du sol sur la force portante séismique est discutée.
Keywords: Bearing capacity, seismic analysis, footings, slopes, plasticity, limit analysis.
1
Corresponding Author.
724 K. Georgiadis and E. Chrysouli / Seismic Bearing Capacity of Strip Footings on Clay Slopes
The limit equilibrium, upper bound plasticity work done by external forces and internal
and stress characteristics methods have more re- stresses and optimizing the resulting expression
cently been applied for the calculation of the with respect to the geometric parameters to cal-
seismic bearing capacity of footings in slopes or culate the least upper bound solution. Beyond a
close to the crest of a slope ([11]-[16]). However, critical distance of the footing from the crest of
to the knowledge of the authors, no study to date the slope (which varies depending on the soil and
has explicitly dealt with undrained loading con- geometrical properties up to 3.14B for a vertical
ditions. cut in weightless soil), the optimum failure
This paper presents a pseudo-static upper mechanism extends only below horizontal
bound determination of the undrained seismic ground and the solution is identical to Prandtl’s
bearing capacity of footings near clay slopes. solution.
The study provides an extension to the complete The solution is extended in this study to take
solutions for vertical and inclined static loading account of horizontal footing loads and of the ef-
presented by Georgiadis [17], [18], [19]. fect of soil inertia body forces during seismic ex-
citation on the calculated bearing capacity. The
latter is achieved through the conventional
pseudo-static approach, by applying horizontal
and vertical accelerations to the failing soil mass
as shown in Figure 1. This has no effect in the
geometrical formulation of the mechanism, the
derivation of relative velocities and the resulting
expression for the work done by internal stresses,
which can be found in [19], although it is noted
that the optimized values corresponding to the
least upper bound solution obviously depend on
the value of the seismic acceleration coefficients.
It does however affect the work done by external
forces. Taking account of the horizontal (kh) and
vertical (kv) seismic acceleration coefficients, the
work done by the soil weight (eWf) is given by
the following equation:
kh 2 1 kv
2
'W f
ª § k · º
«WA sin ¨ D tan 1 h ¸ v A,0 »
« © 1 kv ¹ »
« » (1)
§ k ·
« WC sin ¨ D T tan 1 h ¸ vC ,0 »
Figure 1. Problem definition and kinematic mechanism.
« 1 kv ¹ »
« © »
« n § § k · ·»
« ¦ ¨¨ GWi sin ¨ D Ti GT 2 tan 1 h ¸ i ,0 ¸ »
v ¸
2 UPPER BOUND MECHANISM «¬ i 1 © © 1 kv ¹ ¹ ¼»
The kinematic mechanism proposed by Geor- where WA, WC and 1Wi are the weights of rigid
giadis [19] for static vertical loading of footings blocks A, C and infinitesimal block i of the slip
close to slopes is adopted. As shown in Figure 1, area, respectively, vA,0, vC,0 and vi,0 are the veloci-
it consists of two rigid blocks and a slip fan ties of the respective rigid blocks, and the angles
(shaded area). The mechanism is defined by four , i and 1 are defined in Figure 1.
geometric parameters; the angles and of the In order to obtain H-V failure load interaction
rigid block A and the angle and radius R of the diagrams for different combinations of the hori-
circular outer velocity discontinuity of the slip zontal and vertical seismic acceleration coeffi-
fan. The solution is obtained by equating the cients, the ultimate horizontal footing load (H)
K. Georgiadis and E. Chrysouli / Seismic Bearing Capacity of Strip Footings on Clay Slopes 725
H/(Bsu)
kha2/s u = 0.64
ultimate vertical load is: 0.4 kha2/s u = 0.8
cos Z sin D
V
sin Z D
'W p 'W f vf (2) UB
Pecker (1997)
0
where eWp is the work done by internal stresses
0 2 4
and vf is the vertical acceleration of the footing. V/(Bsu)
Equation (2) provides the ultimate vertical load Figure 2. Normalized failure envelopes H/Bsu vs. V/Bsu for
as a function of the soil properties (undrained horizontal ground.
shear strength su and soil unit weight ) the prob- 1.2
lem geometry (footing width B, distance ç be-
tween the footing and the crest of the slope, slope
angle and load angle ) and the optimization 0.8
parameters , , and R. The combination of the kh = 0
H/Ho
where Ho = Bsu and Vo is the ultimate load for capacity is almost entirely due to the increase of
vertical loading. It follows from this figure that the load inclination with the increase of kv.
the seismic bearing capacity can be calculated Analyses in which the vertical acceleration was
using Green’s equation for inclined static loading applied only to the soil yielded insignificant dif-
or the more approximate conventional undrained ferences from the kv=0 analyses.
bearing capacity equation with a load inclination 6
factor, provided that the reduction of Vo with the µ=0, k v = 0
increase of khç/su is accounted for. The follow- 5
µ =0 µ=0, k v = kh
ing equation (3) provides an excellent fit of the
V/(Bsu)
4 µ = 15
upper bound results: µ = 30
3 µ = 45
§ JB·
Vo B su ¨ S 2 1.1 kh ¸ (3)
© su ¹
2
1
3.2 Footing at the top of a slope
0 0.1 0.2 k 0.3 0.4
h
As discussed in the previous section, the normal- Figure 4. Influence of slope angle on the variation of V/Bsu
ized failure loads for the case of horizontal with kh for ç/su=0.4 and = 0.
ground surface depend only on the ratio khç/su. 6
Hor. Ground
In the case of footings at the top of a slope, the 3=1
static bearing capacity depends on the ratio ç/su 5 3=0.5
([17]-[19]). Consequently, in the seismic case kh 3=0.25
V/(Bsu)
for weightless soil (ç/su=0), for which applica- loads [18]. Application of horizontal acceleration
tion of kh obviously has no influence, are shown on the soil mass results in further decrease of the
in Figure 6 and are compared to results for the failure loads. The difference between static and
same case obtained by Kumar and Rao [12] us- seismic failure envelopes is greater for the case
ing the stress characteristics method. The reduc- of 3=1, indicating that the critical distance, be-
tion in bearing capacity due to soil inertia for yond which the slope has no effect on bearing
ç/su>0 is equal to the distance of each respec- capacity, is greater under seismic loading condi-
tive curve from the ç/su=0 curve. tions.
1.2 µ = 0, k h = 0 1.2
µ = 30, kh = 0 µ = 0 and k h = 0
µ = 30, k h= 0.4
0.8 µ = 45, kh= 0 0.8
µ = 45, k h = 0.4
H/(Bsu)
H/Ho
µ = 0, 30, 45
0.4 0.4 kh = 0.2, 0.4
a2/su = 0.4, 0.8
0 0
0 2 V/(Bsu) 4 6 0 0.5 V/V 1
o
Figure 7. Normalized failure envelopes for 3 = 0, Figure 9. Normalized failure envelopes for 3 = 0.
ç/su=0.8.
It can be observed in Figures 7 and 8 that the
1.2 shape of all failure surfaces for 3=0 is the same
as for horizontal ground surface, while for 3=1
they are steeper and are bounded by the respec-
0.8 µ = 0, kh= 0
tive horizontal ground envelopes. As seen in
µ = 0, k h= 0.4
H/(Bsu)
For footings at a distance from the slope no [3] M. Budhu, A. Al-Karni, Seismic bearing capacity of
soils, Geotechnique, 43 (1993), 181-187.
unique normalised failure surface can be defined.
[4] L. Dormieux, A. Pecker, Seismic bearing capacity of
foundations on cohesionless soil, J. Geotech. Eng
ASCE, 121(1995), 300–303.
4 SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS [5] H. Soubra, Seismic bearing capacity of shallow strip
footings in seismic conditions, Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs
Geotech. Engng, 125 (1997), 230-241.
An upper bound solution was presented for the [6] R. Paolucci, A. Pecker, Seismic bearing capacity of
calculation of the seismic bearing capacity of shallow strip foundations on dry soils, Soils Found.,
footings near clay slopes. The effect of seismic 37(1997), 95–105.
[7] H. Soubra, Upper bound solutions for bearing capacity
loading is taken account of in this solution of foundations, J. Geotech. Geoenvion. Eng. ASCE, 125
through the application of pseudo-static horizon- (1999), 59-69.
tal and vertical inertia body forces in the soil [8] A. Pecker, J. Salencon, Seismic bearing capacity of
mass. Failure load envelopes were first presented shallow strip foundations on clay soils,
Proc.”International Workshop on Seismology and
for horizontal ground surface and it was shown Earthquake Engineering”, Mexico, 1991, 287-304.
that the shape of these envelopes is practically [9] J. Salencon, A. Pecker, A., Ultimate bearing capacity of
identical to that obtained from Green’s equation. shallow foundations under inclined and eccentric loads,
A simple equation was proposed for the ultimate I: Purely cohesive soil. Eur. J. Mech. 14 (1995), 349-
375.
load for the case of vertical loading, which can [10] J. Salencon, A. Pecker, A., Ultimate bearing capacity of
be combined with Green’s equation to determine shallow foundations under inclined and eccentric loads.
the seismic ultimate loads. II: Purely cohesive soil without tensile strength, Eur. J.
Results for footings on or near slopes were Mech., 14 (1995), 377-396.
[11] T. Sawada, S. Nomachi, W. Chen, Seismic bearing ca-
presented in terms of normalised ultimate verti- pacity of a mounted foundation near a downhill slope
cal loads versus horizontal ground acceleration by pseudo-static analysis. Soils Found, 34 (1994), 11–
and failure load interaction diagrams. The influ- 17.
ence of problem geometry and all of the relevant [12] J. Kumar, V. B. K. M. Rao, Seismic bearing capacity of
foundations on slopes, Geotechnique, 53 (2003), 347–
soil parameters was investigated. It was shown 361.
that part of the decrease of bearing capacity is [13] F. Askari, O. Farzaneh, Upper-bound solution for seis-
due to the increase of load inclination and can be mic bearing capacity of shallow foundations near
calculated using static methods. The influence of slopes, Geotechnique, 53 (2003), 697–702.
[14] J. Kumar, P. Ghosh, Seismic bearing capacity for em-
kh on bearing capacity was found to depend pri- bedded footings on sloping ground, Geotechnique, 56
marily on the ratio B/su and a calculation (2006), 133–140.
method was proposed for the lower bound case, [15] J D. Choudhury, K. S. Subba Rao, Seismic bearing ca-
with respect to failure loads, of footings at the pacity of shallow strip footings embedded in slope, Int.
J. Geomech. ASCE, 6 (2006), 176-184.
crest of a slope. It is noted that the proposed [16] F. Castelli, E. Motta, Bearing capacity of strip footings
analysis must be combined with conventional near slopes, Geotech. Geol. Eng., 28 (2010), 187-198.
overall slope stability analyses, which may be- [17] K. Georgiadis, Undrained bearing capacity of strip foot-
come critical in some cases, in order to provide a ings on slopes, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE,
136 (2010), 677-685.
reliable means of computation of the seismic [18] K. Georgiadis, The influence of load inclination on the
bearing capacity of footings on clay slopes. undrained bearing capacity of strip footings on slopes,
Computers and Geotechnics, 37 (2010), 311-322.
[19] K. Georgiadis, An upper bound solution for the
undrained bearing capacity of strip footings at the top
REFERENCES of a slope, Geotechnique, 60 (2010), 801-806.
[20] A. P. Green, The plastic yielding of metal junctions due
[1] S. K. Sarma, I. S. Iossifelis, Seismic bearing capacity to combined shear and pressure, J. Mech. Physics Sol-
factors of shallow strip footings, Geotechnique, 40 ids, 2 (1954), 197-211.
(1990), 265-273. [21] A. Pecker, Analytical formulae for the seismic bearing
[2] R. Richards, D. G. Elms, M. Budhu, Seismic bearing capacity of shallow strip foundation, Seismic Behavior
capacity and settlement of foundations, J. Geotech. Eng of Ground and Geotechnical Structures, 1997, Ed.: P.
ASCE, 119 (1993), 662-674. S. Seco e Pinto, Balkema, 261-268.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 729
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-729
ABSTRACT
The paper presents the experience of the unique building foundation design in soil conditions characterizing with karst and
landslide risk.
The characteristic of this case is the continual (200 m length) structure resting on the incompressible bedrock with its edges, the
middle part of it is over the ravine filled with the filled soil of 3 – 30 m thickness.
A concept of the structure foundation design has been developed and the basis of the accepted foundation design and measures
providing the structure resistance and its reliable operation in karst and landslide conditions are given in the paper.
The reliability and validity of the design are confirmed by monitoring results.
RÉSUMÉ
L’article présente l’expérience du projet de fondement d’un bâtiment unique dans les conditions de sol caractérisées par le dan-
ger de karst et de glissement de terre.
L’autre particularité de ce cas est aussi le fait que le bâtiment étendu (la longueur est de 200 mètres) s’appuie au bord sur les ter-
rains rocheux incoercibles et la partie de milieu du bâtiment est située sous le ravin rempli de terres rapportées d’une épaisseur
de 3 à 30 mètres.
La conception est élaborée du projet des fondements accompagnée de l’explication des solutions de projets des fondements et
des mesures assurant la stabilité du bâtiment et sa bonne exploitation dans les conditions du développement éventuel des proces-
sus de karst ou de glissement de terre.
La sécurité et la justesse des solutions de projets prises sont confirmées par les résultats du monitoring.
1
Corresponding Author.
730 A.L. Gotman and N.Z. Gotman / Experience of the Unique Building Foundation Design
The most upper part of the stage consists of gyp- rey floor was 172,7 m and considering the foun-
sum and often exposes to the day surface. Here dation engineering, the mark of the trench bot-
and there the gypsum thickness reaches 50 – 60 tom was 171.5 m.
m. The left gentle slope of the rivers Belaya and Thus, according to the relief, the building ap-
Ufa goes down to the river-beds by terraces. The peared to be “settled” in the level of the top edge
right bank is a high and steep and is strongly se- of the foundation with the middle part over the
parated with erosive and karst-suffosion ravine ravine partially filled with the filled soil of the
and holes. variable thickness. With its edge parts in the west
Landslides are very typical for the steep slopes of and east, the building is “settled” over the strong
the river Belaya valley. Especially typically the bedrock in kind of limestone and cemented sand-
landslide relief is presented in the south part of stone (fig.1c).
the city at the right bank of the river. The ravine has a thalweg slope towards the Be-
Such territories are characterized both with a laya river, with depth under the building ranging
high karst and landslide risk as well as with a from 12 to 30 m (fig.1b).
strong heterogeneity of soil conditions even
within one building area. That’s why, the con-
struction of the buildings and structures of high
category of responsibility is as a rule avoided.
However, the Republican Government has taken
a decision to construct a building of Congress-
Hall just at such a site with a high karst and
landslide risk, as this part of the city is a histori-
cal, cultural and administrative centre of the city
Ufa.
¿
¨
¿§
Â
è
-1; c) cross-
sectional view 2-2
A.L. Gotman and N.Z. Gotman / Experience of the Unique Building Foundation Design 731
As a whole, the site is characterized with the as the building is located at sites with the
multiple geological beddings including filled strongly different strain composition of the
soil, clay soil (marl), limestone, cemented stone soil, the foundation construction should
underlying with the sulphate deposits. The site is provide a structure with minimum settle-
characterized with the increased karst and ments (settlements less than 2 cm);
landslide risk.185 karst holes have been revealed different types of the foundation are ad-
on the site under investigation and due to the un- missible within the building area to minim-
derground water diversion into the river Belaya ize the settlements;
along the gypsum roof, the karst process is con- the constructive karst protection should be
sidered to be active. Besides, the totality of such provided in kind of crosswise in situ rein-
factors as the steep ravine slopes and the active forced concrete belts or continuous raft
karst process are of landslide risk both in kind of with regard to a possible 7 m diameter karst
covering landslides along the ravine slopes and hole;
the “inner” landslides due to the karst subsi- the foundations for the exterior walls are
dence. designed with regard to the lateral soil pres-
The thick layer of the filled soil in the upper ra- sure;
vine part (the thickness of the filled soil reaches within the ravine in the filled soil the pile
30 m) is also of a real landslide risk. The unfa- foundation should meet the condition of a
vourable conditions (undercutting, surcharge, pile bearing on the strong bedrock. Since
underground water) provoke a shear of the above the depth of the strong bedrock occurrence
thick layer along the bedrock roof towards the is 5-30 m, the piles can be both driven and
Belaya river. Besides, several openings of discis- bored;
sion in kind of the ravine slopes cracks have to exclude the filled soil deformation in a
been found out within the site. One crack passes zone of the maximum ravine depth at the
from west to east, several meters from the build- south side of the building both in lateral
ing at its south side (the crack is not under the (sliding along the bedrock roof) and vertic-
building). The other 10 - 20 cm width crack al direction (due to the filled soil consolida-
crosses the site in the meridian direction directly tion as a result of karst deformation), the
under the building. filled soil mass should be stabilized with
That’s why a task has been set to develop a de- the method of high pressure cement grout-
sign scheme of the foundation with account of all ing including plugging of the openings of
dangerous physical-geological processes from discission;
the point of view of their influence upon the the complex design of water diversion and
structure and the surrounding territory and to de- meteoric and underground water lowering
sign the foundation that could exclude or minim- is to be developed by means of constructing
ize this influence to provide the structure reliabil- the closed drainage system around- and
ity for the whole period of its operation. outside the building with the stream capture
and water diversion towards the Belaya riv-
er;
3 THE GEOTECHNICAL CONCEPTION OF
THE STRUCTURE DESIGN
the geometric and technological parameters
of the territory lay-out in kind of the artifi-
cial embankments formation (corners of the
According to the task set, the geotechnical con-
embankments inclination, technologies of
cept of the structure base and foundation design
embankments deposition) should be eva-
has been developed with the following main
luated based on of the geotechnical analysis
principles:
with regard to soil mass stability providing.
732 A.L. Gotman and N.Z. Gotman / Experience of the Unique Building Foundation Design
Equation ratios (6) are defined proceeding from Pressure (p) in the base under the pile tips above
the condition of forces equilibrium at the boun- the karst cavity is defined according to depen-
dary around the piles (7). Pile load radial boun- dence (9) and is taken 45 MPa.
n
dary stresses are balanced with the radial stresses
( i uhi ) G
due to adjacent piles load. (9)
m ɪ i 1
a2
$ T d bi $ i ( )d 0 .
L i 1 L
(7)
To evaluate the relation between pressure (p)
Pile P load radial stresses at the contour at the transmitted to the raft base at the pile tips level
distance r = a/2 from the pile centre (Tı ) are de- and pile stiffness ratio K0, a problem is solved for
fined by solution of R. Mindlin for the concen- the pile foundation raft with the diameter D = 2
trated force inside the elastic semi-space. rk karst cavity under the pile tips.
P( L z ) 2 4 z (1 2 ) 2(1 )(1 2 ) 6 z 3 (1 4 ) 3 z 6 /
The foundation raft is considered as the infinite
T (r a / 2) 0 7-
L (1 ) 1 R3 R( R 2 z ) R5 R . radius plate on the composite base with the rk ra-
dius karst cavity and pile stiffness ratio K0 above
R r 2 4z 2 . (8)
the karst cavity.
As a result of equation (7) solution, ratios C of To define pressure in the raft base in Bessel
equation (6) are defined as functions of pile functions, the solutions of B.G. Korenev [Kore-
length, pile spacing, pile cross-section dimension nev, 1962]
and distance Zi from the soil surface. By insert-
ing ratios C in equations (5) and (6), radial N 9
J 0 (
r ) d
pr $ ; (10)
stresses Tr are defined. Results of radial stresses 2 0 D 4 4
Tr analysis with the design pile load P = 600 kH 1
cD
k0
are shown in diagrams of fig.5.
as well as Hankel conversion to evaluate func-
a) 0.000
0
0.020 0.040 ɌUɆ3ɚ
0.060
tion c are used.
1 9
2
c 2 $ rK ( r ) J 0 (
r ) dr . (11)
0
pile length, m
3
The base core corresponding to settlements sur-
4
ɚ P
face when karst cavity under the pile tips forma-
5 ɚ P
ɚ P tion is taken as:
6
B
7 Ʉr)= exp( #r ) . (12)
8
2r
Ratios B and į are defined from the boundary
0.000 0.020 0.040 ɌUɆ3ɚ
0.060 0.000 0.020 0.040 ɌUɆ3ɚ
0.060
Ê 0
Ë 0 conditions when rk radius karst cavity formation.
1
2
By results of analysis of improper integrals of
2
Bessel functions with the pressure in the raft base
3
4
4 (pr = p), column load N = 5000 kH, karst cavity
pile length, m
pile length, m
5 6
radius (rk) 3,5 m, raft thickness (h) 0,8 m, pile
6
ɚ P
ɚ P
ɚ P
ɚ P stiffness ratios (k0) above the karst cavity are de-
ɚ P ɚ P
7
8
fined to be equal to 5000 kN/m.
8
10
Pile stiffness ratio of the pile-raft foundation (Ks)
9
outside the karst cavity is defined by a single pile
10 12
static test (K1) but takin}
Â
}
¨
È1
into account. The above correcting ratios are eva-
Fig.5. Pressure of pile radial stress (r) in soil due to adjacent luated by the comparative analysis of the theoret-
pile loads
¼
– pile length 8 m; b – pile length 10 m; c – pile ically obtained dependences “load-settlement”
length 12 m. for a single pile and a pile in a pile field (Got-
man, 2001).
A.L. Gotman and N.Z. Gotman / Experience of the Unique Building Foundation Design 735
Ʉs=31Ʉ1 (13) slope was done with clay soil of different com-
position and the site for stadium was positioned
By the analysis results, the pile stiffness ratio at the mark 155,00 (see fig.6).The thickness of
outside the karat cavity is taken to be equal to the filled soil within the stadium site was up to
40000 t/m. 35 m. The numerical analysis has been carried
out and as a result three versions of providing the
slope stability were considered:
5 MEASURES OF LANDSLIDE
PROTECTION
Ì 2
Ì 3
Ì`Î Ì`Í
Ì` 3 Ì
7
2
Ì`2 ÌÏ Ì@ ÌÏ Ì
21 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 1
1-1
Ì` Ì Ì Ì Ì
0,8 1,3
3,5 3,0 1,3
Ì`
2-2
Ì
Ì` ÌÍ
4,9 2,8
17,9
20,6 29,1
Figure 7. Diagrams of measured building settlements, mm
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 737
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-737
ABSTRACT
Measured settlements of buildings on hard soil / weak rock appeared to be much smaller than calculated settlements, which were
based on modules of stiffness from standard oedometer tests. Therefore both special triaxial K0-tests and oedometer tests were
carried out for an accurate determination of stiffness modules. Modules obtained in the triaxial K0-tests were at least two to three
times the values obtained in the oedometer tests. To verify observations from the laboratory tests, the loads and the settlements
of two single footings on hard soil / weak rock have been measured during construction of a building during one year. Also a
large scale footing load test with measurements of deformations was conducted on hard soil / weak rock. The measured settle-
ments of the two single footings and the tested foundation were compared with the settlements based on conventional calcula-
tions with modules from oedometer tests and triaxial K0-tests. Up to a foundation pressure of v=500 kN/m² the calculated set-
tlement with ES-modules from triaxial K0-tests was found to correspond well to the measured deformation. For foundation
pressure beyond 500 kN/m², the foundation response was highly non-linear and it could not be described any more with the lin-
ear-elastic model. Therefore the footing load test was also simulated non-linearly by FEM analyses.
RÉSUMÉ
Tassements de bâtiments sur un sol dur ou un roc doux actuellement mesurés sont beaucoup plus petits que les tassements calcu-
lés selon des modules basés sur des essais de rigidité oedométrique. Par conséquent, deux types d’essais furent exécutés dans une
mode comparative afin de préciser les modules de rigidité. Il s’agit d’essais triaxiaux et des essais standardisés oedométriques.
Les modules résultant des essais triaxiaux étaient deux fois à trois fois plus larges que ceux venant des essais oedométriques.
Afin de vérifier les données des essais de laboratoire, les chargements et les tassements de deux fondations individuelles sur sol
dur et roc doux au cours de la construction d'un bâtiment ont été mesurés pendant une année. En utilisant des calculations con-
ventionelles de tassements, les mesures actuellement enrégistrées des fondations ont été comparés avec les modules des essais
oedométriques et des modules des essais K0-triaxiaux. Jusqu’à un niveau de compression du sol de v = 500 kN/m², les mesu-
rements de déformation se comportent bien avec les tassements calculés avec les modules « Es » et les modules des K0-triaxiaux.
Pour des tensions de fondation plus larges 500 kN/m², le comportement des tassements devient de plus en plus non-linéaire et il
n’est pas possible de donner une description précise des tassements avec un modèle de matériaux linéaire. Par conséquent, une
simulation avec une analyse non-linaire FEM d’un essai de chargement de la fondation fut effectuée.
Keywords: Footing load test, hard soil, K0-Triaxial, modules of stiffness, oedometer, settlements, weak rock.
1
Corresponding Author.
738 E.-D. Hornig and H. Klapperich / Laboratory Tests and Field Measurements Investigating
values the settlements of the foundations have Figure 11 shows the measured and the calculated
been calculated. settlements of one single footing under construc-
tion of the building up to foundation pressure of
0 = 300 kN/m².
s [mm]
10
20
tests was used.
40 measurement footing load test
calculation / K0-Triax
calculation / Oedometer
Table 4. Parameters for the calculations with the FE-Code
60 PLAXIS
Figure 10. Measured and analytical calculated settlements Hardening- Mohr-
Soil Coulomb
For stresses up to 0 = 500 kN/m² a comparison ’ [°] 30 30
of the measured settlements in Fig. 10 with the c’ [kN/m²] 33 33
calculated based on triaxial K0-test-modules E50 [MN/m²] 38 -
shows a very good agreement. Since the founda- EOed [MN/m²] 30 -
tion response was highly non-linear for founda- Eur [MN/m²] 80 -
tion pressure beyond 500 kN/m², this response Eref [MN/m²] - 46
could no longer be described with the linear- ur [-] 0,2 -
elastic model. The calculated settlements with a [-] - 0,315
working pressure up to 0 = 500 kN/m², which pref [kN/m²] 150 -
were based on oedometer test modules, are much m [-] 0,5 -
too large.
742 E.-D. Hornig and H. Klapperich / Laboratory Tests and Field Measurements Investigating
ABSTRACT
Many studies have been carried out on the bearing capacity of shallow foundations; these studies have an identical approach as
all of them follow the superposition of the three terms introduced by Terzaghi. This study examines Terzaghi’s assumption by
elasto-plastic calculations using the finite-difference codes FLAC2D and FLAC3D. Two types of footings are considered, square
and strip, and the soil-footing interface is assumed smooth or rough. The effect of a non-associated flow rule is also investigated.
RÉSUMÉ
De nombreuses études ont été consacrées à la détermination de la capacité portante des fondations superficielles ; ces études ont
une allure identique puisqu’elles suivent la superposition des trois termes introduite par Terzaghi. Cette étude examine
l’hypothèse de superposition de Terzaghi, par des calculs élasto-plastiques en utilisant les codes FLAC2D et FLAC3D en diffé-
rences finies explicites. Deux types de semelles sont considérés, carrée et filante, et l’interface sol-fondation est supposée lisse
ou rugueuse. L’effet d’une loi d’écoulement non-associée est également considéré dans cette étude.
Mots-clés: capacité portante, fondation superficielle, semelles filantes et carrées, superposition, comportement élasto-plastique,
non-associativité.
1
Corresponding Author.
744 A. Mabrouki et al. / Capacité portante des fondations superficielles
tical pour les nœuds de la semelle ; l’interface fluence sur la capacité portante ; cependant si les
rugueuse est assurée en bloquant les déplace- valeurs choisies sont importantes, la capacité
ments relatifs horizontaux ; le déplacement est portante est atteinte pour un déplacement plus
fixé uniquement dans la direction verticale pour petit. On note aussi que le poids volumique Ȗ a
tenir compte du cas d’une semelle lisse. Pour une influence négligeable sur les facteurs de por-
calculer les facteurs de portance, une technique tance ; dans cette étude Ȗ = 15 kN/m3.
de chargement par déplacement a été adoptée en
considérant une vitesse de déplacement très
faible, appliquée sur les nœuds des éléments qui 3 RESULTATS ET DISCUSSIONS
représentent la semelle ; le déplacement progres-
sif de la semelle est accompagné par
l’augmentation des contraintes dans le sol ; la 3.1 Facteurs de portante
contrainte au-dessous de la semelle se stabilise
pour une valeur qui indique un palier ; ce palier
correspond à la capacité portante qu. Comme 3.1.1 Semelle filante
dans tous les codes de modélisation basés sur la La Figure 1 présente une comparaison entre les
méthode des éléments finis ou les différences fi- valeurs de NȖ de la présente étude et celles dé-
nies, le modèle est discrétisé par un maillage. terminées par quelques expressions analytiques
Frydman et Burd [9] ont montré que le facteur de données dans la littérature. L’analyse des résul-
portance NȖ dépend de la géométrie du maillage tats montre une grande dispersion, surtout pour
utilisé et de la vitesse de déplacement verticale ; les valeurs importantes de l’angle de frottement
le raffinement du maillage avec une forme interne ij. La présente étude montre l’effet de la
d’éléments proche du carré, ainsi que le choix non-associativité sur le facteur de portance NȖ ;
d’une vitesse de déplacement très faible, donnent cet effet devient important avec l’augmentation
les meilleurs résultats, surtout pour le cas d’une de ij ; le facteur de portance NȖ est réduit de 44%
semelle rugueuse. pour le cas d’une semelle rugueuse avec ij = 40°
De nombreux tests ont été exécutés pour exa- et ȥ = 0, par rapport au cas associé (ȥ = ij). Ega-
miner l’influence de la taille du modèle, le lement, la nature de l’interface sol-fondation a
nombre d’éléments et la vitesse de déplacement une influence considérable sur le facteur de por-
sur la capacité portante ; les dimensions du mail- tance NȖ ; ce dernier est réduit d’environ 50%
lage ont été considérées avec une semelle filante pour le cas d’une semelle parfaitement lisse avec
et carrée de demi largeur B/2 = 1 m. Les condi- ȥ ij = 40°.
tions aux limites sont prises en compte en blo-
quant les déplacements horizontaux et verticaux
pour la limite inférieure ; pour les limites laté-
rales, le déplacement est bloqué dans la direction
horizontale. Un raffinement local du maillage a
été effectué dans les zones de forts gradients de
contraintes, c’est-à-dire au voisinage de la fonda-
tion et sous sa base ; les dimensions du modèle
ont été définies de façon à éviter toute source de
perturbation dans la formation des mécanismes
de rupture dans le sol.
Afin d’illustrer l’influence du module
d’élasticité sur la capacité portante, trois valeurs
ont été considérées (E = 30, 40 et 60 MPa) tant
Figure 1. Comparaison des facteurs NȖ obtenus par les ex-
pour la semelle filante que pour la semelle car- pressions données dans la littérature - Semelle filante.
rée. Les résultats obtenus montrent que les va-
leurs des paramètres élastiques ont une petite in-
746 A. Mabrouki et al. / Capacité portante des fondations superficielles
Tableau 1. Comparaison des résultats de la superposition et le calcul global dans le cas d’une semelle filante
Données qu (kPa) Calcul avec superposition qu (kPa) Calcul global
c q Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle
(kPa) (°) (kPa) rugueuse rugueuse lisse lisse rugueuse rugueuse lisse lisse
( = ) ( = /2) ( = ) ( = /2) ( = ) ( = /2) ( = ) ( = /2)
10 20 10 262,67 257,6 238,28 237,36 299,0 296,9 260,02 259,20
10 30 10 734,25 703,45 610,87 600,96 854,6 832,8 687,10 679,70
10 40 10 2800,6 2559,5 2090,85 2000,10 3310,0 3063,0 2427,0 2377,0
Tableau 2. Comparaison des résultats de la superposition et le calcul global dans le cas d’une semelle carrée
Données qu (kPa) Calcul avec superposition qu (kPa) Calcul global
c q Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle Semelle
(kPa) (°) (kPa) rugueuse rugueuse lisse lisse rugueuse rugueuse lisse lisse
( = ) ( = /2) ( = ) ( = /2) ( = ) ( = /2) ( = ) ( = /2)
10 20 10 374,19 356,75 297,89 284,50 407,83 401,48 323,65 320,24
10 30 10 1322,50 1211,15 892,62 820,85 1471,28 1371,0 985,09 935,66
10 40 10 6822,01 5871,08 3896,45 3496,45 7705,80 6725,9 4385,8 4020,49
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B.T. McMahon and M.D. Bolton / Experimentally Observed Settlements 751
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 755
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-755
ABSTRACT
The St David’s 2 development is a new retail and residential complex in the heart of Cardiff, South Wales. The substructure in-
cludes a basement with a footprint area of approximately 100m x 290m. Following ground investigation it was ascertained that
the basement would found on Mercia Mudstone of Grades II and IV. It was proposed that the structure would found on a raft
foundation which would bring significant cost and programme savings compared to a piled foundation. A steel pile retaining
wall solution was adopted using a ‘Super Crush System’ to penetrate the mudstone and overlying gravels. Owing to difficulties
achieving the undisturbed embedded depth required for the applied loads, an envelope within which the raft design had to com-
ply was adopted. Finite Element Analysis was undertaken to predict settlement and bending within the raft. A combination of
Winkler Spring and half-space analysis was used in an iterative process to allow for the production of ‘intelligent springs’.
Monitoring of the raft settlement was undertaken to provide a comparison to predicted settlements.
RÉSUMÉ
Le projet St David’s 2 est un nouveau complexe résidentiel et commerçant situé au coeur de Cardiff, dans le Sud du Pays de
Galles. L’infrastructure comprend un sous-sol de dimensions approximatives 100m x 290m. Après les études de sol, il a été éta-
bli que le sous-sol serait fondé sur Mercia Mudstone de catégories II et IV. Il a donc été proposé que la structure soit fondée sur
un radier, ce qui permettrait d’apporter une économie importante si l’on compare avec le coût de fondations de type pieux. La
solution d’un mur de soutènement en pieux d’acier utilisant la méthode ‘Super Crush System’ a été adoptée pour pénétrer dans le
‘mudstone’ et les pierres le recouvrant. Compte tenu des difficultés à atteindre la profondeur requise pour le niveau d’assise, une
enveloppe au sein de laquelle le plan du radier devait se conformer fut adoptée. Une analyse par la Méthode des Eléments Finis a
été entreprise afin d’estimer les tassements et les torsions dans le radier. Une combinaison des méthodes d’analyse de Winkler
Spring et du ‘demi-espace’ ont été utilisées dans un processus itératif pour permettre la production d « Actions intelligentes ».
Un monitoring des tassements du radier fut entrepris pour permettre de faire la comparaison avec les tassements estimés.
Keywords: Cardiff, raft design, Mercia Mudstone, steel pile, hydraulic press-in
1
Corresponding Author.
756 M. Miller et al. / Case Study: Design & Performance of Raft Foundation on Mercia Mudstone
The St David’s 2 development is a new retail and part on Grade IV Mercia Mudstone (Figure
and residential complex in Cardiff, South Wales. 1).
A double level basement underlies the majority
of the building with a footprint area of circa
100m x 290m. The St David’s Partnership, a
joint venture between Capital Shopping Centres
and Land Securities, was the client with Bovis
Lend Lease the Design & Build Main Contractor.
2 GROUND CONDITIONS
Grade IV Mercia
20 25 60 Table 2: Comparison of Grade IV Mercia Mudstone Stiffness
Mudstone
Derived from Various In-Situ Testing Methods and Available
Grade II Mercia
22 40 0 Sources
Mudstone
Drained Stiffness
Method
The Mercia Mudstone was characterised as (MPa)
Unit D according to Howard et al. [1], being SPT 7.8
structureless red-brown, dolomitic mudstone. Pressuremeter (DPM) 32
The contours of the rock head and varying Plate Loading (250mm diameter) 4.8
depths of the basement meant that part of the raft Engineering Description1 4 – 15
would be founded on Grade II Mercia Mudstone 1. Based on borehole logs and sample descriptions,
material is soft to stiff i.e. cu=20 to 75kN/m2. The lowest
value was selected.
M. Miller et al. / Case Study: Design & Performance of Raft Foundation on Mercia Mudstone 757
2. The low values from pressuremeter tests were deemed low potential for volume change. As a result,
to be due to disaggregation of the mudstone during boring.
long term heave effects of the soil were not
included within the analysis.
Table 3 presents stiffness values for the Grade The Westbury Formation within the Mercia
II Mercia Mudstone calculated from various Mudstone Group has the potential for heave as a
testing procedures. result of the high percentage of disseminated
pyrite it contains. This formation occurs within
Table 3: Comparison of Grade II Mercia Mudstone Stiffness Cardiff; however, its presence was not noted
Derived from Various Testing Methods and Available during the ground investigation.
Sources
Rock Stiffness
Method
(MPa) 3 DESIGN STRATEGY
SPT 150
Pressuremeter (HPD) 150 Research of historical information was
Plate Loading (250mm diameter) 25 undertaken to gather case studies of large-scale
UCS Test Results1 130
structures on Mercia Mudstone, particularly in
Engineering Description2 215
1. Including correlated point load test results assuming the Cardiff area. It was found that the majority
the mass stiffness is 10% of the laboratory test results. The of larger developments within Cardiff city centre
lowest value was selected. have used piled foundations from existing
2. Based on borehole logs and sample descriptions. ground level. This has limited the opportunities
Assuming weak to moderately weak rock ranges from σc =1 –
5MPa, the stiffness was derived using Em = 215 σc [2]. to study the behaviour of the Mercia Mudstone in
Cardiff, especially its in-situ characteristics
It was acknowledged that the stiffness values under stress relief and its performance under
predicted by the in-situ testing for the Grade IV widespread loading.
Mercia Mudstone were low; however, they were Given the geology of the site and the case
not significantly lower than those recommended study data reviewed, Ramboll initially proposed
by industry guidance [3]. It was therefore to found the basement structure on a raft with
considered that the Ground Investigation data settlement reducing mini piles. The settlement
had to be heeded and a drained stiffness of criteria for the structure was governed by
7.8MPa, based on the SPT testing, was adopted differential settlement requirements, therefore it
for design. In the north of the site, SPT values was considered that settlement reducing piles
were consistently low suggesting a drained could be used to produce uniform settlements.
stiffness of 4.5MPa. A stiffness value of 150MPa The aim was that subsequent detailed design
was adopted for the Grade II Mercia Mudstone. would show that piles were not required.
During the Ground Investigation, groundwater A raft foundation was considered preferable to
was observed at approximately 5.4mOD; 3.6m piles due to the cost savings and significant
above founding level in the south of the site. programme savings it would bring. The raft also
The long term models therefore modelled an allowed flexibility in phasing of demolition,
upwards water pressure acting on the raft. excavation and construction across the site.
The Grade IV mudstone was observed to be
slightly sandy and slightly gravelly and the
Grade II mudstone was observed to contain a 4 SUBSTRUCTURE
high quantity of discontinuities. It was therefore
considered that there would be sufficient The final substructure scheme consisted of steel
pathways to allow pore water pressures to tubular (0.914m dia) and sheet pile retaining
dissipate almost instantly. In addition, laboratory walls (PU32) tied into a raft foundation within
testing indicated that the plasticity index of the the basement area. A maximum depth of 9m was
mudstone was approximately 15%, thus with a excavated for the basement. Areas of the scheme
comprising retail without a basement (the
758 M. Miller et al. / Case Study: Design & Performance of Raft Foundation on Mercia Mudstone
‘Apron’ structure, Figure 2) were founded on This was the first time the ‘Super Crush
piles linked by ground beams, due to large System’ had been used in Mercia Mudstone and
depths of Made Ground. five test sheet piles were initially installed to
The raft foundation varies in thickness (from verify design assumptions and confirm the
0.5m to 2.0m) across the structure depending on required installation forces. One of these piles
the magnitude of applied load. Typically, areas was extracted to determine the static skin friction
of raft which are relatively lightly loaded are above the proposed excavation level, the other
0.5m thick; areas beneath cores are 1.5m thick four were Static Load Tested to determine static
and 2.0m thick ribs were utilised for rows of skin friction below the excavation level and
heavy columns (Figure 2). define required pile toe resistance applied during
pile installation. The test sheet piles generally
performed satisfactorily under the loads applied
during testing, however, the settlement under
load for one did not fit the anticipated curve
profile and showed a significant amount of
plastic deformation.
Predicted design settlements were verified by research of the depth of influence of loaded areas
hand calculations and by comparison with case it is considered that due to the scale of the
study data. The Finite Element programme loading, the depth of influence assumed may
PLAXIS was used in order to confirm the have been an overestimate. The work of Charles
predicted settlements were of the correct order. [5] shows that the effect of increase in shear
strength with increase in effective stress on the
depth of influence can be significant for
9 MONITORING extensive surface loading. It is thought that
further research into the depth of influence of
It was expected that monitoring raft settlement loading for large scale rafts may provide useful
would provide a clear indication of whether tools for the future design of raft schemes.
jacking of the columns was required.
Unfortunately, many of the monitoring points on
the raft itself were destroyed during construction 11 CONCLUSION
so that there are incomplete records covering the
construction of the structure. There was Adopting a raft foundation solution for the
significantly more monitoring data from the basement structure rather than piles afforded
points on the capping beam. Figure 3 shows large programme savings and allowed greater
typical settlement responses over time for points flexibility in the phasing of construction.
adjacent to a core and more lightly loaded points. The raft analysis predicted settlements with an
average of approximately 35mm and a maximum
CB CB - Nr Core Raft - Nr Core Raft
0.01
of 65mm beneath cores. The monitoring results
Core Constructed
0.005
indicate that the raft is settling but not to the
0
amount predicted. However, a complete set of
-0.005
monitoring data covering the raft area and full
Settlement (m)
-0.01
construction programme was not obtained
-0.015
Core Constructed
therefore a firm conclusion cannot be drawn.
-0.02 The results of the monitoring also suggest that
-0.025 the retaining walls have settled and are hence not
-0.03
17/06/2007 06/08/2007 25/09/2007 14/11/2007 03/01/2008 22/02/2008 12/04/2008 01/06/2008 21/07/2008 09/09/2008 29/10/2008
as stiff as originally assumed at pre-tender.
Date
ABSTRACT
Four bridge piers, all of which are resting on preconsolidated clay of very high plasticity, have, since erection, had a measured
settlement of between 0.25m and 0.65m. This paper presents the settlement observations carried out over a period of more than
75 years. The settlements progress in a nearly linear manner when plotted against log time. Together with the observed fast
progress of the settlement, considering the extremely small permeability of the clay, this strongly suggests that primary
consolidation cannot be the primary cause of the observed settlements. Therefore, other causes must be found to explain the
observed behaviour. Some form of creep seems obvious. Perspective calculations strongly suggest that the observed behaviour is
primarily caused by plastic deformation, developed as a result of applied loads approaching the bearing capacity of the clay (too
little safety against bearing capacity failure). The piers with the smallest bearing capacity reserve have the greatest settlements,
and the slope of the seabed plays a crucial role.
RÉSUMÉ
Quatre piles de pont, reposant toutes sur de l’argile préconsolidé de très haute plasticité, présentent, depuis leur érection, un af-
faissement mesuré allant de 0,25 m à 0,65 m. Cet article présente les observations en matière d’affaissement effectuées sur une
période de plus de 75 ans. L’affaissement progresse de façon pratiquement linéaire lorsqu’il est calculé par rapport à l’instant de
relevé. Lié au caractère rapide de la progression d’affaissement observée, compte tenu de la perméabilité extrêmement faible de
l’argile, une telle linéarité semble pratiquement exclure la possibilité que les affaissements constatés soient essentiellement dus à
la consolidation primaire. Par conséquent, il convient de chercher d’autres causes au comportement observé. On constate à
l’évidence une certaine forme de fluage. Les calculs de perspective suggèrent avec insistence que le comportement observé est
essentiellement le fruit d'une déformation plastique, liée au fait que les charges appliquées se rapprochent de la capacité portante
de l’argile (marge trop faible par rapport à un défaut de capacité portante). Ce sont les piles soumises à la pression la plus forte
qui se sont le plus affaissées, et l’inclinaison du fond marin joue un rôle déterminant en la matière.
Keywords : Bridge pier, clay of very high plasticity, slickenside, preconsolidated, Paleogene, settlement observations, consolida-
tion, creep, oedometer modulus, permeability, undrained shear strength, vane shear strength, effective shear constants, plastic de-
formation, yielding, bearing capacity failure, safety ratio, stability, undrained condition, drained condition, PLAXIS calculations.
1
Corresponding Author.
762 N. Okkels et al. / Long-Term Settlement Observations of a Bridge Foundation on Clay
1 BRIDGE FOUNDATION
#
started in 2010. These have so far shown that the
#
measurement points are not likely to be substan-
#
tially affected by the expansion from alkaline
#
silica reactions [6].
"
$&
"
$
3 PROPERTIES OF LITTLE BELT CLAY
#
"
&
The bridge piers are based on Little Belt Clay
Figure 3. Settlements (mm) of pier 1-4 from 1932 to 2010.
which is a clay of very high plasticity that was
deposited in an Eocene ocean that covered large
However, there is no plausible physical expla- parts of Denmark and the North Sea. In the Dan-
nation as to why emptying should result in set- ish Little Belt, the clay was deposited on an un-
tlements. On the contrary, emptying reduces the dersea bedrock ridge, so that deposit lies rela-
load on the subsoil, while the upward current tively high. Later the Ice Age glaciers have
forces from the water flow that the emptying ini- removed overlying younger pre-Quaternary de-
tiates from the Little Belt and in towards the posits, and erosion from the strait has subse-
quently removed the even younger Ice Age de-
764 N. Okkels et al. / Long-Term Settlement Observations of a Bridge Foundation on Clay
posits, so the Little Belt Clay is now exposed on rived relation between Eoed and the unload stress
the seabed. The glacial processes seem not to ^’unl is shown.
have disturbed the clay location significantly.
There is thus no sign that the glacial ice has '
K #;K
folded the clay or pushed it up in floe deposits
K&;K
surrounded by younger deposits. Deep drilling in
KL#;K
the area supports the picture of deposits left in
*
& #
the right place, which means that there is uninter-
rupted Paleogene clays of very high plasticity to
around level -130.
The Little Belt clay is strongly pre-loaded by
the weight of the eroded younger layers and by
*
& #./+,- 0!
the weight of the many glaciers from the Quater-
nary period.
+,- #
As a consequence of the heavy pre-loading,
the clay is today subject to horizontal pressure Figure 4. Oedometer modulus measured by IL-tests [8].
that significantly exceeds the vertical pressure. In
the surveys in 1963 L. Bjerrum [7] thus meas- The results showed that the smaller increase in
ured an at-rest coefficient K0 = 1.9 approxi- stress the higher oedometer modulus, and that
mately 7 m below the level of the seabed. there is no significant difference in the stiffness
In addition, the clay is slickensided because it of the clay in the three borings.
is crisscrossed by old sliding surfaces. The slips The clay’s permeability coefficient is meas-
might be caused by ice dynamics or release of ured in the range 5810-13 < k < 5810-11 m/sec [8].
ice pressure. The results of 18 IL tests, where samples were
Table 2. Indeks properties of Little Belt Clay [5].
horizontally consolidated, documents that the
permeability in the horizontal direction is around
Natural water content 38 - 48 %
Plasticity indeks 57 - 210 %
the same as in the vertical direction. It is still an
Unit weigth 17,4 - 18,7 kN/m3 open question, however, whether slickenside
contributes to a significant increase in the clay’s
The carbonate content is mostly small, but regional permeability.
highly calcareous layers without any apparent
regularity have been found (min. 1% and max. 3.2 Strength parameters
52%). The undrained shear strengths were measured
with triaxial tests (UU- and CUU=0) and in situ
3.1 Deformation properties vane tests [8]. The results are compared in Fig. 5,
In connection with the investigations in the and it is seen that they are moderately correlated.
sixties, oedometer IL-tests with 33 tube samples As a rather cautious mean value, cu = cv/3 is
taken from the borings were performed [8]. derived, where the vane strength cv represents the
The tests were typically run in stages up to a strength of the clay matrix and the reduction is
preconsolidation stress of 3,000 kPa and hereaf- due to slickenside and strain rates.
ter unloaded to the in situ stress – i.e. to between
25 and 400 kPa. Finally, the tests were reloaded
in steps back to the preconsolidation stress.
The oedometer modulus Eoed is determined as
the secant modulus on the reloaded curve for
stress increases of between 20 and 600 kPa. The
results are summarised in Fig. 4, where the de-
N. Okkels et al. / Long-Term Settlement Observations of a Bridge Foundation on Clay 765
4 SETTLEMENTS AND CALCULATIONS
KMO&
K
M The settlement progress is on the whole rectilin-
ear in a log t view, as shown in Fig 3. The set-
K
M
tlements and their present rates are surprisingly
6
If, on the other hand, the mobilised strength indicating that the parameters are too small. To
exceeds the mechanical element, part of the dis- achieve the same safety ratio as with the un-
placement shear strength will be transferred via drained strength parameters (lower bound) the
the bound water, and there will therefore – with effective parameters must be increased to ’=
plastic clay – be a risk of creep of a dimension 15.6q and c’=55 kN/m2, which corresponds to the
that will increase the more the mobilised strength design values for the new Little Belt Bridge.
exceeds the reliable mechanical element. The The analyses performed also show that the
clay passes out into a “semi-plastic” area, where slope of the seabed is of great significance to the
the deformations cannot be determined by the safety ratio. A few degrees’ variation in the slope
customary methods. On minor overstepping of leads to significant changes in the safety ratio,
the mechanical element of the strength there is which can explain the very large differences in
only yielding at individual points and the sup- the piers’ settlement. Pier 1, which stands in a
plementary deformations in relation to the elastic hollow, thus has the lowest settlement, while pier
deformations are only minor. As the mobilised 3, which stands with the steepest seabed, has the
strength approaches the failure value, the extent greatest settlement.
of the yielding and plastic deformations in-
creases. In the failure state there is yielding in the
entire failure surface, resulting in very large de- 6 CONCLUSIONS
formations.
As a consequence, the resistance to failure is a The settlements’ straight-line course in a log
vital parameter in calculating the dimensions of t– depiction, their rapid appearance and their size
the current piers’ settlement. According to D.J. indicate that they are primarily caused by some
D’Apolonia et al. [9] plastic deformations begin type of creep, and that they are only due to con-
to occur when the failure resistance is less than solidation on a secondary basis.
approximately 2 for the plastic clays. Calculation of the Little Belt clay’s bearing
In order to investigate whether this applies, capacity using PLAXIS shows that the piers with
we have conducted a number of PLAXIS calcu- the smallest bearing capacity reserve have devel-
lations of the piers’ bearing capacity, with incor- oped the largest settlements, and the slope of the
poration of the presence of pipe walls, slope of seabed plays a crucial role.
the seabed and drainage. The calculations have Calculations of the bearing capacity per-
focused on pier 3. An axial symmetric geometric formed in both the undrained and drained condi-
model was used, applying a traditional Mohr- tion with effective strength parameters show that
Coulomb material model with deformation and the bearing capacity is smallest in the undrained
strength parameters as stated in the preceding condition.
sections. The permeability of the concrete is es- In summary, the results indicate that the
timated to be equivalent to that of the clay. bridge piers have been relatively close to failure
The calculations show that the degree of utili- in the undrained condition, so that there has been
sation of the bearing capacity for pier 3 is rela- rapid, strong settlement development as a conse-
tively high in both the undrained and drained quence of plastic deformations. As the excess
condition, with a safety ratio of less than 1.5. As pore pressure has drained away and the soil has
a consequence of the high utilisation of the soil moved towards the drained condition, there has
strength, in all of the calculations made there are gradually been more resistance to bearing capa-
large zones with plastic points, resulting in plas- city failure, resulting in diminishing plastic de-
tic deformations, and the settlement rate deviates formations [10].
considerably from the classical consolidation Pier 1 and 2’s settlement rates increased dras-
theory (s-shape in log t depiction). tically in 1990 probably because the seabed ge-
The undrained condition is also investigated ometry was changed by sea currents. But it
with effective strength parameters, which gives could, at worst, be due to a reduction of the ef-
reason for a safety ratio of less than 1 (failure)
N. Okkels et al. / Long-Term Settlement Observations of a Bridge Foundation on Clay 767
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the main factors affecting the characteristic resistance of shallow foundations sub-
jected to inclined and highly eccentric loadings through numerical limit analyses. The parametric analyses are performed accord-
ing to the finite element method by using computer programs PLAXIS 2-D and 3-D for strip and square foundations. The results
from these analyses are compared with those deduced by the conventional methods for calculating the bearing capacity of the
soil. Cases of cohesive soils under undrained conditions as well as of cohesionless soils are examined. For the simplest cases,
such as central loading with or without inclination of the resultant and vertical eccentric loading, certain modifying factors are
confirmed. A good approximation between the results from finite element analyses and those from the conventional methods is
also concluded. On the contrary, the simultaneous effect of high eccentricity and inclination of the resultant shows that the finite
element method results in considerably higher values of the characteristic resistance, mainly for square foundations resting on
cohesionless soils.
RÉSUMÉ
Le but de cette étude est d’examiner l’ analyse limite numérique des paramètres affectant la résistance caractéristique des
fondations superficielles sous des charges inclinées et très excentriques. Les analyses paramétriques ont réalisées en utilisant la
méthode des éléments finis et des programmes d’ application Plaxis 2D et 3D pour fondations avec semelles fillantes ou
quadrangulaires. Les résultats des analyses ont été comparés avec ceux des méthodes conventionnelles de calcul de la capacité
portante du sol. Les cas de sols cohérents sous des conditions non-drainés et les cas de sols non-cohérents ont été examinés. Pour
les cas simples tels que la charge centrale et inclinée ou non inclinée et la charge excentrique et verticale certain facteurs
modifiants, généralement reconnus, ont confirmés et une bonne approximation des résultats de la FEM avec celles des méthodes
conventionnelles a trouvée. Au contraire, pour les excentricités fortes et simultanément l’ inclinaison de la résultante, la méthode
des éléments finis conduit à des valeurs significativement plus élevées de la résistance caractéristique, en particulier pour les
fondations quadrangulaires sur des sols non cohésifs.
1
Corresponding Author.
770 V. Papadopoulos and A. Arapakou / Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations
The analyses focused on examining cases of high values of internal friction angle, though for
high eccentricity conditions. For the normalized comparison reasons they cover a range
eccentricity e/b=1/3, practically regarded as the fluctuating from =289 to 459.
maximum one, the ultimate loads – characteristic
loads Vk were estimated and compared with the
loads Vk,o generated by the equations (1a) and
(1b) for square footings, according to Fig. 3. It is
generally observed that Vk/Vk,o>1, and this ratio
increases with the increase in the slope of the re-
sultant tan1. Even for tan1=0 (vertical loading) it
is concluded that Vk>Vk,o, while for high slopes
the numerical limit analysis gives up to 70%
higher values. Thus, it can be pointed out that the
conventional methods seem to underestimate the
ultimate load when eccentricity and inclination
of the load resultant occur simultaneously.
5 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Simple cases were initially investigated in order
to confirm the relative and widely accepted mod- [1] G. G. Meyerhof, Some recent research on the bearing
capacity of foundations, Canadian Geotech. J., 1, No 1
ifying factors. (1963), 16-26.
The case of the strip foundation resting on [2] J. Brinch Hansen, A revised and extended formula for
cohesive soil under undrained conditions showed bearing capacity, Danish Geotech. Inst. Bull 28 (1970),
that there is a good approximation between the 5-11.
[3] A. S. Vésic, Bearing capacity of shallow foundations,
results deduced by numerical limit analyses and Foundation Engineering handbook, H. F. Winterkom
the corresponding ones by conventional methods and H. Y. Fang, eds, Van Nostrand Reinfold, New York
for eccentric but vertical loading and also for (1975), 121-145.
central and inclined loading. This convergence [4] H. Poulos, Foundations and retaining structures - Re-
search and practice. General Report, Proc. 15th Int.
has been already reported for relative finite ele- Conf. S.M.G.E., (2001), 4, 2533-2548.
ment analyses in the past. On the contrary, for [5] H. Muhs and K. Weiss, Inclined load tests on shallow
excessive eccentric and inclined loading, finite strip footings, Proc. 8th Int. Conf. S.M.F.E., (1973), 1,
element analyses gave significantly higher ulti- 173-179.
[6] S. A. Aiban and D. Znidarcic, Centrifugal modeling of
mate loads Vk. The case of the square foundation bearing capacity of shallow foundations on sands, J.
proved the widely accepted value of the shape Geotech. Engng. ASCE, 121, No 10 (1995), 704-712.
factor vc=sc=1,20. However, considerably higher [7] EN 1997 – 1 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical Design Part 1:
values of the load Vk deduced for cases with si- General Rules. TC 250 Comité Européen de Normalisa-
tion (2004), Brussel Belgium.
multaneous effect of eccentricity and inclination [8] DIN V 4017-100: Baugrund-Berechnung des Grund-
of the resultant. bruchwiderstands von Flachgründungen (1996, 2006).
For the strip foundation resting on cohe- [9] M. Apostolou, N. Gerolymos, D. Rizos, G. Gazetas,
sionless soil, it is demonstrated that the widely Bearing capacity of rectangular foundation under in-
clined eccentric loading (in Greek), 5th Hellenic Conf.
accepted value of the inclination factor Kb=ia de- on Geot. and Geoenv. Eng. (2006), 3, 151-158.
pends only on the slope tan1, and is independent
of the friction angle . However, for foundations
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 775
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-775
ABSTRACT
In this study the kinematic soil–foundation interaction problem for a massless surface strip footing retained by a wall is exam-
ined. Transfer functions for horizontal, vertical and rocking response of the foundation are evaluated via two different ap-
proaches that utilize the finite element method. Satisfactory agreement is shown to exist between them. Moreover, the vertical
and rocking accelerations of the foundation are compared to its horizontal acceleration. It is shown that the presence of the re-
taining wall alters substantially the foundation response and introduces significant vertical and rocking motion.
RÉSUMÉ
Cette étude examiné le problème de la cinématique interaction entre le sol et la fondation en cas d'une fondation superficielle
sans masse retenue par un mur. Les fonctions de transfert pour la réponse horizontale, verticale et basculement de la fondation
sont évaluées à deux approches différentes qui utilisent la méthode des éléments finis. Un accord satisfaisant à exister entre eux.
En outre, les accélérations verticales et les accélérations du basculement de la fondation sont comparées à son accélération hori-
zontale. Il est montré que la présence du mur de soutènement modifie considérablement la réponse de la fondation et instaure
importants mouvements verticaux et à bascule.
Keywords: Kinematic interaction, dynamic response, retaining walls, footings, soil-foundation interface.
1
Corresponding Author.
776 G. Papazafeiropoulos et al. / KI Between Retaining Walls and Retained Footings
As far as wave propagation in the soil is con- Usage of spatial average of the free field
cerned, kinematic interaction is associated with motion (or a selected function, e.g. Fourier
two main dynamic phenomena [1]: spectrum) of the points lying into the foun-
The ground motion incoherence, which re- dation-soil interface.
sults from waves emanating from different Approximation of the spatial variation of
points of an extended source that may arrive the ground motion in the frequency domain
at the foundation at different instants and with a suitable analytic function that is used
with different angles of incidence. Their to calculate spatial weighted averages of the
amplitude and phase may be affected by lo- free field motions at the points of interest, in
cal geologic heterogeneities and by reflec- which the weights are usally linear func-
tions and diffractions around the foundation. tions of position.
The wave passage effect, which results from The previous approach with the contact
waves impinging the foundation at a finite problem between the foundation and the soil
angle, leads to differential motion of two treated as a mixed boundary-value problem.
adjacent points, even when the wave front is
plane and propagates in a perfectly homo- In the present study the effect of interaction
geneous medium. These two motions are between a rigid surface strip foundation and its
identical, except from a time delay between underlying soil retained by a wall relatively close
them [2], which is the sole source of the to the foundation is addressed. Emphasis is given
spatial variation of the soil motion. on the kinematic effect, as the inertial effect has
been examined by the authors in [10]. Dynamic
Results about the former effect can be found in response of the foundation is given in terms of
[3-6], while the latter has been studied in [7,8]. transfer functions. The finite element results are
Regarding foundation response, kinematic inter- compared with approximate results for the foun-
action may be caused by base-slab averaging, dation motion obtained by the spatial average of
embedment effects and wave scattering [9]. the free field acceleration of the points along the
Relatively little is known about the latter, since soil-foundation interface (Average Ground Mo-
in most cases it coexists with the more important tion approach, AGM), namely by the relations:
base-slab averaging and/or embedment effects. N
tions (b), (c) and (d), even if the structures and at the bedrock. A rigid massless strip footing lies
their foundations are considered massless; the on the surface of the soil layer, with which it is in
existence of a substantial vertical boundary con- tied contact, an assumption generally valid for
dition near a foundation (represented by a wall in cohesive soils. Since foundation is massless, in-
(c), an adjacent structure with basement wall in ertial wall-soil-foundation interaction is avoided.
(b), or multiple level foundation in (d) introduces The wall has modulus of elasticity Ew, Pois-
a dependence of the foundation response on its son’s ratio /w=0.2, thickness tw=0.2m and height
relative distance from the wall. Thus, founda- H=8m and its compliance can result from struc-
tions at larger distances will respond differently tural flexibility (index dw) and/or rotational com-
from those cited closer to the boundary, which pliance at its base (via a rotational spring of con-
leads to kinematic loading of the superstructure. stant R¬ and expressed by the index d¬), as it is
totally constrained against horizontal displace-
ment at its base. Two extreme cases were con-
sidered for the wall-soil interface (WSI): (a) fully
bonded WSI (i.e. no relative slip) and (b) smooth
WSI (i.e., no shear stress).
Figure 1. Surface foundations; kinematic wall-soil-foundation In the present study two-dimensional numeri-
interaction appears in cases (b), (c) and (d). cal simulations of the retaining system depicted
in Figure 2 were conducted utilizing the finite-
element code ABAQUS ([11]). The retained soil
2 SYSTEM CONSIDERED layer was discretized with 8-noded bi-quadratic
plane strain quadrilaterals, while the foundation
The wall-soil-foundation system considered in and the retaining wall were modeled using 3-
this study is shown in Figure 2. Note that the node quadratic plane strain shear flexible beam
term “wall” does not necessarily mean retaining elements. The foundation halfwidth is B=1.6m
wall, but it signifies any possible vertical bound- and the distance between its center and the top of
ary condition imposed to the soil layer. A semi- the wall is L=2.4m. Material damping ratio ? of
infinite homogeneous and isotropic soil layer of the whole system is of the constant hysteretic
constant thickness H=8m is considered, retained type and equal to 5% of the critical. The parame-
by a massless wall which can be either rigid or ters that have been examined are the following:
flexible. Along the soil-rock interface horizontal The relative structural flexibility of the wall
and vertical fixity is assumed; the soil layer is (with respect to the soil), dw=12GH3(1-
free at its upper surface and it extends theoreti- /w2)/(Ewtw3), which takes the values 0 (rigid
cally to infinity at the left hand side. Vertical ki- wall) and 40 (flexible wall).
nematic constraints were used at that side (which The relative rotational compliance of the
lies at a horizontal distance equal to 40H from wall (with respect to the soil) given by
the wall) in order to simulate the one- d¬=GH2/R¬, which takes the value 0
dimensional soil layer response. The soil layer is (clamped wall) and 5 (rotationally compli-
characterized by its density © = 1800 kg/m3, ant wall).
modulus of elasticity E = 175.62MPa, Poisson’s The type of WSI (bonded or smooth).
ratio /, and critical damping ratio ?. A harmonic
steady-state excitation is imposed on the system
778 G. Papazafeiropoulos et al. / KI Between Retaining Walls and Retained Footings
The dimensionless frequency f /f0, where f0 the acceleration amplitude of the FFM. For the
is the fundamental eigenfrequency of the rotational transfer functions the rotational accel-
soil layer and f is the frequency of the im- eration amplitude multiplied by the foundation
posed harmonic excitation. halfwidth B is divided by the free field accelera-
tion. The index “w” denotes “wall” and “ff” de-
BONDED WSI notes “free field”.
1.4
0.3
0.2
3 DYNAMIC FOUNDATION RESPONSE
0.1
0
The layout of the model examined in this study 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
implies that kinematic interaction will be a result f / f0
of only base-slab averaging. The dynamic re-
Figure 5. Transfer function for rotational acceleration for
sponse of the foundation is calculated in terms of bonded WSI.
transfer functions, which relate the free field soil
acceleration and the acceleration of the founda-
tion (horizontal, vertical, and rocking). For hori-
zontal and vertical accelerations, the correspond-
ing transfer functions are taken equal to the ratio
of the acceleration amplitude of the foundation to
G. Papazafeiropoulos et al. / KI Between Retaining Walls and Retained Footings 779
A h ,w 1
A h ,ff 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
f / f0
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
f / f0
4 RELATIVE VERTICAL AND ROCKING The main conclusion of the current study is that
FOUNDATION RESPONSE the presence of a retaining wall adjacent to a sur-
face strip footing can alter substantially the im-
In Figures 9 and 10 the relative vertical and rock- posed motion. This phenomenon is not taken into
ing acceleration, respectively, are shown with re- account in seismic norms such as EC8, as in this
spect to the horizontal acceleration of the foun- case the aforementioned guidelines would pre-
dation. It is observed that in the case of rigid wall dict neither vertical or rocking response, nor dy-
the vertical and rocking acceleration become namic distress of the foundation itself caused by
maximum at a frequency equal to f = 3f0. The the base-slab averaging effect in certain fre-
higher of the two maxima for each graph corre- quency ranges. This study has proven that kine-
sponds to bonded WSI. This may be explained matic interaction between a surface foundation
by considering the kinematic constraints imposed and an underlying homogeneous linear elastic
by a rigid and bonded WSI. The retained soil, horizontal soil layer fixed on rigid bedrock can
unable to translate or slide, is compelled to move occur even if the foundation is not embedded.
vertically, hence, the increased maxima of Fig- Possible reasons causing this phenomenon could
ures 9 and 10 occur. When the wall is flexible, be the presence of adjacent retaining walls and/or
then the forces exerted by the wall are signifi- other underground structures (e.g., metro tunnels,
cantly lower (and the tendency to vertical re- etc).
sponse of the soil decreased). If in addition the
vertical movement of the soil at the WSI is con-
strained (bonded WSI) the minimum vertical and REFERENCES
rocking response will result as it is depicted in [1] A.S. Veletsos, and A.M. Prasad, Seismic interaction of
both Figures 9 and 10. structures and soils: stochastic approach, ASCE Journal
of Structural Engineering 115(4) (1989), 935-956.
[2] E. Kausel, and A.L. Pais, Stochastic deconvolution of
5 CONCLUSIONS earthquake motions, ASCE Journal of Engineering Me-
chanics 113(2) (1987), 266-277.
[3] J.E. Luco, and A. Mita, Response of circular foundation
In this study the kinematic dynamic interaction to spatially random ground motion, ASCE Journal of
between a rigid surface strip footing lying near a Engineering Mechanics 113(1) (1987), 1-15.
retaining wall and the underlying soil was evalu- [4] J. E. Luco, H. L. Wong, Response of a rigid foundation
ated in terms of transfer functions via the finite to a spatially random ground motion, Earthquake Engi-
neering and Structural Dynamics 14 (1986), 891-908.
element method and an approximate method. [5] Y. Matsushima, Stochastic response of structure due to
The agreement between the two approaches is spatial variant earthquake excitations, Proceedings of
satisfactory. In the quasi-static frequency range the 6th World Conference of Earthquake Engineering,
horizontal transfer function maximizes in the New Delhi, India, (1977), pp. 1077-1082.
[6] A. Pais, and E. Kausel, Stochastic response of founda-
case of flexible and smooth wall, it is lower than tions, Rep. No. R85-6, Department of Civil Engineer-
unity for flexible and bonded wall, and mini- ing, MIT, (1985).
mizes for rigid wall. In the latter case it is not af- [7] J.E. Luco, and A. Mita, Response of a circular founda-
fected by the type of interface, as it is similar for tion on a uniform half-space to elastic waves, Earth-
quake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 15 (1987).
bonded and smooth WSI. Vertical and rocking [8] R.H. Scanlan, Seismic wave effects on soil-structure in-
response is maximum for flexible wall and teraction, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dy-
smooth interface and minimum for flexible wall namics 4 (1976), 379-388.
and bonded interface. Furthermore, in the case of [9] J.P. Stewart, R.B. Seed, and G.L. Fenves, Empirical
Evaluation of Inertial Soil-Structure Interaction Effects,
bonded WSI it is evident that the base-slab aver- Report No. PEER-98/07, PEER, CA (1998).
aging effect is increasing for higher frequencies. [10] G. Papazafeiropoulos, P.N. Psarropoulos, and Y.
Finally, the vertical and rocking response of the Tsompanakis, Effects of retaining walls on the dynamic
foundation with respect to its horizontal response response of retained structures, Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Structural Dynamics
is important for flexible wall with smooth WSI in (EURODYN), Leuven, Belgium, 4-6 July (2011).
the quasi-static frequency range. [11] ABAQUS, Analysis User’s Manual Version 6.8, Simu-
lia, Dassault Systèmes, RI, USA (2008).
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 781
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-781
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786 A. Pillai et al. / Back-Analysis of Basement with Raft Foundation in Overconsolidated Stiff Clay
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.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 787
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-787
RÉSUMÉ
La dock du “Terreiro do Trigo” au “Jardim do Tabaco” a été mis en décharge de remblai pour permettre la construction du nou-
veau Terminal de Bateaux Croisières de “Santa Apolónia”, dans la marge droit du Tage, à Lisbonne. Une plateforme de transfert
de charges supportée par des colonnes de jet grouting a été construite pour permettre l’exécution du remblai avec 4,2m de hau-
teur, placé sur des alluvions avec une faible résistance (Cu inférieur à 20 kPa) et 20m d’épaisseur moyenne. Les murs périphé-
riques du Quai ont été renforcés avec des micropieux, enrobés par des poutres en béton arme, pour résister aux impulses du nou-
veau remblai. Les principaux critères de dimensionnement et d’exécution, bien que le contrôle de qualité et d’exécution des
colonnes de jet grouting sont présentés, bien que les résultats de l’instrumentation et de l’observation de l’ouvrage. À la fin de
l’article, les avantages techniques, économiques et environnants des technologies adoptées sont surélevés et confrontées avec
celles de technologies plus conventionnelles.
1
Corresponding Author.
788 A. Pinto et al. / Fill of the “Terreiro do Trigo” Dockyard in Lisbon over Alluvial and Hard Soils
various ground conditions, including hard soils depth, including at the bottom a layer of muddy
and weak rocks, a big advantage in countries sands, resting over the Miocene sandstones and
with very heterogeneous geological conditions. dense sands, was built with the purpose to allow
The future development of the jet grouting the construction of the new “Santa Apolónia”
technology will depend on a better design and Cruise Ship Terminal. Also important was the
quality assurance and control of the adopted so- compatibility with the reinforced concrete slab,
lutions. To achieve those objectives it will be built over bored piles at the river bed, allowing
important to prepare codes of practice, including the operation of big ships (figure 2).
factors such as the quality control and assurance,
the life time instrumentation of the adopted solu-
tions and the execution of full scale load tests.
Taking into account the described scenario in
this paper it is presented a case history of the
load transfer platform foundation adopted at the
fill of the “Terreiro do Trigo” dockyard, includ-
ing the closing and refurbishment of the “Jardim
do Tabaco” centenary masonry quay walls, at the
Tagus River right bank in Lisbon, where the jet
grouting technology was applied with success on
very complex neighborhood and geological con-
ditions, including Miocene weak rocks, sand-
stones, and hard soils, dense sands (figure 1).
Figure 2. Site location and perspective of the new Terminal.
The remaining 60% of the overall loads were 2.6 Quality control and quality assurance
resisted by the confined muddy alluvium.
The execution of the jet grouting columns was
complemented by a tight quality control and
quality assurance, allowing the confirmation of
the resistance, deformability and the geometry of
the columns. For this purpose, test columns were
built and full length cores from test and final
columns were collected in order to confirm the
geometry and to perform laboratorial tests, main-
ly Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS), at
different ages, including the measurement of the
Young Modulus (figure 14).
Figure 13. Load cells at the jet grouting colums head: main
results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3 MAIN CONCLUSIONS
The authors thank to the Owner of the described
Taking into account the presented example and case history (Administração do Porto de Lisboa)
comparing with some more traditional solutions, his permission for the presentation of this present
is possible to point out the following advantages paper.
of the jet grouting solutions [1, 2 and 3]:
Possibility to be applied to almost every
kind of soils, with low vibration, low-noise REFERENCES
and strong but local ground perturbation;
[1] Pinto A.; Pereira, A.; Cardoso D.; Sá J. Ground Im-
Small dimension and small height of the jet provement solutions at Sana Vasco da Gama Royal Ho-
grouting equipment, leading to big versatil- tel. Proceedings of the 17th ICSMGE (2009), 2180 –
ity, allowing the use of the technology on 2183.
very complex scenarios; [2] Pinto A.; Tomásio R.; Cruz S.; Carvalho B. Special
Foundations for an Urban Viaduct in Lisbon. Proceed-
The ground is improved, using an hydraulic ings of the 14th ECSMGE (2007), 475 – 480.
process, in order to be integrated on the fi- [3] Pinto A.; Falcão J.; Pinto F.; Melo Ribeiro, J. (2005).
nal engineering solution with both econom- Ground Improvement Solutions using Jet Grouting
ic and environmental advantages. Columns. Proceedings of the 16th ICSMGE (2005).
1249 – 1252.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 793
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-793
ABSTRACT
Shallow foundations may experience a reduction in bearing capacity and increase in settlement and tilt due to seismic loading as
has been observed during several earthquakes. Shallow foundations for seismic loads have generally been designed by the
equivalent static approach. Foundations are considered eccentrically loaded and the ultimate bearing capacity is estimated ac-
cordingly. Building Codes generally allow an increase of 33% in bearing capacity when earthquake loads, in addition to static
loads are used in the design of the foundation. Considerable research effort has been devoted to the determination of the dy-
namic bearing capacity in recent years. Significant developments in determination of dynamic bearing capacity are presented in
the paper.
RÉSUMÉ
Fondations superficielles peuvent expérience une réduction de capacité portante et augmentation de règlement et d'inclinaison en
raison de la charge sismique comme a été observé au cours de plusieurs tremblements de terre. Fondations superficielles pour les
charges sismiques ont généralement été conçues par l'approche statique équivalente. Fondations sont considérés comme excen-
triques chargées et la capacité portante ultime est estimée en conséquence. Les Codes du bâtiment permettent généralement une
augmentation de 33 % de la capacité portante lorsque les charges de tremblement de terre en plus de charges statiques sont utili-
sées dans la conception de la Fondation. Recherche un effort considérable a été consacré à la détermination de la capacité por-
tante dynamique au cours des dernières années. Des développements importants dans la détermination de la capacité portante
dynamique sont présentés dans le document.
1
Corresponding Author.
794 S. Prakash and V.K. Puri / Foundations Under Seismic Loads
x Soil liquefaction beneath and around the Bearing capacity failures of shallow founda-
foundation may lead to large settlement and tions have been observed in Mexico City during
tilting of the foundation. Michoacan earthquake of 1985 [1, 2] and in city
of Adapazari due to 1999 Kocaeli earthquake [3,
4, 5]. Typical examples of bearing capacity fail-
ure in Adapazari are shown in Fig. 1. The sur-
face soils at the site of foundation damage belong
to CL/ ML group which are generally considered
non-liquefiable. Settlements as much as 0.5-0.7m
have been observed in loose sands [6] in Hachi-
nohe during the 1968 Tokachioki earthquake of
magnitude 7.9. Settlements of 0.5 -1.0 m were
observed at Port and Roko Island in Kobe due to
the Hygoken Nanbu (M=6.9) earthquake.
Several research investigations, mostly ana-
lytical have been conducted in the area of dy-
namic bearing capacity of foundations in the re-
cent years. The more significant of these studies
are presented his paper.
2 DEVELOPMENTS IN DYNAMIC
BEARING CAPACITY
(a) Bearing Capacity Failure The response of a footing to dynamic loads is af-
fected by the (1) nature and magnitude of dy-
namic loads, (2) number of pulses and (3) the
strain rate response of soil. Shallow foundations
for seismic loads are usually designed by the
equivalent static approach. The foundations are
considered as eccentrically loaded with inclined
load (combination of vertical + horizontal load)
and the ultimate bearing capacity is accordingly
estimated. To account for the effect of dynamic
nature of the load, the bearing capacity factors
are determined by using dynamic angle of inter-
nal friction which is taken as 2-degrees less than
its static value [7]. Building Codes generally
(b) Tilting of Buildings after Bearing Capacity Failure permit an increase of 33 % in allowable bearing
capacity when earthquake loads in addition to
Figure 1. Examples of Bearing Capacity Failures of shallow static loads are used in design of the foundation.
foundations in Adapazari [5] This recommendation may be reasonable for
dense granular soils, stiff to very stiff clays or
x Softening or failure of the ground due to hard bedrocks but is not applicable for friable
redistribution of pore water pressure after rock, loose soils susceptible to liquefaction or
an earthquake which may adversely affect pore water pressure increase, sensitive clays or
the stability of the foundation post- clays likely to undergo plastic flow [8].
earthquake.
S. Prakash and V.K. Puri / Foundations Under Seismic Loads 795
Behavior of small footing resting on dense commonly used for static bearing capacity to ob-
sands and subjected to static and impulse loads tain the dynamic bearing capacity as follows:
was experimentally investigated by Selig and
McKee [9]. It was observed that the footing
failed in general shear in static case and local
shear failure occurred in the dynamic case. Large
settlements at failure were observed for the dy-
namic case. These experimental results indicate
that for given value of settlement, the dynamic
bearing capacity is lower than the static bearing
capacity. This observation is further supported
by results of experimental studies on small foot-
ings on surface of sand [10] wherein dynamic
bearing capacity was about 30 % lower than stat-
ic bearing capacity. Therefore, the increase in Figure 3. Failure surface used by Budhu and al-karni for stat-
bearing capacity permitted by codes should be ic and dynamic case [12]
taken with a caution.
Recently several analytical studies on seismic
bearing capacity of shallow footing have been qud = c Nc Sc dc ec +q Nq Sqs dq eq + 0.5 a B Na Sa
reported. These studies used limit equilibrium
approach with varous assumptions on the failure d a ea (1)
surface. A plain failure surface shown in Fig. 2
was assummed by Richard et al [11] and equa- Where,
tions and charts were developed to estimate Nc, Nq, Na, are the static bearing capacity fac-
seismic bearing capacity and settlement using tors.
foundation width, depth, soil properties and hori- Sc, Sqs, Sa are static shape factors.
zontal and vertical acceleration components. This dc, dq, da are static depth factors
approach is used for simplicity although the as- ec , eq and ea are the seismic factors estimated
sumption of a plane failure surface may not be using following equations
realistic.
c
e exp 4.3k l D h (2)
where,
Kh and Kv are the horizontal and vertical accel-
eration coefficients respectively.
Figure 2. Failure surface in soil for seismic bearing capacity H= depth of the failure zone from the ground
assumed by Richard et al [11] surface and
D= c/ aH
Logarithmic failure surfaces shown in Fig. 3
were assumed by Budhu and Al-karni [12] to de-
termine the seismic bearing capacity of soils.
They suggested modifications to the equations
796 S. Prakash and V.K. Puri / Foundations Under Seismic Loads
0.5B §S ·
H exp¨ tanI ¸ D f
§S I · ©2 ¹
cos¨ ¸
© 4 2¹ (5)
(a) Ncd
(b) Nqd
S. Prakash and V.K. Puri / Foundations Under Seismic Loads 797
3 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS IN
LIQUEFIABLE SOILS
ABSTRACT
It contains the strategy of foundation arrangement on the artificial firm foundation soil base effected by dynamic loading due to
the Site earthquake activity. The measures implemented ensure adequate foundation-base interaction as well as geotechnical and
structural safety along with reduction of the seismic loading for the facilities (in particular, pre-heater) by no less than 1 point.
RÉSUMÉ
On a exposé une conception de l’aménagement des fondations sur les basements solides artificiels de sol, soumis aux effets
dynamiques ensuite de l’activité séismique du territoire du chantier. Les mesures introduites assurent l’interaction adéquate du
basement et des fondations, et aussi la sécurité géotechnique et constructive avec l’abaissement des activités séismiques sur les
unités, notamment, sur la construction de échangeur de chaleur, pas moins d’un point.
Key words: Cement Plant, Facilities foundations, artificial firm foundation soils, dynamic loading, earthquake isolation.
times; peak energy of non-elastic deformations - shown that the most obtainable effective ways of
by ~10 times; system acceleration - by ~1.4 partial compensation of horizontal loads are the
times. Hysteresis absorption of the earthquake arrangement of a protective screens around
vibration energy occurs due to retardation of buildings which due to the their material proper-
body reaction from the matters caused it. ties and shapes reflect and absorb the earthquake
Effectiveness of using any foundation type excitation energy. Passing seismic waves arising
aiming at reduction of the horizontal dynamic from the inner sides of screens are insignificantly
component (vector) of the earthquake effect is quenched within the soil body, located between a
clearly illustrated on the diagram on Fig.2 (ac- screen and building foundation, and, reaching the
cording to S. Naaseh & E. Elsesser’s (USA ) in- foundation, effect on it in the form of lateral dy-
vestigations, where the building response with namic pressure, sometimes leading to destructive
“fixed foundation” (without earthquake protec- consequences >8@.
tion measures) and with “isolated foundation”
(with earthquake protection measures) is speci-
fied).
Springs - viscodamper
Rubber-metal dampers
Hysteresis dampers
Spring dampers
Parameters
4 COMPUTATIONAL INVESTIGATION
FINDINGS
Stability criterion,
saf
No.
5 RECOMMENDATIONS TO
CONSTRUCTION
Slab foun-
40 { 34 0.9 <
1 dation Computational investigation of the activities for
Slab foun- seismic isolation of the foundations and earth-
dation with quake resistance of the building frame has been
contour an- 40 { 34 13.5 >> >1,2@
2 run using Scad 11.3 (SCAD Group, Kiev;
chor of fric-
tion http://www.scadgroup.com; Conformity certifi-
cate ROSS RU.SP.11.H00083). The options of
Slab foun- the initial data for the spatial calculations of
47 { 45 1.67 >
3 dation
“base-foundation-frame” system included con-
secutively examined structural solutions for seis-
joint (±Fx.joint) after foundation shift mic isolation of foundation, namely: arrangement
±Fx.==72920kN > ±Fx.joint=19440kN; of a screen; arrangement of a sliding joint (a
x reduction of the average strain beneath damper of dry friction); setting of contour an-
foundation underside up to the design val- chors of friction (Ø800mm with a buried part of
ue; ~17m, 42 pcs. in number); arrangement of the
x partial compensation of the vertical vector vertical stiffening diaphragms along the whole
of the earthquake effect due to hysteresis height of a building, etc. These measures were
804 G.R. Rozenvasser et al. / Protection of the Cement Plant Facilities Foundations
aimed at making a foundation “isolated” against Fig. 6. Building deformation in case of an earthquake: a
earthquake effects and comparison with the ini- without seismic isolation («fixed foundation»); b – with
seismic isolation («isolated foundation»).
tial “fixed foundation”.
Based on the animations (Fig.6) integrally
displaying system behavior, when effected by
6 CONCLUSIONS
seismic loads, the following was considered ex-
pedient:
The measures developed for seismic isolation of
x arrangement of variable rigidity dia-
the foundations on the artificial rigid base ensure
phragms along the whole height of a build-
retaining of the initial General Layout with si-
ing allowing to reduce the strains within
multaneous reduction of earthquake effect on it
the frame elements and as a consequence,
up to Jd7 scores.
to simplify designing of frame units;
The present development is deemed to be an
x arrangement of a sliding joint with alternative one and is being studied by the de-
ffrict.f=0.15 between foundation underside signers and civil engineers for further implemen-
and concrete bedding - topographic layer tation.
ensuring the reduction of a horizontal vec-
tor of the earthquake effect;
x setting of contour anchors of friction with REFERENCES
hysteresis properties ensuring reduction of
a vertical vector of the earthquake effect [1] DBN V.1.2-5:2007, Scientific and technical support of
and the structural stability with reduction of the construction units, Ministry of Regional Construc-
the vibration period and building tilt; tion of Ukraine, Kiev, 2007.
[2] DBN V.1.1-12:2006, Construction in the earthquake
x arrangement of ground-cement piles elimi- areas of Ukraine, Ministry of Construction of Ukraine,
nating base subsidence and improving av- Kiev, 2006.
erage weighted modulus of deformation. [3] DBN V.1.2-2:2006, Loads and stresses, Ministry of
a) b) Construction of Ukraine, Kiev, 2006.
[4] EUROCODE 8, Earthquake Resistant Design of Struc-
tures, CEN, 1993.
[5] DBN V.1.1-5-2000, Buildings and structures on the
undermined territories and subsiding soils, State com-
mittee of construction of Ukraine, Kiev, 2000.
[6] V.I. Smirnov, New effective systems of the earthquake
protection of structures and innovative technologies,
TsNIISK, Moscow, 2008.
[7] V.L. Kharlanov, Computational investigation of seismic
isolation systems, Internet-Bulletin VolgGASU, Volgo-
grad, 2008.
[8] V.Yu. Nemchinov, Earthquake resistance of buildings
and structures, NIISK, Kiev, 2008.
[9] K.S. Abdurashidov, Ya.M. Aizenberg and others,
Earthquake resistance of buildings, Nauka, Moscow,
1989.
[10] E.A. Sorochan, Yu.G. Trofimenkov, Bases, foundations
and substructures, Designer handbook, Stroiizdat,
Moscow, 1985.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 805
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-805
ABSTRACT
The layout of the Thessaloniki Metro (Basic Line) involves the construction of a crossover station. The whole area for this is ap-
proximately 19x102m. Due to the given geometry and high water table in the adjacent ground, permanent uplift piles were re-
quired to ensure a sufficient safety against buoyancy. These uplift piles had to be installed on a level of approximately -31m
from the surface. In that depth the soil conditions are described as stiff, sandy Clay with gravel.
Before the commencement of the project, test micropiles had to be executed; they were successfully tested in respect to creeping
issues and to a well-defined loading programme. Each micropile had a length of 15.2m; a ribbed steel tube with a very high steel
grade was used. Two drilling rigs were utilised for the whole site working 24 hours a day. In total, 468 micropiles were con-
structed in approximately 2 weeks and subsequent tests on 20 of them were completed successfully. In the current paper, it is
presented a general overview of the project along with the major details about its execution and the quality control that had to be
followed.
RÉSUMÉ
La disposition du métro de Thessalonique prévoit la construction d’une station de croisement. Toute la zone est d’environ
19x102 m. Grâce à la géométrie et la nappe phréatique élevée dans le sol adjacent, des tas permanents de soulèvement ont été
nécessaires pour assurer une résistivité suffisante à la sous-pression. Ces tas de soulèvement ont dû être installé sur un niveau
d'environ -31m de la surface. Dans cette profondeur, le sol est décrit comme d’argile rigide et sableuse avec des graviers.
Avant le début du projet, des micropieux d'essai ont dû être construits. Ils ont été testés avec succès à l’égard de fluage et par
un programme de charge bien défini. Chaque micropieu avait une longueur de 15,2 m, et un tube en acier nervuré de très haute
qualité a été utilisé. Deux installations de forage Keller ont été utilisées pour l'ensemble du site en travaillant 24 heures par jour.
Au total, 468 micropieux ont été construits dans environ 2 semaines, et des essais subséquents sur 20 d'entre eux ont été
complétés avec succès.
Keywords: Micropiles, buoyancy, tunneling, underground structures, Metro, station, drilling, grouting, load test, reinforcement,
uplift
1
Corresponding Author.
806 R. Thurner et al. / Execution of Micropiles in an Underground Metro Station Against Buoyancy
construction of the diaphragm walls with a diaphragm walls and used to ensure a temporary
thickness of 1.2m the top concrete plate was con- water table approximately 1m below the working
structed. With a sequential excavation and rein- platform of the uplift pile execution.
forced concrete slabs (3 levels) construction, a In the following chapters a description of the
final excavation depth of approximately 31m be- implementation of the geotechnical project for
low the surface was reached. Between the lowest the uplift piles will be given. The works had to
slab and the foundation slab a temporary steel be done in a limited working platform, under
strutting was installed. time pressure and a detailed and comprehensive
quality control programme.
In the plan view the crossover station meas- 2.2 Design Issues
ures 19.5x 102m which gives an area of ap-
Apart from the execution, Keller provided sup-
proximately 1990m². Due to the given geometry
port in the Project Design and presented the cur
x Diameter ds: 88.3 mm all drilling tools were brought down by crane
x Cross section: 1,950mm² into the excavation pit (Figure 3).
x Chosen grid: 1.50 x 2.08m
x Grid area: 3.12m²
x Number of piles: 468 pieces
x Load per pile Rd1:1,200kN
x Pile length: 15.2m where 1.0m was embed-
ded in the foundation slab.
x Thickness of soil layer contributing to the
resistance against uplift: 14.0m
Time
Figure 8. Loading-unloading cycles graph acc. to EA Pfähle
2007 [3]
Figure 6. Reinforcement installation The values recorded during pile tests were:
x Pressure of the pump
2.3.5 Test of the trial micropiles x Displacements on the pile head
The pile tests were performed according to EA x Control measurements for the level of the
Pfähle 2007 [3]. After 10 days of the pile instal- measurement beam
lation, the pile test could be done. The typical x Weather and temperature
layout of the trial test is shown in figure 7 x Involved people on site (foreman, respon-
where it was utilized a hydraulic jack and pump, sible engineer)
a manometer and two precise analog dial gauges x Possible deviations from the schedule and
mounted on a steel profile. reasons of any deviation.
R. Thurner et al. / Execution of Micropiles in an Underground Metro Station Against Buoyancy 809
67
7
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Figure 9. Load – displacement diagram Figure 11. Execution of main micropile works
67
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-
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REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
In the research conducted by the authors, the performance of piled raft foundations in comparison with raft foundations and con-
ventional pile foundations under vertical and horizontal loading is analysed by means of PLAXIS 3D finite element program,
which is a rigorous computer-based analysis method. In this context, total settlements, differential settlements and bending mo-
ments on the raft are examined. In conclusion, it has been found that in hard soils, especially under combination of vertical and
lateral loads, piled raft foundations provide the most economical design within adequate margin of safety.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans la recherche menée par les auteurs, le rendement des fondations radier sur pieux en comparaison avec des fondations sur
radier et des fondations sur pieux classiques sous un chargement vertical et horizontal est analysé au moyen de l'élément de pro-
gramme PLAXIS 3D finis, qui est une méthode rigoureuse d'analyse assistée par ordinateur. Dans ce contexte, l’établissement
total, les tassements différentiels et des moments de flexion sur le radeau sont examinés. En conclusion, il a été constaté que
dans les argiles fort, surtout sous la combinaison des charges verticales et latérales, empilés radiers fournir la conception la plus
économique au sein de marge de sécurité adéquate.
Keywords: Piled raft foundations, raft foundations, lateral loading, finite element method, PLAXIS
1
Corresponding Author.
812 A. Yalcin Dayioglu and M. Incecik / Performance Analysis of Piled Raft Foundations
Table 1. Soil and Material Parameters foundation system of the building is modeled as
Parameters Soil Piles Raft a piled raft foundation at the second step. A
Material mode Mohr- Embedded Linear Elastic cross-section and plan view of piled raft founda-
Coulomb Pile tion is given in Figure 4, three dimensional finite
γn (kN/m3) 18 24 24 element mesh of the system is shown in Figure 5.
E (kN/m2) 2.5x104 3x107 3x107
ΔE (kN/m2) 500 - -
υ 0.3 0.2 0.2
ϕ (°) 28 - -
c (kPa) 20 - -
2 2’ crossection
1-1’ crossection
1-1’ crossection
by 4.0 m spacings and 25.0 m long are located 3.3 Pile Foundation
under the core zone. As for the outer zone, piles
In order to investigate the contribution of the raft
with 15.0 meter long and 5.0 m by 4.0 m spac-
in the piled raft foundation, the foundation sys-
ings in the middle and 8.0 m spacings on the
tem of the building is modeled as a pile group.
edges are placed.
Cross-Section 2-2'
Distance From Center (m)
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
0,0
-60,0
-80,0
-100,0
-120,0
-140,0
-160,0
Figure 7. Settlement of raft and piled raft foundation(CS2-2’)
Figure 5. Finite element mesh of the piled raft foundation
system.
Cross-Section 2-2'
Comparing the results of raft foundation and Lateral Displacement (mm)
15
piled raft foundation, it is obvious that both total
and differential settlements, lateral displacements Piled Raft
10
Piled Raft
-20,0 0
Vertical Displacement (mm)
Raft
-40,0 -1.000
-60,0 -2.000
-80,0 -3.000
-100,0 -4.000
Piled Raft
-140,0 -6.000
Figure 9. Bending moments of raft and piled raft founda-
-160,0 tion(CS1-1’)
Figure 6. Settlement of raft and piled raft foundation(CS1-1’)
A. Yalcin Dayioglu and M. Incecik / Performance Analysis of Piled Raft Foundations 815
2-2’ crossection
Vertical Displace- 149.0 89.0 81.0 60.5 A
ment, uy (mm)
Lateral Displace- 21.8 21.4 17.2 16.7
ment, ux (mm)
Bending Moment 5400 -150 2160 -170 D E
on the Raft
(kNm/m) 1-1’ crossection
4.0 m spacings on the edges are placed. Plan and -0,14 Pile Found.1
Pile Found.2
cross-sectional views of the second alternative -0,16
pile foundation is illustrated on Figure 11. Figure 12. Load-settlement curves on Point A
816 A. Yalcin Dayioglu and M. Incecik / Performance Analysis of Piled Raft Foundations
piles significantly.
-0,04
The results of analyses indicate that piled raft
-0,06
foundation decreases settlements, horizontal dis-
-0,08
Raf t
placements and bending moments on the raft at
-0,10 Piled Raf t significant levels in comparison with raft founda-
-0,12
Pile Found.1 tions. Besides, in the conventional pile founda-
Pile Found.2
tion where it is assumed that all loads are taken
-0,14
by piles, failure has occurred in the same pile
Figure 13. Load-settlement curves on Point B
configuration as piled raft foundation, same su-
Point E perstructure loads and subsoil conditions before
Load(kN) 100% of load is activated. Nevertheless, the most
0 20.000 40.000 60.000 80.000 100.000 120.000 economical alternative pile foundation that may
0,00
carry the loads without failure has a total pile
-0,02 length of 545 m which is %35 longer than piled
raft foundation. This proves that in reality, pile
Settlement (m)
-0,04
cap has major contribution on the load sharing.
-0,06 As a result it is found out that especially in high-
Raf t
rise buildings, design of foundation system as
-0,08
Piled Raf t piled raft should provide safe and economical so-
-0,10
Pile Found.1
Pile Found.2
lutions.
-0,12
ABSTRACT
As part of the French National research project SOLCYP, numerical modelling with the software SCARP has been carried out to
simulate the behaviour of a full scale driven pile into normally consolidated clay and submitted to axial cyclic loading.
This paper presents some comparisons between numerical simulations and experimental results with a focus given on the evolu-
tion of pile head displacement and shaft friction degradation along the pile wall. The role of the cycle amplitude and of the num-
ber of cycles is also highlighted.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans le cadre du projet national français de recherche SOLCYP (SOLlicitations CYcliques sur les Pieux), une modélisation nu-
mérique à l’aide du logiciel SCARP a été effectuée afin de simuler le comportement d’un pieu isolé instrumenté soumis à des
chargements cycliques axiaux. Le pieu est battu dans une argile normalement consolidée. Cette communication présente une
comparaison entre les résultats de calcul et les résultats expérimentaux en termes d’accumulation des déplacements en tête et
d’évolution du frottement latéral le long du pieu. Elle montre aussi l’influence de l’amplitude cyclique et du nombre de cycles
sur les résultats.
1
Corresponding Author.
820 O. Benzaria et al. / Étude expérimentale et numérique du comportement d’un pieu isolé
gradation de la capacité du pieu par le modèle de Les facteurs de dégradation pour le frottement
Matlock et Foo [3]. latéral, la résistance de pointe et le module de sol
Dans cette communication, on présente une sont dénotés respectivement : D, Db et DE.
étude comparative entre les résultats obtenus à La détermination de ces facteurs de dégrada-
l’aide du programme de calcul et les résultats tion peut être effectuée par deux approches diffé-
d’essais de chargements cycliques sur un pieu rentes :
instrumenté, effectués dans les années 80 par l'approche adoptée par Matlock et Foo [3]
l’Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP) sur un site qui suppose que la dégradation cyclique en
d’argile molle normalement consolidée [6]. un point sur le pieu se produit seulement
La comparaison porte plus précisément sur s'il y a génération de déformation plastique
l’accumulation des déplacements en tête de pieu en ce point;
et sur l’évolution du frottement latéral le long du l'approche du " déplacement cyclique" dans
pieu. Elle montre l’influence de l’amplitude cy- laquelle les facteurs de dégradation dépen-
clique et du nombre de cycles sur les résultats. dent du déplacement cyclique du pieu.
C’est la première approche qui est utilisée
dans cette étude où le facteur de dégradation
2 DESCRIPTION DU LOGICIEL SCARP pour le frottement latéral D est exprimé par :
D
propriété après le chargement cyclique S p BN m e nX (2), [2]
propriété pour le chargement statique
avec
B : déplacement permanent correspondant à la
charge minimale du premier cycle.
O. Benzaria et al. / Étude expérimentale et numérique du comportement d’un pieu isolé 821
4.1.2 La résistance au cisaillement par l’existence d’une phase de fluage, non prise
La résistance au cisaillement Cu pour chaque en compte dans le modèle, et qui se traduit par
couche a été déterminée en considérant les résul- une accélération des déplacements de la tête du
tats d’essais au scissomètre de chantier et pieu aux charges élevées.
d’essais triaxiaux sur échantillons prélevés au ca-
rottier à tube mince poussé. 4.2 Essai de chargement cyclique en tension
Ensuite, pour chaque couche, le frottement On présente ici les résultats des premières sé-
limite est calculé à partir de la relation empirique quences cycliques appliquées au pieu.
proposée par l’API RP2A [1] :
4.2.1 Les essais cycliques Type C
f .Cu (4) Les premiers essais cycliques effectués sur le
pieu de CRAN sont présentés dans le tableau 2.
avec Ces essais ont été appliqués pendant 1000
Ò
!¨
ª
¬
r- cycles avec une fréquence de f = 0,07 Hz et une
tir des équations suivantes : charge moyenne Vm et amplitude cyclique Vc
Cu (Vmax =Vm +Vc).
s ) 0,5
0,5s 0,5 si 'V 0
s k 0,5 Tableau 2. Caractéristiques des premiers essais cycliques ef-
0,5s 0, 25 si fectués sur le pieu expérimental de CRAN
Essais Vm (kN) Vc (kN) Vmax / Vrt
4.1.3 Pieu de CRAN
C1-1 63 21 0,35
L’essai statique de référence pour le pieu de C1-2 63 42 0,44
CRAN est l’essai S3. Cet essai montre que le C2-2 84 21 0,53
pieu à une capacité en traction Vrt = 240 kN.
La figure 1 illustre une comparaison entre les Les figures 2 et 3 illustrent une comparaison
mesures et la modélisation de l’essai à l’aide du entre les frottements latéraux statiques et les frot-
logiciel de SCARP. tements maximaux cycliques mesurés et modéli-
sés par SCARP pour les tronçons supérieur l (0-
2m) et inférieur (13-17m).
On remarque que le frottement latéral mesuré,
sur le tronçon supérieur du pieu (figure 2) dimi-
nue avec le nombre de cycles. Les calculs
SCARP montrent les mêmes tendances mais ac-
centuent les phénomènes.
Dans le tronçon inférieur (figure 3), la valeur
mobilisée du frottement latéral reste constante
lorsque le nombre de cycles augmente (N = 10 à
1000) mais une accumulation de déplacement
apparaît traduisant une diminution du module en
fonction des cycles.
Figure 1. Comparaison d’un essai de chargement statique S3 Dans le cas de la couche superficielle, le frot-
sur le pieu de CRAN et une simulation SCARP. tement maximum (statique) a été atteint à la
première montée en charge. Une fois que cette
La courbe théorique est en assez bonne con- valeur maximale est atteinte, le frottement ne
cordance avec la courbe expérimentale malgré peut que se dégrader en fonction des cycles. En
une légère différence de comportement à la fin revanche, dans la couche inférieure, le frottement
de l’essai. Cette différence peut être expliquée mobilisé est très inférieur au frottement maxi-
O. Benzaria et al. / Étude expérimentale et numérique du comportement d’un pieu isolé 823
mum mobilisable. La dégradation du frottement rée lors de l’essai T2-1 et celle calculée à l’aide
dans les couches supérieures entraîne un report de SCARP. La concordance entre les deux ap-
de charges vers le bas du pieu. Dans un premier proches est satisfaisante malgré un écart entre les
temps, le frottement dans le tronçon inférieur deux états initiaux. Cet écart peut être dû à
augmente avec la sévérité du chargement (figure l’histoire du chargement du pieu testé qui avait
3, N = 10) mais la mobilisation du frottement est déjà subi plusieurs séquences de chargement
toujours décrite par la courbe statique. Cette va- alors que, dans le calcul, on a considéré que le
leur se maintient dans la suite de l’essai alors que pieu n’avait subi aucun chargement avant cet es-
les déplacements locaux du pieu croissent légè- sai tempête.
rement avec le nombre de cycles traduisant une
baisse de la raideur locale (Figure 3, N=1000). 30
2
1 1
3 3 2 3
N=10 15
2.5
10 Essai-S3
2 3 1- C1-1
1 2 2- C1-2 SCARP-S3
1.5 1-C1-1 5 3- C2-2 Essais-cyc
2-C1-2 Essai-S3
1 SCARP-cyc
3-C2-2 SCARP-S3 0
0.5 Essais-cyc
SCARP-cyc 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frottement latéral (kPa)
25
4 N=1000
3.5 20
Frottement latéral (kPa)
3 1 2
15
2.5
3 N=1000 3
1 2 3
10 1- C1-1 Essai-S3
2 SCARP-S3
1 2 2- C1-2
1.5 5 Essais-cyc
1- C1-1 Essai-S3 3- C2-2
SCARP-cyc
1 2- C1-2 SCARP-S3
Essais-cyc 0
3- C2-2
0.5 SCARP-cyc 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0 Déplacement max (mm)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Déplacement max (mm) Figure 3 : Courbes t-z statiques et cycliques (C1-2 ; C1-1 ;
C2-2) pour le tronçon inférieur (13-17m) du pieu de CRAN.
Figure 2 : Courbes t-z statiques et cycliques (C1-2 ; C1-1;
C2-2) pour le tronçon supérieur (0-2m) du pieu de CRAN.
5 CONCLUSION
Le logiciel SCARP permet de modéliser assez
fidèlement les phénomènes observés lors des es- L’objet de cette communication est de confronter
sais cycliques de type C mais avec une légère les résultats d’essais de chargement cycliques
amplification. axiaux effectués sur un pieu réel instrumenté à
ceux d’une modélisation numérique à l’aide du
4.2.2 Les essais cycliques de type T logiciel SCARP.
La figure 4 illustre une comparaison entre L’étude montre que le chargement cyclique
l’évolution du déplacement en tête du pieu mesu- axial engendre une accumulation de déplacement
en tête de pieu, résultant d’une dégradation du
824 O. Benzaria et al. / Étude expérimentale et numérique du comportement d’un pieu isolé
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T.M. Carrington et al. / A New Assessment of Ultimate Unit Friction for Driven Piles 829
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 831
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-831
ABSTRACT
Axial load tests performed during the construction of the deep foundations have demonstrated the significant effect of the pile
penetration into the degraded bedrock for both end bearing and skin friction capacities.
RÉSUMÉ
Pour les constructions avec foundations profunds les testes de capacité portante ont mis en evidence l’effect de la penetration des
pieux dans la roche degradée pour la resistence en base et aussi pour la resistence latterale.
Keywords: pile, displacement, applied load, penetration into the bedrock, toe bearing capacity, skin friction bearing capacity.
1
Corresponding Author.
832 R. Ciortan et al. / Interpretation of Axial Load Tests for Bored Piles Penetrating Soft Rocks
above it, the piles were executed by penetrating 2.1 Test for Commercial Complex Constanta
this layer.
A bored pile of 0,80m in diameter and length
Based on Romanian standards, test piles are
of 17m has been tested. Piles of 1,2m in diameter
required for verifying the pile bearing capacity as
and length of 20m (Fig.2) were used as reaction
a function of the measured displacement.
piles. All piles were constucted by the dry me-
Table 1 shows the testing requirements ac-
thod.
cording to NP-123/2010 “Standards for geotech-
nical design of pile foundations”.
Minimum no. of test piles according to the load
No. of type
piles of the
Axial load
construction / Lateral
area Ten-
Compression load
sion
1...20 1 1 1
21...100 2 2 2
101...200 3 2 2
3+one pile for
H every 100 piles over 2 2
200
Table 1. Testing requirement according to NP-123/2010
ries of strain gauges installed along the longitu- The toe and top of the pile having total length
dinal reinforcement (Fig.4 and Fig.5). of 1,25m have not been taken into consideration
for calculation. The measured values lead to a
friction force of 4,934KN and thus the remaining
686KN are supported by the pile’s toe. Hence,
end bearing constitutes 12.2% of the applied load
value.
3 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
2.4 Test for a bridge
Table 2 and Figure 8 summarize results asso-
Bored piles of 1,5m in diameter and 37m in ciated with the aforementioned pile load tests.
length were tested for the construction of a
bridge (Fig. 6). Bentonite slurry was used for ex-
cavation support.
R. Ciortan et al. / Interpretation of Axial Load Tests for Bored Piles Penetrating Soft Rocks 835
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
A new method for the evaluation of the ultimate limit load of piles by tests not carried to failure is proposed. By a proper use of
experimental results, it allows for a complete analysis of piles behaviour. In fact, the total, shaft and base load-settlement curves
can be evaluated. It can be applied when shaft friction is fully mobilized during the test.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article propose une méthode pour évaluer la charge limite des pieux par des essais qui n’atteignent pas la rupture. La
méthode permet, grâce à une opportune élaboration des résultats expérimentaux, une analyse complète du comportement des
pieux. Les relations entre la charge (totale, latérale ou à la base) et le déplacement peuvent aussi être évaluées. La méthode peut
être appliquée si la résistance latérale est totalement mobilisée.
1 INTRODUCTION base loads and the low strain modulus can vary
in wide ranges (see [3]). Potential errors in the
Few methods have been proposed in order to de- total ultimate load determination are rather mod-
duce the shaft and base performance of a single erate if the maximum axial load applied during
pile by load tests. the test is greater than 75% of the failure one. In
One of the most famous methods for single this case recourse to the approach proposed by
pile settlement prediction and analysis is the one Chin ([4], [5]) is to be preferred because of its
proposed by Fleming ([1], [2]). It is based on the simplicity.
use of hyperbolic functions to describe individual Dalerci ([7]) formulated a method able to pro-
shaft and base load - head settlement perform- vide the ultimate shaft load and the soil Young’s
ance. The method provides useful indications modulus. These values are deduced by represent-
about soil Young’s modulus at low strains. The ing the settlement/load values as a function of
method is quite simple but it introduces many pa- settlements and interpolating the data by means
rameters and it does not provide a unique solu- of a linear plot. Application of this method to-
tion. The calculated values of ultimate shaft and gether with the Chin’s one provides complete in-
1
Corresponding Author.
838 G. Dalerci and R. Bovolenta / A New Method for the Evaluation of the Ultimate Load of Piles
formation about the pile performance (see [3]). a rigid plate) and along the shaft (see Table 1 for
Dalerci & Bovolenta (see [6]) proposed a new constant stresses along the shaft);
method in order to estimate the ultimate shaft [ = coefficient depending on the shaft shear
load and the soil Young’s modulus. This ap- stresses ([ = 0.5 for constant shear stresses along
proach allows a simple interpretation of full- the shaft).
scale pile tests. It can be applied when shaft fric-
tion is fully mobilized. Table 1. Ib for a rigid base and Is for constant shear stresses
A new procedure is described here for the
L/D Qsoil = 0.2 Qsoil = 0.3 Qsoil = 0.4 Qsoil = 0.5
evaluation of the ultimate load by tests not car- Ib
ried to failure. Its adoption together with the me- 5 0.4676 0.4990 0.5289 0.5476
thod proposed by Dalerci & Bovolenta [6] allows 10 0.4487 0.4791 0.5075 0.5238
a complete analysis of the single pile behavior. 25 0.4373 0.4672 0.4947 0.5095
The calculated shaft and base load values, repre- 50 0.4335 0.4632 0.4904 0.5048
Is
sented as functions of the pile head settlement, 5 0.1589 0.1721 0.1918 0.2188
are not necessarily hyperbolic. 10 0.0924 0.1019 0.1144 0.1315
25 0.0443 0.0491 0.0556 0.0643
50 0.0249 0.0277 0.0314 0.0366
ws Is
1 Q
2
soil
(3)
haviour of the system below the ultimate shaft
load, 1-2 (1’-2’ in the ideal case) load transfer to
D E soil
the base, while 2-3 identifies the pile collapse.
L The line 1’-2’ crosses the axes in D/Qsu and E,
eb (4)
EA being D = (E)/(E - ). When E is known, the val-
ue of Esoil can be obtained and then the ultimate
L
es [ (5) shaft load Qsu can be estimated.
EA
Qb ; Qs = base and shaft load; 0 1/Qu D/Q su 1/Q 0 1/Qu 1/Qcr D/Q su 1/Q
D ; Db= shaft and base diameter of the pile; E E
L = lenght of the pile; 1 0 1’ 0
Esoil ; E = soil and pile Young’s modulus; 2 2’
Qsoil = soil Poisson’s ratio; E E
A = cross sectional area; 3 3
Ib ; Is = influence factors, depending on L/D, s/Q s/Q
In the procedure proposed by Dalerci [7], the load value can be obtained assuming in
line 1’-2’ was defined by interpolation of the order to satisfy the (15).
measured values of s/Q and 1/Q and then Esoil The minimum value of the ultimate shaft load
and Qsu were estimated. Observing Figure 1: is deduced for = min. This assumption, which is
§ s· Q the same as assuming that the pile is rigid, can be
¨ ¸ E s E J E0 (9) too precautionary, and the alternative assumption
© ¹ 0 1
Q Q
of ws = 0 would be more reasonable. The value
In the range 0-1, the ratio Qs/Q is lower than 1 of is determined in order to have = es. The
and in the ideal case (in Figure 1 on the left) it is maximum value of the ultimate shaft load is eva-
constant. Then the ultimate shaft and base loads luated for = 1.
can be determined: The procedure briefly illustrated, allows one
Qs to determine E and consequently Esoil in a well
G (10) defined way. The evaluation of the ultimate shaft
Q
load Qsu is more discretionary because of the in-
E G E J E0 (11) fluence of the compatibility criterion adopted.
Nonetheless, as Qsu varies in a narrow range, the
E E0 E 0 E 1 G average value can be already representative.
J E (12)
G G Qlat /Q=d elta 0.9872 0.9872
wL+eL=gamma 0.02358 [mm/t] 0.02358
QE s
[mm] [MN]Total
[MN]Load
% %
unto n°. s Qlat Qbas e s /D Q/Qu
12 -31.30
Shaft0.642
3.114
Load
0.486 6.5 85.7
Qs (13) 13
14
-39.30
-54.00
3.258
3.258 0.942
8.2
11.2
92.9
100.0
E1
E J
Base Load
e B= 0.0784612 [mm/t] Ok
Et= 217.9159 [kg/cmq]
E*
[mm] [t] [t] [t] [mm/t] % %
Step n° s Qtot Qlat Qb ase s/Q s/D Q/Qu
Load
(14) 2
3
4
-2.20
-3.50
-5.10
61.16
91.74
122.32
59.50
88.82
117.48
1.66
2.92
4.85
-0.03597
-0.03815
-0.04169
0.5
0.7
1.1
14.3
21.4
28.6
5
6
-6.90
-9.10
152.91
183.49
145.70
173.04
7.21
10.44
-0.04513
-0.04960
1.4
1.9 E 35.7
1
42.9
7 -11.30 214.07 200.39 13.68 -0.05279 2.3 50.0
Head Settlement
92.9
100.0
E 0 E 1 G Head Settlement
J t es [ eb (15)
G Figure 3. Influence of the variation of G and choice of G
When = 0 the value of has a minimum:
E0 influences the shape of the shaft load - head
G min 1 (16) settlement curve, especially in the second part
E
(Figure 2). has to be chosen in order to have a
The procedure can be summarised in the fol- curve with an initial increase until the load is
lowing points: transferred to the base and then the shaft load is
x a value of is chosen, for instance 0.95. constant. , whose variability is quite low, influ-
x is determined in order to obtain a shaft ences the first part of the shaft and base load -
load – head settlement curve whose shape head settlement curves (Figure 3). Since repre-
is rather hyperbolic or elasto-plastic. When sents the quota of load which is along the shaft,
E is known, the value of eb can be calcu- is fixed in order to avoid a hardening base load –
lated and then Esoil can be deduced. head settlement curve.
x The shaft load curve and the ultimate shaft The hardening behaviour is obtained for
840 G. Dalerci and R. Bovolenta / A New Method for the Evaluation of the Ultimate Load of Piles
< min , while for = 1 the base load increases s0 = sb + sEb + sEs (20)
starting from the settlement corresponding to at- s0 = pile head settlement (assuming ws = 0);
tainment of ultimate shaft load. can not assume sEb= pile elastic shortening caused by Qb;
negative values. Hardening behaviour has been sEs = pile elastic shortening caused by Qs;
noticed in some of the loading tests analysed. sEb and sEs can be evaluated knowing the soil
This confirms that the base load values, repre- features and how the loads are transferred. As-
sented as a function of the pile head settlement, suming the pile as a column subjected to an axial
are not necessarily hyperbolic. load reaching the base, sEb can be estimated by
the (21). The pile elastic shortening caused by Qs
2.2 Evaluation of the ultimate load can be determined by the (22).
The analysis of the pile behaviour can be devel- L
sEb Qb eb Qb (21)
oped by the proposed method, which starts from EA
the following assumptions:
L
sav sEs Qs [ Qs [ eb Qs es (22)
Qs Qsu (17) EA
sav cr sav
Where [ is the already mentioned coefficient
sb depending on the shaft shear stresses W It can
Qb Qbu (18)
sbcr sb vary from 0.2 to 0.66 (Figure 5) in relation to the
pile and soil type and the boundary conditions.
Qs
Qsu
sav cr sav
Figure 5: Values of ?
Figure 4: Critical settlement
Qsu = ultimate shaft load (approach in 2.1); s0 and sav can be determined by (23) and (24):
Qbu = ultimate base load; s0 sb Qb eb Qs es (23)
sb = settlement at the pile base; s0 sb Q Q
sav = shaft average settlement = (s+sb)/2; sav sb b eb s es (24)
2 2 2
sav cr = critical settlement, which depends on
the pile type and slenderness and the soil fea- sav can be also expressed by (25) :
tures. Experimental results demonstrate that its Q Q
sav sb b eb s [ eb (25)
variability is from 0.0005D to 0.0025D. It can be 2 2
defined graphically (see Figure 4). Introducing for simplicity the parameters spe-
sbcr = base critical settlement. It can be cal- cified in (26), (27) and (28), the value of Qs can
culated by (19): be expressed by the (29):
( 1 Q soil 2 ) I b w A [ eb (26)
sbcr Qbu Qbu b (19)
Ei ,soil Db 3
B 2sav cr 2sb Qb eb Qsu eb [ (27)
Ei,soil = initial Young’s modulus of the soil
beneath pile base. It can be assumed equal to C Qsu 2 sb Qb eb (28)
3Esoil where Esoil is the Young’s modulus ob-
tained by the previously described approach. Qs B B2 4 AC 2A (29)
Neglecting ws, the pile head settlement is giv-
en by equation (20):
G. Dalerci and R. Bovolenta / A New Method for the Evaluation of the Ultimate Load of Piles 841
Head Settlement
Head Settlement
tain a good accordance between measured and
calculated values. The load – head settlement
curve is obtained by the following steps:
x choice of a value of sb;
x calculation of Qb by (18); Figure 8: Influence of the variation of ë
x use of (29) to determine Qs;
x use of (30) to determine the total load Q: 2.3 Performance of piles with prevalent shaft
Q=Qs+Qb (30) resistance
x assessment of the pile settlement by (31):
For the study of the piles with predominant
s0 sb Qb eb Qs [ eb (31) shaft resistance at low load levels (Qb 0 and
Qbuì affects the base and the total load – head = Qs/Q 1) the proposed method can be ap-
settlement curves especially in their second parts plied with the following modifications.
because the gradients are proportional to QbuM When s0 > sav cr the procedure previously pro-
(Figure 6). sav affects the first part of the shaft posed is applicable.
and the total load – head settlement curves, espe- When s0 sav cr , the base settlement and load
cially at the threshold between the elastic and the are neglected (i.e. sb = 0 ; Qb = 0 and conse-
plastic behaviour (Figure 7). ë varies in a narrow quently Qs = Q). In order to define the shaft and
range and affects the first part of the shaft and total load - head settlement curves, a value of the
the total load – head settlement curves (Figure pile head settlement s0 is to be assumed. sav can
8). In general, these parameters have to be cho- be determined by the (32) and Qs by the (33).
sen in order to obtain a satisfactory accordance L
with the test results. sav s0 sEs s0 Qs [ s0 Qs es (32)
EA
Total Load Base Load
savcr s0 Qsu [ eb
Qs
Qbu 2 [ eb
1
ª( savcr s0 Qsu [ eb )2 (33)
2 [ eb ¬
Head Settlement
Head Settlement
Qbu
4 [ eb s0 Qsu @
0.5
Table 2. Data for the pile analysis evaluation of the ultimate load is described. Pro-
EX. Qsu (t) Esoil (t/mm2) Qbu (t) sav cr (mm) ë vided that shaft friction is completely mobilized,
1 743.5 12.310*10-4 370 3.0 0.20 all the adopted parameters can be determined by
2 136.5 15.951*10-4 55 0.1 0.35 back-analysis of tests not carried to failure. The
3 194.0 16.080*10-4 650 2.0 0.70 total, shaft and base load - head settlement
curves can be easy defined properly taking into
Load [t] Load [t]
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
account the pile and the soil type and boundary
0 0 conditions., Implementation and application of
-5
-1 the procedure are very simple. The parameters
-10
are easy to be determined and they vary in nar-
Head Settlement [mm]
Head Settlement [mm]
-2
-15
-3
row ranges. The deduced data may be used to
-20
-25
predict the response of piles of different diameter
-4
-30
and length in the same soils. Good accordance
-5
-35 between measured and calculated values has
-40
-6
Measured Calculated
been verified in a wide range of soils and piles.
Measured Calculated
Qs Qb
Qs Qb
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a parametric study that investigates issues such as the pile diameter, wall thickness, pile-soil resistance
model and hammer type on offshore pile driveability. The research indicates that the model used to calculate the static resistance
to driving (SRD) has a dominant effect on the accuracy of pile driving predictions. The current industry standard API-07 method
suggests that piles of up to 8 m diameter can be driven to a target penetration of 35 m even in very dense sand typically encoun-
tered in the North Sea. In contrast, recent Cone Penetration Test (CPT) design methods indicates much harder driving and sug-
gests a new generation of much higher capacity hammers will be required to install these piles.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article présente une étude paramétrique qui étudie des questions telles que le diamètre du pieu, épaisseur de paroi, modèle de
résistance pile-sol et le type de marteau sur l'agrément de conduite pile offshore. La recherche indique que le modèle utilisé pour
calculer la résistance statique à la conduite (SRD) a un effet dominant sur la précision des prédictions de battage de pieux. La
norme actuelle de l'industrie API-07 méthode suggère que des piles de jusqu'à 8 m de diamètre peut être conduit à un taux de pé-
nétration objectif de 35 m, même dans le sable très dense généralement rencontrés dans la mer du Nord. En revanche, les
dernières méthodes de pénétration au cône d'essai de conception (CPT) indique beaucoup plus difficile de conduire et sug-gère
une nouvelle génération de marteaux plus grande capacité sera nécessaire pour installer ces piles.
1
Corresponding Author.
844 P. Doherty et al. / A Parametric Study on Pile Drivability for Large Diameter Offshore Monopiles
which makes them more competitive than alter- principals used have been adapted from the more
native foundation options. established oil and gas industry. The oil and gas
The lateral loading from wind, waves and cur- industry face the same concerns about pile driva-
rents generate large moments on the structure, bility and use analytical wave equation models to
which requires a large diameter pile to provide predict the pile resistance to driving for a specific
adequate bending stiffness to resist excessive ro- hammer and pile combination at a given site.
tations. As the water depths increase, the result- However, these models also require a semi-
ing moments also increase and monopiles with empirical estimate of the static pile resistance to
diameters in excess of 5m have been used for driving in order to estimate the dynamic resis-
wind farms in water depths of up to 35 m. It is tance. There is considerable uncertainty as to
generally considered that monopiles are not suit- whether these semi-empirical models can be ap-
able to provide adequate support for wind tur- plied to the design of monopiles as the geome-
bines in deeper water conditions because the tries are considerably different. Figure 1 presents
very large pile diameters required are difficult to a comparative plot of pile geometries for nine oil
fabricate, handle and install. This paper ad- or gas platforms installed in the North Sea [1]
dresses one of these concerns by investigating with monopiles supporting operational wind
the factors effecting monopile installation, spe- farms. There is a clear contrast between the two
cifically the predicted driving resistance of very datasets:
large diameter piles. (i) Pile Diameter – The oil and gas platforms
The paper explores the impact of piling ham- are founded on piles with diameters below 2.05
mer, pile geometry, soil density and the model m. All the monopiles have diameters > 3 m.
used to estimate the piles static capacity on the (ii) Pile Slenderness – The pile slenderness ra-
predicted drivability (quantified through the tio (ratio of pile length L, to pile diameter, D)
number of blow-counts required to install a pile). ranges from 20 to 130 for piles used to support
140 oil and gas platforms. Monopiles typically have
L/D ratios between 4 and 8, and therefore have
120 Shell Data much higher rotational stiffness than the slender
piles used in the offshore oil and gas sector.
Slenderness Ratio, L/D
Monopiles
100 Given the extreme difference in scale, there re-
mains considerable uncertainty about extrapolat-
80
ing semi-empirical pile capacity models devel-
60
oped for the petroleum sector to the pile
geometries used by the wind sector [2].
40
20 3 DRIVEABILITY ANALYSIS
0
0 2 4 6
The total resistance of a pile to driving in-
cludes the initial static resistance to driving
Diameter (m)
(SRD), increases in pile capacity due to viscous
Figure 1: Comparison of Pile Geometries used by the Off- rate effects and dynamic increases in capacity
shore Wind and Petroleum Sector due to inertia. In this study, three separate mod-
els were used to calculate SRD. These include
the American Petroleum Institute (API) approach
2 LIMITATIONS OF CURRENT [4] , the Imperial College design method, ICP-05
DRIVEABILITY DESIGN [5] and the University of Western Australia ap-
proach, UWA-05 [6]. Once the SRD was deter-
The offshore wind industry is relatively im- mined it was implemented within a 1-
mature. As a result, the technologies and design
P. Doherty et al. / A Parametric Study on Pile Drivability for Large Diameter Offshore Monopiles 845
Dense
17 10 27 Qse D q
z 0
se z [3]
Dense 18.5 20 27
Qse,L Qse,L 1
qse [4]
L
846 P. Doherty et al. / A Parametric Study on Pile Drivability for Large Diameter Offshore Monopiles
UWA-05 luating pile driveability for hard clay, very dense sand,
15 and rock," 14th Offshore Technology Conference. Hou-
20 ston, Texas, 465-469.
[9] T Alm and L Hamre (2001) "Soil model for pile driva-
25 bility predictions based on CPT interpretation," In Proc.
of the 15th ISSMGE. Istanbul, Turkey, 1297-1302.
30 [10] Experimental investigation of the factors affecting the
base resistance of open-ended piles in sand’.
35 B.M.Lehane & K.G.Gavin. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenviromental Engineering, ASCE Vol. 127, No. 6,
40
June (2001).
Figure 5: Impact of SRD model on pile drivability
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 849
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-849
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H.T. Durgunoglu et al. / Barettes Socketed to Bedrock Assesment of Their Load Capacity 853
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 855
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-855
ABSTRACT
The O-cell bi-directional load testing technique is, in effect, two static load tests performed simultaneously. One test is per-
formed upwards against skin friction and the other concurrent in the downwards direction against combined lower section skin
friction and end-bearing. Many hundred of tests of this type are now being carried out each year around the world, often on the
most prestigious and signature structures. Similarities between traditional top down load testing and the bi-directional testing
method are many, both being full scale static load testing techniques. However, due to the unique nature of the bi-directional
testing method, the standard testing procedures and specifications generally prescribed for traditional top down static load testing
can be improved to take into consideration the positioning of the loading jacks and the unique nature of the testing technique.
The authors have been involved in the preparation of some of the specifications for traditional top-down static loading tests and
also in the formulation of project specific testing programmes to maximise the geotechnical information which can be retrieved
from O-cell bi-directional tests. Some of the well accepted specifications such as ICE SPERW 2007, ASTM D1143D 2007 and
the European pile testing specification and guidelines may be applied directly to bi-directional loading tests. Their appropriate-
ness is reviewed in relation to O-cell bi-directional static load testing to indicate how the maximum geotechnical information
may be obtained by minor modification/improvement to the specifications and how they can be optimised with respect to hard
soils and weak rocks. Loading increments, creep measurements and load cycling are discussed and recommendations for adap-
tion of the conventional standards and specifications are made.
RÉSUMÉ
Le technique d’essai de charge bidirectionnel utilisant la cellule d’O-cell est, en effet, deux essais de charge statique effectués
simultanément. Un test est effectué vers le haut contre la résistance de frottement latéral et la concurrente dans la direction vers
le bas contre la résistance de frottement et de pointe. Plusieurs centaines d’essais de charge de ce type sont actuellement effec-
tués chaque année dans le monde, souvent sur les structures les plus prestigieuses. Ressemblances entre l’essai de charge tradi-
tionnel du haut vers le bas et la méthode d'essai bidirectionnelle sont nombreuses, les deux étant des techniques statiques d’essai
de charge. Toutefois, en raison de la nature unique de la méthode d'essai bidirectionnelle, les procédures d'essai et les spécifica-
tions généralement prescrit pour l’essai de charge statique traditionnel du haut vers le bas peut être amélioré pour prendre en
compte le positionnement des vérins de chargement et de la nature unique de la technique d’essai. Les auteurs ont été impliqués
dans la préparation de certaines des spécifications pour les essais de chargement statique traditionnel et aussi dans la formulation
des programmes de projet plus spécifiques afin d'optimiser l'information géotechnique qui peut être récupéré à partir d'essais de
charge bidirectionnelle utilisant la cellule d’Osterberg. Certaines des spécifications bien acceptées comme ICE SPERW 2007,
ASTM D1143D 2007 et les spécifications européennes d’essais de chargement dans les puits forés et les lignes directrices peu-
vent être appliquées directement à des essais de chargement bidirectionnel. Leur pertinence est examinée en relation avec la cel-
lule de charge bidirectionnelle d’essais statiques d'indiquer comment le maximum d'informations géotechniques peuvent être ob-
tenus par modification mineure ou amélioration des spécifications et la façon dont ils peuvent être optimisés en ce qui concerne
les sols durs et des roches faibles. Les incréments de chargement, les mesures de fluage et de cycles de charge sont discutés et
des recommandations pour l'adaptation des normes conventionnelles et les spécifications sont faites.
1
Corresponding Author.
856 M.G. England and P.F. Cheesman / Optimum Loading Specifications
Keywords: Bi-directional, static load testing, loading schedules, Cemset®, CEMSOLVE®, TIMESET®, O-CELL®
arrangement. Conversely in a top-down test, the placed within the rock socket. Since this test is
test would be limited to when the capacity of the performed in the undrained condition, no consid-
reaction system is reached or the foundation eration is given to creep or long term movements
element is mobilised fully. that may be incurred when testing in softer soils.
ASTM [2] also includes a similar testing specifi-
cation for the fully crept drained condition.
2 INSTRUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS ICE [1] and other codes take the fully crept
In a traditional top down load test, the pile head drained condition as the prime condition for their
and the load applied are the two critical issues to specifications on testing.
record with respect to time. The O-cell bi- When attempting to produce a test specifica-
directional test requires nothing different, only tion that will allow the load displacement behav-
there are two elements being loaded, and their iour to be analysed, it is appropriate to hold each
displacement vs load and time also need to be re- and all load steps according to a consistent set of
corded. It is required to measure the compression rules so that the final displacements can be asso-
of the upper element to determine the movement ciated for each load applied – this can be:
of the top of the loading arrangement at the O- x to hold each load for a fixed duration consis-
cell level, the addition of further telltales to the tently;
toe of the pile and other instrumentation within x to hold each load step until a predetermined
the test piles is common place. Since the loading settlement rate has been achieved; or
is performed within the founding strata of most x hold the load for long enough to be able to
geotechnical interest, fitting strain gauges is also analyse the displacement time behaviour to
a regular occurrence. determine the settlement for each load (this
becomes independent of the manner in which
the testing specification has been scheduled).
3 LOADING INCREMENTS. ICE [1] suggests for a single cycle proof load
test; the load is applied in steps of 25% of the de-
There are two main types of static load test. The sign verification load with a minimum hold time
preliminary test, where the test pile is expendable of 30 minutes and dependant upon creep criteria
and is designed to reveal the geotechnical behav- to 100% design verification load, where the load
iour of the shaft, and a proof test which is under- is held for a 6 hour period. The load is then in-
taken to verify the structural ability of the shaft creased to 100% design verification load + 25%
to meet load settlement criteria. of the specified working load and held for 1
Each of these test types has an associated spe- hour. The final loading stage to 100% + 50%
cific loading schedule in the test specifications. specification load is then held for 6 hours.
ASTM [2] includes a preferred method of the The test may also be performed in two cycles,
‘quick test’ where loads are applied for a mini- the first cycle being loaded to 100% design veri-
mum of 4 minutes and a maximum of 15 minutes fication load then returning to zero before com-
at each stage using the same time interval for all pletion of the second cycle to 100% design veri-
loading steps. This standard has regularly been fication load + 50% specified working load.
adopted directly for bi-directional testing where The merit of doing two cycles of loading
requested and is particularly suitable for tests on should be considered carefully [3], the unloading
working piles where confirmation of structural and reloading load-displacement behaviour does
performance is required and there is no require- not add anything to the understanding nor to the
ment to provide geotechnical information. The information that can be retrieved from the pile
test is performed in the undrained condition and behaviour.
is used to confirm the test shaft is capable of The maximum loading for a preliminary test is
achieving the required test load and will comply not specified in the code and is left to the specific
with load-settlement criteria. This test is espe- project specification to determine but the incre-
cially suitable where the loading assembly is ments to 100% DVL + 50% SWL are the same
858 M.G. England and P.F. Cheesman / Optimum Loading Specifications
with loadings above this value in increments of more of the geotechnical capacity than traditional
25% SWL until the desired maximum loading. top-down loading. Further, the top-down loading
The increment size and holding times of these is often limited to 150% of the working load for
load steps are specifically designed for applica- structural reasons, but because a bi-directional
tion of the load at the top of the foundation ele- loads in two directions, the structural stresses are
ment. The ICE specification takes into considera- only half and a proof loading bi-directional test
tion that the end bearing would not be mobilised can reasonably be applied to 300% of the work-
in the early stages of the testing and that the load ing load.
would take time to be applied fully at the bearing It is considered that 10 to 12 steps can pro-
strata. One issue associated with such time peri- duce sufficient data to assist in the analysis of the
ods is, that at lower loads, pile movements rap- results for the interpretation of embedded strain
idly approach stability but as the loading in- gauges using tangent stiffness modulus [6]. The
creases, stability is more difficult to achieve increments need to be of a sufficient size to dis-
within a given timeframe [3]. When the shaft tinguish the load steps and allow discrete data
friction is fully mobilised and the end bearing points to be plotted. It is recommended that bi-
dominates the load-displacement behaviour, the directional proof and preliminary tests should be
mobilisation of the end bearing is a key compo- planned to allow a minimum 12 steps to the ex-
nent dominating the settlement rate, then the time pected maximum loading, with extra steps of the
taken to reach the required settlement rate be- same size being added in excess of this for pre-
comes protracted and it is for this reason that it is liminary pile tests seeking the ultimate capacity.
recommended to limit the duration at any one The Cemsolve pile behaviour analysis tech-
load step to 3 – 6 hours as the displacement – nique developed for traditional top down tests,
time data can be analysed, with high quality re- can be applied to each element of a bi-directional
sults, to find the projected settlement [4]. test and permits interpretation of friction and end
Applying the above specification to a tradi- bearing from load-settlement results from each
tional top down static test will provide equally element to model both the upper “normal fric-
spaced load steps and allow a load-displacement tion” elements and “friction and end bearing” of
curve to be produced where creep has been al- the pile elements above and below the O-cell ar-
lowed for. The use of only 6 loading steps for a rangement. By addition of the behaviour of each
proof test and approximately 8 to 12 steps for the element, these can be combined using Cemset to
preliminary test can be sufficient in a traditional predict the equivalent top-load response from bi-
top-down loading test. However, it is preferred in directional test results [7].
an O-cell bi-directional test to have additional An example of a Cemset analysis of a bi-
loading steps in proof tests so that the addition of directional test is presented as Figures 2 to 4. The
the upward and downward load-displacement model uses single or twin hyperbolic curve fit-
characteristics, required in order to produce the ting to find a unique solution. Confidence in the
equivalent top down load behaviour anticipated, accuracy of the model matching the results is in-
are sufficient without the need for extrapolation creased with a greater number of data points ob-
of one set of results. If the upward and down- tained from increasing the number of loading
ward behaviour can be modelled using tech- steps.
niques such as Cemset® [5] using hyperbolic 50
also be noted that such a test can also reveal 0 1000 2000 3000
Load (kN)
4000 5000 6000
®
Figure 2 Upward Cemsolve analysis and plot.
M.G. England and P.F. Cheesman / Optimum Loading Specifications 859
0 1000 2000
Load (kN)
3000 4000 5000 6000
cumstances the O-cells are positioned lower
0 down the shaft and either at or near to the base of
10
the shaft. In these cases, the end bearing is en-
gaged at much lower loads than those applied
Settlement (mm)
20
from the top. The resulting downward movement
30 would then be a function of end bearing settle-
Elastic settlement (mm)
Total settlement (mm)
ment and not shaft creep related. The higher set-
40
Load test data
Measured ES data
tlement rate of 0.24mm/hour as defined in the
50 ICE specification would be more appropriate.
The settlement or creep movement in the up-
Figure 3 Downward Cemsolve® analysis and plot
ward direction is generally expected to be domi-
Load (kN)
nated by shaft friction since there is no end bear-
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 ing component. An upward rate of 0.1mm/hour
0
would then be applicable for any movements.
10 Any creep would also be expected to stabilise
quickly and long holding times are not thought
Settlement (mm)
20
50
head movements are used to determine the mag-
nitude and direction of the movements. The
Figure 4 Combined behaviour Cemset® prediction. measurement of the expansion of the O-cells is
provided by accurate instrumentation attached to
the lower and upper bearing plates. Since the O-
4 SETTLEMENT CRITERIA. cell expansion gauges are the most sensitive
measurements of the instrumentation system,
The ICE settlement criterion is given as: these are recommended to be used as the pre-
x For pile head displacements of less than ferred method of assessing settlement rate in an
10mm, each load increment shall be main- O-cell bi-directional test. The combined upwards
tained until the rate of settlement is reducing and downwards settlement rates are measured in
and is 0.1mm/hour. combination.
x For pile head displacements between 10mm The specified 1 hour minimum holding time
and 24mm, each load increment shall be in the ICE specification is generally appropriate
maintained until the rate of settlement is re- for assessing settlement rate, however with regu-
ducing and is 1% x pile head displace- lar digital data collection, if little or no move-
ment/hour. ment is detected this can safely be reduced to 30
x For pile head displacements of greater than minutes without compromising the quality of
24mm, each load increment shall be main- data. In addition to the minimum period, having
tained until the rate of settlement is reducing a settlement criteria specified allows the time pe-
and is 0.24mm/hour. riod to be extended to allow creep and end bear-
If sufficient data is recorded, the displace- ing settlement to stabilise within acceptable pa-
ment-time can be analysed to find the final set- rameters.
tlement using such techniques as Timeset®[4], In general, a rate of 0.25mm/hour or
thus providing a reliable means of assessing the 0.3mm/hour for expansion is normally recom-
fully drained long-term pile behaviour without mended as the creep criterion for O-cell bi-
the need for protracted hold periods. directional testing, without being dependant upon
The bi-directional technique can apply the the location of the jacks within the shaft. These
load directly to the bearing strata. In some cir- rates allow for a combination of upward creep
and downward creep/end bearing settlement, the
860 M.G. England and P.F. Cheesman / Optimum Loading Specifications
5 COMPARISON OF TECHNIQUES AND [1] The ICE Specification for Piling and Embedded Retain-
TEST RESULTS ing walls (SPERW), Thomas Telford, 2007.
[2] ASTM D1143D Standard Test Methods for Deep Foun-
dations Under Static Axial Compressive Load 2007.
Several comparisons between the O-cell bi- [3] M. England & W.G.K.Fleming, Review of foundation
directional and the top down static testing tech- testing methods and procedures, Geotechnical Eng. Proc.
niques have been performed where the loading Instn Civ. Engrs. Geotech. Engng, 107, (1994), 132-142.
[4] M. England, ,A Method of analysis of stress induced
specifications for both methods have been differ- displacement in soils with respect to time, International
ent. In all cases, differences in the loading seminar, Deep foundations on Bored and Auger Piles,
schedules have not resulted in significant differ- BAPII Ghent, A.A.Balkema June, (1993), 241-246.
ences in results obtained and the comparisons [5] Fleming W.G.K.,. A new method for single pile settle-
ment prediction and analysis, Geotechnique 42, No 3,
have been favourable as would be expected even (1992), 411-425.
when the foundation elements have been pre- [6] Fellenius, B. H.,. From Strain measurements to load in
loaded. an instrumented pile. Geotechnical News Magazine Vol
19, No.1, (2001) 35-38.
[7] England M., Review of methods of analysis of test re-
sults from bi-directional static load tests, Deep Founda-
tions on Bored and Auger Piles, BAP V, Ghent, (2008),
235-239.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 861
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-861
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a case history describing the installation and load testing of a 610 mm diameter, steel tubular piles, driven
into glacial soils at Greystones Harbour to support a new pier structure. The pile resistance during installation and subsequent
static load testing is compared to the results of driving analyses, dynamic load tests and predictions made using simple non-
linear models which are commonly used in industry. Simple pile capacity and non-linear settlement models which can be im-
plemented in a spreadsheet format are shown to provide excellent predictions of the pile response. A particular strength of these
models is that settlements under working load were predicted accurately, a key feature of design to new limit state methods.
RÉSUMÉ
Cet article présente une histoire de cas décrivant les tests d'installation et de la charge d'un diamètre de 610 mm, pieux tubulaires
en acier, entraîné dans les sols à glaciaire à Harbour Greystones à l'appui d'une structure nouvelle jetée. La résistance de la pile
pendant l'installation et après les tests de charge stat-IC est comparé aux résultats des analyses de conduite, des tests de charge
dynamique et les prévisions faites en utilisant de simples modèles non-linéaires qui sont couramment utilisés dans l'industrie. La
capacité des pieux simples et les modèles de règlement non-linéaire qui peut être mis en œuvre dans un format de feuille de cal-
cul sont illustrées afin de fournir d'excellentes prédictions de la réponse du pieu. Une force particulière de ces modèles est que
les colonies sous la charge de travail ont été prédit avec précision, un élément clé de la conception de nouvelles méthodes de
l'état limite.
1 INTRODUCTION
The widespread use of pre-cast concrete and
The ultimate capacity of a pile (Qult) is derived Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) piles in Ireland
from a combination of unit skin friction (W) de- has led to joint industry-academia research pro-
veloped over the shaft area and base resistance jects which have enabled reasonably good esti-
(qb) developed at the pile tip. mates of qs and qb values [1,2] to be made. In
near shore developments such as harbours and
[1] Qult = W As + qb Ab offshore developments including wind farms
open-ended steel tubular piles are widely used as
Where As and Ab are the shaft and base areas of the relatively small base area facilitates driving
the pile respectively. in dense soils. Designers need to be able to esti-
1
Corresponding Author.
862 K. Gavin et al. / Prediction of the Axial Load Response of Open-Ended Pipe Piles in Glacial Soils
mate the pile capacity during installation (to en- which in turn overlay greywacke bedrock. The
sure the correct hammer and pile size is adopted) Standard Penetration Test (SPT) N values re-
and during in-service loading. In addition moves corded in the boulder clay, shown in Figure 1
towards limit state design require the designer to varied from 30 to 85 (with an average of 53).
provide some estimate of pile settlement. Settle- SPT values in the dense gravel were more uni-
ment prediction models tend to range from the form and slightly higher than the boulder clay,
simple linear elastic type to complex non-linear with an average N value of 59. The results of At-
elastic finite element methods. In the first type, terberg limit tests performed in the boulder clay
the models do not adequately represent real soil were consistent with depth, with a Plastic Limit
behaviour. In the second, the input parameters (PL) of |14%, a Liquid Limit (LL) | 38% and a
required for the constitutive models which de- Plasticity Index (PI) of 24%. The in-situ water
scribe real soil behaviour are rarely available. content was | 15% giving a liquidity index close
to zero. The SPT N values give an su value of |
Paikowsky and Whitman [3] described the 300 kPa using standard correlations with N val-
process of soil plug formation wherein; during ues.
the initial stages of pile installation, the length of
the soil plug (Lp) inside the pipe, equals the pile
penetration depth (L) and the pile is said to be
coring. The development of the soil core during
installation is quantified by the Plug Length Ra-
tio (PLR) or the Incremental Filling Ratio (IFR):
2 SITE DESCRIPTION
3.1 Pile Capacity Models
The ground conditions were investigated us- The maximum shear stress developed in the
ing a series of shell and auger boreholes. These boulder clay and gravel layers was estimated us-
revealed a relatively uniform soil profile. An 8.5 ing:
m thick layer of stiff to very stiff boulder clay
overlay a 5 m thick layer of very dense gravel
K. Gavin et al. / Prediction of the Axial Load Response of Open-Ended Pipe Piles in Glacial Soils 863
[3a] Wmax (kPa) = D su (boulder clay) til the normalised settlement exceeds the yield
strain level. The yield strain wby/D was assumed
0.5
[3b] W qc §h· to be 1.5% for the test pile. This is followed by a
tan G (Gravel)
0.3
max Ar ,eff ¨ ¸ non-linear stage up to wb/D=10%, when the base
33 ©D¹
pressure is qb0.1 (that is, at wb/D=10%).
where: qc is the end resistance measured in a
Cone Penetration Test (CPT), Areff the effective
area = 1-IFR(Di/D)2, and D and Di are the exter-
nal and internal pile diameter. Since no CPT data
were available at the site a correlation between qc
and SPT N proposed by Mayne and Kulhawy [4]
was used to estimate qc values:
where: G0 is the small strain shear modulus, f A class A prediction of the static load resis-
and g are curve fitting parameters. tance of the pile was undertaken. In the pre-
dicttion the D value (Eqn 3a) used to estimate the
The base pressure-settlement response was shaft resistance in the boulder clay layer was tak-
modelled using a 3 stage model proposed by Ga- en as 0.5. This value is used widely in Irish prac-
vin and Lehane [7], See Figure 2. For fully cor- tice to estimate the shaft resistance of closed-
ing open-ended piles residual base stresses (qbres) ended driven piles in boulder clay. No reduction
are low and can be ignored. The predicted resis- factor was applied to account for the open-ended
tance follows a linear stage, with settlement con- pile condition. This is in keeping with observa-
trolled by the small strain elastic stiffness E0 un- tions from case histories by Doherty and Gavin
864 K. Gavin et al. / Prediction of the Axial Load Response of Open-Ended Pipe Piles in Glacial Soils
[8]. The shaft and base resistance in gravel was 5 CAPWAP TETS
predicted using IFR = 1. The mobilisation of the Whilst the class A prediction of the pile resis-
predicted shaft and base resistance for the very tance resulted in excellent correlation with the
dense gravel was calculated using E0 of 200 MPa measured pile response, in order to provide addi-
and a G0 of 250 MPa was assumed for the boul- tional feedback on the accuracy of the model the
der clay. Elastic shortening of the pile was in- predicted response was compared to CAPWAP
cluded in the analysis. analyses performed on the pile two weeks after
installation. The local shear stress profile and
base resistance inferred from the CAPWAP ana-
4 COMPARISON TO STATIC LOAD TEST lyses are compared with the model prediction in
RESULTS Figure 4.
(a)
Whilst the predicted base resistance correlates tors of 0.65s/m and 0.5s/m were used for the
well with the CAPWAP results, the shaft resis- shaft and base respectively, while driving
tance estimated in the glacial till layer of 150 kPa through the clay, with values of 0.16s/m and
(with D = 0.5) was significantly under-predicted. 0.5s/m used in the sand. The hammer used in the
The CAPWAP analyses suggested the mobilised analyses was a BSP 357 9-Te.
shaft resistance varied from 200 to 300 kPa in
this layer (suggesting back-figured D values Blows /250mm
close to unity). Obviously the use of a constant 0 20 40 60 80 100
0
value in the static capacity calculations ignores
the effects of friction fatigue, a term used to de- Predicted - alpha=1
scribe the reduction in shear stress mobilised Predicted - alpha=0.5
2
along the pile shaft as a result of cyclic loading. Measured
Recent CPT based design methods incorporate
friction fatigue effects using the h/D reduction 4
Depth [m]
factor (See Eqn 3b). The exponent n for clay is
lower than for piles installed in sand, Jardine et 6
al. [9], Gavin et al [10]. A formulation which in-
cluded friction fatigue effects in a simple alpha
approach was developed for the back-analyses, 8
where Wf was calculated using:
10
[9] Wf (kPa) = su (h/D) n
12
The mobilized shear stress was predicted using Figure 5 Pile driving analyses ignoring friction fatigue in gla-
n values of 0.1 and 0.2 (See Figure 4a). Whilst cial till
the shaft resistance was under-predicted, the dis-
tribution was better matched using the friction The SRD was initially calculated using a un-
fatigue parameter. drained total stress approach (as per equation 3a)
in the boulder clay and the UWA method [13] in
the gravel. Alpha values ranging from 0.5 to 1.0
6 PILE DRIVING ANALYSIS were used in the analysis. The base resistance of
the pile mobilized during installation was calcu-
lated using the base mobilization model given by
The total resistance of a pile to driving includes equation 8 and assuming a displacement of 1%
the initial static resistance to driving (SRD), in- of the pile diameter per blow. The predicted
creases in pile capacity due to viscous rate ef- range blow-counts are shown in figure 5. The
fects and dynamic increases in capacity due to blow-counts predicted using an alpha value of
inertia. Once the SRD was determined it was im- 0.5 underestimated the measured blow-counts at
plemented within a 1-Dimensional wave equa- depth between 3 m and 10 m penetration. In
tion analysis using the GRLWEAP software contrast, an alpha value of 1.0 resulted in pile re-
[11]. Standard quake values of 2.5 mm were used fusal before the tip reaches the target penetration,
for the shaft and base resistance in line with the with blowcounts in excess of 100blows/250mm
recommendations given by Stevens et al. [12]. at a penetration of 9 m.
The dynamic components of the total resistance
are normally accounted for using damping fac- The GRLWEAP analysis was rerun with the
tors applied separately to the pile shaft and toe. shaft resistance in the glacial till layer estimated
For all analyses in this study Smith damping fac- using Equation 9 with an alpha value of 1.0 ap-
866 K. Gavin et al. / Prediction of the Axial Load Response of Open-Ended Pipe Piles in Glacial Soils
Ó
ÔÆ¡!Õ 1
Ù
Ó¨Û¨{, T. Brzozowski
Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Department of Geotechnics, Geology and Maritime Engineering
ABSTRACT
Predicting the bearing capacity and settlement of piles continues to be a difficult task in engineering practice and scientific
research. That is why static load tests are still an essential element in verifying predictions. A new factor, however, the
introduction of Eurocode regulations and guidelines for Poland and Europe, has now necessitated current practice to be reviewed
and submitted to detailed analysis. In the case of geotechnics and foundation engineering these guidelines and regulations are set
out in Eurocode 7. With regard to the pile research and usage in Poland, so far two European standards have applied: PN-EN
1536:2001 for bored piles and PN-EN 12699:2002 for displacement piles. It is now a matter of urgency to properly analyse and
harmonise current law and many years of practical experience with this new Eurocode. This article deals with problems
concerning the conduct of static load tests and the interpretation of their results.
RÉSUMÉ
Prédiction de la capacité portante du pieu et de tassements continuent d’être la tâche difficile dans les applications d’ingénierie et
scientifiques. Par conséquent il est souvent necessaire de vérifier ces prédiction avec des essais de chargement statique.
L’introduction d’un système de règlements selon les Eurocodes en Europe constitue un élément supplémentaire et necessite des
analyses détaillées. Deux normes europeennes : PN-EN 1536:2001 pieux forés et PN-EN 12699:2002 pieux aux déplacements
sont déja en viguer en Pologne. Il est nécessaire harmoniser des experiences venues des applications des norms polonaises et des
norms europeennes. Le papier est concentre sur l’execution des statiques et leur interpretation.
1
Corresponding Author
868 K. Gwizdała et al. / Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static Load Tests
d) based on the observation of the behaviour of These guidelines are increasingly applied in
comparable pile foundations, provided that the Poland, particularly in the case of large invest-
data were verified by field tests (site investi- ments and strategically important structures.
gations and soil testing). Carrying out preliminary pile load tests not only
It should be stressed that according to the increases project safety but may also have
Eurocode, the basic, most preferable design considerable financial benefits. Generally,
method for piles are static load tests. Next, it is however, the practice persists whereby load tests
suggested to apply empirical and analytical are conducted on working piles only, and only
methods, dynamic load tests with dynamic after pile completion.
formulae and finally, data from engineering In the case of large diameter piles, Eurocode
experience gained from observed foundation permits load tests to be conducted on piles with
behaviour in similar soil and loading conditions. smaller diameters but by no more than a half.
Additionally, the behaviour of an individual pile This is convenient, but it may also pose a
in the group of piles as well as a rigidity and problem in translating accurate results and
strength of cap construction should be also interpretations to working piles. That is why in
considered. such cases a new requirement has been
The calculation approaches a, b, c and d given introduced whereby piles are tested with
by Eurocode 7 are formulated in a quite general equipment to measure resistances carried by the
manner and do not contain detailed, neither shaft and base.
measuring nor calculation methods. In the next
parts of the article some practical calculation
methods from approach “a” will be described. 2 PILE LOAD TEST RESULT
Eurocode 7 places great emphasis on the INTERPRETATION ACCORDING TO
problem of pile load tests. Clause 7.5 sets out EUROCODE 7
general and formal recommendations concern-
ing, among other things, the purpose of conduct- According to Eurocode regulations static load
ing load tests, load test procedures and the tests need to establish a pile’s characteristic Rc;k
principles of selecting piles for testing. Clause compressive limit resistance as well as its Rc;d
7.5.2.1 states the most basic principle to be design compressive resistance and, in the case of
accepted, namely that: “For load test pile, the uplift piles, its respective Rt;k and Rt;d tensile
loading shall be such that conclusions can also limit resistances.
be drawn about the ultimate failure load”. These Ultimate characteristic compressive resistance
recommendations will be more precisely defined are defined according to the following equation:
with the publication of the Polish annex to
Eurocode 7. f( R ) (R ) m
Rc ;k Minh c ;m mean ; c ;m min n (1)
It should be noted that Eurocode 7 i 31 32 o
distinguishes between load test piles (Clause
7.5.2.2) and “working piles” (Clause 7.5.2.3). where:
Load test piles are defined as additional piles, Rc;m – compressive resistance of one or
created primarily for the purpose of load testing. more load test piles,
These piles are necessary to verify project (Rc;m)mean – mean compressive resistance of
assumptions by being loaded to the ultimate several load test piles,
failure load and, in some cases, to the tensile
(Rc;m)min – the lowest compressive resistance of
limit load. Working piles, on the other hand,
several load test piles,
cannot be subjected to such extreme tests as they
will eventually constitute an integral part of 31, 32 – correlation factors relative to the
foundations. Therefore, they should be tested to number of load test piles n, whose
no more than the design load with the negative recommended values are presented
skin friction doubled.
K. Gwizdała et al. / Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static Load Tests 869
in Table 1 (in the Eurocode this table of larger numbers of piles, at least 2% of the total
appears in A.9 of Appendix A). number.
Table 1. Correlation factor values 31 and 32 (n – number of
tested piles)
3 for n = 1 2 3 4 `5 3 INTERPRETATION OF PILE LOAD TEST
31 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 RESULTS ACCORDING TO THE POLISH
32 1.40 1.20 1.05 1.00 1.00 PN-83/B-02482 STANDARD
For structures with sufficient stiffness and The interpretation of pile load tests in accordance
strength to transfer loads from ‘weak’ to ‘strong’ with the Polish standard PN-83/B-02482 has
piles (e.g. in the case of foundation caps in the been described in detail, for instance in a paper
form of thick concrete slabs, blocks or stiff by ÔÆ¡!Õ
ݨ
¨!!
!¨
monolithic foundations), the values of 31 and 32 and fairly precise guidelines for pile load test
may be divided by 1.1, provided 31 is not less procedures, including: the minimal load values,
than 1.0. the number of load steps, the duration of
In the Polish Annex the values of 31 and 32 particular steps, measurement methods, etc. One
will probably be subjected to some minor can generally say that these guidelines have
adjustments. stood the test of time. Nevertheless, the
The design compressive resistance of a pile Eurocode recommendation to include static load
Rc;d shall be obtained from: tests in the load test design stage does seem
justified, for a pile should be adapted to the
Rc ,d Rc ;k /
t (2) specific nature of a given structure and the work
carried out by the foundations. The nature of
or work performed by piles in the foundations of
normal buildings is quite different to work they
Rc ,d Rb ;k /
b Rs ;k /
s (3) perform in the construction of bridges, quays,
where: power stations, tanks or silos.
The interpretation of load test results
Rb;k, Rs;k – ultimate characteristic compressive
according to the Polish standard is based on the
resistance of the pile base and shaft,
Q-s ¨
ÝÞÂ
ÔÆ¡!Õ
ÓÕ¨
respectively,
1985). There are two types of curve: “a” and “b”.
t,
b,
s – partial factors who values are The type of curve used is derived from the dQ/ds
recommended in tables A6, A7 and graph, which next allows us to determine the real
A8 of Eurocode 7. These partial and design bearing capacity of a pile deemed
factors are defined for three types of safe to be used in structure design. The Polish
pile (driven, bored and CFA) and standard does not require the establishing of a
depend on the selected method of pile’s ultimate failure load. But with an adequate
calculation. load settlement curve range, the dQ/ds
Equation (3) may be applied if the ultimate interpretation does allow us to determine the
characteristic compressive resistance of the pile ultimate failure load Ng (Fig. 1). Moreover, in
base and shaft (Rb;k and Rs;k, respectively) are practice, attempts are usually made to establish
derived from direct measurements or estimated the maximal load values during load tests,
using proven methods (e.g. load-transfer whereas during interpretation, the ultimate
functions, ÔÆ¡!Õ
Î). Equation (1) may failure load is often derived using the
also be applied with regard to resistance limits extrapolation method. Thus result interpretation
Rb;k and Rs;k. according to the Polish method does not have to
When foundation piles are pulled out loaded, rely on the pile technology (driven, bored or
it is recommended that the tensile resistance of CFA) or on the number of load tested piles.
more than one pile be examined and in the case
870 K. Gwizdała et al. / Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static Load Tests
4 EXAMPLES OF PILE LOAD TEST These values can only be used in calculations
INTERPRETATIONS ACCORDING TO following PN-83/B-02482 guidelines load factors
EUROCODE AND PN-83/B-02482 included therein. For interpretation according to
GUIDELINES Eurocode guidelines, it was accepted that
(Rc;m) U Ng, and the results of this interpretation
In this article we shall attempt a comparative are presented in Table 2.
analysis of examples of load test result Table 2. Interpretation of bored pile load test results from
interpretations following PN-83/B-02482 guide- Fig. 1
lines with ones conducted in accordance with Rc;m (Rc;m)mean/31 (Rc;m)min/32 Rc;d = Rc;k /
t
Pile No.
Eurocode 7. For this purpose some diverse Q-s [kN] [kN] [kN] [kN]
graphs have been selected. (1) 4440
4330/1.20= 4250/1.05= 3610/1.1=
(2) 4300
=3610 =4050 =3280
(3) 4250
Example 1
This example concerns the load test results of 3 By comparing the two interpretations we can
bored, wide diameter piles ( 1200 mm, see that the design load bearing capacity of the
L = 10 m), with an injection under the base piles is slightly higher according to Eurocode
ÝÞÂ
ÔÆ¡!Õ
`\\
`\\@
ÝÂ
¨
guidelines than it is according to the Polish PN-
were made for the construction of a bridge and 83/B-02482 standard. In the analysis of the Q-s
inserted into a sandy clay. The Q-s graphs graphs we should note that the Rc;d load values
showed characteristically accentuated curves of cause the piles to settle in the region of 12 –
the ‘a’ type according to the PN-83/B-02482 16 mm. In this case the condition of the
standard. Graph interpretation, thanks to the serviceability limit state could prove to be
dQ/ds curves, provided a fairly accurate decisive. Here the Eurocode interpretation seems
description of the design load kNc0 (Fig. 1) and somewhat optimistic.
ultimate failure load Ng ÝÞÂ
ÔÆ¡!Õ
ÓÕ¨
Í
PN-83/B-02482). The design bearing Example 2
capacities kNc0 (NB, design, not ultimate failure
This example concerns load test results for 2
limit) determine the load value on the Q-s
settlement curve when we start to observe plastic Vibro piles ( 508/550 mm, L = 14.5 m) made
deformation (the critical load zone). for the foundations of a viaduct and inserted into
fine, dense sand. The Q-s graphs (Fig. 2) reveal a
flat characteristic, which is typical for driven
Vibro piles. By using the dQ/ds graph, the Q-s
curve was classified as a “b” type. Thus it was
not possible to obtain a reliable estimate of the
ultimate failure loads, so instead it was assumed
that ultimate failure loads equalled the maximal
loads: Rc;m = Qmax. In accordance with Polish
standard guidelines, pile design loads kNc0 were
defined by accepting that Nc0 = Qmax, and the
correction factor was k = 0.8. The thus acquired
kNc0 values are presented in Fig. 2. The
interpretational results according EC7 are shown
in Table 3.
Example 3
Example 3 is analysis of the result for a single, Rys. 3. Pile test load graph for example 3
bored pile, made in expansive clays, during Table 4. EC7 interpretation of results presented in Fig 3
which the ultimate failure load was reached.
Rc;m
Here one should note that ultimate load failure Pile No. (Rc;m)min/32 [kN] Rc;d = Rc;k /
t [kN]
[kN]
was reached not on account of the actual load but (1) 4060 4060/1.4=2900 2900/1.1=2640
on the unfavourable soil conditions (worse than NB: Rc;m = Ng according to Fig. 3
had been predicted at the design stage). The
bored pile ( 1200 mm, L = 16.0 m) was made in Again there were differences between the PN-
the foundations of a viaduct. The Q-s graph 83/B-02482 and the EC7 interpretations. As in
obtained from the results is presented in Fig. 3, Example 2, here the EC7 interpretation yielded a
together with the PN-83/B-02482 interpretation. lower bearing capacity value than the Polish
The EC7 interpretation is presented in Table 4. standard interpretation. However, this time the
main reason was the number of tests: only one
was carried out and the maximal value of its 32
factor was taken to equal 1.4.
872 K. Gwizdała et al. / Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static Load Tests
If 2 tests had been carried out in example 3, Moreover, it has to be stressed that we need to
then the EC7 interpretation would have probably consider the Polish standard and Eurocode 7 in
yielded a result closer to the Polish standard (see: their entirety. As far as bearing capacity and load
Table 5). factors are concerned, one has to be consistent.
Table 5. The interpretation of results assuming 2 bored pile
load tests had been carried out (n =2)
Rc;m (Rc;m)mean/31 (Rc;m)min/32 Rc;d = Rc;k /
t REFERENCES
Pile No.
[kN] [kN] [kN] [kN]
(1) 4060 4060/1.20= 4060/1.30= 3123/1.1= [1] ÔÆ¡!Õ
Ó
Î
$QDOL]D RVLDGDĔ SDOL SU]\
(2) 4060 =3383 =3123 =2840 wykorzystaniu funkcji transformacyjnych. (The analysis
of pile settlements employing load-transfer functions).
ë§!ÆÆ
ì{Æ
|Â{
Ô!Û¨{Þ
𨡧§
ì{Æ
|Â{
Ô!Û¨{Þ
ì
@`
The above analyses allow us to conclude that the axially loaded piles. Design of Axially Loaded Piles –
differences in interpretations of pile load test European Practice, Brussels, 291 – 306.
results between the Polish standard and Eurocode [3] ÝÞÂ
Ù
ÔÆ¡!Õ
Ó
`\\@
Ù
i fundamentów palowych.
bearing capacity and ultimate failure vary
depending on the type of pile as well as the type [8] PN-EN 1997-1:2005. Eurokod 7, Projektowanie
geotechniczne. PKN, Warszawa, 2005.
of soil. Strict adherence to Eurocode recom-
[9] PN-EN 1536:2001, Pale wiercone.
mendations in this respect might produce too
[10] PN-EN 12699:2002, Pale przemieszczeniowe.
optimistic or too pessimistic interpretations of
[11] EN 1997-1:2004, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design -
pile load test results. Therefore, in addition to the Part 1. General rules.
EC7 recommendations, one should also take into
[12] EN 1536:2000, Execution of special geotechnical
account the type of structure to be supported by works. Bored piles.
the piles and how the structure will be used. In [13] EN 12699:2001, Execution of special geotechnical
this respect the Polish standard recommendations works. Displacement piles.
regarding load test interpretations appear to be
more flexible.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 873
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-873
ABSTRACT
The flexural vibration of piles during dynamic tests have to be investigated carefully. In this paper, we present two large scale
case histories of high strain dynamic pile testing where eccentric impacts where generated. First, dynamic measured signals are
presented to show the different quantities relationships (force, velovity, bending moment, and angular velocity). Then, flexural
effects on the dynamic pile capacity are determined by wave reflexions.
RÉSUMÉ
L’analyse de la flexion des pieux lors de la mise en charge dynamique doit être minutieusement traitée. On présente dans cet ar-
ticle deux cas de chargement dynamique de pieu à grande déformation où un impact excentré à été généré. Nous analysons en
premier lieu les signaux mesurés afin de mettre en valeur des différentes relations entre les paramètres (force, vitesse, moment
fléchissant et vitesse angulaire). Les effets de flexion sur la capacité portante du pieu, évaluée sur base de réflexions d’ondes.
Table 1: Summary of impacts features, axial and flexural behavior, and dynamic soil resistance evaluations at the Limelette site.
4 40 20 -20 1.46 1.96 11.0 33.4 0.36 0.03 1.60 0.8 2.39
5 80 20 -20 2.06 2.67 23.1 42.0 0.42 0.05 1.84 1.2 3.01
6 80 20 -40 2.17 2.80 24.7 53.3 0.44 0.06 1.81 1.0 2.75
7,8 120 18 -32 2.66 3.36 36.6 113.0 1.10 0.16 1.85 1.1 2.85
9,10 80 22 -31 2.26 2.88 26.7 85.3 1.09 0.14 1.78 0.85 2.62
11 160 22 -31 3.16 4.04 52.3 123.2 1.90 0.15 1.91 1.13 3.04
13 40 2 -40 1.55 1.99 12.3 42.6 0.51 0.02 1.59 0.7 2.30
14 40 3 -34 1.47 1.95 11.9 37.2 0.56 0.04 1.60 0.7 2.28
876 A. Holeyman and M. Allani / Flexural Effects in Dynamic Determination of Pile Capacity
Displacement (m)
1000
0.015
Rebound
0
0.01
-1000
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
L/c 0.005
3000
F= 1100*V + 340
2000
3.2 Energy analysis
1000 The axial energy transmitted to the pile
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 (called ‘Enthru’) is defined as the integration
velocity (m/s)
over time of the product of force and velocity
Figure 3: Fmax and V max Regression signals, until the end of impact tf:
tf
Figure 4 presents the evolution of maxi-
Enthru $ F (t )V (t )dt
mum and permanent settlements versus the 0
hammer drop height at the Limelette site. The
maximum settlement curve is characterized by
a decreasing slope from the origin up to a giv- This term reflects the performance of the
en drop height beyond which a constant slope system which can be compared to the hammer
prevails. The permanent settlement curve is potential energy (MgH). It can be concluded
characterized by negligible values up to a giv- that the net energy transferred to the pile
en drop height called the ‘critical height’ amounts to approximately 80% of the hammer
beyond which maximum and permanent set- potential energy.
Table 2: Impacts features, axial and flexural behavior, and dynamic soil resistance evaluations at the Tessenderlo site.
Impact Axial mode Flexural Dynamic resistance
Vmax Fmax EMAX y Rf QB Rdyn _ case
Blow H ey
(m/s) (kN) (kN.m)
M max (MN)
n° (cm) (mm) (kN.m) (MN) (MN)
1 70 0 1.34 4.29 17.0 38.3 3.09 3.24 6.22
2 110 0 1.88 5.69 3.0 38.2 3.70 4.60 8.14
3 40 0 0.89 3.19 9.8 37.7 2.42 2.14 4.62
By analogy with the axial analysis we esti- where t+ is a time selected to obtain the maxi-
mate the flexural energy transmitted to the pile mum value of QB. The skin friction Rf mobi-
using the relation: lized down to the pile depth can be can be de-
rived form the difference between force and
tf velocity Rf =F-IV, reaching a maximum value
Enthru flex $ M (t )W(t )dt at t++2L/c.
0 The Case method (Goble et al 1975) is based
on the difference between signals of a free pile
where M is the bending moment at the and soil resistance perturbation:
pile head and W is the pile head cross section
1 2L I 2L
Rdyn _ case [ F (t ) F (t )] [V (t ) V (t )]
2 c 2 c
angular velocity. The total dynamic soil resistance is derived
The bending moment Mx (My) about the x- based on a rigid plastic soil model. For this
(y-) direction for both sites was calculated reason, time t+ is picked as to correspond to
based on diametrically opposed measured peak velocity Vmax. Validity of this assump-
strains ( %1 and % 2 ) on the pile head section. tion especially for base modeling is discussed
Bernoulli assumptions lead to in Holeyman (1992) and Charue (2004). To-
E . . r ³ tal, base, and shaft soil resistance in Limelette
Ea ³ ( % 2 % 1 ) for
M (% 2 %1 ) and M and Tessenderlo sites are presented in Tables 1
12 8 and 2 respectively.
a square and circular cross section, respective- It was concluded that it seems reasonable to
ly.
choose time t at the time when first peak ve-
Table 1 and 2 also contain axial and flexur-
locity occurs since soil resistance achieves a
al data for the Limelette and Tessenderlo sites
maximum value at that time. It was further
respectively. Large bending moments (more
confirmed that higher impacts mobilize more
than 100 kN.m) are observed for both sites
of the ultimately available soil resistance.
even though limited eccentricities are imposed.
An increase can be noted in the total dynam-
Furthermore, the dependency of the bending
ic soil resistance under eccentric impacts, es-
moment to the eccentricity is more pronounced
pecially for the 70cm drop height at Tessen-
than that to the drop height.
derlo (about 400kN increase) and for the 40
The ‘Enthruflex’ signals are quite similar to
cm drop height at Limelette (about 200kN in-
the ‘Enthru’ energy signals. However, the ratio
crease).
of the maximum flexural energy y to the
Emax
maximum axial energy EMAX is very small,
typically of the order of 0.5% (Table 1). 5 AXIAL AND FLEXURAL PILE
RESPONSE
tion of the impedance of the piles (1.2 and 2.1 ty was applied during impacts, the transferred
MN/ms-1, respectively) flexural energy remains very small compared
The same reasoning may also be applied to to the axially transferred one. However, an in-
the flexural mode. Allani and Holeyman [2] crease of the Case determined dynamic soil re-
elaborated a back calculation analysis to assess sistance was observed under eccentric impacts
lateral soil stiffness and damping under steady at the Tessenderlo site. By analogy to the cur-
state lateral pile loading. Lissajous type curves rent axial analysis, a flexural response curve
of experimental bending moment versus pile has been suggested at the pile head as a refer-
head angular velocity (fig. 6) allows one to ence to deduce lateral soil stiffness and damp-
graphically monitor the corresponding optimi- ing through a matching back-calculation algo-
zation procedure curve which is presently un- rithm.
dergoing development.
2.5
REFERENCES
2
Pile head velocity (m/s)
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880 R.J. Jardine et al. / Offshore Foundation Engineering in Extremely Dense Glacial Tills West
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882 R.J. Jardine et al. / Offshore Foundation Engineering in Extremely Dense Glacial Tills West
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886 M.K. Kelesoglu and S.M. Springman / Piled Bridge Abutments on Soft Soils
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M.K. Kelesoglu and S.M. Springman / Piled Bridge Abutments on Soft Soils 887
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888 M.K. Kelesoglu and S.M. Springman / Piled Bridge Abutments on Soft Soils
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M.K. Kelesoglu and S.M. Springman / Piled Bridge Abutments on Soft Soils 889
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ABSTRACT
The foundation system for the high-rise building TOWER185 is an excellent example to show the specific considerations under-
taken to design the building pit and the piled-raft foundation. On the basis of experiences made during the past 20 years in the
design, the construction and the back-analysis of the load-settlement behaviour of numerous high-rise buildings in Frankfurt and
consequently the well known soil and groundwater conditions, a realistic soil-structure-interaction-behavior in combination with
numerical methods could be applied to design an optimized foundation system for the TOWER185. Since the center of area does
not correspond to the center of mass certain considerations had to be taken into account in order to reduce the tilting of the tower
and to guarantee the serviceability.
RÉSUMÉ
Le système de fondation pour le gratte-ciel TOWER185 est un exemple excellent pour montrer les considérations spécifiques en-
treprises pour concevoir la fouille et la fondation profonde. Sur la base des expériences faites pendant les 20 ans passés dans le
dimensionnent, la construction et le re-calcul de nombreux gratte-ciels dans à Francfort et par conséquent le sol bien connu et
conditions de nappe phréatique dans la combinaison avec les méthodes numériques pourrait être appliqué pour concevoir un sys-
tème de fondation optimisé au TOWER185.
1
Corresponding Author.
892 S. Meissner et al. / Approach for a Deep Construction Pit and a Piled-Raft Foundation
Field and laboratory tests (geotechnical / groundwater level in the Tertiary reaches the
geothermal) level of the Quaternary groundwater level.
Load tests (plate or pile) Figure 2 shows a recent photo of the skyline
of Frankfurt including the Tower185 dated Sep-
In order to evaluate the ground conditions tember 2010.
within the area of the project T185 properly,
11 boreholes with length up to 110 m were inter-
preted. The ground encountered consists of Qua-
ternary sands down to 5 m below the surface fol-
lowed by the so called Frankfurt clay which was
formed 2 to 10 million years ago as a result of
the sedimentation in the Tertiary sea in the
Mainz basin (Figure 1). This clay includes limes-
tone banks and layers of calcareous sand. The
clay is geologically overconsolidated through
older, already eroded sediments. Therefore, the
subsoil is highly horizontally stressed.
Tower 185
Figure 2. Skyline of Frankfurt (Sept. 2010).
2 PIT CONSTRUCTION
mization in terms of construction costs and time. quence of the high-quality construction works in
The bottom of the retaining wall for the tower this cross section the monitored deformations
area reaches down to 75.50 mNN (-21.5 m) re- added up only to 0.5 cm and were in good
spectively down to 85.5 mNN (-11.5 m) for the agreement with the calculated deformations.
low-rise complex (Figure 3 and 4).
dividing
diaphragm wall
Figure 5. Building pit – cross section subway.
4 MONITORING PROGRAM
(OBSERVATIONAL METHOD)
The monitoring results of the settlements have systems and to evaluate deformations of the
shown so far a very good correspondence to the structure and neighboring structures.
calculated values. Figure 8 illustrates the calcu- By carrying out a monitoring system it is
lated settlements for the piled-raft foundation possible to verify the assumptions made and to
under serviceability loading. The last measure- improve the design methods for future projects.
ment (60 % of the loading) is also illustrated.
Within a few weeks the next measurement will
be carried out. REFERENCES
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898 J.R. Omer / Base Resistance of Large Diameter Bored Piles in Soft Rocks
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 903
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-903
ABSTRACT
The joint industry research project SOLCYP is aimed at i) improving our understanding of the response of piles subjected to cy-
clic loading and ii) developing design procedures taking into account the accumulation of pile head displacements and the deg-
radation of friction along the pile wall.
The project comprises several complementary tasks : cyclic laboratory tests on reference soils and on soil-steel and soil-concrete
interfaces ; model pile tests in calibration chambers and in centrifuge ; instrumented pile tests on experimental sites ; numerical
modelling ; development of design procedures.
The paper presents the main objectives of the project and describes the complementary experimental and numerical techniques
implemented. The program of the full scale pile tests is detailed as well as the results of a feasibility study on the instrumentation
of a pile submitted to cyclic axial loading using the LPC removable extensometer technique. Results are satisfactory and validate
the selected monitoring technique.
RESUMÉ
Le projet national SOLCYP a pour objet d’approfondir les connaissances sur le comportement des pieux soumis à des sollicita-
tions cycliques et de développer des procédures de dimensionnement permettant de prendre en compte les phénomènes
d’accumulation des déplacements et de dégradation des frottements.
Le projet comporte plusieurs volets complémentaires: essais cycliques de laboratoire sur des sols de référence et sur des inter-
faces sol-acier et sol-béton ; essais de pieux modèles en chambre de calibration et en centrifugeuse ; essais de pieux instrumentés
sur sites expérimentaux ; simulations numériques ; développement de procédures de calcul.
La communication est centrée sur la description des objectifs du projet ainsi que les moyens mis en œuvre. Le programme prévi-
sionnel des essais en vraie grandeur est présenté ainsi que quelques résultats d’une étude de faisabilité sur l’instrumentation d’un
pieu soumis à un chargement cyclique axial avec la technique de l’extensomètre amovible. Les résultats satisfaisants de cette
étude permettent de valider la technique d’instrumentation choisie.
- un volet dit PN-SOLCYP, Projet National fi- ponse des fondations de structures offshore à la
nancé par les partenaires (entreprises, bureaux houle. Mais d’une manière générale, il n’y a pas
d’études et de contrôle, sociétés de service, labo- - sur le plan national aussi bien qu’au niveau eu-
ratoires publics et privés) avec le concours du ropéen (Eurocodes) ou international (ISO) - de
Ministère de l’Energie et du Développement Du- document spécifique (norme, texte règlemen-
rable (MEDDTL). taire, recommandation professionnelle) traitant
La présente communication a pour objet de explicitement des risques liés aux sollicitations
préciser les objectifs et le contenu global du pro- cycliques et proposant une approche méthodolo-
jet. Elle se focalise ensuite sur le programme des gique pour les prendre en compte dans le dimen-
essais de pieux instrumentés à réaliser sur le site sionnement des fondations.
expérimental de Merville
5 LE PROGRAMME SOLCYP
3 LA CARENCE REGLEMENTAIRE
Le programme de recherche et développement du
L’effet des sollicitations cycliques sur le compor- projet SOLCYP a été mis au point dans le cadre
tement des fondations est largement ignoré dans des travaux d’un groupe de travail de l’IREX. Il
le champ d’activité de la construction et du génie a été restreint au domaine des fondations sur
civil. Il existe quelques exceptions notoires pieux et s’articule autour de six thèmes.
comme l’étude de la liquéfaction des sols sous
sollicitations sismiques, la fatigue des chaussées
ou des remblais ferroviaires et bien sûr la ré-
A. Puech et al. / Chargement cyclique de pieux-tests instrumentés: le programme SOLCYP 905
Les objectifs des essais de Merville sont : pour extensomètres LPC (Fig.2a) . Pieu en cours de forage
avec remontées d’argile sur la tarière creuse (Fig 2b).
- étudier la réponse du pieu sous chargement cy-
clique en termes de déplacement et de capacité ; Pour les deux types de pieux, il est prévu de
- déterminer l’influence du chargement moyen, réaliser :
de l’amplitude des cycles et du nombre de cycles - un essai statique en compression de réfé-
sur cette réponse ; rence : pieux B1 et F1
- étudier le comportement local de l’interface - une série d’essais cycliques en compression :
sol-pieu lors du chargement cyclique pour plu- pieux B2 et F2
sieurs tronçons de pieu et évaluer la dégradation - une série d’essais cycliques en traction :
du frottement latéral avec les cycles. pieux B3, F3
Il est envisagé de conduire ultérieurement un Les pieux de réaction B4 et F4 seront utilisés
programme similaire sur un sol sableux dense comme pieux d’essai et testés en trac-
(région de Dunkerque) de manière à disposer à tion/compression alternée.
terme d’une base de données étendue et de haute Le détail du programme expérimental sera dé-
qualité comprenant les essais de Cran [3] en ar- fini de telle façon qu’il permette de couvrir la
gile molle normalement consolidée, de Plancoët zone de stabilité et d’instabilité du pieu (Figure
[4] dans des silts et sables lâches, et de Dun- 3) telle que définie par Poulos [6]
kerque [5].
En 2008, un essai de faisabilité a été réalisé cune règlementaire majeure en proposant une
sur un site expérimental à Rouen (France) sur un méthodologie de dimensionnement rationnelle.
pieu équipé d’extensomètres amovibles (L=6 m, Une composante essentielle du processus ré-
Ø=200 mm) et sollicité sous 1Hz afin de tester side dans la réalisation de pieux instrumentés sur
le fonctionnement du vérin aux faibles charges et des sites de référence.
la réponse des jauges d’extensométrie (Le Kouby L’étude de faisabilité effectuée pour valider la
et al., 2009). technique d’instrumentation des pieux à l’aide de
La distribution des déformations mesurées la technique de l’extensomètre amovible semble
pour quatre tronçons de pieu de 1m (de haut en donner des résultats satisfaisants et sera privilé-
bas : D, C, B, A) (figure 4) montre que giée pour les essais en vraie grandeur.
l’amplitude des déformations décroît avec la pro-
fondeur. Cette observation traduit la distribution
des efforts qui s’effectue du haut du pieu (tron- 8 REMERCIEMENTS
çon D) vers sa base (tronçon A). On n’a pas ob- Le travail présenté se situe dans le cadre du Pro-
servé pas de glissement relatif bloqueur/tube jet National de recherche français SOLCYP qui
acier/béton pendant les cycles validant ainsi regroupe 12 entreprises et bureaux d’études du
l’utilisation de l’extensomètre. génie civil et 6 organismes universitaires et de
recherche. Il est piloté par l’IREX et financé par
les partenaires, l’ANR, le MEDDTL et la FNTP.
Les auteurs remercient les partenaires d’avoir au-
torisé la publication de cet article.
9 REFERENCES
[1] A. Puech, J. Canou, C. Bernardini . SOLCYP : un pro-
jet de recherche sur le comportement des pieux soumis
a des sollicitations cycliques. JNGG 2008, Nantes, pp.
735-742, LCPC...
[2] Y. Canépa, S. Borel, J. Deconinck . Détermination de la
courbe d’évolution du module de cisaillement d’un sol
en fonction de sa déformation à partir d’essais en place.
PARAM 2002, Paris, pp. 25-32, Presses des Ponts et
Chaussées.
[3] A. Puech, M. Boulon, Y. Meimon. Tension piles: field
data and numerical modelling. 2nd International Con-
ference on Numerical Methods in Offshore Piling
(1982), Austin.
[4] A. Puech, J.F. Jezequel. The effects of long time cyclic
loading on the behaviour of a tension pile. Offshore
Technology Conference (1980), Houston, OTC 3870.
[5] R.J. Jardine, R.J. Standing. Pile load testing performed
for HSE cycling loading study at Dunkirk, France.
Offshore Technology Report OTO 2000-007 (2000)
Figure 4. Essai de faisabilité. Résultats typiques (séquence Helath and Safety Executive.
cyclique 105 kN - 170 kN) [6] H.G. Poulos. Cyclic stability diagram for axially loaded
piles. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division
(1988), Report R574, Vol. 114, N° 8, pp. 877-895.
7 CONCLUSIONS [7] Bustamante, M.and Gianeselli, L. (2001). « Méthode
d’essai n°34. La mesure des déformations à l’aide des
Le projet SOLCYP a pour ambition d’effectuer extensomètres amovibles LPC ». Laboratoire Central
des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris Report 34
une avancée technologique décisive dans la con- [8] A. Le Kouby, F. Rocher-Lacoste, F. Dudouyt, G. Vin-
naissance du comportement des pieux sous solli- ceslas, K. Calmo. Faisabilité d’un essai de chargement
citations cycliques et de combler à terme une la- cyclique axial sur un pieu. Rapport SOLCYP (2009).
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 909
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-909
ABSTRACT
A railway bridge founded on massive large diameter piles, socketed into hard anhydritic claystone, experienced a significant
heave after construction. Field investigations revealed the presence of a swelling active layer below the piles tip. Heave was
explained by the growth of gypsum crystals in discontinuities, a consequence of a previous dissolution of anhydrite. Percolating
water to initiate the process was probably supplied by an upper aquifer which was connected with the underlying fractured
claystone through borings and the piles themselves.
RÉSUMÉ
Un pont ferroviaire fondé sur des pieux massifs de grand diamètre, ancrés dans des argilites anhydritiques dures, a expérimenté
un soulèvement significatif après sa construction. L’auscultation a révélé la présence d’une couche active gonflante sous la
pointe des pieux. Le soulèvement s’explique par la croissance de cristaux de gypse dans les discontinuités, à cause d’une dissolu-
tion d’anhydrite antérieure. La percolation d’eau à la source du processus provenait probablement d’un aquifère supérieur
connecté à l’argilite fracturée sous-jacente par les forages ou les pieux eux-mêmes.
1
Corresponding Author.
910 A. Ramon and E.E. Alonso / Heave of a Piled Foundation on a Sulphated Claystone
flat slab of the original excavation because of the 3.5 m thick. Large diameter (1.65m) piles were
stress relief associated with tunnel drill and blast excavated by a rotary drilling machine. The
excavation. Gypsum precipitation was explained upper 6 m of the excavation was protected by a
by the evaporation of water, mainly on the steel liner. The majority of the piles reached a
exposed base of the tunnel. Massif water, rich in depth of 20 m in the central part of the viaduct.
calcium sulphate, will flow towards the tunnel Figure 2 shows the soil profile found in pier 6. A
surface and, as it evaporates, will create solid superficial colluvial soil layer, 4 m thick, covers
gypsum deposits. In fact, gypsum precipitates in a level of brown clays of medium consistency, 8-
a crystalline structure (monoclinic) favoured by 9 m thick. This layer covers a gypsum-claystone
the presence of pre-existent crystallized gypsum substratum. Gypsum veins and massive gypsum
veins. Measurements of the humidity of the layers are found in the red gypsum claystones. At
tunnel atmosphere during a few months indicated depth gypsum changes into anhydrite. Piles tip
that the relative humidity could vary from low are embedded in hard anhydrite-claystone layers.
values, RH=30% to high values, in the vicinity of Piles were designed to support working unit
RH=90%. It was concluded that evaporation was vertical loads of 5 MPa. Unconfined
possible at all times. compression tests of specimens recovered from
At about the same time of Lilla tunnel the deep anhydritic formation provided qu values
construction (2002), a 413 m long bridge, giving ranging from 5 to 20 MPa.
access to the North portal of the tunnel was built Pile point resistance was conservatively
(Figure 1). The viaduct has 10 spans and crosses estimated to be at least 8MPa. The presence of
a valley eroded in gypsum-claystone formations gypsum veins was not considered to be negative.
of early Eocene age. Viaduct piers reached On the contrary it was thought that it would
heights of 56 m in the central part of the bridge. contribute to reinforce the claystones.
The initial geotechnical investigations Once the upper bridge deck was built and the
suggested that piers could be supported by railway line completed, systematic levelling
shallow slabs on the Eocene formation. indicated the heave of the four central piers
However, a more detailed site investigation (piers 4 to 7). The intensity of the heave decayed
performed during the initial construction stages sharply towards both ends of the bridge. Heave
led to design a deep foundation for all the piers. rate was significant in the central piers (5-7
mm/month in 2007).
A monitoring program and further soil gap had developed at the cap-pile interface.
investigations were launched to identify the However, this may be the result of a non-uniform
problem and to decide on remedial measures. movement of piles.
This paper reports on some relevant findings.
This is a rather unique case with no similar
past reported experiences found in the technical
literature. The proximity of Lilla tunnel and its
associated problems were an interesting
background. Concepts and teachings derived
from Lilla were thought to be of direct
application for this new case. However, the
heave of the bridge turned out to be difficult to
explain on the basis of the hypothesis put
forward to understand the behaviour of Lilla
tunnel. In fact, no evaporation and gypsum
precipitation could be possible involved in this
case and an alternative explanation had to be
found.
2 FIELD MEASUREMENTS
locations some very limited settlements were the valley, makes it difficult to accept that an
recorded. Other extensometers showed similar evaporation process could lead to gypsum
results: heave was concentrated in an active layer precipitation. A phreatic surface was located in
located under the tip of the piles of the central the upper layer of alluvial deposits located in the
piers of the bridge. The situation is schematically valley bottom. Shallow open pits excavated in
indicated in Figure 5. The entire foundation was the central part of the valley found a superficial
being pushed upwards by an active heave aquifer.
phenomenon taking place in a layer located A direct transformation of anhydrite into
below the pile’s tip. Plots of the development of gypsum (anhydrite+watergypsum) is not a
the heave in time (Figure 6) indicate that the possible phenomenon. Gypsum precipitates
displacements accumulate in time at a sustained always from a supersaturated solution of calcium
rate. This behaviour is difficult to reconcile with sulphate.
delayed phenomena directly associated with Cores recovered in the active zone provided
hydro-mechanical interactions (such as the some evidence of crystal growth in open
theory of consolidation). discontinuities (Figure 7). Discontinuities were
The sulphated environment suggested also partially filled by gypsum needles. These
that gypsum precipitation was probably the main partially filled fissures allow the flow of water.
reason for the observed heave. Some of the gypsum deposited in fissures had a
planar shape and were shown to fill the entire
fissure volume (Figure 8).
ABSTRACT
The cone loading test conducted step by step until failure during a CPT, presents great similarities with a pile load test. It is
therefore possible to extrapolate a direct design method using the tip resistance and skin friction measured by the electric cone
to calculate the tip and the unit skin friction coefficients. We propose in this paper a new approach to transform the loading
curves and mobilization of friction of a cone loading test point by point into a load-displacement curve of a pile (t-z curves) in
sandy and silty soils. This paper presents a practical approach to the evaluation and normalization of t-z curves, the direct design
method proposed for predicting the settlement and a comparison with instrumented pile load test performed in Limelette slightly
clayey sands.
The results are compared to the design achieved with conventional methods using the results of Menard pressuremeter tests
and.CPTu.
RÉSUMÉ
Le pénétromètre statique, lors de l’essai de chargement de pointe réalisé par paliers jusqu’à la résistance de pointe, présente de
grandes similitudes avec un essai de chargement de pieu. Il est donc possible d’extrapoler une méthode de dimensionnement di-
recte utilisant la résistance de pointe et le frottement latéral mesurés par la pointe électrique pour calculer le coefficient de pointe
et le frottement latéral unitaire. Nous proposons dans cette communication une nouvelle approche transformant les courbes de
chargement et celles de mobilisation de frottement d’un essai de chargement de pointe point par point en courbe charge-
déplacement d’un pieu dans les limons et les sables. Cet article présente une approche pratique pour l'évaluation et la normalisa-
tion des courbes t-z, la méthode de conception directe proposée pour la prévision du tassement et une comparaison avec des es-
sais de chargement de pieux instrumenté du site de Limelette dans des sables légèrement argileux.
Les résultats sont comparés aux dimensionnements réalisés avec les méthodes de dimensionnement classiques utilisant les résul-
tats des essais au pressiomètre Ménard et au pénétromètre statique avec piézocone.
1
Corresponding Author.
916 Ph. Reiffsteck et al. / Méthode de dimensionnement directe des pieux basée
20
8m
9m
300 2m
10 m
-150
sol et du mode de mise en place (avec ou sans re-
-200
foulement du sol). La charge limite de frottement b) déplacement corrigé (mm)
latéral dépend du changement des propriétés de Figure 1. (a) Courbes de chargement CLT obtenues à Lime-
sol à proximité du pieu après qu'il ait été installé, lette (b) Courbes de mobilisation de frottement durant l'essai
notamment : la variabilité de sol et l'interaction
complexe sol-pieu. Par conséquent, pour chaque Les courbes se composent d'une partie li-
segment du fût du pieu, la charge limite de frot- néaire en petites déformations, puis d'une partie
tement doit être calculée à partir de la résistance incurvée au début de la plasticité et d'une partie
au cisaillement multipliée par un paramètre qui linéaire à un niveau plus élevé de déformations.
dépend des facteurs d’influence.
Ph. Reiffsteck et al. / Méthode de dimensionnement directe des pieux basée 917
Cet essai peut être réalisé avec une pointe en aucune mesure affecté par la réalisation des
électrique normalisée [4]. En cas d'utilisation essais CLT (figure 2b).
d'un piézocône, la variation de la pression inters- La figure 1.a montre que les courbes de char-
titielle et la résistance au cisaillement sur man- gement (résistance de pointe en fonction du dé-
chon de frottement sont mesurées. placement) sont très régulières et l'essai est répé-
Les courbes de mobilisation du frottement la- titif et permet de distinguer les différentes
téral peuvent ainsi être obtenues d'une manière couches. La figure 1.b montre les courbes de
très semblable à celle employée pour obtenir le mobilisation de frottement (fsCLT en fonction du
frottement latéral pendant un essai de charge- déplacement de la pointe) obtenues. La valeur
ment statique de pieu équipé d'extensomètres finale de la pression appliquée durant chaque pa-
amovibles [12] (figure 1.b). lier également appelée qCLT est proche de la va-
Cependant, l'essai de chargement de pointe exige leur moyenne de la résistance de pointe classique
des corrections résultant de l'effet de la compres- qc. Les pressions limites qCLT restent inférieures
sion élastique des tiges ou des conditions ini- à qc avec une différence constante de 25%. Cette
tiales de l'essai. Le calcul de la correction, con- différence a été déjà étudiée par [13].
siste à évaluer l’effort moyen déduit de la 0 20 40
EM (MPa)
60 0 25
Modules E_CLT corrigés (MPa)
50 75 100 125 0 50
ED (MPa)
100 150
0
différence entre la force mesurée en tête et celle 1 PMT1-bis
Eini CLT
E50% CLT
7
sation de l'inclinomètre est suggérée [4]. 8
9
10
12
13
Le site de Limelette (Belgique) propriété du 14
3
PMT2-bis
PMT3_LCPC
Minimum
Maximum
de mesure [12].
CPT_LCPC
4
5
6
7
8
3 METHODE DE DIMENSIONNEMENT
9
10
DE L’ESSAI DE CHARGEMENT DE
11 POINTE
12
13
SPT 1
14
15
SPT 2 En considérant que la pointe pénétrométrique
SPT 3
16
z (m)
est un modèle réduit de pieu, et que la déforma-
a 17
b c tion du sol autour de la pointe indique des effets
Figure 2. Profils obtenus avec le pressiomètre, le pénétro- semblables à ceux observés autour d'un pieu
mètre statique et l'essai au carottier. pendant le chargement, alors les courbes de
Les différents essais réalisés sur le site per- chargement de pointe reflètent l'interaction entre
mettent de localiser ces transitions avec précision un pieu et le sol environnant. De la même ma-
(figure 2). On note que le pénétrogramme n'est nière, la valeur de la force mesurée agissant sur
le manchon de frottement divisée par la section
918 Ph. Reiffsteck et al. / Méthode de dimensionnement directe des pieux basée
du manchon peut être identifiée comme la résis- fondation profonde (figure 5). La manière par
tance unitaire de frottement latéral sur le fût d'un laquelle cette nouvelle méthode a été construite
pieu [9]. Dans le cas général d’un sol multi- est très proche de celle proposée par Briaud et
couche pour lequel la distribution de la résistance également utilisée dans la norme hollandaise
limite fs en fonction de la profondeur est connue, NEN6743 ([3], [8], [10]). La raison du choix des
les deux équations suivantes sont proposées : courbes de l’essai CLT est l'observation faite
dans les paragraphes précédents d’une bonne
Qpu = [qo+kp.(qCLT)]..B²/4 [2] correspondance entre l'essai de chargement de
pieu et l'essai de chargement de pointe, ce qui
n’est pas évident au premier abord pour un essai
Qsu =tin ks.fs..B.li [3] d'expansion tel que l’essai pressiométrique.
q/qmax et fs/fsmax
1,2
350
C CLT à 9,5 m
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
CLT à 9 m
300
CLT à 8 m h/diamètre pointe
CLT à 7 m
250 CLT à 6 m
CLT à 5 m Figure 5. Normalisation des courbes pour la création des
200 CLT à 4 m
CLT à 3 m courbes (t,z) pour le sable
150 CLT à 2 m
D
100
Le déplacement en tête du pieu wpieu peut être
50 E&F
déterminé en fonction de la charge de pieu
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 comme étant la somme de la valeur du déplace-
Déplacement (mm)
ment au niveau du fût du pieu et du déplacement
Figure 4. Comparaison des frottements latéraux de l'essai sta- dû à la compression des couches de sol situées
tique de pieu A1bis et essai de chargement de pointe [6] au-dessous du niveau de la pointe du pieu. Le
déplacement le long du fût inclut le déplacement
La comparaison et la corrélation entre la dû à l'élasticité du pieu.
courbe de mobilisation obtenue à partir de l'essai
de chargement de pointe et celle de l'essai de
chargement statique de pieu, pour le même site et
w pieu w fut w po int e wél [4]
le même type de sol, donne accès aux facteurs Avec :
d'influence (figure 4). Cependant, il y a quelques wpointe et wfût déduits à partir des courbes re-
singularités qui dépendent de la géométrie de la latives de charge déplacement construites
pointe utilisée dans l'essai CLT, ainsi que l'in- avec des valeurs moyennes de qc et fs en
fluence du manchon de frottement. En effet, il fonction du déplacement relatif normalisé
est nécessaire d'intégrer un facteur de correction s/B (figure 6),
qui tient compte des effets d’échelle et de forme wél fonction de la variation linéaire de
pour le terme du frottement latéral (ks) et de l’effort vertical dans le pieu.
pointe (kp).
Il est également possible de transformer les
courbes de chargement de pointe et de mobilisa-
tion de frottement sur le manchon dans un essai
CLT point par point en une courbe (t-z) pour la
Ph. Reiffsteck et al. / Méthode de dimensionnement directe des pieux basée 919
exemple. 9
A
4
Tableau 1. Comparaison des méthodes de dimensionnement
Essai de pieu CLT
6
Qpu 1059 2448
Tassement (mm)
8
Qsu 2064 972
10
Essai de pieu_tass en tete Qu 3123 3420
12
Essai de pieu_tass en pointe
14
Méthode CLT_moyenne
16
Calcul PIVER avec 2 points
18
Calcul PIVER avec plusieurs points
5 CONCLUSION
20
Figure 7. Courbe de charge – déplacement avec différentes Cette publication a essayé de décrire une nou-
méthodes velle méthode de conception directe de pieux ba-
sée sur l'essai de chargement de pointe (CLT) ti-
L'essai de chargement statique de pieu est ef- rant profit de la qualité intrinsèque de cet essai:
fectué selon la norme européenne EN ISO reproductibilité, précision et accès à la force mais
également à la rigidité. Davantage de recherches
920 Ph. Reiffsteck et al. / Méthode de dimensionnement directe des pieux basée
sont nécessaires afin de rassembler des études de by means of cone penetrometer, Soils and Foundations,
2009, 49(3) 397-408.
cas sur différents sites : limon, sables, etc. pour
[13] Sanglerat G. The state of the Art in France, ESOPT,
définir les facteurs rhéologiques adaptés [11]. Stockholm, 1974, pp.47-58
[14] Van Alboom, G. Whenham, V. (2003). Soil investiga-
tion campaign at Limelette (Belgium): Results. Pro-
ceedings of the Symposium on screw piles in sand
REMERCIEMENTS – design & recent developments, 7 mai 2003, Brux-
elles.
Les auteurs tiennent à remercier N. Huy-
brecht, M. de Vos, V. Wenham du CSTC, Lime-
lette, Belgique, pour leurs aides dans la réalisa-
tion des essais
REFERENCES
[1] Ali H., Reiffsteck P., Bacconnet C., Gourves R., Bague-
lin F., Van De Graaf H. Facteurs d'influence de l'essai
de chargement de pointe, Journées Nationales de Géo-
technique et de Géologie de l’Ingénieur JNGG' 08,
Nantes, 2008, pp 467-474.
[2] Arbaoui H., Gourvès R., Bressolette Ph., Bodé L., Me-
sure de la déformabilité des sols in situ à l'aide d'un es-
sai de chargement statique d'une pointe pénétromé-
trique, Can. Geotech. J, 2006, 43(4) 355-369.
[3] Briaud J.-L., Spread Footings in Sand: Load Settlement
Curve Approach, J. of Geotech. and Geoenv. Engrg,
ASCE, 2007, 133(8) 805-920.
[4] CEN/ISO (2005) Geotechnical investigation and testing
- Field testing - Part 1: Electrical cone and piezocone
penetration tests, EN/ISO 22476-1, 41 p
[5] Haefeli R., Fehlmann H.B. Measurement of soil com-
pressibility in situ by means of the model pile test, Proc.
4th Int. Conf. SMFE, London, 1957, (1) 225-230
[6] Huybrechts, N. Whenham, V. (2003). Pile Testing
campaign on the Limelette test site, Installation
techniques of screw piles. Proceedings of the 2nd
Symposium on screw piles, 7 mai 2003, Bruxelles.
[7] Ladanyi B. Use of the static penetration tests in frozen
soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 1976, Vol. 13,
No. 2, pp. 95 - 110.
[8] Larsson, R., Bengtsson, P.-E. Field determination of
stress-strain relations of clay till, 4th Int. Symp. on Def.
Char. of Geomaterials (IS-Atlanta 2008), pp. 875-882
[9] MELT. Règles techniques de calcul et de conception
des fondations des ouvrages de génie civil, CCTG Fas-
cicule 62 Titre V, Ministère de l’Équipement, du Lo-
gement et des Transports, Paris, Texte officiel, 1993, l
N° 93-3, 182 p.
[10] NEN (1991). Calculation method for bearing capacity
of pile foundation, compression pile, Dutch Standard
NEN 6743, 31 p.
[11] Reiffsteck Ph., ISP5 Pile Prediction Revisited, ASCE
Geotechnical Special Publication N° 185, Contempo-
rary topics in in situ testing, analysis and reliability of
foundations, IFCEE Orlando, 2009, pp. 50-57
[12] Reiffsteck Ph., Bacconnet C., Gourvès R., van de Graaf
H.C., Thorel L. Measurements of soil compressibility
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 921
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-921
ABSTRACT
The process from design to execution of the foundations of Danube Bridge Vidin-Calafat (Bulgaria-Romania border) is summa-
rised. The foundations are made of 2.0 m and 1.5 m diameter floating concrete bored piles. excavated mainly on Pliocene clay
that is founded below alluvial strata or loessian soils with variable thickness around 20 m. For the design the focus was put on
the triaxial and the pressiometric tests carried out inside investigating boreholes. To lower the safety factor and make more pre-
cise the pile lengths, several loading tests on trial piles were made (a total of 6 O-cell tests). This paper emphasizes specially the
parameters deduced from these tests and its correlation with .the previsions based on design. From the analysis of the O-Cell
Test results some conclusions were derived: the loading tests showed that the calculus parameters derived from the tests were
placed between those obtained from the triaxial tests and from the pressiometric tests; and that the ultimate values from loading
tests matched to the limiting values established in the specialized literature and common standards for overconsolidated clays.
RÉSUMÉ
La procédure de la conception à l'exécution des fondations du pont du Danube Vidin-Calafat (Bulgarie-Roumanie frontière) est
résumée. Ce sont pieux forés flottants de 1,5 et 2,0 mètres de diamètre creusés principalement sur des argiles du Pliocène, qui
sous-tendent des sols alluviaux ou loessians d'épaisseur variable autour de 20 m. Le design est basée sur des essais triaxiaux et
pressiométriques. Pour abaisser le facteur de sécurité et de rendre plus précise les longueurs de pieux, des essais de charge sur
des pieux ont été faites (pour un total de 6 essais de cellules Osterberg). Cette communication souligne les paramètres déduits de
ces tests et sa corrélation avec. les prévisions basées sur les basées sur les essais précédents. De l'analyse des résultats des tests
O-Cell certaines conclusions ont été tirées: les essais de chargement ont montré que les paramètres de calcul ont été placés entre
ceux obtenus à partir des essais triaxiaux et des essais pressiométriques, et que les valeurs ultimes des essais de chargement
coïncident avec les valeurs limites établies dans la littérature spécialisée et des normes communes pour argiles surconsolidées.
Keywords: Pliocene clays, Bored Piles, Floating piles, Axial loads, Load Tests, Offshore.
1
Corresponding Author.
922 F. Rodríguez Ballesteros et al. / Design, Load Tests & Completion of Bored Piles 80 m Depth
O-Cell Tests
CEMSOLVE Analysis Undrained shear strength C U(kPa)
0
-4 TP2
TP3
-8
-12 TP-1
-16
TP6 TP4 TP7
-20 TP1
TP-3
-24
-28
-32
-36 Cu(q) = q/9
Cu (Triaxials)
10N
Cu (Pressuremeter) ^ 17.5 N
Figure 1 Undrained shear strengths from Triaxial, Pressuremeters and O-Cell Pile Tets
x Strain gauges to assess the skin friction load
The O-Cell Tests were performed on 1200 mm transfer above and below the O-cell.
diameter, 60 – 68.5 m long test piles, TP1 to TP4, x Two lengths of steel pipe were also in-
TP6 & TP7 (Summary in Table 3). stalled, extending from the top of the pile to
The maximum sustained bi-directional load the top of the bottom plate, to vent the break
applied to the pile was 12.7 MN with a maximum in the pile formed by the expansion of the
cell opening (upward + downward) of 156 mm.. O-cells. The pipes were filled with water
The loading assembly consisted of two 405 mm prior to the start of the test.
O-cells, located 12.63 metres above the pile’s toe An auger and bucket were used for drilling
The Test Piles were provided with the follow- and cleaning the pile tips respectively. The rein-
ing internal instrumentation: forcing cage with attached O-cell was inserted
into the excavation and temporarily supported
x Four Linear Vibrating Wire Displacement
from the steel casing. Concrete was then deliv-
Transducers between the plates of the O-cell
ered by tremie into the base of the pile until the
assembly to measure expansion.
top of the concrete reached piling platform level.
x Two lengths of 6 mm diameter telltale rods
Using the procedures described in [2], equiva-
attached to the reinforcing cage diametri-
lent top load curves for the test piles were con-
cally opposed, extending above & below the
structed, with the CEMSOLVE Method (Fig .3).
steel bearing plates of the O-cell assembly
to measure the profile of the pile.
924 F. Rodríguez Ballesteros et al. / Design, Load Tests & Completion of Bored Piles 80 m Depth
16
TP2
12
TP1
8
TP3
4
0
0 5 10 15 20
Settlement (mm)
O-Cell Tests
CEMSOLVE Analysis Skin Friction f (kPa)
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
8
4
0
Elevation h (m)
-4
-8
-12
-16
TP3 TP2 TP4 TP1 TP7
-20
-24
-28
TP6
-32
-36 Design values
A temporary cargo port was constructed for the tremie pipe, connected to the mud pump, and
loading equipment on barges. The mooring of the pumping air into the pile tip. Thus, the bentonite
pontoon was made with four concrete blocks of was recirculating for 3/4 hours to collect all the
23 tons, placed in the river bottom. They had a soil detritus suspended in the pile excavation.
larger plant area than height, to not allow the After finishing the assembly of the cage and
overturning in case of strong flows. holding it on the casing’s top, a second air lift
In order to avoid possible shock of the barge was done. The concrete was formulated for 2.5
on piles already completed, the piling was started hours of workability and the beginning of the
by the upstream pile file, following downstream. setting for 6 hours.
So, in the case of an accidental breakage of a
cable tie, the barge always moves with the river
flow and not hurt the completed piles. 5 CONCLUSIONS
Bargage River flow From the analysis of the O-Cell Test results some
Anchor
conclusions were derived concerning the design
of bored piles against axial loads in these high
plasticity overconsolidated clays:
x The values of shaft (f) and point resistances
(q) deduced from the Pile Tests were placed
between those obtained from the triaxial
tests and from the pressiometric tests.
x The correlation between ultimate values
Bargage
Anchor from loading tests and the undrained shear
strength matched to the limiting values es-
tablished in the specialized literature and
Figure 6. Barge anchor and pile execution order pile common standards for this kind of soils.
With "traditional" Methods carefully
implemented, it was possible to make bored piles
The welding between the different sections of
of magnitudes much higher than usual: 80 meters
the casing was made in the ‘Precast Casting yard’
long and 2.0 meters diameter in a very mighty
of the works, placed 3 km downstream from the
river stream without traffic affections.
bridge. The casings were transported in two 500
tons barges with 40 m long by 9.5 m wide, pulled
by a tugboat. Once the barge were moored to the
main barge, it proceeded to the positioning of the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
main barge. For driving the 27-meter long
casings a metallic structure was available, Ministry of Transport, Information Technology
specially designed for guidance purposes and Communications. Republic of Bulgaria.
J. Ruiz Cabrero, FCC Site Manager
I. Diaz de Argote, FCC Design Coordinator
4.2 Piles excecution F. Flórez , FCC Head of Site Technical Office
M. England, LOAD TEST.
Bentonite mud was used for the containment of
the borehole walls below the permanent casings.
A RT-3 drill head attached to a lattice crane was REFERENCES
used. In order to ensure the cleanliness of the
bottom of the excavation, the excavation bucket [1] BS 8004:1986
for clays was changed for a cleaning one. The [2] Fleming, W.G.K., (1992) “A new method for single pile
cleaning was completed with an air lift through settlement prediction and analysis”, Geotechnique 42,
No3, pp. 411-425.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 927
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-927
ABSTRACT
Low strain integrity testing is a widely used method for the quality control of concrete piles. The detection of pile defects with
this method strongly depends on the length of the generated stress wave. However, when the stress wave is too short the wave
propagation will be a three dimensional wave propagation which is conflicting with the standard signal interpretation
method that is based on the one dimensional wave theory.
This paper gives an overview of a number of three dimensional effects and proposes two parameters to determine the
validity of the interpretation method based on the one dimensional wave theory. Based on this, analysis guidelines can be
derived for the optimized use of hammers in order to stay in the realm of the standard low strain integrity testing interpretation
method.
RÉSUMÉ
La méthode de contrôle d'intégrité des pieux par réflexion ou impédance est largement utilisée pour l'auscultation d'un pieu en
béton. La détection des défauts des pieux avec cette méthode dépend fortement de la longueur de l'onde plane générée.
Toutefois, lorsque l'onde plane est trop courte, sa propagation sera une propagation tridimensionnelle, ce qui est en conflit avec
la méthode standard d'interprétation du signal, qui est basée sur la théorie d'onde unidimensionnelle.
Cet article donne un aperçu d'un certain nombre d'effets tridimensionnels et propose deux paramètres afin de
déterminer la validité de la méthode d'interprétation basée sur la théorie d'onde unidimensionnelle. En se basant sur cette théorie,
les règles d'analyse peuvent être obtenues pour l'utilisation optimisée des marteaux, afin de rester dans le domaine de la méthode
standard d'interprétation du contrôle de pieu par les méthodes impulsionelles.
Keywords: low strain integrity testing, one dimensional wave equation, three dimensional effects, stress wave, shock wave,
impulse hammer, pile integrity testing
the construction site. The measured signals are semi-infinite elastic cylindrical rod. This analytic
interpreted using the one dimensional wave solution shows a geometric dispersion of the
theory. wave velocity and leads to a reduction of the
The low strain integrity test is a quick, non- wave velocity for higher frequencies. This
destructive test to detect pile defects which can reduction has a small dependency on the Poisson
possibly reduce the bearing capacity. This me- constant of the material. The results of these
thod measures the integrity of the pile and cannot calculations are shown in Benetar [3]. Wave
be used to estimate the bearing capacity of piles. lengths of four times the pile diameter have
The sensitivity of the measurement method is about a 10 % reduced wave velocity compared to
dependent on the length of the hammer generated the wave velocity given in equation (1). At even
stress wave. Defects that are of a smaller size shorter wave lengths the reduction is about 40 %.
than the generated wave length are reduced in
amplitude in the measured signal, as is discussed 2.2 Pile diameter changes
in Schellingerhout [1].
A pile defect is detected in an integrity test
In general, the blow should therefore be a
signal, because the wave reflects on a change in
sharp and narrow pulse with a high frequency
pile impedance. The biggest change in
content. When the generated wave is too short,
the one dimensional approximation is no longer impedance is obviously the end of a free pile or
fixed end, which leads to the full reflection of the
valid and cannot be used any longer for the
traveling wave.
interpretation, as three dimensional effects will
During the interpretation the impedance
occur. Several three dimensional wave effects
change is usually attributed to a change in pile
must be reduced for an accurate analysis.
diameter (area) and not to a change in material
parameters. A change in pile diameter can lead to
three dimensional effects which where studied in
2 ORIGINS OF THREE DIMENSIONAL
small plastic piles by Schellingerhout [4]. This
EFFECTS
study shows that these three dimensional effects
lead to an increase in the reflected amplitude of
A number of three dimensional effects can occur the wave improving the detection of defects in
while performing a sonic integrity test. These can the signal. This result is positive for the
be caused by the geometrical dispersion, pile discovery of defects, but results in an
diameter changes or the stress wave length. overestimation of the size of the defect in the one
dimensional wave theory.
2.1 Geometrical dispersion
The wave velocity in a slender pile is given by 2.3 Stress wave length
the equation: The stress wave is generated in the pile by the
blow of a small hammer. The diameter of the
E hand held hammer is much smaller than the
c (1)
diameter of the pile. This leads to strong three
dimensional effects which were studied by Chow
et al. [5] in three dimensional finite element
with: models as well as in field studies. One of their
conclusions is not to place the acceleration
c = the wave velocity [m/s] sensor in the vicinity of the place of impact of
E = Young’s modules [Pa] the hammer, as is also prescribed in the French
ȡ = density [kg/m3] code on integrity testing NF P94-160-4 [6]. A
transition distance is necessary to minimize these
Pochhammer [2] and Chree formulated an effects especially for large piles.
analytic solution for the wave propagation in a
A.J.G. Schellingerhout and A.J. van Rietschoten-Rietveld / Pile Integrity Testing Developments 929
3 PARAMETERS c t 50%
3D (2)
All day to day measurements are still interpreted D
with the one dimensional wave theory. To be
sure this interpretation is valid, two parameters 3D = cross over parameter
are relevant. c = wave velocity [m/s]
t50% = blow duration when the loading pulse
3.1 Parameter t50% exceeds 50% of the max. value [s]
D = pile diameter [m]
The first parameter is t50% which defines the
hammer blow duration at half of the maximum This 3D parameter is the ratio of the stress
value, as is shown in figure 1. Usually the soil wave length to the diameter of the pile. For
damping is low at the pile top and in that case, square piles an effective diameter is suggested
the velocity signal can also be used for this mea- which has the same area as an equivalent round
surement of t50%. pile.
Thus it is possible to obtain this parameter
from integrity tests without an instrumented The impulse of the hammer blow can be given
force hammer. The duration is the preferred by:
parameter, because this is the most relevant
parameter for the impact of the hammer on the
pile head. $ F (t ) d t 2 m h vimpact (3)
Pile head velocity as function of time F(t) = force as a function of time on the pile
50 head [N]
t50% = 0.30 ms
mh = mass of the hammer [kg]
40 vimpact = impact velocity of the hammer [m/s]
30
v impact [mm/s]
time [ms] With equation (2) and (3) and a low soil
damping at the pile top, the pile head velocity
Figure 1. The hammer blow on a pile and the definition of can be approximated by:
t50%.
8 1 mh
The definition of the parameter t50% has also vp v (4)
been described in the Dutch CUR code on Sonic 3D D 3 impact
Integrity Testing of concrete foundation piles [7].
vp = pile head velocity [m/s]
3.2 3D parameter mh = mass of the hammer [kg]
vimpact = impact velocity of the hammer [m/s]
The second parameter is given in the following
ȡ = density [kg/m3]
equation:
D = pile diameter [m]
930 A.J.G. Schellingerhout and A.J. van Rietschoten-Rietveld / Pile Integrity Testing Developments
Equation (4) shows that the pile head The results of Chow et al.[5] must be
velocity vp strongly depends on the pile diameter. reviewed with a constant 3D parameter, because
The t50% of the hammer impact can be their calculations used a constant input pulse
derived from mathematical models of the hand duration while changing the diameter of the pile.
held hammer. If the hammer is modeled with a The previously discussed geometric effects affect
mass spring combination, the t50% is about 1/3 their calculations as well. This analysis also sug-
of the resonance time and independent of the gests an optimum value for 3D between 3 and 4.
impact velocity. Their conclusion about the transition distance
A better approximation for t50% can be between the point of impact of the hammer and
obtained by using the Hertz theory of impact the placement of the accelerometer remains un-
which predicts a dependency on the impact changed.
duration with the impact velocity. This theory is Only t50% can be optimized to obtain the
also given in Timosheko [8]. optimum value for 3D. This implies a range of
hammers with a different impact duration,
t50% as a function of hammer impact velocity because this value is relatively constant for a
0.6 hammer. A large diameter pile needs a hammer
generating a longer t50%. Equation (4) also
0.55 Hertz theory (vimpact)-0.2
shows that the hammer mass must increase to
measurements
0.5 have an acceptable pile head velocity vp. The
range of impact velocities vimpact is limited by the
t50% [ms]
0.45
user, so an increase in hammer mass is helpful
0.4
for obtaining a good signal to noise ratio.
0.35 However, there will be a reduction in amplitude
0.3
because a constant value of vp would result in a
hammer too heavy to be convenient for field
0.25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 applications.
vimpact [m/s] The t50% can also be increased by electronic
filtering of the measured signal. This method
leads to suboptimal results, because the resulting
Figure 2. Parameter t50% as a function of the hammer impact acceleration levels must be higher, which
velocity. This measurement is executed with a 0.65 kg
hammer with nylon caps on a precast concrete pile with a
therefore results in a lower quality signal.
smooth surface. The continuous line is the Hertz prediction. However, most important is that a longer t50%
during the impact needs a less stiff hammer,
which as a result has a much bigger contact area.
4 DISCUSSION This reduces the stress levels in hammer and pile
and also reduces the three dimensional effects as
The proposed parameter 3D can be used to studied in Chow [5].
obtain an optimal detection of defects and at the Pile : 101- 2 06/10/2010
same time to verify the validity of the use of the v = 7.1 mm/s
t50% = 0.31 ms
one dimensional interpretation method. The
geometric effects suggest that the 3D parameter
must be between 3 and 4 which is not a very
sharp optimum.
If the 3D parameter is significantly higher
than 4, a reduced detection of defects will occur 0 2 4 6 8 10
but the one dimensional wave theory can be c = 4200 m/s l = 8.60 m fil = 0.10 ms exp : 2 V 7.93 auto
5 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
Ruwais Sulphur Expansion Phase III in Abu Dhabi is part of a multi-billion dollars investment in Ruwais Industrial Complex. To
meet the increased sulphur export demand the existing loading facility was expanded. The marine facilities consist of a quadrant
beam and a pivot foundation for the ship loader, four mooring and four breasting dolphins. All structural elements are founded
on raking steel piles rock socketed into the weak mudstone/siltstone bedrock. The paper describes the design of the piles (Ø762,
914 and 1067 mm) and in particular the pile load test set-up and the inferences from the load testing. It is concluded that the rock
socket capacity is well over predictions by current design methods and it is demonstrated that the recommended tension pull out
capacity referring to ground anchor design is extremely conservative.
RÉSUMÉ
La Phase III d'extension du complexe d'exportation de souffre de Ruwais à Abou Dhabi fait partie d'un investissement global de
plusieurs milliards de dollars sur le site industriel de Ruwais. Afin de satisfaire la demande accrue en soufre, les installations de
chargement existantes ont été élargies. Les installations maritimes consistent en une poutre quadrant et une fondation en pivot
pour la grue de chargement des navires, quatre duc d'albe d'amarrage et de quatre ducs d'albe d'accostage. Tous les éléments sont
fondés sur des pieux en acier inclinés ancrés dans substratum rocheux. si qu'une partie de la roche ont été dragués avant l'instal-
lation de pieux afin d'obtenir un tirant d'eau suffisant pour les navires. Cet article décrit les éléments pris en compte pour la con-
ception des pieux, notamment le test de chargement de pieux mis en place et les conclusions de ces tests. Il a été démontré que la
capacité de résistance observée est bien supérieure à celle obtenue par les méthodes de calcul actuelles et il est démontré en par-
ticulier que la capacité en tension recommandée pour les calculs des pieux ancrés dans le substratum rocheux est extrêmement
conservatrice.
Rock sockets, Pile capacity, Pile loading tests, cone pull out, weak rock, Mudstone, Siltstone
1 PROJECT & GROUND CONDITIONS the onshore part of the quadrant beam the bed-
rock is overlain by soft marine sand deposits.
The layout of the sulphur loading facility appears Offshore these deposits have been removed by
from Figure 1. The marine works, comprising the capital dredging exposing the bedrock surface.
loading facility and the mooring systems for the The available offshore boreholes giving the
vessel, are all founded on inclining (1:4) steel overall stratigraphy and the strength in terms of
piles rock socketed into the weak bedrock. For UCS values are seen in Figure 2.
1
Corresponding Author.
934 J.S. Steenfelt and J. Abild / Capacity of Rock Sockets in Weak Mud/Siltstone
2 BASIS FOR ROCK SOCKET DESIGN COWI's experience be of the order 6±4 mm, but
values up to 2% of D are suggested in the litera-
In the assessment of the axial capacity of the ture.
rock sockets a number of specific questions had The relationship between mobilized and ulti-
to be addressed: mate shear stress along the shaft may tentatively
Characterization of ground properties (see be expressed (Brinch Hansen, 1965) as:
above)
Theoretical basis for shaft (and toe) bearing mob 4# mob
Rock socket diameter: pile or socket? (2)
ult 3# mob # ult
Tension cone pull out scenario
Loading tests for verification or optimization
Feasible loading test set-up
where mob, ult are the mobilized shear stresses at
displacements of #mob, #ult, respectively.
2.1 Pile design methodology
The nearby 3rd NGL Train Trestle was founded 2.2 Tension cone pull out
on similar types of piles, albeit without external
shear keys. Unfortunately, the load test carried The pile design was discussed at length with the
out on the 7 m long Ø1.067 m pile in an Ø1.087 Client representative. It was agreed that (1) could
m rock socket (max load 6.4 MN or ult = 268 be used for the design of the rock sockets pro-
kPa) was very far from failure with a maximum vided that the steel piles were fitted with external
displacement at the top of rock socket of 0.4 mm. shear keys per 0.5 m. This alleviates any risk of
A standard rock socket Ø1.067 m was subse- potential steel/concrete rather than concrete/rock
quently tested to failure at the site with a maxi- interface displacement irrespective of develop-
mum residual shaft load of 16.5 MN (ult = 703 ment of cracks along the pile/concrete interface
kPa) at 35 mm displacement. In this context it is during curing.
interesting that API (2000) advocates a charac- However, the question of tension capacity was
teristic cut off value of 525 kPa for the steel- not resolved, in that the Client was of the opinion
concrete interface. that the methodology for ground anchors with
The testing was carried out to validate the de- tension cone pull-out should be considered
sign using the approach by Tomlinson (1994), (BS8081, 1989). The philosophy is that the ten-
based on UCS and RQD which would give a sion capacity can not exceed the weight of
shaft capacity of 6.4 MN where the Fleming et al ground material limited by a cone with an apex
(1992), based on UCS would give 9.8 MN. angle of 60° or 90° from the midpoint of the ac-
Despite some shortcomings the tests provided tive anchor length (here the total rock socket).
sufficient information to confidently use the ap- For piles with no overburden this is an ex-
proach by Fleming et al (1992) in the current de- tremely onerous requirement, which may well be
merited for the rather flexible ground anchors but
sign with c,char = 2.25 MPa:
in the opinion of the Designer not for piles which
are orders of magnitude stiffer and will not allow
c such a failure mode.
ult 0.41( MPa) 0.615 MPa (1) As a compromise the pile design length was
1 MPa
extended by some 1.5 m for the Breasting Dol-
phins corresponding to a cone apex angle of 90°
To limit the displacements the design of the piles from the midpoint of the rock socket, but allow-
was based on (1), disregarding any contribution ing for full adhesion on the lower half of the rock
from end bearing. It was assumed that the dis- socket, pending verification by testing. For the
placement to develop the shaft adhesion would in
936 J.S. Steenfelt and J. Abild / Capacity of Rock Sockets in Weak Mud/Siltstone
remaining piles this cone pull out criterion was tension and the slightly shorter reaction pile in-
not decisive for the socket length. side, moving down and utilizing both end and
shaft bearing. For the purpose of the test only the
2.3 Pile loading test set-up outside shaft adhesion on the test pile is mobi-
lized to avoid interference with the reaction pile,
The previous loading test on the type of rock whereas the working piles will also have con-
socket chosen was not ideal and hence an inno- crete on the inside. The concrete is stopped from
vative testing set-up was developed. The princi- entering the space between the test and reaction
ple is shown in Figure 4.
piles by foam (rubber stop).
The Contractor opted for an "O-cell" housed The instrumentation consisted of the "O-cell"
in the special pile top, seen in Figure 4c, where itself where the pressure, i.e. the load and the
the lower part is welded onto the test pile and the relative movement of the top and bottom of the
top part is bolted onto the lower part after insert- O-cell are measured. One of the advantages of
ing the "O-cell" in a special housing.
the developed set-up is that the "O-cells" can be
re-used as they can be retrieved after the test.
A reaction frame independent of the test set-
up (seen on Figure 4c for the onshore test) al-
lowed measurement of the axial (two LVDTs at
180° arrangement) and transverse movement
(two LVDTs at 90° arrangement) of the pile
head. The vertical movements of the reaction
frame, due to temperature variations, although
shaded throughout the test period, were meas-
ured by two digital survey levels from a distance
of some 8 m in the onshore test and by an on-
shore total station in the offshore testing.
Five sets of two extensometer tubes at 180°
arrangement were welded onto the test pile (over
the length of the active rock socket) and fitted
with extensometer rods allowing monitoring of
relative displacement by LVDTs on the top of
the tubes. The bottom of the tubes were placed to
allow the relative socket displacement at 0/4 (1,
1'), 1/4 (2, 2'), 2/4 (3, 3'), 3/4 (4, 4') and 4/4 (5,
5') distance along the rock socket to be meas-
ured.
For the three types of piles Ø762 mm, Ø914
mm and Ø1067 mm, the drilled socket diameters
were 1000, 1160 and 1400 mm, respectively.
elastic elongation of the 11.3 m free length of the rock socket a best fit line through the re-
pile between the top of the rock socket/trial pile corded displacements was used to provide inter-
and the point of recording of the pile head dis- polated values over the bottom metre as summa-
placement can only be estimated based on the rized in Figure 6 for load steps 1 and 2 in the first
elastic properties of the steel tube as seen in Fig- load cycle and 8, 12 and 14 in the second load
ure 5. cycle.
5 1000
Net head - elastic displacement
2L-14
4 2L-12
800 2L-8
1L-4
3 1L-2
600
2
400
1
200
0
0
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Tension load on trial pile (MN) Depth below top of trial pile (m)
Figure 5. Top of rock socket displacement and elongation of Figure 6. Inferred shear stress distribution along rock socket
rock socket as a function of trial pile tension load assuming ult = 832 kPa and using #ult = 3.22 mm
Based on the extensometer measurements the Other interpretations are also possible assuming
maximum elongation of the rock socket is 3.55 higher values of ult and ult.
mm at the maximum tension load of 15.59 MN. Due to limitations in the capacity of the test
The standard value of E = 21 104 MPa for steel set-up, it was unfortunately not possible to find
would give a value of 3.14 mm upward move- the ultimate capacity despite loading the trial
ment at the top of rock socket. It seems likely socket to 3.6 times the maximum working load
that the elastic modulus is slightly higher than for the Ø914 mm pile. Based on the estimated ult
the guaranteed value and a value of 22.6 104 = 832 kPa along the total rock socket surface the
MPa was therefore applied in Figure 5. maximum capacity would be 18.2 MN.
The figure shows hysteresis for the rock During the holding time of 60 minutes for the
socket and surprisingly also for the free pile maximum load the creep rate was as low as 0.07
length. The latter is most likely associated with mm/log cycle of time compared to 2 mm/log cy-
the inclination of the pile and slight out of plumb cle of time which is often used as a substitute
status combined with initial stress set up in the failure criterion for ground anchors and piles.
pile (could possibly explain the "negative" dis-
placements during the first load-unload loop).
The shear stresses developed along the rock 4 OFFSHORE ROCK SOCKET TESTS
socket were evaluated based on zero displace-
ment at the bottom of the rock socket, an ulti- Despite using the same set-up, pile installation
mate shear strength of ult =832 kPa, correspond- technique, software and instrumentation the ex-
ing to c = 4.12 MPa in Eq (1) or #ult = 3.55 mm tensometer readings for the offshore tests on
in Eq. (2) (equivalent to the maximum rock Ø762 mm and Ø1067 mm piles were completely
socket elongation). unreliable. Despite concerted efforts the source
The axial, upwards displacement of the rock of the error was not found and hence only the to-
socket was found from the extensometer read- tal tension capacity can be evaluated from these
ings. To allow a more differentiated account of tests. Due to the extensive weight of the test as-
the shear stress distribution near the bottom of sembly the Ø1067 mm pile was tested as a verti-
938 J.S. Steenfelt and J. Abild / Capacity of Rock Sockets in Weak Mud/Siltstone
cal pile whereas the Ø762 mm pile was inclined tion of the cone pull out criterion using a 90°
1:4 as the working piles. cone from midpoint of rock socket and full adhe-
For both piles a slight miscalculation by the Con- sion below.
tractor resulted in a concrete level slightly above Table 1.Summary of test capacities compared with design
the toe of the temporary casing. In the evaluation and cone pull out criterion
of the net tension load the weight of the pile head Pile di- Socket Working1 Test Failure?2 Cone pull
and the pile above rock socket is of course sub- ameter diameter load load out3
tracted. Furthermore, the effective weight of (mm) (mm) (MN) (MN) (MN) (MN)
concrete above the toe of the temporary casing 762 1000 1.97 7.2 10.5 5.5 [3.4]
914 1200 3.78 13.6 18.2 -
and the casing itself is subtracted. Thus, the net 1067 1400 5.99 19.0 38.4 22.7 [14.3]
tension load was 7.18 MN at about 2 mm dis- 1
Unfactored; 2char = 832 kPa,& socket diameter; 390° cone
placement at the top of rock socket for the Ø762 from midpoint, socket diameter & char = 832 kPa (values in
mm pile and 19.0 MN at 5 mm displacement for brackets are design values)
the Ø1067 mm pile.
From the near linear load/displacement curve
for the Ø1067 mm pile (1400 mm rock socket) in 6 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 7 it is apparent that the capacity is far
from exhausted. The trial pile testing was carried out to achieve a
10
tension load of three times the working load or
failure, whichever came first. In all three cases
the max load was far from the failure load. The
Axial - elastic free pile (mm)
ABSTRACT
The pile tip bearing capacity in sand is tested at different depths and g-levels in a geotechnical centrifuge. Aim of the experi-
ments was to investigate the influence of crushing on the tip bearing capacity. Different installation techniques were applied.
Some piles were jacked with a constant velocity until a certain depth; other piles were also jacked but with sinus superimposed
on the constant displacement rate, so that the piles were lifted for 0.1 or 0.2 mm (model dimensions) before it were pushed fur-
ther. The last procedure was used to simulate the cyclic effect of pile driving (the dynamic effect was not simulated). Crushing
was found when the pile tip stress exceeded approximately 15 MPa. However, no significant effect on the bearing capacity could
be found.
RÉSUMÉ
La portance de bout de pile en sable est examinée à différents profondeurs et g-niveaux dans une centrifugeuse géotechnique. Le
but des expériences était d'étudier l'influence de l'écrasement sur la portance de bout. Les différentes techniques d'installation
étaient appliquées. Quelques piles ont été mises sur cric avec une vitesse constante jusqu'à une certaine profondeur, d'autres piles
ont été également mises sur cric mais avec le sinus superposé au taux volumétrique, de sorte que la pile ait été soulevée 0.1 ou
0.2 millimètre (dimensions modèles) avant qu'il ait été poussé plus loin. Le dernier procédé a été employé pour simuler l'effet
cyclique de l'entraînement de pile (l'effet dynamique n'a pas été simulé). L'écrasement a été trouvé quand l'effort de bout de pile
a dépassé MPA approximativement 15. Cependant, aucun effet significatif sur la portance n'a pu être trouvé.
Keywords: geotechnical centrifuge, pile bearing capacity, model tests, grain crushing, jacked piles, cyclic loading
1
Corresponding Author.
940 R. Stoevelaar et al. / Effects of Crushing on Pile Point Bearing Capacity in Sand Tested
usually correspond with high stresses underneath ured/calculated of 1 for the piles tips at low
the tip. Crushing will lead to volume loss and depths in the sand and 0.55 for the value at large
lower stresses underneath the pile tip and conse- depth, see Figure 1, close to the values found by
quently lower end bearing capacity. Xu.
1.6
To check the effect of crushing 10 centrifuge
tests on pile installation were performed, with 1.4
measured/calculated
0.8
before and after each test.
0.6
The paper describes briefly the context of the
0.4
tests, the set-up, the tests performed and the re-
sults, to end with conclusions. 0.2
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Length/Diameter in sand
2 DUTCH PILE LOAD TESTS
Figure 1: Dependency of end bearing capacity to depth pile
Under the authority of Delft Cluster and under into the sand layer. Calculated values according to the Dutch
standard.
supervision of the CUR-committee: “H409-
Axially loaded piles” Deltares conducted a re-
search project investigating calculation methods
3 TEST SET-UP
for the bearing capacity of vertically loaded piles
in sand using static pile load tests. A data set was
produced with 25 full scale, fully instrumented, 3.1 Model container and piles
on-shore pile load tests on closed ended steel The tests are carried out in four stacked Ø600
piles and prefabricated concrete piles in quartz mm steel sand filled containers, mounted on an
sands (CUR 229, 2010). assembly plate. The loading frame with the plun-
The instrumentation of the piles made it pos- gers is mounted on top of the containers. The in-
sible to draw some conclusions for the shaft strumented pile is connected to the plungers. The
bearing capacity and for the end bearing capacity complete test setup is presented in Figure 2.
of the piles with respect to the current Dutch de- The pile loading system consists of two plun-
sign standard NEN 6743-1. The test results sup- gers connected in series. The first and biggest
port the design approach for shaft friction capac- plunger is fixed on the loading frame and is used
ity for these full displacement piles, however the to install the pile (in flight) to the starting point
end bearing capacity according to the Dutch of the static pile loading program. The second
method (Van Mierlo & Koppejan, 1952, De and smallest plunger is a loading plunger with a
Ruiter & Beringen, 1979) appeared to be de- stroke of 50 mm and is fixed to the plunger rod
pendent on the penetration of the piles in the of the first plunger. This second plunger is used
sand layer. This aspect is not addressed in the to perform the static pile loading program. The
current design approach. instrumented pile is attached to the second plun-
In the work of Xu (2007) also a lower bearing ger. The slow movements during the static pile
capacity factor of 60% of the calculated value loading programme (0.02 mm/s) can be easily
was reported, based on analysis of a database for disturbed by the slip-stick effect when performed
closed ended piles. The database from the CUR – with the plunger 1. Plunger 2 has a hydraulic
committee showed a lot of scatter (as to be ex- bearing system and is accurate within microns.
pected from field tests), but assuming a Gaussian The pile had a length of 300 mm with a di-
distribution with a standard deviation of 8 L/D ameter 11.3 mm.
(L=length, D=diameter), it was found that a fit A force transducer was placed on the pile tip
through the data points results in a ratio meas- to measure the pile tip resistance during the tests.
R. Stoevelaar et al. / Effects of Crushing on Pile Point Bearing Capacity in Sand Tested 941
The pile was placed 100 mm out of the centre 3.2 Loading programme
from the container, to allow 2 tests to be done in
The loading programme was the same for all
one sand sample. In this way the influence of in-
tests and was as follows: Installation at 6 times
stallation could be tested in the same sand sam-
the pile diameter (D), removal of load, pile load-
ple. The first pile test has negligible influence on
ing test over 0.1D and then the same procedure at
the sand sample for the second test.
a penetration of 12 and 24 D.
The pile installation procedure was different
in different tests. In all tests during the installa-
tion phases, the pile was pushed into the sand
with 1 mm/s. However, in Tests 2, 4, 6 and 8 a
sinus was superimposed on the constant rate of
penetration with a period of 1 s and amplitude of
0.25 mm. In Test 9 the amplitude was increased
up to 0.5 mm. This movement was chosen to si-
mulate the unloading and loading that occurs
during pile driving in the field.
4 TESTS RESULTS
4.1 Overview
In total 10 tests were performed. The results of
the tests are summarized in Table 2. The table
Figure 3. Plunger system with two plungers shows the test number, the amplitude of the sinus
942 R. Stoevelaar et al. / Effects of Crushing on Pile Point Bearing Capacity in Sand Tested
with a period of one second (- when no sinus is that the crushing process does not really break a
applied), the g level, the maximum tip force dur- particle in 2 equal halves, but more that small
ing the loading tests at 6 D, 12 D and 24 D, the parts break from the larger particles. Remarkable
ultimate penetration force during installation 24 is further that the largest particles (above the d70)
Di and in the last column it is indicated if crush- are hardly influenced by crushing. This is be-
ing was measured after the test (- means not de- cause these are relatively strong and because a
termined). small part of 10 Pm breaking from a larger grain
of 150 Pm hardly influences the size of the larger
Table 2. Tests performed and measured tip forces, see also grain.
text. 100
The cyclic loading results in an elastic unload- also be caused by less dilatancy at higher stress
ing of the pile tip as can be seen on a detail of the levels (see Fellinius and Altaee, 1995).
penetration between 20 and 20.5 m penetration in
Figure 7, where the full signal for both tests is Penetration resistance (MPa)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
presented. 0
Test 1, RD 61%
2 Test 3, RD 66%
4.4 Static loading tests
5 DISCUSSION ON THE RESULTS Figure 5. Penetration resistance of the pile tip as a function
of depth for monotonic penetration.
The pile tip resistance appears to be very sen- Penetration resistance (MPa)
sitive to the relative density of the sand. This re- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
controlled conditions. 8
10
The grain size distribution taken around the
12
pile clearly shows that crushing has occurred
14
during the test. However, there is no clear result
16
whether or not this has influenced the penetration
18
resistance. Figure 5 shows that the increase of
20
the penetration resistance with depth (the gradi-
22
ent in the penetration resistance) decreases when
24
the penetration resistance becomes higher than 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
approximately 15 MPa in the Tests 1 and 10.
Test 5 has a ‘bend’ in the curve at a much Figure 6. Penetration resistance for the pile tip compared for
cyclic (Test 9) and monotonic loading (Test 10). Test 9
lower penetration resistance of approximately 3 shows only the maxima.
MPa. The gradient in the penetration resistance
as measured in the monotonic tests with a rela- Crushing will also counteract the increase in
tive density of 65% is presented in Table 3. It horizontal stress due to dilatancy and conse-
appeared that the gradient is always lower when quently also lead to a decrease in the gradient in
the penetration resistance is higher. It is remark- the penetration resistance.
able that the difference in the measured gradients Test 1 has the biggest change in the gradient
is smaller when the penetration resistance is below and above 15 MPa what could be an influ-
higher than 15 MPa. However, apart from Test 1 ence of crushing but for this test no crushing was
the difference in gradient is only small and could found in the grain size distribution.
944 R. Stoevelaar et al. / Effects of Crushing on Pile Point Bearing Capacity in Sand Tested
6 CONCLUSIONS
penetration resistance (MPa)
0 10 20 30
20.00 The centrifuge tests on model piles at 40 and 80
penetration of 1-g prototype (m)
Test 9, RD 65%
20.05
Test 10, RD 65%
g in sand led to the following conclusions:
20.10 - Crushing of sand grains has been detected when
20.15
20.20
the pile tip resistance reaches values of approxi-
20.25 mately 15 MPa or higher.
20.30 - This probably has some influence on the pene-
20.35
tration resistance, but this could not be proven by
20.40
20.45
the results of the experiments.
20.50 - The tests did not explain the discrepancy be-
0 10 20 30 tween the Dutch code NEN6743-1 and the field
Figure 7. Pile tip response: detail of cyclic penetration test measurements.
(Test 9) compared with monotonic loading (Test 10). - The different installation methods tested had no
significant influence on the penetration resis-
22.5
tance and the bearing capacity.
resistance in loading tests (MPa)
20.0 RD 65%
RD 38% - The relative density has a very large influence
17.5
0.25 mm on the pile resistance. Homogeneous soil sam-
15.0 0.5 mm
ples are very important is this kind of research.
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
REFERENCES
2.5
[1]. CUR 229 (2010) Axial bearing capacity of piles (in
0.0
Dutch). CUR. Gouda. The Netherlands.
0 5 10 15 20 25
[2]. Dong Y.(2010) Hydraulic fracture containment in
depth at 1g (m) sand. Phd. Thesis Delft University of Technology
[3]. Fellinius B.H. and Altae A.A. (1995) Critical depth:
Figure 8. Results of pile loading tests for various densities
how it came into being and why it does not exist. Proc.
and different amplitudes during penetration
Instn. Civ. Engrs. Geotech. Engng, 113, April 107-
111.
Table 3. Increase in penetration resistance per m (in MPa/m) [4]. Mierlo, W.C. van and Koppejan, A.W. (1952), Length
for the tests with monotonic loading and Rd=65%. and bearing capacity of piles (in Dutch). Bouw
[5]. Ruiter J. de and Beringen F.L. (1979), Pile foundations
Test <10 MPa >15 MPa
for large North Sea structures, Marine Geotechnology.
1 2.4 0.82 3 (3): 267-314
3 1.0 0.93 [6]. NEN6743-1; (2006). Geotechniek
7 1.6 1.5
Berekeningsmethode op palen. Drukpalen (in Dutch).
10 0.98 0.78 The Netherlands Standardization Institute. Delft. The
Netherlands, November.
The test results show no clear influence of the [7]. Rietdijk J., Schenkeveld F.M., Schaminée P.E.L. and
installation method as was shown in Figure 8. Bezuijen A. (2010). “The drizzle method for sand
sample preparatoin” Proc. 6th Int. Conf. on Physical
The hypotheses was that the cyclic loading on Modelling, Zürich
the pile may lead to rearrangements of the grains [8]. Xu, X (2007) Investigation of the End Bearing Per-
around the pile, which may influence crushing, formance of Displacement Piles in Sand, PhD thesis,
but this was not proven by the experiments, al- the University of Western Australia.
[9]. Yang, Z.X., Jardine R.J., Zhu B.T., Foray P. and Tsuha
though it is still possible that real dynamic pile C.H.C. Sand grain crushing and interface shearing dur-
driving may have some influence. From Figure 7 ing displacement pile installation in sand. Géotech-
it seems reasonable to assume that the cyclic nique 60, No. 6, 469-482
loading as applied in these tests only led to elas-
tic unloading. In pile driving there can also be
plastic unloading of sand in front of the pile tip.
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 945
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-945
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3.3. Ground Reinforcement
Renforcements des sols
This page intentionally left blank
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 959
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-959
ABSTRACT
Compaction grouting is a well established ground improvement technique, which is mainly based on empirical data. Analytical
and numerical models are not widely used in engineering practice yet. To develop the numerical modelling of compaction grout-
ing, a back-analysis of a laboratory test was performed. A finite element model of compaction grouting was developed. It was
possible to simulate the deformations measured in the laboratory tests with sufficient accuracy. The variable stress-strain beha-
viour of the soil-sample due to the progressive compaction was described with hypoplasticity by Kolymbas [11], extended by
von Wolffersdorff [13].
RÉSUMÉ
L' injection solide, est une technique d' amelioration de sol bien établie, qui est basée principalement sur les données empiriques.
Jusqu'à présent, les modèles analytiques et numériques ne sont pas utilisés dans la pratique. Pour développer le modelage numé-
rique de l’injection solide, un calcul d'un essai de laboratoire a été exécuté. Un modèle de la méthode des éléments finis pour
l’injection solide a été développé. Il était possible de simuler les déformations mesurées dans les essais de laboratoire avec
l'exactitude suffisante. Le comportement d'effort de la tension variable de l'échantillon du sol en raison de compaction progressif
a été décrit avec hypoplasticity par Kolymbas [11], élargi par von Wolffersdorff [13].
Keywords: soil improvement, Compaction grouting, laboratory test, numerical simulation, finite element methode, hypoplastici-
ty, pycnotropy, barotropic
1
Corresponding Author.
960 A. Anthogalidis et al. / Numerical Back-Analysis of Compaction Grouting
Numerical approaches for simulating compac- Figure 4. Grading curve of dry sand [6].
tion grouting have to satisfy the requirement of
large deformations and a soil constitutive model Table 2. Soil properties of dry sand [6].
with variable soil properties such as density or Specific weight = 15.2 kN/m³
stiffness. Finite-element-modelling were carried
out with modified Cam-Clay models (Tab. 1). Maximum void ratio emax = 0.923
Minimum void ratio emin = 0.562
Table 1. Numerical modelling of compaction grouting. Relative density Dr = 0.5
Paper/ FE- Specivic gravity s = 26.5 kN/m³
Subject Soil Soil consti-
Report Prog-
tutive law Void ratio at deposition eini = 0.743
ram
Au et al., Grouting elastoplastic Coefficient of uniformity CU = 19
clay ABAQUS
2006, [2] test (Cam Clay)
Iagolnitzer,
Compaction After deposition of the dry sand in the calibra-
grouting test sand elastoplastic ABAQUS tion chamber, 4 different tests were carried out
2000, [9]
area
with consolidation stresses of 85 kN/m²,
Jafari et al., Grouting elastoplastic 125 kN/m², 165 kN/m² and 205 kN/m², respec-
clay ABAQUS
2000, [10] test (Cam Clay) tively. The consolidation stresses were applied
on the top of the specimen. During the volume-
controlled test up to 40 l to 60 l grout mass was
injected by means of 2 to 3 strokes per approx-
imately 20 l with a break between the strokes [6].
962 A. Anthogalidis et al. / Numerical Back-Analysis of Compaction Grouting
5 RESULTS
compaction. The curve characteristic was deter- after consolidation Vi = 19,3 l Vi = 38,7 l
mined in the analysis, too. Though, the calcu-
lated settlement at the beginning of injection was
overestimated. At Vi = ~20 l uplift is already ob-
served in the analysis, while the measurements
still show settlements for this grout volume. Void ratio e [-]
Hence, the vertical displacement is overestimated
at Vi = 19.3 l and underestimated at Vi = 38.7 l.
The maximum discrepancy was ~1 mm.
-60
-70 measured
Figure 7. Distribution of void ratio.
lateral stress x (kN/m²)
-80 calculated
-90
-100
consolidation stress x (kN/m²)
-110 85 105 125 145 165 185 205
0,0
vertical displacement s (mm)
-140
-2,0
0,0
-5,0
-1,0
vertical displacement s (mm)
-4,0
-1,0 calculated - ~40 l
-5,0
-6,0 -2,0
-7,0 measured
-3,0
-8,0 calculated
-9,0 -4,0
-10,0
-5,0
Though, compaction grouting causes extreme [7] Graf E.D. (1969). Compaction Grouting Technique and
Observations. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foun-
states of stress and deformations, the accuracy of
dations Division, Proc. ASCE, SM 5, pp. 1151-1158.
the developed finite element model is sufficient [8] Herle I. (1997). Hypoplastizität und Granulometrie ein-
for simulation of the complex deformation me- facher Konrgerüste. Veröffentlichungen des Institutes
chanism. The discrepancy in the curve characte- für Bodenmechanik und Felsmechanik der Universität
Fridericiana in Karlsruhe; Heft 142
ristics of calculated and measured vertical dis- [9] Iagolnitzer, Y. (2000). A Comparative Field Experi-
placements on the top of the specimen (Fig. 6) ment on Compaction Grouting. Mitteilungen des Insti-
possibly results from slight differences in the lat- tuts und der Versuchsanstalt für Geotechnik der Tech-
eral boundary conditions between analysis and nischen Universität Darmstadt, Heft Nr. 52, S. 75-85.
[10] Jafari, M.R., Au, S.K.A., Soga, K., Bolton, M.D., Ka-
laboratory test. In the finite element model no rim, U.F.A., Komiya, K. (2000). Experimental and
lateral displacements are allowed at the lateral Numerical Investigation of Compensation Grouting in
boundary. This condition is also assumed for the Clay. Proceedings of GeoEng 2000, Melbourne.
laboratory apparatus. However, for measurement [11] Kolymbas D. (1988). Eine konstitutive Theorie für Bö-
den und andere körnige Stoffe. Veröffentlichungen des
of the lateral stresses minimal lateral displace- Institutes für Bodenmechanik und Felsmechanik der
ments have to be allowed by the configuration of Universität Fridericiana in Karlsruhe, Heft 109.
the laboratory apparatus. This leads to less uplift [12] Vesic A.S. (1972). Expansion of Cavities in Infinite
compared to the boundary conditions in calcula- Soil Mass. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Founda-
tions Division, Proceedings of the American Society of
tion. Civil Engineers, pp. 265-290.
As shown in Figure 7 the model is able to [13] von Wolffersdorff P.-A. (1996). A hypoplastic relation
quantify compaction in dependency of the dis- for granular materials with a predefined limit state sur-
tance to the injection for different grout volumes. face. Mechanics of cohesive-frictional materials, Vol.
1, pp. 251-271.
In consequence of the verification of the pre-
sented finite element model for single point in-
jections, further research will investigate multi-
point injections and injections of whole
compaction grouting columns.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
Soil improvement work by dynamic compaction improves the granular soils’ mechanical characteristics obtained by in situ in-
vestigations. In the example detailed, the shear wave velocity Vs increases as well but in a much smaller proportion. The varia-
tion of dynamic soil parameters may however requires to estimate again, after the soil improvement work is carried out, the elas-
tic response spectra obtained from the site class as given in the standard NF EN 1998. This paper describes the geotechnical
situations where specific care should be taken when performing soil improvement techniques as heavy dynamic compaction or
vibrocompaction. It also point out the importance of specific site studies to estimate representative soil response excited by
earthquakes.
RÉSUMÉ
Les travaux d’amélioration des sols dans la masse par compactage dynamique améliorent les caractéristiques mécaniques obte-
nues par essais in situ. Dans l’exemple étudié, la vitesse Vs des ondes de cisaillement augmente mais pas dans les mêmes propor-
tions. Cette variation des paramètres dynamiques pour des sites de plusieurs hectares peut toutefois conduire à vérifier, après tra-
vaux, l’adéquation du spectre de réponse élastique obtenu à partir de la classe de sol telle que décrite dans la Norme NF EN
1998. Cet article présente les contextes géotechniques particuliers pour lesquels une attention doit être apportée en cas d’une
amélioration significative des terrains. Il est rappelé l’importance de la traduction représentative du site à partir d’études spécifi-
ques pour une prise en compte pertinente des effets de site en cas de séisme.
1
Corresponding Author.
966 S.Brûlé et al. / Réponse dynamique d’un sol après travaux de compactage haute énergie
ramètres mécaniques mesurés avec des essais in de réponse du sol et pouvant être interprétés
situ. comme une mise en résonance globale des bas-
sins sédimentaires. Cependant, l’analyse de tels
1.1 Description du projet phénomènes est complexe car cela nécessiterait
de prendre en compte la résonance de l’ensemble
Le projet se trouve à l’emplacement d’une an-
du bassin, la propagation des ondes en milieu hé-
cienne verrerie située à présent dans une Zone
térogène, l’apparition d’ondes de surface en bord
d’Activité Concertée [2]. Le site a été occupé
de bassin, le comportement non linéaire des
pendant plus d’un siècle pour des activités indus-
géomatériaux de surface.
trielles (figure 1). L’usine a été démantelée ré-
Nous excluons de notre étude, les cas de séis-
cemment et de nouvelles constructions de type
mes forts pour lesquels l’influence des non linéa-
bâtiments industriels sont prévues. Pour fonder
rités de comportement des matériaux dans les
ces ouvrages, une technique d’amélioration de
couches superficielles est significative, ainsi que
sol a été envisagée par les concepteurs. C’est la
les effets topographiques.
technique du compactage dynamique « haute
Par ailleurs, les structures de surface peuvent
énergie » (Energie > 5 000 kJ/impact) qui a été
agir comme des sources sismiques secondaires et
retenue pour répondre à la double problématique
influencer le "champ libre" sismique. Cet effet
de sols offrant des caractéristiques mécaniques
n’est pas examiné dans cet article.
faibles et hétérogènes ainsi que la contrainte en-
Une hypothèse forte de la norme NF EN 1998
vironnementale se traduisant ici par un impact
est de considérer que la valeur moyenne de la vi-
chimique résiduel du sol et de l’eau.
tesse des ondes de cisaillement Vs,30 est suffi-
Le programme de compactage a été mis au
sante pour caractériser les effets de site.
point de façon à améliorer des remblais de type
graves sableuses reposant sur les sables et gra-
viers déposés par le Gier. Au droit de la zone
2 COMPACTAGE DYNAMIQUE
d’étude, l’épaisseur du remblai est d’une dou-
zaine de mètres au maximum [3].
La norme NF EN 1998 [1] laisse la possibilité de
classer les sols avec des essais fournissant des
1.2 Prise en compte de la sismicité
mesures obtenues dans une large gamme de dé-
La réglementation française pour les ouvrages à formations des sols : les méthodes géophysiques
risque normal en zone métropolitaine, définit des permettant d’obtenir des paramètres de sol défi-
accélérations de référence agr inférieures à 0,16.g nis dans les gammes des petites déformations
ou un produit ag = agr x S inférieur à 2,3m/s² soit (H<<10-4), les sondages mécaniques comme les
0,23.g. Cette valeur sert à caler en amplitude le essais au pénétromètre statique (Cone Penetra-
spectre de réponse élastique à période nulle. Elle tion Test en anglais), au pénétromètre dynamique
correspond à la valeur maximale temporelle de type SPT (Standard Penetration Test en anglais)
l’accélération considérée. Elle est à comparer et les essais laboratoires pour des mesures dans
avec les accélérations supérieures à 1g pouvant une gamme de déformation telle que H>10-4.
être observées dans des pays à plus forte sismici- Mesures géophysiques de type MASW (Mul-
té. Pour le site à l’étude, il s’agit d’une sismicité tichannel Analysis of Surface Wave) et essais
modéré : 1,65 à 1,76 m/s². mécaniques in situ sont présentés dans cet article.
Lors de la propagation des ondes sismiques
dans des bassins offrant un empilement de cou- 2.1 Résultats des essais mécanique in situ
ches alluvionnaires, des phénomènes
d’amplification du mouvement sismique par ré- Des sondages au pénétromètre statique et au
fraction/diffraction peuvent se manifester dans pressiomètre Ménard ont été réalisés sur une
certaines conditions et accroître l’impact du planche d’essai de 35 x 150 m avant et après les
séisme (e.g. Mexico en 1985). Il s’agit des « ef- travaux de compactage. Avant compactage, les
fets de site » [4], contrôlant la forme des spectres moyennes arithmétiques des caractéristiques mé-
S.Brûlé et al. / Réponse dynamique d’un sol après travaux de compactage haute énergie 967
caniques du remblai sont les suivantes au droit de Après travaux, les moyennes arithmétiques
la planche d’essai : qc = 3,7 MPa, Rf = fs/qc ~ 1%, des caractéristiques mécaniques du remblai sont
pl* = 0,53 MPa et EM = 8,2 MPa. qc est la résis- les suivantes : qc = 7,3 MPa, pl* = 2,4 MPa et
tance de pointe (39 mm) obtenue avec le péntro- EM = 18,4 MPa. La valeur NSPT déduite de qc,30
mètre statique, pl* et EM sont respectivement la obtenue à partir des pénétrogrammes, donne une
pression limite nette et le module pressiomètri- classe C au sol après compactage dynamique.
que Ménard, fs est frottement latéral sur le man-
chon du pénétromètre statique et Rf correspond 30
au rapport de frottement. qc ,30 n
(1)
hi
Les courbes de résistance en pointe qc sont
présentées en figure 2. Ce sont des moyennes
¦
i 1 qci
arithmétiques sur un mètre. Le niveau de la
nappe se situe environ 6 m sous la surface du ter-
Il est à noter que le tassement en surface cor-
rain d’origine.
respondait à 80 à 100 cm, soit plus de 5% de
Pour se rattacher à la classification de la
l’épaisseur de la couche à densifier et à homogé-
norme NF EN 1998-1 [1] basée sur les essais au
néiser.
SPT ou le Vs,30, nous avons déduit la valeur du
nombre de coups au pénétromètre dynamique
SPT pour 30 cm, NSPT par corrélation avec
l’essai de pénétration au pénétromètre statique.
Les valeurs initiales obtenues par corrélation µ15
pour NSPT sont inférieures à 15 coups/30 cm sur
une quinzaine de mètres. Le site au droit du pro-
jet serait donc de classe D avant compactage.
Nous avons utilisé une moyenne harmonique sur
30 m d’épaisseur à l’identique de ce qui est pro-
posé par la norme NF EN 1998 pour les vitesses
des ondes cisaillement (1) avec hi et qci les épais-
seurs de sol et la résistance de pointe correspon-
dant à la cote d’échantillonnage. Avant travaux de compactage dynamique
Après travaux de compactage dynamique
Plus de 40 tirs ont été réalisés par le B.R.G.M. Figure 3. MASW (Multichannel Analysis of Surface Wave) :
exemple type d’un profil de vitesse des ondes de cisaillement
Pour chaque tir, une courbe de dispersion des vi- en fonction de la profondeur, avec l’écart type sur la vitesse.
tesses de phase (vitesse de phase en fonction de
la fréquence) est obtenue, puis inversée pour ob- L’augmentation de Vs est nette jusqu’à 7 m de
tenir un profil de la vitesse des ondes de cisail- profondeur puis peu ou pas significative à plus
lement Vs avec un écart type. La figure 3 pré- grande profondeur. La valeur de Vs,30 est de 252
sente le profil de vitesse obtenu lors d’un tir, m/s après travaux, soit toujours un site de classe
ainsi que l’écart-type sur la vitesse. C à la différence de l’approche par essais méca-
La figure 4 correspond à la moyenne de dix niques orientant vers un sol de classe D à C.
tirs. Les deux courbes situées de part et d’autre
du profil de vitesse moyen représentent l’écart
type sur la moyenne. Vitesse des ondes de cisaillement [m/s]
0 100 200 300 400 500
30 0
Vs ,30 n
(2)
hi
¦
i 1 Vsi
5
10
Profondeur [m]
Avant travaux, la vitesse moyenne des ondes
de cisaillement obtenue sur les trente premiers 15
mètres, déterminée selon la formule de la
moyenne harmonique de la Norme NF EN 1998 20
(2), donne une vitesse Vs,30 de 244 m/s, soit un
site de classe C. 25
Après travaux, les résultats montrent une
augmentation nette de la vitesse des ondes de ci- 30
saillement sur les 5 premiers mètres, avec une
valeur moyenne passant de 134 à 163 m/s uni- Figure 4. MASW (Multichannel Analysis of Surface Wave) :
quement sur cet intervalle, soit une augmentation moyenne de 10 profils d’une seule file ; les deux courbes fi-
de 22%. nes représentent l’écart type obtenu sur la moyenne.
3 ENJEUX ET DISCUSSION
E : Profil de sol
comprenant une cou-
che superficielle
d’alluvions avec des
valeurs de Vs de
Pour les sols de la classe E correspon-
classe C ou D et une
dant à des alluvions de classe D, voir
épaisseur comprise
commentaires pour les sols de classe D ci-
entre 5 m environ et
dessus.
20 m,
reposant sur un
matériau plus raide
avec Vs > 800 m/s.
ABSTRACT
The new Airbus plant in Hamburg (Germany) was built on the soft soil of the river Elbe, which is characterized by mud on top
and different layers of clay, soft clay, gyttja and peat below.
The project was carried out in two phases: first, closing 160 hectares with a dyke and second, filling the area with sand and op-
timizing of the consolidation process of the soft soil.
The article describes the design, the parameters and the methods of vertical drainage and especially the Ménard Vacuum Conso-
lidation (MVC) as preloading system.
Since the primary settlement was up to 4 m and largely completed on delivery of the areas, the residual settlement was definiti-
vely determined based on the secondary settlement. The present measurements confirm the predicted residual settlement. The
secondary consolidation could also be limited by preloading.
RÉSUMÉ
La nouvelle usine d'Airbus à Hambourg (Allemagne) a été construit sur le sol mou de l'Elbe, qui se caractérise par de la boue sur
les couches supérieures et de différents types d'argile, argile molle, tourbe et gyttja en-dessous.
Le projet a été réalisé en deux phases: d'abord la fermeture de 160 hectares avec une digue et d'autre part, remplissage du polder
avec du sable tout en optimisant le processus de consolidation du sol mou.
L'article décrit la conception, les paramètres et les méthodes de drainage vertical et en particulier la consolidation par le vide
Ménard (MVC) en tant que systèmes de préchargement.
Comme le tassement primaire était de 4 m et en grande partie achevée à la livraison des zones, le tassement résiduel a été défini-
tivement déterminée sur la base du tassement secondaire. Les mesures ont confirmé les estimations du tassement résiduel. Grâce
au préchargement le tassement secondaire a pu être limité.
Keywords: Hamburg, Ménard, vacuum, consolidation, MVC, drains, settlements, primary, secondary, preloading, soft soil,
mud, clay, peat, measurement, predicted, residual, settlement
1
Corresponding Author.
972 J.-L. Chaumeny et al. / Consolidation of Extremely Soft Mud for the A-380 Factory in Hamburg
created in which large quantities of alluvial mud Due to the different sedimentation conditions
are deposited due to the changed flow conditions. and the associated proportions of sand, the com-
Before construction began in 2001, the sediment pressibility increases from west to east approach-
surface laid between approximately NN +1 m ing the land. The initial shear decreases simulta-
and NN -1.5 m and regularly went dry at low- neously.
water under tide influence. Table 1. Subsoil characteristics, Eoed at 100 kPa
Soil water organ. Cu Phi Eoed CB Cv
Type % % kN/m² ° MN/m² - m²/a
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
Peat 240 33 5-15 20 0,5 0,04 0,5
Mud 142 13,5 0,5-5 20 0,8 0,03 0,35
2.1 Construction Clay 90 12,5 5-20 17 1,5 0,02 0,5
Sand 10 - - 33 50 - -
A detailed description of the construction se-
quences can be found in [1] and [2]. The main
phases are summarized below: The soil parameters identified in laboratory
x Construction of a retaining dyke app. 2.4 and field experiments are summarised in table 1.
km long on sand columns wrapped in geo- Note that the secondary consolidation coeffi-
textile in grids of 1.5 m to 3 m and separa- cients were derived from oedometer tests.
tion of the construction area from the tide.
x Maintaining the water level behind the 2.3 Settlement criteria
dyke at around NN +3 m. After full primary consolidation, with 2 to 4 m
x Sprinkling of thin sand layers (d = 15 to 30 settlements, the residual settlements of 15 or 30
cm) on the alluvial mud surface. cm during 5 years after handover had to be guar-
x Hydraulic filling up to NN +3.4 m (above anteed.
the water level). Table 2. Contractual settlement criteria within first 5 years
x Installing vertical drain and surcharge or
Area Permissible resi- echnic
installing Ménard Vacuum Consolidation dual settlements
MVC.
Runways and taxi- max. 15 cm vertical drains +
x Grading the site at NN +5.5 m. ways, aircraft park- in 5 years surcharge or
ing, etc MVC
2.2 Soil parameters Surfaces under deep- max.30 cm vertical drains +
foundation halls, in 5 years surchage
The soft soil is characterised by mud on top and green spaces
different layers of clay, soft clay, gyttja and peat
below. The mud is 3 to 12 m thick and the peat 2.4 Consolidation techniques
up to 5 m thick.
Figure 1. Typical cross section of the soft soil before the fill.
The prefabricated drains were installed on the The atmospheric depression avoids the horizon-
Airbus site in grids of 0.5 to 1.5 m depending on tal movement and outwards creep due to a clas-
the soil, consolidation time, height of surcharge sical surcharge. The depression effect appears to
and settlement requirements. 30 millions meters add cohesion and to increase the dewatering. The
of vertical drains were placed in the structural closed system works like a vacuumed package of
areas. coffee. In the closed package the vacuum brings
immediate stability and it is not necessary to wait
In critical stability conditions the surface load for the consolidation process. The risk of a short
can be replaced or increased by the vacuum me- interruption is relatively small and a rapid fill up
thod. The drainage blanket is covered by an air- to final elevation is possible. [5] and [6]
tight membrane and sealed hermetically along its
outer borders. The drainage blanket is connected
to a vacuum pump, which removes atmospheric
pressure in the drains. According to Cognon [3]
and [4] the depression achieved by the vacuum
method in this case is of 70 to 80 kPa at most all
over the treated area.
The concept for MVC is:
x Soil is too soft for surcharge,
x The schedule does not allow step loading,
x Surcharge soil is not available,
x Available area does not allow berms,
x Special settlement requirements have to be
guaranteed.
ABSTRACT
This paper first describes the soil mix procedures applied in Belgium. Then, it concentrates on the influence of soil inclusions
(un-mixed materials) on the soil mix structural behaviour. Methodologies describing and quantifying inclusions are presented
and applied on in situ executed soil mix materials from 18 sites in Belgium. Finally, first results of numerical simulations inves-
tigating the influence of soil inclusions on the stiffness of soil mix material are discussed.
RÉSUMÉ
Le présent article donne un aperçu des techniques de « soil-mix » appliquées en Belgique. Il se concentre ensuite sur l’influence
des inclusions de sols (non mélangées) sur le comportement structurel du « soil-mix ». Des méthodologies, décrivant et quanti-
fiant la présence des inclusions, sont présentées et appliquées sur des éléments de « soil-mix » exécutés in situ. Ces derniers
proviennent de 18 sites en Belgique. Finalement, les premiers résultats de simulations numériques, investiguant l’influence des
inclusions de sol sur la raideur du matériau « soil-mix », sont discutés.
Keywords: Sol mix, deep mixing, retaining structure, soil inclusion, structural behaviour
1
Corresponding Author
978 P. Ganne et al. / Soil Mix: Influence of Soil Inclusions on Structural Behaviour
sed on the global stabilisation of soft cohesive in [6] in terms of unconfined compressive
soils such as peat, clay, gyttja and silt. strength (UCS) and elastic modulus. The meth-
More recently, soil mix is increasingly used ods are validated on a large population of labora-
for the retaining of soil and water in the case of tory tests on in situ soil mix material, executed in
excavations as a more economical alternative for Belgian soils.
concrete secant pile walls and even for king post
walls (i.e. soldier pile walls). The soil mix cylin-
drical columns or rectangular panels are placed 2 SOIL MIX SYSTEMS IN BELGIUM
next to each other, in a secant way. By overlap-
ping the different soil mix elements [5], a con- The CVR C-mix®, the TSM and the CSM are the
tinuous soil mix wall is executed. Steel H or I- three most used types of deep mix systems in
beams are inserted into the soil mix before curing Belgium. All three are wet deep mixing systems.
to resist the shear forces and bending moments in
the retaining wall. In general the maximum in- 2.1 CVR C-mix®
stallation depth of the soil mix walls in Belgium
is – so far – about 20 m. The CVR C-mix® is performed with an adapted
The use of soil mix as ground and/or water re- bored pile rig and a special designed shaft and
taining structures has some specific advantages. mixing tool. This tool rotates around a vertical
No important vibrations are caused by the execu- axis at about 100 rpm and cuts the soil mechani-
tion of soil mix. As the stress relaxation of the cally. Simultaneously, the water\binder mixture
soil is limited, soil mix can be executed nearby (w\b weight ratio between 0.6 and 0.8), is in-
existing constructions. Contrary to concreted se- jected at low pressure (< 5 bar). The injected
cant pile walls, the execution of the soil mix quantity of binder amounts mostly to 350 and
walls does not suffer from delayed supply (e.g. 450 kg binder/m³, depending on the soil condi-
due to traffic jams) of the fresh concrete. The tions. The binder partly (between 0% and 30%)
amount of binder returning to the surface is lim- returns to the surface. This is called ‘spoil re-
ited in comparison with jet-grouting. turn’.
The main structural difference between these The resulting deep mix elements are cylin-
soil mix walls and the more traditional secant drical columns with diameter corresponding to
pile walls is the constitutive wall material which the mixing tool diameter, varying between 0.43
consists of a mixture of soil and cement instead and 1.03 m. When deep mix is used as a retain-
of traditional concrete. The structural behaviour ing structure, the production rate is about 160 m²
of soil mix material is governed among others by of deep mix wall per day (single 8 hrs shift).
the type of binder, the volume of injected binder In order to increase the production rate, a
and the nature of the soil. It is also influenced by CVR Twinmix® and a CVR Triple C-MIX® can
the presence of soil inclusions (by their number, be used. A twinmix has two mixing tools, mixing
their volume, their shape, and their scattering in two overlapping cylindrical columns (total wall
the material). In this paper, all inclusions in deep element length of 0.8 to 1.2 m) at the same time.
mix material are considered as soft soil inclu- The daily production increases till 210 m². A
sions. Hence, soil inclusions represent the un- CVR Triple C-mix® has three mixing tools in
mixed part of the soil-mix material. line, with a total wall element length of 1.5 to 1.8
This paper describes firstly the different types m. The production rate increases to 300 m² per
of soil mix systems applied in Belgium. The day.
methodology describing and quantifying inclu-
sions is then presented. Finally, the influence of 2.2 Tubular Soil Mix (TSM)
the inclusions on the soil mix stiffness is dis- The TSM technique uses a mechanical and a hy-
cussed. draulic way of mixing. Apart from the rotating
Test results and methodologies with regard to (around the vertical axis) mixing tool, the soil is
the strength and stiffness properties are referred cut by the high pressure injection (till 500 bar) of
P. Ganne et al. / Soil Mix: Influence of Soil Inclusions on Structural Behaviour 979
the water\binder mixture with w\b chosen be- 3.1 Methodology of the description of soil
tween 0.6 and 1.2. The injected quantity of bind- inclusions
er mixture amounts mostly to 200 and 450 kg
In order to quantify the volume of soil inclu-
binder/m³, depending on the soil conditions. Part
sions, in situ executed deep mix columns and pa-
of the binder (between 0% and 30%) returns to
nels are observed. Soil inclusions can be de-
the surface as spoil return.
scribed based on entire sections of deep mix
The resulting deep mix elements are cylin-
columns/panels as well as on drilled cores.
drical columns with a diameter between 0.38 and
The two methodologies are the surface per-
0.73 m. The production rate is about 80 m² of
centage (A) and the line percentage (B).
deep mix wall per day.
Again, a twin and a triple version exist. The
(A) The calculation of the surface percentage
total wall length of the two (three) cylindrical
of soil inclusions involves five processing steps:
columns of a twin (triple), varies between 0.8
1. Deep mix columns or panels are executed
and 1.4 m (1.2 and 2.1 m). In this way, the pro-
in situ by standard deep mixing procedure.
duction rate is increased till about 180 (twin) and
2. The test columns/panels are (partly) exca-
250 m² (triple) of deep mix wall per day.
vated; the column/panel should be sawn to create
a statistically representative ‘fresh’ saw-cut sec-
2.3 Cutter Soil Mix (CSM)
tion. Alternatively, the saw-cut of a core drill can
A CSM device is commercially available. It also be used.
makes use of two cutting wheels that rotate inde- 3. The saw-cut surface is photo-graphically
pendently around a horizontal axis, cutting the digitized to recompose one digital mosaic photo.
soil. At the same time, the water\binder mixture The pixel resolution is about 0.3 mm.
is injected at low pressure (< 5 bar) with w\b ra- 4. Using commercially available image
tio chosen between 0.6 and 1.2. The injected processing techniques (IPT), soil inclusions are
quantity of binder amounts mostly to 200 and assigned in black on the digital mosaic photo. As
400 kg binder/m³, depending on the soil condi- the soil inclusions are not always observable,
tions. Part of the binder (between 0% and 30%) manual verifications are performed on the saw-
returns to the surface as spoil return. cut surface.
The resulting deep mix elements are rectangu- 5. The determination of the surface percen-
lar panels. In Belgium, these panels have mostly tage of soil inclusions consists in the calculation
a length of 2.4 m and a thickness of 0.55 m, of the amount of assigned (black) inclusions and
though cutter devices with other dimensions are the total surface of the saw-cut using IPT.
available. The production rate is about 100 m² to
250 m² per day. (B) The methodology to calculate the line per-
centage of soil inclusions involves three
processing steps.
3 DESCRIPTION OF SOIL INCLUSIONS The steps 1 and 2 are similar to those of me-
thodology A.
Due to the specific procedure of deep mixing, 3. Parallel lines with an interdistance of min-
soil inclusions are inevitable. The volume of soil imum 7 cm are drawn on the deep mix material.
inclusions of in situ executed deep mix should be The cumulative length of soil inclusions along
quantified in order to study its influence on the the line is manually measured. The line percen-
material stiffness. tage is calculated as the proportion of this cumu-
Two methodologies taking into account soil lative length to the total line length.
inclusions are first presented and then illustrated The observed line and surface percentages can
with an overview of in situ results of deep mix be considered as unbiased estimations of the vo-
material executed in several Belgian soils. lume percentage of soil inclusions in the deep
mix material [7].
980 P. Ganne et al. / Soil Mix: Influence of Soil Inclusions on Structural Behaviour
5 CONCLUSIONS
1
is composed of soil inclusions and the original observed
shapes are used). Sharp corners
1
Circle
3
parts
Sharp corners
3
Real
9
10 Real
Average E (GPa)
Figure 4. Variation of average Young’s modulus as a func-
tion of the shape of the inclusions (10% surface area corres-
ponding to the soil inclusions).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
The durability of mechanical improvements brought by the lime treatment is still in debate. This is particularly the case when the
treated soil is in permanent contact with water (river levee, canal) where the treated soil is subjected to water stress (immersion,
water circulation). In this context, the long-term behaviour of stabilised soils is unknown. This work focused on assessing the ef-
fect of water flow on the shear strength of a silt treated with 1 or 3% of lime. Samples were subjected to water flow in a flexible
wall permeameter and their shear strength was determined after various periods of circulation. The results showed that the per-
formance reached after 90 days of treatment (cohesion, friction angle) was equivalent for both lime treatment. However, im-
provements brought by 1% of lime are totally removed by 6 months of water circulation, whereas in the case of treatment to 3%,
the mechanical behaviour is stable after 6 months of circulation. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that lime stabilisation is
very sensitive to a water circulation. From a mechanical point of view, in the short term, using 3% of lime is not justified com-
pared to a dosage of 1%. However, in order to maintain the performance in the long term, it is necessary to use a dosage of 3%.
RÉSUMÉ
La pérennité des améliorations mécaniques apportées par le traitement à la chaux est une question débattue, notamment lorsque
le sol traité est en contact permanent avec l’eau (digue, canaux, etc.). Dans ce contexte, cette étude cherche à évaluer l’effet
d’une circulation d’eau sur la résistance au cisaillement d’un limon traité à la chaux. Les éprouvettes de limon traitées avec 1 ou
2 % de chaux ont été soumises à une circulation d’eau dans des perméamètres à paroi flexible. La résistance au cisaillement du
sol traité a été déterminée après différentes périodes de circulation. Les résultats montrent que la performance atteinte après 90
jours de cure était équivalentes pour les deux dosages retenus. Cependant, les améliorations mécaniques apportées par le traite-
ment à 1 % de chaux sont supprimées par 6 mois de circulation d’eau alors que le comportement mécanique est stable après 6
mois de circulation pour le limon traité à 3 %. Ces travaux montrent que les effets du traitement peuvent être éliminés par une
circulation d’eau. Si à court terme, le recours à un dosage de 3 % ne se justifie pas par rapport à un dosage de 1 %, il est néces-
saire de traiter à 3 % pour pérenniser les effets mécaniques du traitement dans le sol traité soumis à une circulation d’eau.
1
Corresponding Author.
984 O. Cuisinier et al. / Durabilité du comportement mécanique d’un limon traité
I, ont été déterminés à partir des normes mises à une charge hydraulique de 80 kPa. Une
françaises. L’analyse minéralogique du sol par pression de confinement est aussi appliquée aux
diffractométrie de rayons X a montré que la frac- cellules de façon à limiter les fuites de bords. De
tion argileuse du limon est principalement consti- l’eau déminéralisée est utilisée comme lixiviant.
tuée d’illite et de kaolinite avec une quantité si- Les lixiviats sont récupérés dans des bouteilles
gnificative de minéraux de smectites et d’illites de 1 litre au fur et à mesure des percolations. On
interstratifiés. L’analyse thermique différentielle peut souligner que les conditions de percolations
de la chaux a montré qu’elle est constituée ont été choisies plus sévères que celles observées
d’environ 80 % d’oxyde de calcium, de 15 % de dans la pratique de façon à accélérer les dégrada-
portlandite, et de 3 % de calcite. tions éventuelles pouvant avoir lieu à long terme.
Tableau I. Principales propriétés géotechniques et physico- En effet, l’infiltration annuelle moyenne d’eau de
chimiques du sol. pluie en France dans le sol peut être estimée à
300 L.m-2. Avec les conditions de percolations
Propriétés géotechniques
Limite de plasticité, wL (%) 37,0 utilisées dans cette étude, cette valeur varie entre
Limite de liquidité, wP (%) 18,7 2700 et 15000 L.m-2 par an.
Indice de plasticité, IP (%) 18,3
Valeur au bleu, VB (g/100 g) 3,2 Tableau II. Paramètres de compactage des éprouvettes.
Densité des particules,
S (Mg.m-3) 2,69 Types de Teneur en eau Masse volumique
Fraction argileuse, < 2 μm (%) 29,4 matériau sèche
Propriétes physico-chimiques (%) (Mg.m-3)
pH du sol 8,0 Sol non traité 16,0 1,76
Teneur en carbonates (%) 1,30 Sol traité à 1 % 21,0 1,64
Capacité d’échange cationique 15,1 de chaux
(meq/100g) Sol traité à 3 % 23,0 1,58
de chaux
Figure 1. Impact de la circulation d’eau sur les chemins de contraintes suivis dans le cas des éprouvettes traitées avec 1 % de
chaux vive.
Figure 2. Impact de la circulation d’eau sur les chemins de contraintes suivis dans le cas des éprouvettes traitées avec 3 % de
chaux vive.
3.3 Processus physico-chimiques cours de la circulation en fonction du dosage (Le
Runigo et al, 2009). Ces pertes de performances
Une étude parallèle menée par les auteurs a visé
peuvent être attribuées à une dissolution partielle
à caractériser l’évolution des propriétés physico-
de la chaux non consommée mais aussi à la dé-
chimiques du limon au cours de la circulation et
calcification des produits cimentaires formés
en fonction du dosage, notamment pour expli-
suite à l’ajout de chaux. L’ampleur de ces pro-
quer l’évolution de la performance du limon au
cessus s’avère être fonction de la perméabilité.
988 O. Cuisinier et al. / Durabilité du comportement mécanique d’un limon traité
4 CONCLUSION
ABSTRACT
Engineering structures are now often built on soft soils with low strength and high compressibility. Adding to the problem are
low hydraulic conductivity and greater susceptibility to significant secondary compression. The reduced conductivity and pro-
longed secondary settlements can exacerbate construction problems and create intolerable delays. As a response to these prob-
lems, stone columns provide several positive benefits. They reduce settlement due to their innate stiffness as well as provide a
shorter consolidation drainage path with resulting shorter time to pore pressure reduction. The degree of drainage and support
however is difficult to estimate since the process is a complex interaction of columns, native soils and embankment placement.
This study examines reinforcement effects of stone columns in a 3-dimensional setting. Effects of spacing, diameter and depth of
penetration are examined with respect to requirements for increased stability for supporting a highway embankment. The results
of this study will enable geotechnical engineers to better evaluate the benefits of stone columns when applied to embankment
problems.
RÉSUMÉ
Nous devons affronter de plus en plus fréquemment les difficultés imposées par les travaux des fondations d’ouvrages posées sur
des sols compressibles de faible portance. Une partie de ces problèmes est due à la présence des sols de perméabilité réduite. La
faible de construire des ouvrages d’art sur un sol peu consistant, facilement compressible, d’une conductivité hydraulique faible.
La solidité faible perméabilité et la compressibilité à long terme (consolidation) exercent une influence défavorable sur les délais
d’exécution.
L’application des colonneas ballastées nous permet de résoudre ces problèmes. Grâce à leur structure ces rigide, les colonnes
ballastées réduisent les tassements et favorisent l’évacuation des eaux, ce qui aura pour résultant l’accélération de la
consolidation.
Il est difficile de déterminer l’effet favorable du drainage d’eau et de l’amélioration de la stabilité ; cela nous oblige d’étudier le
comportement global et les effets simulanés de l’ensamble colonne ballastée sous-sol et remblai.
Le but de l’exposé est d’étudier l’effet des colonnes ballastées sur la stabilité des remblais, faisant appel à la méthode 3D, et
faisant varier l’implantation et l’espacement des colonnes ballastées et de l’épaisseur de la zone compressible.
no subsoil improvement
4 THE MODEL ANALYZED embankment 5 1.01 1.43 1.63 1.7 1.7 1.7
height 10 1.01 1.08 1.16 1.38 1.48 1.48 1.48
h [m]
15 1.08 1.24 1.39 1.43
safety factor SF
1.4
1,4
1.3
1,3 h =15 m high embankment
no improvement
6 ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS 1,2
1.2
3.0 × 3.0 m square grid
1,1
1.1
Figures 2-4 show the peak values of the safety 1,0
1.0
2.0 × 2.0 m square grid
1.7
1,7
1.6
1,6
safety factor SF
1.5
1,5
1.4
1,4 h = 5 m high embankment Figure 5. Typical failure mechanisms
1.3
1,3 no improvement
1.2
1,2 2.0 × 2.0 m square grid Table 3 Maximum safety and threshold values of
1.1
1,1 3.0 × 3.0 m square grid undrained shear strength
1.0
1,0
20 30 40 50 60 70
undrained shear strength c u [kPa]
1,6
1.6
1,5
1.5 In Figure 6 safety factors and cu0 values for the
safety factor SF
1,4
1.4 embankments built on soil with no improvement
1,3
1.3
h =10m high embankment are re-plotted against embankment height. The
no improvement safety is changing according to the plotted curve
1,2
1.2
2.0 × 2.0 m square grid and converging to
1,1
1.1
3.0 × 3.0 m square grid
tan M tan 40 (2)
1,0
1.0
SFmin 1,25
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 tan E tan 33,8
undrained shear strength c u [kPa]
Figure 3. SF vs. cu for h=10m high embankment which is the safety factor for an infinite slope.
It is also clear that in correlation with the in-
creasing height of the embankment, the threshold
value of cu0 also increases.
E. Koch / 3-D Analysis of Stone Columns to Support a Roadway Embankment on Soft Soil 993
2,0
2.0
β = 33.8 ° For SF=1.0 equation
3
1.8
1,8 γ = 20 kN/m
c u0 > 37
ϕ t = 40 ° AF
cXUHT (SF 1 .0 ) ( 2.6 15
)h 4 (4)
safety factor SF
c u0 kPa
1.6
1,6
c u0 > 56
A
c u0 > 70 can be used, while for SF=1.35 the required
1.4
1,4
shear strength can be calculated from the
SF min= tanϕ / tanβ =1.25
1.2
1,2
AF
cXUHT (SF 1.35 ) (3.9 17 )h 7 (5)
1.0
1,0
0 5 10 15 20 25
A
hight of the embankment h [m]
formula. The above equations are valid for the no
Figure 6. Factor of safety and threshold values of undrained improvement case as well using Ac/A=0.
shear strength vs. the height of the embankment for the no
improvement case As an approximation of the safety against failure
according to Skempton, it can be determined by
Analysing the data for the improved cases a rela- comparing the stress on the embankment base
tionship for the threshold value of undrained and the bearing capacity of the subsoil, which
shear strength has been established. For subsoils can be assumed to be five times the undrained
having higher undrained shear strength than the shear strength.
threshold value applying stone columns will have (S 2) cXH[ 5 cXH[
no effect on the overall safety. SF | (6)
h J h J
A (3)
cX 0,03 h 2,2 h 15 On Figure 7 this relationship is also plotted for
AF the two different safety factors. Comparing the
In this formula A is the effective area of the col- results of the Skempton method with the values
umns, and Ac is the nominal area of the columns. obtained from FEM analysis, it is obvious that
From Figures 2-4 the required undrained shear the two methods yield to very similar undrained
strength can be determined for different em- shear strengths for embankments of h=4-6 m in
bankment heights to obtain SF=1.0 and 1.35. The height. For higher embankments (h=10-15m)
latter is important as the Hungarian national an- Skempton’s method seems to be more conserva-
nex of Eurocode 7 requires JM=Jc=1.35 safety tive, requiring higher shear strength than the
factor for analysis carried out according to the FEM analysis. In case of higher embankments
Design Approach 3. For construction stages val- with FEM calculations slightly economical solu-
ues between 1.0 and 1.35 can be accepted, there- tions can be obtained.
fore SF=1.0 value has also been plotted. The re- The best fitting equation to all data points can be
sults of this analysis can be seen in Figure 7. written as:
§ Ac ·
2
§ Ac · (7)
SF 0.044 cXH[ 0.002 h cXH[ 56 ¨ ¸ 8.2 ¨ ¸ 0,3
80 © A¹ © A¹
SF=1.00 no improvement
70
SF=1.00 3×3 m square grid The error of above safety factor formula is less
SF=1.00 2×2 m square grid
required undrained shear strength
60
SF=1.00 Skempton than 0.1 for over tested range.
SF=1.35 no improvement
SF=1.35 3×3 m square grid
c u;req (kPa)
50
SF=1.35 2×2 m square grid
SF=1.35 Skempton
40
7 CONCLUSIONS
30
20
For the foundation of infrastructure embank-
10 ments soil improvement is a frequently applied
0 technique. Stone columns is a complex soil im-
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
ure. This paper presents a new type of analysis of difficult to assess the effectiveness of the differ-
the problem [5]. ent solutions. The presented plots and formulas
In current engineering practice stone column are useful means to reveal trends and inner corre-
supported embankments are analysed with limit lations to reduce the number of tests to find the
state methods. These models take into account optimal solution in particular design projects.
the effect of stone columns by the application of
increased shear strength parameters, which is not
a perfect solution. Increasingly popular 2D finite REFERENCES
element codes are also raising problems when
used for these kinds of problems. This paper pre- [1] Moseley, M.P., Kirsch, K. ed., Ground Improvement.
sents a 3D finite element parametric study to in- Taylor and Francis, London, 2004.
[2] Koch, E., Scharle, P., Szepesházi R., Példák és esetta-
vestigate the effect of stone columns on slope nulmányok a mából a kétfokozatú mérnökképzésben
stability. The parameters of the models such as hagyományos és újszer^ modellezéssel. 1. Kézdi Árpád
grid spacings soil properties were selected to Emlékülés, Budapesti M^szaki és Gazdaságtudományi
cover the ranges typical in these types of prob- Egyetem, Budapest, 2008.
[3] Brinkgreve R.B.J., Vermeer P.A., PLAXIS-Finite ele-
lems. cu undrained shear strength of the soil was ment code for soil and rock analyses, Plaxis 3D. Manu-
varied over the range of cu=20-80kPa. Three dif- als, Delft University of Technology Plaxis bv,The
ferent embankment heights (h=5-10-5m) were Netherlands, 2010.
tested. The spacing of the square grid was either [4] British Standard BS 8006 (1995), Code of practice for
stengthened/reinforced soils and other fills, London,
2.0 m or 3.0 m in the different tests. Other pa- 1995.
rameters such as slope angle, embankment mate- [5] Koch, E., Szepesházi R., Foundation of embankments
rial properties or the thickness of the soft layer on peaty subsoil at M7 Motorway in Hungary Proc. of
was held constant in the tests. As the shape of the the Seminar Ivan Poliacek Geotechnical Engineering in
Road Construction, Bratislava, 2009.
slip plane was influenced by the bottom bound-
ary of the soft layer, the failure mechanism is af-
fected by the thickness of the soft soil, as a con-
sequence, in the future the depth of the soft layer
should be involved as a variable.
The presented results obtained from the tests are
reasonable, well-interpreted. The correlation be-
tween the failure mechanisms and the safety fac-
tors is evident. Up to a certain shear strength of
the subsoil an undercutting slip plane is the
dominant failure mechanism, beyond a threshold
shear strength the failure occurs in the slope. The
correlations between the input parameters and
the obtained results are clear and comparable
with the conventional methods. Although the
presented figures and formulas refer to a particu-
lar case, the sensible selection of the input pa-
rameters allow more general interpretation and
practical application of the results. It can be as-
sumed that with similar input data the same kind
of relationships can be established. Besides the
validation of the results, this approach is impor-
tant as it was clear from the present test series
that the 3D FEM analysis of stone column sup-
ported embankments is extremely time consum-
ing. Therefore, in individual design cases it is
Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 995
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-995
RÉSUMÉ
®
Les Colonnes à Module Mixte CMM sont une technique de renforcement de sol qui se développe de plus en plus en Europe.
Elles sont constituées d’une inclusion rigide surmontée d’une tête en gravier refoulée réalisée selon le procédé de la colonne
ballastée. Il apparaît que ce procédé permet d’augmenter la portance et de réduire significativement les tassements par rapport au
sol en place avant renforcement tout en générant une interaction faible voire négligeable sur le dimensionnement des fondations
et notamment des dallages. L’étude du comportement des Colonnes à Module Mixte CMM® se base sur des essais de
chargement en vraie grandeur réalisés sur des colonnes isolées ou en groupe.
Une étude numérique aux éléments finis comparant les inclusions rigides aux Colonnes à Module Mixte est effectuée pour
mettre en évidence l’intérêt de la tête en gravier.
Keywords: Colonne à Module Mixte CMM®, inclusions rigides, dallage, interaction sol-structure
La surcharge sur dallage est de l’ordre de de l’interface, pour vérifier la diffusion des con-
30 kPa et la structure de type charpente béton traintes dans le matelas.
encastrée en pied présente des charges ponctuel- Les mesures sont effectuées dans l’axe de
les verticales variant entre 1000 et 3000 KN, des l’inclusion et en intermaille. Pour les mesures de
efforts horizontaux variant entre 100 et 300 kN et tassements, des piges de tassements sont mises
des moments entre 100 et 200 KN.m. en place selon la figure n° 5 et suivies par un
Le cahier des charges du maître d’ouvrage, géomètre indépendant.
vis-à-vis notamment de la planéité de son dal-
lage, est particulièrement contraignant avec un
tassement absolu maximum de 1,5 cm, un tasse-
ment différentiel L/1000 avec L = distance entre
2 points, et un tassement différentiel de 5 mm
maximum entre le dallage du RDC et le mur pé-
riphérique du sous-sol.
Le contexte du site (plateforme déblai/remblai
avec présence d’un sous-sol) a amené à envisa-
ger une planche d’essais préliminaire avant le
démarrage du chantier.
2.3.1 Résultats de la planche d’essais Figure 4. Contrainte en tête de la colonne et celle appliquée
sur le sol.
Les résultats sont représentés sur les figures 4 et
5. Il est possible de constater que les contraintes
mesurées sur les deux plans distants de 0,50 m
INSER®
CMM® INSER®
INSER®
ABSTRACT
Recently, efficient ground improving method such as stone column have been developed and applied by geotechnical engi-
neer. Stone column method, which uses gravel or stone instead of sand to improve ground strength at weak ground construction
sites, has received increasing interest. The stone column method is a construction that replaces 10~30% weak ground with a col-
umn filled with crushed stone. However stone columns are used in weak soils, the lateral support provided by the surrounding
soil is often insufficient to prevent lateral column bulging and column failure. In these condition, Geosynthetic reinforced stone
column method approach has been developed to improve its load carrying capacity through increasing confinement effect. Al-
though such a concept has successfully been applied in practice, fundamentals of the method have not been fully explored. This
paper results of an investigation on the load carrying capacity and reduction in bulging failure of geogrid encased stone column
using field load tests. Also, to examine the effect of geogrid encasement depths from the upper part of 2D and 4D. The results of
analyses improved load carrying capacity of geogrid encased stone column method over the conventional stone column method
without geogrid reinforcing.
RÉSUMÉ
Le but de l’article est l’enquête sur la capacité de charge et la réduction de gonflement des colonnes ballastées, renforcées par
des geogrids à la partie supérieure de 2D à 4D, en utilisant des tests de charge sur le terrain. Les résultats des analyses présentent
une amélioration de la capacité de charge pour les colonnes ballastées qui sont renforcées par des geogrids en fonction des co-
lonnes ballastées non renforcées par des geogrids.
Keywords: Stone column, Geogrid-encased, Feld load test, Bulging, confinement effect
and Kempfert 2000; Alexiew et al. 2005; Mu- casing to install the geogrid to prevent the outer
rugesan and Rajagopal 2006, 2007; Yoo et al. wall from collapsing during drilling with consid-
2007; Lee et al 2008; Gniel and Bouazza 2009; eration of the features of soft ground.
Yoo 2010).
This method is widely used for road ground, z Install casing
slopes, banks, abutment foundations, submarine z Drilling auger type machine
structure foundations, culverts, drainages, rail- z Backfilling and compaction to target depth
way trackbeds, large oil tanks and plant founda- z Install geogrid sleeve into the hole
tion and reinforcement of weak ground(Al- z Backfilling and compaction into geogrid
Joulani, 1995; Kempfert, et al, 2002). Since the sleeve
research on the geotextile encased column (GEC)
method , which is the method of increasing the
carrying capacity by encasing the sand in the soft
ground with geotextile, was started in Germany
in early 1994). The previous research on the
geogrid reinforced stone column method has
been conducted as laboratory model tests or nu-
merical analyses (Paul et al., 2004; Trunk et al.,
2004; Murugesan et al., 2006, 2007; Lee et al.
2006,2007; Gniel and Bouazza 2009; Yoo 2010),
and there has been no research on the application Figure 1. Proposed method of installation(Lee at el 2007)
of the geogrid-encased stone column method us-
ing field load tests.
In this study, full scale load tests have been 3 CONSTRUCTION
conducted on isolated GESC to investigate the
effect load bearing capacity and the deformation The full-scale field test GESC was constructed
characteristics of the stone columns. at the multilayered soft ground site(Pohang site)
in Korea. As shown in Fig. 2, the ground at the
site site consists of approximately 2.3m of fill
2 CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF GESC material with SPT blows counts less than 5. Un-
derlying the fill layer is a 6.5m thick silty clay
The GESC is the application of the method deposit with SPT blows count ranging 5 to 13,
which reduces the horizontal deformation and in- followed by a silty clay overlying a weatherd soil
creasingly load carrying capacity of stone col- layer. The groundwater table is located at 0.7m
umn. The GESC method can be partly applied to below the ground surface.
the weak part of the stone column by using en- Geogrid encasement for the stone column was
casement high strength geogrid. When encasing constructed using crushed stones classified as
the stone column, the lateral bulging is consider- GP, having Cu=2 and Cc=0.2. The pick angle of
ably decreased due primarily to the added con- internal friction of crush stone determined from
finement by the encasement. GESC is likely to direct shear test data is 48o.
be adapted to existing technique used to install Geogrid encasement for the stone column was
conventional stone column and GEC(Alexiew et provided in the upper 2D (D= diameter of stone
al., 2005). column), 4D using geogrid reinforcement with
The GESC installation method is illustrated in an axial stiffness of J=2,500kN/m.
Fig. 1, where encased georid sleeve would not be Instrumentation included load cell, tell-tail ref-
constructed with a slightly smaller diameter than erence plate, displacement transduce, inclinome-
the international diameter of the casing. ter casing and strain gauge. Strain gauges were
The GESC method consists of the following placed at different locations along the column
procedure: installation of columns by using a length. The strain gauge were oriented along the
D.Y. Lee and C. Yoo / Behaviour of Load Carrying Capacity 1003
4 4
Depth(m)
Silty Clay
6 6
8 8
8.7
Weathered
Soil
10 10
Figure 2. Typical soil profile
imately equal to 600kpa and 2D, 4D(depth of 2 1.5D~4.0D(depth of 1.5 to 4 times column di-
and 4 times column diameter) geogrid encased ameter) below top of RAPs.
stone column it was equal to 750kPa and
630kPa, respectly. Thus, the critical stress of
the GESC was between 5% and 23% grater than
that of RAPs. According to several re-
search(Lawton et al. 1994; Wissmann et al 2007),
RAPs have been increasingly used to reduce set-
tlements and improve the bearing capacity of soft
soils by compact method using high energy im-
pact rammer. From the result, we can find that
the increasing load carrying capacity of the geo-
grid encasing prevented the sudden failure of the
stone column by preventing the bulging failure
of the stone column and reduced settlement.
Applied stress (kPa)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
20
Settlemment (mm)
40
60
80
D= 0.76m, L=8.0m
RAP-Top
100 GESC(Lenc = 2D, Top)
GESC(Lenc = 4D, Top)
RAP-Telltale
120
GESC(Lenc = 2D, Telltale)
GESC(Lenc = 4D, Telltale)
140
gation, when encasing the stone column, the lat- [5] D. Alexiew, D. Brokemper, and S. Lothspeich, Geo-
textile encased columns (GEC): load capacity, geotex-
eral bulging is considerably decreased due to
tile selection and pre-design graphs. Proceedings of the
primarily to the added confinement by the en- Geo-Frontiers Conference, Austin, Texas, US, ASCE
casement. Geotechnical Special Publication(2005), 497-510.
[6] D.Y.Lee, S.B.Kim, A.R.Song, and C.S.Yoo, Short and
Long-term Load Carrying Capacity of Geogrid Rein-
forced Stone Column-A Numerical Investigation, KGS
5 CONCLUSIONS Spring Conference 2006, Vol. 22, No.9(2006), 434-444.
[7] D.Y.Lee, C.Yoo, and S.S. Park, Model tests for load
In this study, the field load test investigation on carrying capacity of geogrid encased stone column,
Proc., of Seventeenth International Offshore and Polar
the performance of GESC-reinforced ground in Engineering Conference, (2007), 1632-1635.
site construction are presented. The results of the [8] D.Y.Lee, C.Yoo, S.S. Park and S.T. Jung, Field load
research can be summarized as follows. tests of geogrid encased stone columns in soft ground,
Proc., of Eighteenth International Offshore and Polar
Engineering Conference, (2008), 521-524.
(1) Increasingly load carrying capacity of the [9] E.C. Lawton, N.S.Fox and R.L.Handy, Control of set-
GESC is preventing the sudden failure of the tlement and uplift of structures using short aggregate
stone column by limiting bulging failure. piers, Proc., Insitu Deep Soil Improvement, Geotech-
(2) when encasing the stone column, the lateral nical Special Publication No. 45, ASCE, Atlanta(1994),
121-132.
bulging is considerably decreased due to primari- [10] G.Trunk, A.Poul and E.Reuter, Geogrid wrapped vibro
ly to the added confinement by the encasement. stone colum, EuroGeo (2004), 289-294.
(3) It is observed that the geogrid encasement [11] H.G.Kempert, P.Wallis, M.Raithel, M.Geduhn, and
the soft soil from penetrating into the aggregate. R.G.McClinton, Reclaiming land with geotextile-
encased columns, Geotechnical fabrics Report, Vol. 20,
From the field test, Performance of GESC con- No. 6(2002), 34-39.
struction was investigated . [12] J. Gneil, and A.Bouazza, Improvement of soft soils us-
ing gogrid encased stone columns, Geotextile & Geo-
membrane, 27(3), (2009), 167-175.
[13] K.J. Wissmann, D.J.White., and E. Lawton, Load test
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS comparisons for rammed aggregate piers and pier
groups, Proc. GeoDenver . 2007 Congress, No. 172,
This research was supported by Korean Ministry ASCE (2007)
[14] M.A. Al-Joulani,Laboratory and analytical investiga-
of Construction and Transportation under Grant tion of sleeve reinforced stone columns, Ph.D. Thesis,
No. C105A1000017-05A0300-01700. The finan- Civil Eng., Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Can-
cial support is gratefully acknowledged.. ada, 1995.
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Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 1007
A. Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.)
IOS Press, 2011
© 2011 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-801-4-1007
ABSTRACT
The paper presents analysis of stabilized soft clay stress-strain behaviour based on drained triaxial test results performed on sta-
bilized and reconstituted soft clay. Main parameters concerning sample preparation and affecting efficiency of stabilization are
addressed. Throughout the paper stabilized clay behaviour is compared to that of normally and overconsolidated soil. It has been
done so in order to determine characteristic phenomena of stabilized clay behaviour with the main emphasis on effects of struc-
ture on strain hardening, strain softening, strength parameters and volume change behaviour.
RÉSUMÉ
L'article présente une analyse du comportement de relations contraintes- déformation de l`argile molle stabilisée, basée sur résul-
tats d'essai triaxial drainé réalisés sur l'argile molle stabilisée et reconstituée. Les paramètres principaux concernant la prépara-
tion de l'échantillon et ayant une incidence sur l'efficacité de la stabilisation sont abordés. Tout au long de l'article, le comporte-
ment d`argile stabilisée est comparé à ceci de sol normalement consolidé et sur consolidé. Il a été fait afin de déterminer les
phénomènes caractéristiques de comportement de l'argile stabilisée avec poids principaux sur les effets de structure sur durcis-
sement, souche adoucissement, paramètres de résistance et comportement en changement de volume.
1
Corresponding Author.
1008 I. Mataic et al. / Behaviour of Stabilized Soft Clay
dardized. However, substantial amount of re- neutral. Typical value of initial plastic limit
search has been done at HUT and Technical Re- measured is 26,0 % and liquid limit is of 65,0 %.
search Centre of Finland. [1,2]. The research According to the plasticity chart these values po-
identified importance of; quantity and quality of sition HUT clay below A-line in the area of or-
the binding agent, water content, water cement ganic clays.
ratio, pH, clay content, mixing, humus content
and equivalent time. Most common binding 3.2 Reconstituted HUT clay
agents used are cement, lime-cement mixture and
Reconstituted samples were obtained by re-
lime. Lime and cement mixture provides better
moulding natural HUT clay. Consistent proce-
strength than pure lime and it has also proven to
dure was applied regarding mixing efficiency.
work adequately in clay layers with high organic
Since the natural material prior to mixing was
content. The presence of lime improves homo-
fully saturated and at water content close to liq-
geneity of stabilized soil when compared to those
uid state, no additional water has been added.
containing cement alone. Reasons for poor com-
Following the reconstitution, i.e. mixture reach-
pression strength have included high humus and
ing smooth texture, the material was poured to
sulphide content and low pH of the clay material.
impermeable sample tubes (Ø50 mm) and stored
The strength obtained in laboratory is substan-
tially higher than those obtained in-situ due to cured in a period of 7-14 days under uniaxial
load of 4,3 kPa at constant temperature of 6º C.
more efficient mixing [2].
During curing, samples were allowed to drain.
Reduction of sample height was measured once a
day. After placement within the triaxial cell, con-
3 SAMPLE PREPARATION AND TESTING
solidation in the period of 1 to 2 days followed.
Samples have been tested at cell pressures of 20,
50 and 100 kPa. Shearing phase took 8 to 15
3.1 Natural HUT clay days.
The tests presented are performed on soft clay
sampled in the area of Helsinki University of 3.3 Stabilized HUT clay
Technology (HUT). HUT clay is normally con- Stabilization has been performed by mixing HUT
solidated soft natural clay of postglacial origin clay material with 1:1 admixture of cement
typical for Nordic Countries. Lithostratigraphic (CEM II 42.5N) and lime in the amount of 101,7
conditions of the sampling location include dry kg/m3 until unified mass of material was ob-
crust layer followed by soft clay deposit be- tained. Following the binder addition samples
tween -1,0 and -5,5 m. Clay layer of interest is were shaped with plastic cylinder (Ø50 mm) and
succeeded by moraine sediment and finally by cured within the triaxial cell for 14 days under
bedrock underneath 6 m of depth. Water level loading conditions identical to those to be used in
occurs at 0,5 m of depth. All HUT clay samples consolidation. Temperature in curing process
are taken at the same range of depth of 1,3 to 2,1 was 22.5 ºC. After 14 days, samples were re-
m, i.e. material tested is of the same stress histo- moved from the triaxial cell in order to measure
ry. Unit weight of the material is 1,64 g/cm3 and their volume and to change the porous stone.
specific gravity is 2,75 g/cm3. Initial void ratio Prior to shearing samples were consolidated for 1
values are typically very low and vary between day. Stabilized samples have been tested at cell
1,7 and 2,1. Initial water content for HUT clay pressures of 25, 50, 75, 100 and 125 kPa. Shear-
material is relatively low 63%. Typical value of ing phase took typically 15 days. Compared to
water content in soft clays is 90 to 100%. Fur- natural clay, properties of stabilized samples de-
thermore, organic content of 0,75 % is low value termined prior to shearing indicate water content
as well. Below the value of 1,5% organic content decrease to values between 46,1 and 49.9 % and
has no effect on stabilization efficiency. Initial unit weight increase to values from 1,73 to 1,77
pH value of samples was 6, the soil being almost
I. Mataic et al. / Behaviour of Stabilized Soft Clay 1009
g/cm3. Void ratio varied between 1.28 and 1.36 ing occurs, accompanied by gradual reduction in
with saturation degree between 96,9 and 100 %. shear resistance. The results exhibit typical cohe-
sion hardening characterized by considerably
3.4 Test conditions
Analysis of stabilized and reconstituted soft clay
behaviour presented in this study is based on re-
sults of anisotropically consolidated drained tri-
axial compression test. Drained triaxial tests are
the most suitable type of test since the test condi-
tions allow volumetric deformations of a sample
which are of high importa nce for interpretation
of stabilized clay behaviour (e.g. dilation, de-
structuration). Consolidation stress ratio of
^3Q^1=0.8 was kept constant for the entire period
of consolidation. The shearing rate was 1.20 %/h
for all tests in order to exclude influence of strain
rate intensity on results obtained. During shear-
ing phase, cell pressure was kept constant. Figure 1. Deviator stress-axial strain diagram.
With continued shearing, response is changed to duction compared to those obtained in other
those of gradual increase. Maximum values are tests. Altogether, samples without binder exhibit
not reached until the end of the tests. Higher val- considerably lower values of stress ratio com-
ues of stress ratio are recorded in tests performed pared to those of stabilized soil. Data obtained on
at lower cell pressures. Overconsolidated sample, normally consolidated samples indicate conti-
shows most pronounced initial stress ratio in- nuous increase of stress ratio values accompa-
crease with maximum at 10,8 % of shear strain, nied by reduction in sample volume. Stabilized
followed by slight stress ratio reduction. Stress samples on contrary exhibit stress ratio decrease
ratio values at the end of the tests are similar in in the final portion of the curve. For stabilized
all the tests on reconstituted samples appearing soil tests performed at cell pressures below 100
between 1,0 and 1,2. Within stabilized clay re- kPa, compression eventually changes to increase
sults, during strain hardening, stress ratio rises in volumetric strain. On the contrary, for test per-
exponentially towards maximum. The values of formed at the highest radial pressure, reduction
stress ratio reached are inversely proportional to in sample volume is continuous.
cell pressures applied, with highest peak value of On Figure 2c), shear strains are related to vo-
2.26 recorded for sample sheared at 25 Pa. Ex- lume change. Results obtained on reconstituted
ceptionally, for test at 125 kPa, same maximal samples indicate compression only, typical for
stress ratio is registered as in those for 100 kPa, normally consolidated clay. For test on overcon-
implying that further increase of consolidation solidated reconstituted sample slight dilation is
pressure would not lead to decrease in peak recorded resulting from precompacted structure
stress ratio values recorded. Following maxi- (OCR=4). In stabilized soil tests volumetric
mum, firstly rapid exponential and finally almost strain decreases until a certain minimum value is
linear decrease of stress ratio occurs towards re- reached which is reversely proportional to the
sidual value of 1,74. Exceptions are tests consol- cell pressure applied, i.e. the higher the cell pres-
idated at 25 and 50 kPa with slightly higher resi- sure more pronounced contraction is achieved.
dual stress ratio values being 2.02 and 1.84, After reaching minimum volume, stabilized soil
suggesting that true critical density not been samples dilate in a manner similar to those of
reached until the end of test and/or residual stress overconsolidated clay. The dilation effect is the
ratio being influenced by cell pressure intensity. most prominent for the samples tested at lowest
Presumably, registered results are related to both cell pressure and is therefore, reversely propor-
effects resulting with localization of the failure tional to cell pressure intensity. Rate of volume
zone which is more pronounced at lower cell change during specific tests is not constant, but
pressures. characterized with maximal and residual dilatan-
In Figure 2a), stress ratio values are related to cy angle. Exceptionally, sample tested at cell
volumetric strains. Results for reconstituted sam- pressure of 125 kPa exhibits significant conti-
ples suggest initially negligible and later consi- nuous decrease of volumetric strain until failure,
derable linearly proportional volume reduction. similar to those obtained for reconstituted clay.
Overconsolidated sample initially shows some In the test dilation effect is lost due to cell pres-
volume reduction, but eventually volumetric sure influence, i.e. sample being tested at high
strains increase. For tests on stabilized soil, ini- cell pressure. Values of dilation angles calculated
tial rapid increase of stress ratio is associated as a ratio of volume over shear strain