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Journal of Environmental Psychology (2002) 22, 49^63

0272 - 4944/02/$-see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd


doi:10.1006/jevp.2001.0241, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

VIEWS OF NATURE AND SELF-DISCIPLINE: EVIDENCE FROM


INNER CITY CHILDREN

ANDREA FABER TAYLOR, FRANCES E. KUO AND WILLIAM C. SULLIVAN


University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, U.S.A.

Abstract

Children growing up in the inner city are at risk of academic underachievement, juvenile delinquency, teenage
pregnancy, and other important negative outcomes. Avoiding these outcomes requires self-discipline. Self-dis-
cipline, in turn, may draw on directed attention, a limited resource that can be renewed through contact with
nature. This study examined the relationship between near-home nature and three forms of self-discipline in
169 inner city girls and boys randomly assigned to 12 architecturally identical high-rise buildings with vary-
ing levels of nearby nature. Parent ratings of the naturalness of the view from home were used to predict
children’s performance on tests of concentration, impulse inhibition, and delay of grati¢cation. Regressions
indicated that, on average, the more natural a girl’s view from home, the better her performance at each of
these forms of self-discipline. For girls, view accounted for 20% of the variance in scores on the combined self-
discipline index. For boys, who typically spend less time playing in and around their homes, view from home
showed no relationship to performance on any measure. These ¢ndings suggest that, for girls, green space
immediately outside the home can help them lead more e¡ective, self-disciplined lives. For boys, perhaps more
distant green spaces are equally important. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd

Introduction pline to improve when this resource is renewed.


Thus, regular contact with natural settings and
Children growing up in the inner city are at risk of views might be expected to enhance children’s capa-
academic underachievement (Brooks-Gunn, 1986), city for self-discipline on a day-to-day basis.
juvenile delinquency (Berrueta-Clement, 1984), teen- To test this possibility, this study tested for links
age pregnancy (Furstenberg, 1976), and other impor- between the view from home and three forms of self-
tant negative outcomes, with profound discipline in children. Speci¢cally, it examined
consequences for themselves, those around them, whether, in an inner city neighborhood, children
and society. Outcomes such as these often re£ect with ‘greener’ views from home were better able to
failures of self-regulation, or self-discipline (Baume- concentrate, inhibit initial impulses, and delay grat-
ister et al., 1994). Could a feature of the physical i¢cation.
environment a¡ect inner city children’s capacity for
self-discipline, and as a consequence, play a role in Three forms of self-discipline
these outcomes?
This paper explores whether children’s self-disci- Concentrating, inhibiting initial impulses, and de-
pline might be enhanced by contact with nature. laying grati¢cation are each distinct and important
Previous research suggests that natural settings forms of self-discipline. They are distinct forms of
and views can help renew the psychological re- self-discipline in that each involves overriding dif-
source used in deliberately directing attention. It ferent, unhelpful tendencies. And they are impor-
has been proposed that self-discipline draws on this tant in that each seems likely to play a pivotal role
same resource (Kuo, 2000); if so, we would expect in the course of a young person’s life. More speci¢-
self-discipline to decline when this resource is de- cally, each seems likely to play an important role in
pleted or fatigued, and we would expect self-disci- negotiating the risks faced by inner city children:
50 A. F. Taylor et al.

academic underachievement, juvenile delinquency, jor repercussions. For example, a temporary


and teenage pregnancy. inability to delay grati¢cation might lead a young
Concentrating requires overcoming the tendency couple to give in to immediate desires and engage
for the mind to wander, and sustaining attentional in unprotected sex, rather than wait until they are
focus despite distractions, boredom, frustration, or better prepared. Consistent with this, poor ability
fatigue. As it involves directing one’s thoughts to to delay grati¢cation is a signi¢cant predictor of un-
the topic at hand, concentration is the form of self- planned pregnancy (Donoghue, 1993; Sha¡er et al.,
discipline that most clearly draws on our capacity 1978).
to deliberately direct attention. The ability to con- In sum, concentration, impulse inhibition, and de-
centrate is important because it enables an indivi- lay of grati¢cation may play pivotal roles in the
dual to mentally ‘buckle down’ and stay on a task course of a young person’s life. How might these vi-
long enough to make progress and be e¡ective. It tal forms of self-discipline be enhanced by the pre-
also seems to enable an individual to complete sence of natural elements immediately outside the
tasks more quickly. In children, chronic or acute home? We suggest that each of these forms of self-
de¢cits in concentration could result in valuable discipline draws on a resource which can be re-
time spent in less-than-e¡ective ways. A child too newed by contact with nature F the capacity for
mentally fatigued to concentrate might spend count- deliberate or self-directed attention. In the next sec-
less hours in front of books and assignments, yet tion, we review the literature on how natural set-
learn very little due to their inability to focus on tings and views can renew directed attention; we
the task at hand. Indeed, inattentiveness is a signif- then consider why self-discipline might draw on this
icant predictor of academic underachievement (e.g. resource.
Mantzicopoulos, 1995; Rowe, 1992).
Inhibiting initial impulses1 requires overcoming
the tendency to jump to conclusions or to act on im- How natural settings and views restore directed
pulse. It involves overriding one’s initial response to attention
a problem or situation, in order to consider alterna-
tives or consider the potential costs and bene¢ts of Both theory and evidence suggest that the resource
a course of action. The ability to inhibit initial im- underlying our capacity to direct attention can be
pulses is important because it gives rise to more renewed by contact with nature. Attention Restora-
prudent and cautious choices, and consequently, tion Theory (Kaplan, 1995; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989)
more prudent and cautious actions. Chronic or builds on William James’ description of attention to
acute de¢cits in a child’s ability to inhibit impulses provide an explanation for why natural settings and
can have serious, negative long-term repercussions. views might be expected to renew this resource.
For example, a child too mentally fatigued to inhibit James observed that certain elements in the envir-
impulses is more likely to give in to repeated o¡ers onment are e¡ortlessly engaging, and draw on what
of a lit cigarette or other dangerous substance. A he called involuntary attention: ‘strange things,
diminished capacity to inhibit impulses could also moving things, wild animals, bright things. . .’
cause a child to accept a dare to jump from one bal- (James, 1962, p. 231). For those stimuli and situa-
cony to the next, or to snatch an elderly woman’s tions that do not e¡ortlessly engage us, he proposed,
purse. Consistent with this, impulsivity is consis- we draw on a voluntary form of attention, or what S.
tently linked with risky behavior (Donohew et al., Kaplan (1995) calls directed attention.
2000; McCoul, 2000), aggression and violence The mechanism underlying directed attention ap-
(e.g. Hynan & Grush, 1986; Markovitz, 1995), and pears to behave like a mental muscle. With pro-
delinquency (Lynam, 2000; Rigby, 1989; White, longed or intense use, the capacity to deliberately
1994). direct attention becomes fatigued and performance
Delaying grati¢cation requires overcoming impa- declines (Cohen & Spacapan, 1978; Glosser & Good-
tience and the tendency to favor short-term rewards glass, 1990). In Attention Restoration Theory,
over long-term goals. It involves internalized stan- S. Kaplan proposed that stimuli that draw primar-
dards and morals. The ability to delay grati¢cation ily on involuntary attention give directed attention
is important because reaching future goals often re- a chance to rest. Further, he noted that natural set-
quires postponing immediate rewards. It assists the tings and views appear to draw on involuntary at-
individual in persisting at goal-oriented behaviors tention; as a consequence, contact with nature
for the good of their future. Even a temporary de¢- should assist in recovery from the fatigue of direc-
cit in the ability to delay grati¢cation can have ma- ted attention.
Nature and Self Discipline 51

Evidence in Adults. A number of studies in adult De¢cit Disorder (Faber Taylor et al., 2001). In that
populations support Attention Restoration Theory. study, parents rated a variety of leisure activities
Several studies have shown that nature draws upon with respect to whether those activities left their
involuntary attention (e.g. Kaplan, 1973, 1983; child’s attention de¢cit symptoms better than usual,
Kaplan & Talbot, 1983, Ulrich, 1981). In addition, a worse than usual, or the same as usual: results indi-
number of other studies have shown that exposure cated that children function better than usual after
to natural environments can be e¡ective in restor- activities in green settings. Moreover, ratings were
ing directed attention from fatigue (Canin, 1991, higher for those activities conducted in green set-
Cimprich, 1990, Hartig et al., 1991; R. Kaplan, 2001; tings than for those conducted in built outdoor or
Kuo, 2001; Lohr et al., 1996; Miles et al., 1998; Ovitt, indoor settings. In addition, the greener a child’s
1996, Tennessen & Cimprich, 1995). usual play setting, the less severe their attention
Of the previous empirical studies linking nature de¢cit symptoms were rated in general. And most
and directed attention, three are particularly rele- relevant to the current study, several measures of
vant to the study presented here. These studies fo- residential greenness were signi¢cantly and nega-
cus on residential nature and residential views of tively linked to overall severity of symptoms F but
nature. In one study, residents randomly assigned only for girls and not for boys. Multiple potential
to relatively ‘green’ high-rise apartment buildings confounds were evaluated; none could explain the
scored signi¢cantly higher on an objective measure relationships between green settings and better at-
of attention than did residents assigned to relatively tentional functioning.
‘barren’ buildings (Kuo, 2001). In another study, uni- In sum, not only do theory and evidence suggest
versity students with ‘all natural’ or ‘mostly natural’ that nature supports directed attention in adults,
views from their dormitory room windows scored but there is some evidence that it does so in chil-
signi¢cantly higher on two objective measures of di- dren as well. Moreover, there is evidence to suggest
rected attention than did residents with ‘mostly that near-home nature and residential views of nat-
built’ or ‘all built’ views (Tennessen & Cimprich, ure can help renew directed attention.
1995). And in a third study, residents of low-rise
apartment buildings with window views of natural Does self-discipline draw on directed attention?
elements or settings rated themselves as function-
ing better on several indices thought to be Might self-discipline draw on directed attention,
related to attention restoration (Kaplan, 2001). and hence, be renewed by contact with nature?
Thus, there is some reason to think that residential More than one investigator has proposed that the
views of nature might prove restorative in this capacity for self-discipline is a limited but renew-
study. able resource (Kuo, 2000; Muraven & Baumeister,
2000). Perhaps it is no coincidence that both what
Evidence in children. Numerous studies have personality psychologists call ‘self-control strength’
linked directed attention to nature and near-home (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000) and what environ-
nature in adults; very little research has been con- mental psychologists call ‘directed attention’
ducted with children. Although Attention Restora- (Kaplan, 1995) are subject to the same patterns of
tion Theory does not exclude children and it has decline and restoration F decline with overuse
been suggested nature might support directed at- and renewal with rest. Kuo (2000) has proposed that
tention in children (Trancik & Evans, 1995), only the mental mechanism that underlies self-discipline
two empirical studies have examined this possibi- and the mental mechanism that underlies directed
lity. Wells (2000) examined children who moved from attention are one and the same.
poor quality housing to better quality housing in Although directed attention has been operationa-
better neighborhoods. Among these children, those lized primarily in terms of e¡ective cognitive per-
whose move involved the greatest increase in nature formance (e.g. maintaining focus or paying
had the highest rated levels of attentional function- attention, resisting distractions, planning, decision
ing post-move. Another study provides three addi- making, remembering things), it is clear from
tional pieces of evidence about the link between Kaplan’s description that the mechanism he pro-
nature and directed attention in children. That poses may be involved in much more (Kaplan &
study revealed that exposure to nature through Kaplan, 1989; Kaplan, 1995). In essence, Kaplan
green activity settings was related to better atten- proposes a general control mechanism for directing
tional functioning (reduced attention de¢cit symp- any of a variety of di¡erent forms of mental activity,
toms) in a population of children with Attention including thoughts, images, sensations, and
52 A. F. Taylor et al.

impulses. Thus, the mechanism for directing atten- K Do residential views of nature enhance
tion may be involved in the inhibition of any children’s inhibition of initial impulses? and
strong-but-unhelpful mental activity in favor of any K Do residential views of nature enhance
weak-but-helpful mental activity. children’s delay of grati¢cation?
Each of the three forms of self-discipline exam-
This study breaks new ground in two respects.
ined here could plausibly draw on this proposed me-
First, previous research has linked concentration
chanism. Concentration involves both inhibiting
to nature empirically, but only in adults with nor-
distractions and other task-irrelevant thoughts, and
mal attentional functioning and in children with
supporting on-task thoughts. Similarly, inhibition of
compromised attentional functioning. This study is
impulses may involve inhibiting initial impulses,
the ¢rst to examine the relationship between nature
blocking out the stimuli that give rise to those im-
and concentration in a sample of children with nor-
pulses, and supporting the consideration of alterna-
mal attentional functioning. And second, although
tives. And delay of grati¢cation may involve
nature and concentration have been linked in some
inhibiting impulses, inhibiting unhelpful thoughts
populations, neither impulse inhibition nor delay of
and sensations that fan one’s desire for immediate
grati¢cation have been linked to nature in any po-
grati¢cation (e.g. warm chocolate cake), and sup-
pulation. The ¢ndings of two studies (Kuo &
porting thoughts about long term goals (e.g. weight
Sullivan, 2001b; Kuo, 2001) are consistent with a
loss).
link between nature and self-discipline, but neither
Consistent with this conception, a number of stu-
of these studies directly examined impulse inhibi-
dies and reviews have linked voluntary or controlled
tion or delay of grati¢cation.
aspects of attention to forms of self-discipline and
To examine the relationship between residential
self-regulation. Mischel and colleagues have shown
views of nature and concentration, impulse inhibi-
that children’s ability to direct attention away from
tion, and delay of grati¢cation in children, we con-
immediate rewards is pivotal in their ability to de-
ducted one-on-one tests and interviews with a
lay grati¢cation (Mischel et al., 1972), and that ado-
sample of inner city girls and boys and their
lescents’ attentiveness and ability to concentrate is
mothers. Objective performance measures were used
predicted by their ability to delay grati¢cation as
to assess children’s concentration, inhibition of initi-
pre-schoolers (Shoda et al., 1990). Two studies have
al impulses, and delay of grati¢cation. Mothers’ rat-
independently linked aspects of attention to more
ings were used to assess the naturalness of views
disciplined ways of dealing with anger or con£ict
from home.
(Eisenberg et al., 1994; Kuo & Sullivan, 2001b). In
factor analyses of questionnaire data, Rothbart
et al. (2001) have found a broad e¡ortful control fac-
Methods
tor, in which attentional focusing clusters with inhi-
bitory control. Posner & Rothbart (2000) review Site and design
literature suggesting that high-level attentional net-
works provide the neural basis for self-regulation. The site was Robert Taylor Homes, a large public
And ¢nally, in their review of over 500 books and housing development in Chicago, Illinois, USA. At
articles on self-regulation failure, Baumeister et al. the time of this study, Robert Taylor Homes (RTH)
(1994) conclude that loss of control over attention is comprised 28 16 -story buildings. It had over 12,000
a key factor in self-regulation failure. o⁄cial residents, of whom 31% were children be-
tween 5 and 14 years old (CHA, 1995). Almost all of
This study the heads of household (99?7%) were African-Ameri-
can and most (75%) received Aid to Families with
If nature renews directed attention in children, and Dependent Children (CHA, 1995).
if directed attention is indeed involved in self-disci- The physical characteristics of RTH help make it
pline, as we suggest, then children’s self-discipline an optimal site for studying the e¡ects of near-home
should be strengthened by contact with nature. This nature. When the development was built in the
study examined whether near-home nature is re- 1960s, trees and grass were planted in the common
lated to three forms of self-discipline in both girls spaces next to every building. Over the years, for
and boys. Speci¢cally, we asked reasons of reducing maintenance and dust, grass
in most of the spaces was replaced with pavement,
K Do residential views of nature enhance causing many of the trees to die and subsequently
children’s concentration? be removed. This attrition has left some buildings
Nature and Self Discipline 53

barren and others with pockets of green. While the view anyone with whom they were acquainted. Par-
amount of nearby nature varies from building to ent-child pairs were invited to participate in a
building, the buildings themselves are nearly identi- University of Illinois study about ‘the physical envir-
cal in architecture, layout, size, and number of resi- onment of the neighborhood and how it a¡ects
dential units. Thus, many would-be confounds are mothers and children’. Any 7^12 year old child and
held constant at RTH, allowing for clean compari- their mother or primary caregiver was eligible to
sons of the e¡ects of near-home nature. participate, so long as they had been residents of
The social characteristics of RTH also help make RTH for at least a year. Potential participants were
it an optimal site for studying the e¡ects of near- told that they could refuse to answer any question,
home nature. The housing assignment practices of and could stop the interview at any time. Adults re-
Chicago Housing Authority result in de facto ran- ceived $10 and children received a small gift at the
dom assignment of residents to buildings, and resi- completion of the interview.
dents are not involved in landscaping decisions or Of the eligible adult^child pairs approached, 169
maintenance. Previous research at this site with a of 174 agreed to participate F a 97% response rate.
di¡erent sample of residents found no systematic re- Ninety one of the child participants were boys; 78
lationships between levels of vegetation outside were girls. Both the boys’ and girls’ mean ages were
apartment buildings and residents’ age, education, 9?6 years old (ranges 7?7^11?7 and 7?7 to 12?2 years
marital status, work status, income, Aid to Families old, respectively). All participants were African-
with Dependent Children status, number of children American.
at home, length of residence, or numerous other fac- Interviews and testing were conducted in partici-
tors (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001a). pants’ apartments at the kitchen table. Adult inter-
views and testing typically lasted a little more
Participants and procedures than an hour. Child interviews and testing typically
lasted 45 minutes.
To boost rapport between the participants and in-
terviewers, we hired and trained residents of RTH Measures
as interviewers. The four interviewers were Afri-
can-American women between 30 and 45 years old. We measured near-home nature and three types of
Each had achieved at least a high school diploma. self-discipline: concentration, inhibition of initial
The interviewers received 40 hours of training in in- impulses, and delay of grati¢cation.
terviewing and administrating objective perfor-
mance measures from our sta¡ and the National Near-home nature. Near-home nature was assessed
Opinion Research Center. by asking the adult participants to rate the views
In order to minimize distractions to interview from their apartment windows. Ratings in response
participants during the interview, we also hired to two items were combined: ‘How much of the view
and trained residents to serve as child-care provi- from your window is of nature (trees, plants,
ders. Child care providers accompanied the inter- water)?’ and ‘How much of your view from your win-
viewers to the interviews and kept any children in dow is man-made (buildings, street, pavement)?’ (re-
the apartment who were not being interviewed safe verse-scored). Each item was rated on a ¢ve-point
and entertained. All child care providers were at scale, from 0 ‘not at all’ to 4 ‘very much’. Figure 1
least 18 years old and were completing or had com- shows barren and green areas immediately outside
pleted high school. RTH apartment buildings.
Twelve apartment buildings with varying
amounts of vegetation were sampled; we excluded Concentration. Concentration was assessed using
buildings adjacent to parks, police stations or other four tasks. These tasks have previously been used
relatively unique features. Within the selected build- as measures of attention or concentration: Symbol
ings, sampling was limited to the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Digit Modalities Test (Cimprich, 1992, Lezak, 1983;
£oors because those £oors provide residents maxi- Smith, 1968), Digit Span Backwards (Cimprich
mal views of the trees and grass outside their build- 1992; Wechsler, 1955), Alphabet Backwards
ing; there are no residences on the ground £oor. (Cimprich, 1992), and Necker Cube Pattern Control
To recruit participants, £yers were posted and in- (Cimprich, 1990; Schwartz, 1994; Tennessen &
terviewers canvassed door-to-door. Interviewers did Cimprich, 1995). Phenomenologically, each of these
not canvas or interview in the building in which tasks is characterized by the e¡ortful use of atten-
they lived, and they were instructed not to inter- tion or paying attention.
54 A. F. Taylor et al.

FIGURE 1. Views of near-home nature vary from apartment to apartment at Robert Taylor Homes.

In Symbol Digit Modalities (SDM), the partici- concentration. Z-scores were used because the four
pant substitutes numbers for nine geometric sym- tasks were scored on very di¡erent scales.
bols, including three mirror image pairs, as quickly
as possible (Smith, 1973). Scores on SDM were the Inhibition of initial impulses. Inhibition of initial
number of correct substitutions in a 90 -s period. impulses was assessed by combining scores on three
One participant’s score was more than 2 S.D. higher established measures of impulsivity or impulse inhi-
than the next highest score; this outlier was ex- bition: Matching Familiar Figures Test (e.g. Welsh et
cluded from further analysis. al., 1991; Brown & Quay, 1977; Kagan, 1966), Stroop
In Digit Span Backwards (DSB), the participant Color-Word Test (Boucugnani & Jones, 1989; Davies
listens to a sequence of numbers two to eight digits et al., 1984; Dyer, 1973), and Category Matching
long and then repeats the sequence aloud in reverse (Melnyk & Das, 1992). Each of these tasks tends to
order (Wechsler, 1955). Scores on DSB were the long- evoke an initial response that is incorrect or very
est number of digits repeated correctly before two likely to be incorrect. In each of these tasks, good
consecutive failed trials. performance requires avoiding the initial incorrect
In Alphabet Backwards (ABK), the participant response in order to discern the correct response.
recites the alphabet backwards beginning with a In Matching Familiar Figures (MFF), the partici-
speci¢ed letter (e.g. the letter u) (Cimprich, 1992). pant is presented with a target ¢gure and a set of
In this study, three trials were given; scores were six alternatives; the task is to select the single alter-
the average number of letters recited in correct (re- native that exactly matches the target ¢gure
verse) sequence divided by the average time spent (Kagan, 1966). Because all the alternatives all look
reciting them (i.e. the average speed with which the same at ¢rst glance, participants must be care-
the participant could recite the alphabet back- ful in evaluating them. For each trial, the number of
wards). erroneous choices a participant makes before select-
In Necker Cube Pattern Control (NCPC), the par- ing the correct alternative is recorded. In this study,
ticipant attempts to mentally ‘hold on to’ one inter- a participant’s score on the measure was the total
pretation of an ambiguous stimulus (Tennessen & number of errors over 12 trials. MFF has been found
Cimprich, 1995). First, the participant stares at a to be a reliable measure: reliability for total number
three-dimensional line drawing of a cube for 30 s, of errors ranges from 0?62 (Block et al., 1974) to 0?78
signaling each time the front and back faces ap- (Cairns & Cammock, 1978). Matching Familiar
pears to reverse. Then, the participant tries to men- Figures has also been found to be a valid measure
tally ‘hold the cube still’ or inhibit it from reversing of impulsivity (Brown & Quay, 1977; although cf.
for 30 s, signaling each time the faces reverse. Scor- Block et al., 1974).
ing for this measure was the percent reduction in In the Stroop Color-Word Test (Stroop), the parti-
the number of reversals from the ¢rst task F let- cipant is given a sheet of paper with 50 color names
ting the cube reverse freely F to the second task presented in rows (Dodrill, 1978). Each color name is
F holding the cube still. Scores were based on per- printed in incongruent ink colors; e.g. the word red
formance of the two tasks after a practice trial. might be printed in green ink. The participant is
Scores on SDM, DSB, ABK, and NCPC were stan- ¢rst asked to read each of the words on the page
dardized and averaged to create a summary index of aloud, and then asked to name the ink color of each
Nature and Self Discipline 55

word on the page. The challenge of this task is to Results


avoid the initial impulse to read the words rather
than name the ink colors. In this study, a partici- Results are presented in four parts. We begin by
pant’s score was the number of ink colors named presenting preliminary analyses suggesting that
correctly on ¢rst attempt. the relationship between near-home nature and
In Category Matching (CM), the participant is self-discipline should be examined separately by
presented with a sheet containing 84 pairs of gender. We then examine relationships between
icons (Schwartz, 1994; adapted from Melnyk & near-home nature and self-discipline for girls and
Das, 1992). The participant evaluates pairs of boys. Finally, we address the potential role of age
icons, attempting to circle only those pairs in which di¡erences in the relationship between nature and
the two icons belong to the same conceptual cate- self-discipline.
gory. Twenty-one of the pairs are target pairs, while
the remaining 63 are distractor pairs. The challenge Preliminary analyses: should girls and boys be
of this task is in resisting the impulse to circle analyzed separately?
pairs in which the icons are similar in form but
not in conceptual category. A participant’s score Previous research has hinted at gender di¡erences
was the number of pairs evaluated in 30 s less any in the e¡ects of near-home nature on children
errors. (Faber Taylor et al., 2001). To determine whether the
We created a summary index of inhibition of initi- e¡ects of near-home nature on self-discipline would
al impulses by averaging the z-scores of MFF best be analysed separately for girls versus boys, we
(reverse-scored), Stroop, and CM. conducted a number of preliminary analyses.
First, we used independent t-tests to examine gen-
Delay of grati¢cation. A version of Rodriguez et al., der di¡erences in self-discipline. Did the girls and
(1989) task was used to assess children’s capacity to boys in this study di¡er in their performance on
delay grati¢cation. In this task, the challenge is to the three forms of self-discipline? As Table 1 shows,
resist an immediate, smaller reward in favor of a there are gender di¡erences on each of the three
delayed but larger reward. The participant is ¢rst forms of self-discipline tested, with girls outper-
asked which of two kinds of candy they prefer. Then, forming boys on two forms and boys outperforming
they are shown a very large and a very small bag of girls on the third. Girls’ scores are signi¢cantly
their preferred candy, and told that if they can wait higher on concentration and marginally signi¢-
long enough, they can have the larger bag; other- cantly higher on impulse inhibition (p=0?08); boys’
wise, they will receive the smaller bag. The test ad- scores are signi¢cantly higher on delay of grati¢ca-
ministrator then instructs the child to wait quietly tion.
with their eyes closed and leaves the room, taking These ¢ndings suggest that it would be prudent
the candy with her (cf. Rodriguez et al., 1989). Scores to take gender into account in testing for links be-
on this task were the total time waited, with a max- tween nature and self-discipline. To do so, we con-
imum score of 15 min. ducted 2  2 factorial ANOVAs examining the

TABLE 1
Means, standard deviations, and mean comparisions between girls and boys on measures of self-discipline
Means Standard Deviations
z
Girls Boys** Girls Boys t p
Concentrating* 0?15 0?12 0?58 0?52 3?24 o0?01
Inhibiting impulsesw 0?09 0?09 0?69 0?62 1?79 0?08
Delay of grati¢cationz 358 454 309 325 1?95 0?05
Self discipline} 0?03 0?02 0?53 0?48 0?65 ns
*Concentration summary=average of z-scores on four constituent measures
w
Inhibition of impulses summary=average of z-scores on 3 constituent measures
z
Delay of grati¢cation scores=total time waited in seconds
}
Self-discipline summary=average of three z-scores: concentration summary, inhibition summary, and delay of grati¢ca-
tion.
z
n=78
**n=91
56 A. F. Taylor et al.

e¡ects of gender and nature on self-discipline. In scale point di¡erence in rated greenness of view
particular, we were interested in whether any ef- (for example, from 0 ‘not at all’ to 1 ‘a little’), perfor-
fects of nature might be moderated by gender. In- mance increases by roughly a quarter of a standard
deed, consistent with previous research, gender by deviation, beta = 0?233. Greenness of view explains
nature interactions emerged for each of the three approximately one-eighth of the variance in concen-
forms of self-discipline. Findings indicated that girls tration scores, R-squared = 0?126.
di¡ered from boys signi¢cantly in the e¡ect of near-
Inhibition of initial impulses. If near-home nature
home nature on concentration, F(1,165) = 5?7,
enhances this form of self-discipline in girls, we
po0?05, and delay of grati¢cation, F(1, 165) = 5.4,
might expect girls with greener views from home
po0?05. Girls di¡ered from boys marginally signi¢-
to perform better, overall, at Matching Familiar
cantly in the e¡ect of nature on impulse inhibition,
Figures Test, Stroop Color-Word Test, and Category
F(1,165) = 3?6, p = 0?06.
Matching. We used a simple OLS regression to ex-
Accordingly, we examined the relationships
amine the relationship between naturalness of
between near-home nature and each of the three
apartment view and a summary index combining
forms of self-discipline separately for girls and for
these three measures of impulse inhibition.
boys.
Do girls with greener views perform better at
tests of impulse inhibition? Yes. On average, the
Near-home nature and self-discipline in girls greener a girl’s view from home, the more e¡ective
she is at inhibiting impulses. As Figure 3 shows,
Concentration. If near-home nature enhances this
there is a positive relationship between naturalness
form of self-discipline in girls, we might expect girls
of view and girls’ performance on the summary in-
with greener views to perform better, overall, at
dex of these three measures; and again, the consti-
Symbol Digit Modalities, Alphabet Backwards,
tuent measures echo this pattern. Naturalness of
Necker Cube Pattern Control, and Digit Span Back-
apartment view signi¢cantly and positively predicts
wards. We used a simple OLS regression to examine
impulse inhibition, F(1, 76) = 3?8, p = 0?05. Greenness
the relationship between parent-rated naturalness
of view explains roughly 5% of the variance in
of apartment view and a summary index of these
impulse inhibition scores, R-squared = 0?048, with a
four measures of concentration.
beta of 0?172.
Do girls with greener views perform better at
tests of concentration? Yes. On average, the greener Delay of grati¢cation. If near-home nature enhances
a girl’s view from home, the better she concentrates. this form of self-discipline in girls, we might
As Figure 2 shows, there is a strong positive linear expect girls with greener views from home to per-
relationship between naturalness of apartment view form better on the Mischel delay of grati¢cation
and girls’ performance on the summary index of con- task.
centration, F(1,76) = 10?9, po0?01, and each of the Are girls with greener views more able to resist
constituent measures echo this pattern. For each the temptation of an immediate-but-smaller reward?

2.5 2.5 2.5


NCPC

SDM

2.0
1.5
−1.5 −1.5
Concentration

1.0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0.5

0 2.5 2.5
−0.5
ABK
DSB

−1.0
−1.5 −1.5 −1.5
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Naturalness of apartment view

FIGURE 2. OLS regression of naturalness of view on the summary measure of girls’ concentration (left) and its four constituent mea-
sures. All scores are standardized.
Nature and Self Discipline 57

2.5 2.5

2.0

MFF
Ιmpulse inhibition 1.5

1.0 −1.5
0 1 2 3 4
0.5 Naturalness

0 2.5 2.5
−0.5

Stroop
CM
−1.0

−1.5 −1.5
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Naturalness of apartment view Naturalness Naturalness

FIGURE 3. OLS regression of naturalness of view on the summary measure of girls’ impulse inhibition (left) and its three constituent
measures. All scores are standardized.

2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5
Delay of gratification

Self-discipline

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0 0

−0.5 −0.5

−1.0 −1.0

−1.5 −1.5
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Naturalness of apartment view Naturalness of apartment view

FIGURE 4. OLS regression of naturalness of view on girls’ delay of FIGURE 5. OLS regression of naturalness of view on the summary
grati¢cation. Delay of grati¢cation scores are standardized. measure of girls’ self-discipline. Self-discipline scores are standar-
dized.

Yes. On average, the greener a girl’s view from


home, the longer she is able to delay grati¢cation. with greener views perform better, overall, on these
As Figure 4 shows, there is a strong positive rela- three forms of self-discipline? Yes. As Figure 5
tionship between naturalness of view and perfor- shows, view from home strongly and positively
mance on this task. Naturalness of apartment view predicts girls’ scores on this combined measure,
signi¢cantly and positively predicts delay of grati¢- F(1, 76) = 19?4, po0?0001. On average, the greener a
cation, F(1, 76) = 12?7, po0?001. For each point di¡er- girl’s view from home, the better she scores overall
ence in rated greenness of view (for example, from 0 on di¡erent forms of self-discipline; for each point
‘not at all’ to 1 ‘a little’), performance increases by di¡erence in greenness of view, scores increase by
almost half of a standard deviation, beta = 0?417. roughly a quarter of a standard deviation,
Greenness of view explains roughly one-seventh of beta = 0?274. Greenness of view explains roughly
the variance in impulse inhibition scores, R- one-¢fth of the variance in self-discipline scores,
squared = 0?143. R-squared = 0?203.

Combined self-discipline measure. To further test the Near-home nature and self-discipline in boys
relationship between near-home nature and girls’
self-discipline, we created a single index combining Table 2 summarizes the ¢ndings for the relationship
scores on the three forms of self-discipline. Do girls between near-home nature and self-discipline by
58 A. F. Taylor et al.

gender. As a comparison between the left and right Discussion


halves of the table shows, the ¢ndings for boys stand
in startling contrast to the ¢ndings for girls. This study tested for possible links between near-
Whereas girls show consistent and often strong home nature and children’s self-discipline, more spe-
links between near-home nature and various forms ci¢cally their capacities for concentration, impulse
of self-discipline, boys show only the barest hint of inhibition, and delay of grati¢cation. Because preli-
such a link. Beta coe⁄cients for boys hover around minary analyses indicated gender di¡erences F
zero for concentration, delay of grati¢cation, and and, more importantly, interactions between gender
the combined self-discipline measure. For impulse and nature F for each of these three forms of self-
inhibition, boys’ scores show a slight tendency to in- discipline, we examined the relationship between
crease with naturalness of the view from home, nature and self-discipline separately for girls and
beta = 0?116, but this relationship is not signi¢cant, boys.
p = 0?13. For girls, views of near-home nature were system-
atically related to each of these three forms of self-
discipline. Girls’ performance on each of the follow-
Age, near-home nature, and self-discipline ing measures was signi¢cantly and positively
related to nature: a summary measure of concentra-
To address the potential role of age in this study, we tion (based on Symbol Digit Modalities, Alphabet
conducted 2  2 factorial ANOVAs (age  nature) Backwards, Necker Cube Pattern Control, and Digit
for concentration, impulse inhibition, and delay of Span Backwards); a summary measure of impulse
grati¢cation. Girls’ scores and boys’ scores were ana- inhibition (based on Matching Familiar Figures,
lysed separately. Findings for girls showed, not sur- Stroop Color-Word Test, and Category Matching);
prisingly, a main e¡ect for nature view for each of Mischel’s delay of grati¢cation measure; and an in-
the three forms of self-discipline. Girls’ concentra- dex combining the three forms of self-discipline. Dif-
tion showed a main e¡ect of nature view, F(1, ferences in girls’ near-home nature explained 20% of
74) = 17?3, po0?0001, as did girls’ impulse inhibition, the variance in overall self-discipline scores.
F(1,74) = 4?9, po0?05 and girls’ delay of grati¢cation, Findings for boys stood in striking contrast to
F(1,74) = 8?6, po0?01. There was no signi¢cant main those for girls. Whereas girls showed signi¢cant, po-
e¡ect for age, nor was there a signi¢cant interac- sitive relationships between near-home nature and
tion between age and nature for any of the three each of the outcome measures, boys showed no sig-
forms of self-discipline. ni¢cant relationships between near-home nature
Findings for boys showed, again, no main e¡ect and any of the outcomes. What might account for
for nature view for any of the three forms of self-dis- these gender di¡erences?
cipline. There was a hint of a main e¡ect of age on One possibility seems promising at ¢rst, but be-
concentration, F(1,74)=2?8, p=0?10, but there were no comes less plausible on further inspection ^ that
other signi¢cant e¡ects for age on other forms of nature restores directed attention in girls but not
self-discipline, and no signi¢cant interactions be- boys. First, there is no a priori theoretical reason
tween age and nature for any of the measures. to expect these e¡ects to be limited to girls. Atten-
These results indicate that the basic ¢ndings of tion Restoration Theory (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989;
the study do not change when age is taken into ac- Kaplan, 1995) would suggest that nature supports
count: for girls, near-home nature is consistently directed attention in any individual with an intact
linked to self-discipline; for boys, near-home nature attentional system. And consistent with this, the
is not linked to self-discipline. empirical work with adults suggests that the

TABLE 2
OLS regression summaries for naturalness of apartment view on measures of self-discipline for girls and boys.
Girls (78) Boys (91)
2 2
R beta F p R beta F p
Concentrating 0?13 0?23 10?9 0?001 0?01 0?07 1?2 ns
Inhibiting impulses 0?05 0?17 3?8 0?05 0?01 0?12 2?3 0?13
Delay of grati¢cation 0?14 0?42 12?7 o0?001 0?00 0?03 0?6 ns
Self discipline 0?20 0?27 19?4 o0?0001 0?01 0?05 0?7 ns
Nature and Self Discipline 59

nature-directed attention relationship is true for ment assignment policies result in de facto random
both males and females (Canin, 1991; Cimprich, assignment of residents with respect to levels of
1990; Hartig et al., 1991; Lohr et al., 1996; Miles et nearby nature at RTH. Furthermore, on-going land-
al., 1998; Ovitt, 1996; Tennessen & Cimprich, 1995). scape maintenance at RTH is handled by a small
It is di⁄cult to imagine why nature would a¡ect di- landscaping crew; residents are not involved in
rected attention in women, men, and girls, but not maintenance and funds are inadequate to ful¢ll spe-
boys. cial requests from residents. Thus it seems unlikely
Another possible explanation for the lack of rela- that any of these forms of self-selection are taking
tionship between near-home nature and self-disci- place. Moreover, it is not clear why, if ‘better’ par-
pline in boys seems more promising. That is, ents self-select into, or create, or are assigned to
perhaps boys are a¡ected by contact with nature in greener apartments, their superior qualities would
just the way that girls are, but boys have relatively be re£ected only in their daughters.
less contact than girls with the nature immediately Another possible interpretation might be that
outside their homes. Studies that have geographi- more self-disciplined children actually have the
cally mapped children’s play have found that boys ty- same levels of near-home nature as their less self-
pically play farther from home than girls (Hart, disciplined counterparts, and the link between self-
1979; Sobel, 1993); for reviews see Moore & Young, discipline and high greenness ratings is an artifact.
(1978), Wohlwill and Heft (1987). Perhaps boys are For example, perhaps more self-disciplined, more ef-
una¡ected by near-home nature simply because they fective parents tend to have better lives and be in
spend time elsewhere. Consistent with this, ¢ndings more positive moods than their less e¡ective coun-
from a previous study indicated that boys’ atten- terparts, and these positive moods lead them to be
tional functioning was not related to the level of more agreeable, thus leading them to endorse items
nature immediately around their home, but was re- more highly ^ including their greenness ratings.
lated to the level of nature in their usual play space Consistent with this, previous research has found
(Faber Taylor et al., 2001). Future research should ex- links between mood and suggestibility (Tata & Gud-
amine the relationship between levels of nature in jonsson, 1990). However, two considerations render
boys’ most typical play spaces and their self-disci- this possibility implausible. First, the measure of
pline. naturalness of view in this study was composed of
The ¢ndings in boys notwithstanding, the overall two items, one of which was reverse-scored. To the
pattern of ¢ndings in this study strongly suggests a extent that positive moods induced residents of
link between near-home nature and concentration, greener buildings to endorse all items more highly,
impulse inhibition, and delay of grati¢cation in the in£ation in the reverse-scored item should bal-
girls. ance the in£ation of the positively scored item.
And second, again, it is not clear how this explana-
Alternative interpretations tion could account for the mothers of girls, but not
boys, giving higher greenness ratings.
To what extent do the links between near-home nat- A third possible alternative interpretation might
ure and these forms of self-discipline re£ect a cau- involve some form of experimenter demand. Might
sal relationship between nature and self-discipline? the interviewers have somehow in£uenced mothers
While de¢nitively showing a cause and e¡ect rela- with high-performing children to give greener
tionship requires a true experimental design, we ratings? Alternatively, might they have in£uenced
can begin to address some possible alternative inter- children from greener buildings to score higher?
pretations here. Although these possibilities cannot be ruled out en-
One possible alternative interpretation for the tirely, neither seems likely. The test administrators
current ¢ndings might be that self-discipline is did not know the hypothesis of the study and thus
linked to near-home nature, but not because nature would not know which mothers or children to in£u-
enhances self-discipline. That is, perhaps some form ence, or in what direction to in£uence them. And
of self-selection is operating: perhaps more e¡ective, yet again, it is not clear how this interpretation
more self-disciplined parents ¢nd ways to be as- could account for the lack of relationship between
signed to greener apartments, or they ¢nd ways to nature and self-discipline for boys.
create greener surroundings, or the Chicago Hous- In sum, the links between nature and self-disci-
ing Authority assigns ‘better’ prospective tenants to pline found here do not appear to be simple arti-
greener buildings. Chicago Housing Authority poli- facts of self-selection, systematic biases in
cies work against each of these possibilities. Apart- assignment of participants to conditions, mood-
60 A. F. Taylor et al.

elevated nature ratings, or experimenter demand. tent with the hypothesis that nature enhances self-
Nonetheless, a causal relationship between nature discipline (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001b), to our knowl-
and enhanced self-discipline F even for girls F re- edge, this is the ¢rst study to systematically docu-
mains to be substantiated. ment a link between nature and less cognitive
forms of self-discipline, speci¢cally impulse inhibi-
Contributions to the literature tion and delay of grati¢cation. Failure to inhibit im-
pulses can have both immediate consequences and
By documenting a systematic, positive link between important long-term implications for an individual;
near-home nature and three forms of self-discipline similarly, a pattern of failure in the delay of grati¢-
in girls, this work contributes to the research on the cation may substantially alter the course of an indi-
bene¢ts of nature in three ways. vidual’s life and their chances of success in a variety
First, the results underscore the potential impor- of domains. For example, previous research has indi-
tance of views of nature. Previous research has cated that children’s ability to delay grati¢cation
shown that a variety of positive outcomes are asso- predicts their academic achievement, social compe-
ciated with views of nature in adults in a variety of tency, and ability to cope with frustration and
settings. In residential settings, views of nature stress in adolescence (Mischel et al., 1988). If near-
have been linked to residential satisfaction, en- home nature can provide a daily, easily accessible
hanced well-being, more e¡ective patterns of coping, means of supporting impulse inhibition and delay
and greater day-to-day e¡ectiveness (Kaplan, 1985, of grati¢cation in a setting where individuals are
2001; Kuo, 2001; Tennessen & Cimprich, 1995) re- likely to be chronically mentally fatigued (Kuo,
spectively. In workplaces, views of nature have been 1992), the implications for individuals, families, and
linked to job satisfaction and well-being (Kaplan, society may be enormous.
1993); in prisons, to decreased demand for health This study underscores the potential importance
care services (Moore, 1981); and in hospitals, to of views of nature, extends previous research on at-
faster recovery from surgery (Ulrich, 1984). The tentional restoration in children to a very di¡erent
¢ndings here add to a growing body of evidence sug- population and setting, and introduces two poten-
gesting that views of nature are no mere amenity. tial new bene¢ts of nature: enhanced impulse inhi-
Second, this work contributes to our understand- bition and delay of grati¢cation. The ¢ndings have a
ing of the bene¢ts of nature for children. Speci¢- number of implications for practice.
cally, the ¢ndings from this study combine with the
¢ndings from a previous study to suggest that atten- Implications for practice
tional restoration may be an important and univer-
sal bene¢t of nature for children. The current study These ¢ndings help reinforce the importance of in-
links nature and superior attentional functioning in corporating trees and grass in spaces for children.
a sample of extremely low-income, attentionally nor- One implication of this research concerns the de-
mal African American children. The previous study sign of public housing developments. As a large pro-
linked nature and better attentional functioning in portion of urban public housing residents are
a primarily middle and upper-income, predomi- children (in Chicago family housing in 1995, for ex-
nately European American sample of children with ample, roughly 60% of residents were 19 years old
Attention De¢cit Disorder (Faber Taylor et al., 2001). or younger; roughly 50% were 14 or younger, CHA,
Together, the two sets of ¢ndings suggest the possi- 1995), these ¢ndings argue for the potential impor-
bility of a nature-attention link that generalizes tance of incorporating trees and grass around
across socioeconomic status, race, and attentional public housing apartment buildings. Moreover,
status, as well as di¡erent levels of residential these ¢ndings suggest that designers of public
greenness F from the most barren of public hous- housing should consider more than just ground-level
ing grounds to the lushest of backyards in wealthy views of common spaces when placing trees and
neighborhoods. grass; it may be helpful to place trees and grass
Perhaps the most important contribution of this strategically within view from the surrounding
work is to identify two new bene¢ts of nature. Pre- apartments. Along the same lines, the ¢ndings
vious research on a nature-directed attention rela- here suggest that, in suburban areas and on the ur-
tionship has focused primarily on cognitive ban-rural fringe, the practice of constructing tree-
outcomes, especially the capacity to pay attention less residential developments may have important
or concentrate. Although previous ¢ndings linking unintended costs. Previous work has suggested that
nature and reduced aggression are certainly consis- the urban forest may be a vital part of children’s
Nature and Self Discipline 61

living environments (Faber Taylor et al., 2001; Faber Urbana-Champaign. We are grateful for the work done by
Taylor et al., 1998); the work here reinforces that Dr. Angela Wiley in hiring, training, and supervising in-
terviewers and child care providers, and coordinating
notion. and supervising the data collection. We thank the inter-
Another implication of this research concerns the viewers, child care providers, and the residents of Robert
design of schoolyards. These ¢ndings raise the possi- Taylor Homes for their participation, and Chicago Hous-
bility that incorporating trees and grass in school- ing Authority for their assistance in the data collection
yards could play an important role in the for this research. We are also grateful to Dr. Stephen
Kaplan for his helpful suggestions regarding terminology.
classroom. Perhaps after spending breaks in green Correspondence concerning this article should be
schoolyards, children return to their classrooms bet- addressed to Andrea Faber Taylor, Human Environ-
ter prepared to pay attention, to suppress disruptive ment Research Laboratory, University of Illinois, 1103 S.
impulses, and to wait patiently for future breaks. Dorner Dr., Urbana, IL 61801, U.S.A. E-mail: afabrtay@
Again, strategic placement may be important here. uiuc.edu
1
‘Inhibiting initial impulses’ has also been labeled ‘inhi-
It may be that an occasional long glance out a class- biting prepotent responses’ (Logan et al., 1997).
room window helps support a child’s capacity for
self-discipline throughout the school day. Perhaps
greater bene¢ts from a given investment in land-
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