Unit - I

Computer Networks – Definition:

It is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. The connections

need be via Copper Wire, Fiber Optics, Microwaves and Communication satellites.
A system with one control unit and many slaves is not a network, but a large computer
with remote printers and terminals is a network.
Computer Networks VS Distributed System:

* The user of a distributed system is not aware that there are multiple
processors; it looks like a virtual uniprocessor.
* Allocation of jobs to processors and files to disks, movement of files
between where they are stored and all other system functions must be
automatic. With a network, user must explicitly logon to one machine;
explicitly move files around and handles all the network management
personally.
* The distinction between a network and a distributed system lies with the
software [especially with then OS], rather than with the hardware.

Computer Networks - Important Goals

1) Resource Sharing: To make all programs, equipments and especially data available to
anyone on the network, without regard to physical location of resources and the user.
2) High Reliability: All files could be replicated on two or three machines, So if one of
them is unavailable [due to hardware failure], the other copies could be used.
3) Saving Money: Small Computer have much better price/performance ratio than larger
ones. So build a system consisting of personnel computers, one per user, with data kept
on File-Server machine.

Client Server
Machine Machine

Client Server
Process Process

NETWORK
Here the user is called Clients and
Request a whole arrangement is called Client – Server model.
Reply
Transmission Technology – Types (or) Line Configuration
1) Broadcast Networks or multipoint network:
* A Single Communication channel is shared by all the machines on the
network. Short messages called Packets in certain contexts sent by any
machines are received by all others.
* A machine checks address field of the packet, if it is intended for itself, it
process it, else just ignored it.
* Smaller geographically localized network use Broadcasting.

2) Point - to – Point Networks:

* Network consists of many connections, between individual pairs of

machines. To go from source to destination, a packet of this type of network,
may visit one or more intermediate machines.
* Routing algorithm plays an important role in Point-to-Point
Transmission Modes:
Topology:

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.:Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topologyof a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
(see Figure 1.4).
 Mesh Topology:

Mesh In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
Number of computers : n

Number of links: n (n-1)/2

Number of ports : n-1

Advantages:

 First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load
 a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
 the entire system.
 privacy or security.
 fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages:
 .amount of cabling and ports
 installation and reconnection are difficult.
Star Topology:
Star Topology In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device

Advantages:
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
 In a star, each device needsonly one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of
others.
 easy to install and reconfigure.
 Far less cabling
 robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected.
 easy fault identification and fault isolation.

Disadvantages:
 dependency of the whole topology
 on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
 Bus Topology :
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the
other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link allthe devices in a
network

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable
to create a contact withthe metallic core.

Advantages :
 ease of installation.
 Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by
drop lines of various lengths.
 Less amount of cabling
 connects larger computers in smaller distance

Disadvantages:
 difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
 Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone.

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring
in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in
the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along (see Figure 1.8).

Advantages:
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
 Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add
or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
 fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantages:
 However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring
(such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.

Hybrid Topology: Connecting two or more topologies together

Categories of Network (or)Network Hardware’s (or) types of Network
1) Local Area Networks [LAN]:
* It is a privately owned network, within a single building or campus of up to
few kilometers in size. It is widely used to connect personnel computers and
workstations in company Offices to share resources [e.g., printers]
* LANS are distinguished from other kinds of networks, by three
Characterizes,
 Their Size (Restricted)
 Their transmission technology (Single cable)
 Their topology (Bus, Ring)
 Twisted pair cable is enough to connect the computers

A B C

E D

2) Metropolitan Area Networks [MAN]:

* MAN is bigger version of LAN & normally uses similar technology. It

covers group of near by corporate offices or a city; it may be either private
or public.
* It can support both Voice & Data. It has one or two cables and does not
contain any Switching Elements.
* Twisted pair or cooxial calble is supported in MAN

3) Wide Area Networks [WAN]:

* It covers a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It contains a
collection of machines called Hosts, Each host connected by a Subnet.
* The job of the Subnet is to carry messages from host to host.
Subnet consists of two distinct components,
 Transmission Lines – Move bits between machines
 Switching Elements – Specialized computers use to connect two or more
transmission lines.
Classification of interconnected processors

Inter processor Distance Processors Located in Same

10 m Room
100 m Building LAN
1 km Campus
10 km City WAN
100 km Country MAN
1000 km Continent
10000 km Planet Internet
 OSI Reference Model [Open System Interconnection]

It deals with connecting Open Systems – that is systems that are open for communication with
other systems.

Application Protocol
7 Application Application APDU

Presentation Protocol
6 Presentation Presentation PPDU

Session Protocol
5 Session Session SPDU

4 Transport Protocol
Transport Transport TPDU
Internal Subnet Protocol

3 Network Network Network Network Packet

2 Data link Data link Data link Data link Frame

1 Physical Physical Physical Physical Bit

Router Router Host B
Host A

Communication Subnet Boundary

Network Layer Host router

Protocol
Data Link Layer Host router
Protocol
Physical Layer Host router
Protocol
PHYSICAL LAYER:

* Transmitting raw bits over communication channel.

* Deals with Mechanical, Electrical, and procedural interfaces and physical
transmission medium, which lies between physical layers.
* Topology
* Transmission Mode
* Line Configuration

From Data Link Layer To Data Link Layer

Physical 1010101010 1010101010

Layer

Transmission
Medium

DATA LINK LAYER:

* Break the Stream of bits into Data Frames [few hundred or thousand bytes].
* Transmits the frames sequentially and process the acknowledgement Frames
sent by the receiver.
* Responsible for Flow Control & Error Control.
* Physcial Addressing: it contains sender and destination physical address
* Header and Trailer

From Network Layer To Network Layer

H2 Data T2
Datalink H2 Data T2
Layer

To Physical Layer From Physical Layer

NETWORK LAYER:

 Transport the data from one system in one network to another system in different
network, we use network layer. Within the same lan connection, no need to use Network
Layer.
 Logical Addressing is used in network layer.
 Small data units in network layer is called as packets.
 It Controls the operation of the subnet.
 Determine how packets to be routed from source to destination.
 If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, congestion
occurs. The control of Congestion belongs to network layer.

From Transport Layer To Transport Layer

Data H3
Network Data H3
Layer

To Datalink Layer From Datalink Layer

TRANSPORT LAYER:

* Basic function is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller
units, if needed pass these to network layer.
* It ensures that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
* It is also responsible for End-to-End transmission.
* We use two protocol
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) --- Connection oriented Protocol
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) --- Connectionless Service Protocol
From Session Layer To Session Layer

Data H4 Data H4

Transport Data H4 Data H4

Layer

To Network Layer From Network Layer

SESSION LAYER:

 It allows different users on different machines to establish sessions between them.

 Sessions can allow traffic, to go in both directions at the same time, and only one
direction at a time. If traffic can go on one way at a time, the session layer help keep
track of whose turn it is.
 A related session service is Token Management & Synchronization.
 Dialog Control
 Syncroniztion
From Presentation Layer To Presentation Layer

H5 H5

Session
Layer

To Transport Layer From Transport Layer

PRESENTATION LAYER:

* It is concerned with the Syntax & Semantic of information transmitted.

* Example of the presentation service is encoding data in a standard agreed
upon way.
* Translation
* Encyption
* Compression

From Application Layer To Application Layer

Data H6
Presentaion Data H6
Layer

To session Layer From session Layer

APPLICATION LAYER:

* It contains the variety of protocols that are commonly needed.

* Another application layer function is File Transfer.
* Different file systems have different file naming conventions, different ways
of representing text lines. Transferring a file between two different systems
requires handling these, this work done by application layer.
From user or program

X.500 X.400 FTAM

Application
Layer
Data H6

To presentation Layer
Transmission Control Protocol / Internetworking Protocol [TCP/IP]
* This protocol contains four layer, they are
- Application Layer
- Transport Layer
- Internet Layer
- Host – to- Network Layer

Introduction:
The ARPANET was a research network sponsored by DOD [Department Of Defense]; it
connects hundreds of universities and government installations using leased telephone lines
* When satellite and radio networks were added later the existing protocols had trouble inter working
with them, so new architecture was developed known as TCP / IP reference model

Application

Transport

Internet

Host-to-Network

(1) Host – to – Network Layer: The host is connected to the network using some protocols so it can send
IP packets over it. This protocol is not defined and it varies from host – to – host and network to network

(2) Internet Layer:

 It permits hosts to inject packets into any network and allow them to travel independently
to the destination
 The packets sent may arrive at different order, the higher layer rearrange them
 The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called Internet Protocol
[IP]
 The TCP/IP internet layer is similar in functionality to the OSI network layer
(3) Transport Layer:
 It allows peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, this
layer is same as transport layer in OSI
 Two end-to-end protocols defined here;
Transmission Control Protocol [TCP]: It is a reliable connection oriented protocols
that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered on other machine in
internet without error
It also handles flow control, to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver
with more message than it can handle.
User Datagram Protocol [UDP]:It is an unreliable connection less protocol, it is used in
the applications where speedy delivery is important than accurate delivery
 (4) Application Layer:
 The TCP model does not have session (or) presentation layers on top of transport layer is
application layer
 It contains many higher level protocols:
(i) TELNET: It allows a user on one machine to log into a distant machine and work
there
(ii) File Transfer Protocol [FTP]: It provides a way to move data efficiently from one
machine to another
(iii) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol [SMTP]: It is just a kind of file transfer protocol
(iv) Domain Name Service [DNS]: It is used for mapping host names onto their network
addresses
(v) Hyper Text Transfer Protocol [HTTP]: This protocol is used for fetching pages on
the World Wide Web

Telnet FTP SMTP DNS

Protocols TCP UDP

IP

ARPANET SATNET Packet LAN

Networks Radio
OSI vs. TCP/IP

OSI TCP/IP

It has Seven layers It has only four layers

It supports both Connectionless and Connection It supports only Connectionless internet protocol in
oriented protocols in its network layer. its network layer
But only connection oriented in transport layer But supports both connection oriented and
connectionless service in transport layer

This model was designed before its protocols came First protocol came and then the model came
into existence
New technologies can be added easily It is not so easy

This model clearly distinguishes among the concept This model does not pay much attention in its
of services, Interfaces and protocols distinction

Important Terms:
(1) Service: It tells what the layer does, not how entities above it access it (or) how
the layer works
(2) Interface: It tells the processes above it, how to access it.It species what the parameters are
and what results to expect. It says nothing about how the layer works inside
(3) Peer protocols: The layers can use any protocols, it wants to as long as it gets offered
services, It can also change them at will without affecting software in higher layers
 Transmission Medium

Twisted Pair Cable:

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is
not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk
sources

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called
shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braidedmesh covering that encases
each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by
preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
Connectors
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack), as shown in Figure
7.5. The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.

Co-axial Cable:
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twistedpair cable.
coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating
sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the
two.
Coaxial Cable Standards
Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG number denotes a
unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness
and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing

Co-axial Connector:
To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNe), connector.
Fiber optical:

Nature of Light:

Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray
of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different
density), the ray changes direction.

Propagation Modes
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light
along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multimode
can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index
Multimode Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through
the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure
ofthe core.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center
to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.

A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the
center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.

Single-Mode Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.

Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their cladding,
both expressed in micrometers.