Hadron Collider

Large Hadron Collider
Experiments, Technology, Theory and

Future of the world's largest and
highest-energy particle accelerator
PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information.
PDF generated at: Tue, 12 Oct 2010 12:25:03 UTC
Contents
Articles
Overview 1
CERN 1
Large Hadron Collider 11
Experiments 23
List of LHC experiments 23
ALICE 26
ATLAS 29
CMS 38
LHCb 46
LHCf 49
FP420 50
TOTEM 51
Technology 53
LHC Computing Grid 53
LHC@home 54
Proton Synchrotron Booster 55
VELO 55
Theory 56
Standard Model 56
Particle physics 69
Superpartner 75
Supersymmetry 76
Higgs boson 83
Safety 91
Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider 91
Micro black hole 100
Strangelet 104
Future 109
Super Large Hadron Collider 109
Very Large Hadron Collider 111
References
Article Sources and Contributors 112
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 115
Article Licenses
License 118
1
Overview
CERN
European Organization
for Nuclear Research
Organisation Européenne
pour la Recherche Nucléaire
Member states
Formation [1]
29 September 1954
Headquarters Geneva, Switzerland

Membership 20 member states and 8 observers
Director General Rolf-Dieter Heuer
Website http:/ / www. cern. ch/

CERN 2
The 12 founding member states of CERN in 1954

a[›]
(map borders from 1989)
54 years after its foundation, membership to

CERN increased to 20 states, 18 of which are also
EU members as of 2008
The European Organization for Nuclear Research (French: Organisation Européenne pour la Recherche
Nucléaire), known as CERN (see History), pronounced /ˈsɜrn/ (French pronunciation: [sɛʁn]), is the world's largest
particle physics laboratory, situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border (46°14′3″N
6°3′19″E), established in 1954.[1] The organization has twenty European member states, and is currently the
workplace of approximately 2,600 full-time employees, as well as some 7,931 scientists and engineers (representing
580 universities and research facilities and 80 nationalities).
CERN's main function is to provide the particle accelerators and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics
research. Numerous experiments have been constructed at CERN by international collaborations to make use of
them. It is also noted for being the birthplace of the World Wide Web. The main site at Meyrin also has a large
computer centre containing very powerful data processing facilities primarily for experimental data analysis, and
because of the need to make them available to researchers elsewhere, has historically been (and continues to be) a
major wide area networking hub.
As an international facility, the CERN sites are officially under neither Swiss nor French jurisdiction.[2] Member
states' contributions to CERN for the year 2008 totalled CHF 1 billion (approximately € 664 million).[3]
CERN 3
History
The convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 11 countries in Western Europe.a[›][1] The
acronym CERN originally stood, in French, for Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European Council
for Nuclear Research), which was a provisional council for setting up the laboratory, established by 11 European
governments in 1952. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the provisional council was dissolved,
even though the name changed to the current Organisation Européenne pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European
Organization for Nuclear Research) in 1954.[4] According to Lew Kowarski, a former director of CERN, when the
name was changed, the acronym could have become the awkward OERN, and Heisenberg said that the acronym
could "still be CERN even if the name is [not]".
Soon after its establishment, the work at the laboratory went beyond the study of the atomic nucleus, into
higher-energy physics, an activity which is mainly concerned with the study of interactions between particles.
Therefore the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle
physics (Laboratoire européen pour la physique des particules) which better describes the current research being
performed at CERN.
Scientific achievements
Several important achievements in particle physics have been made during experiments at CERN. These include, but
are not limited to, the following.
• 1973: The discovery of neutral currents in the Gargamelle bubble chamber.[5]
• 1983: The discovery of W and Z bosons in the UA1 and UA2 experiments.[6]
• 1989: The determination of the number of light neutrino families at the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP)
operating on the Z boson peak.
• 1995: The first creation of antihydrogen atoms in the PS210 experiment.[7]
• 1999: The discovery of direct CP-violation in the NA48 experiment.[8]
The 1984 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer for the developments that
led to the discoveries of the W and Z bosons. The 1992 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to CERN staff
researcher Georges Charpak "for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire
proportional chamber."
Computer science
The World Wide Web began as a CERN project called ENQUIRE,

initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and Robert Cailliau in 1990.[9]
Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honored by the Association for
Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the
development of the World Wide Web.
Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was aimed at facilitating
sharing information among researchers. The first website went on-line
in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide
This NeXT Computer used by British scientist Sir
Web would be free to anyone. A copy[10] of the original first webpage,
Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the first Web created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web
server. Consortium's website as a historical document.
CERN 4
Prior to the Web's development, CERN had been a pioneer in the

introduction of Internet technology, beginning in the early 1980s. A
short history of this period can be found at CERN.ch [11]
More recently, CERN has become a centre for the development of Grid
computing, hosting among others the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE
(EGEE) and LHC Computing Grid projects. It also hosts the CERN
Internet Exchange Point (CIXP), one of the two main Internet
Exchange Points in Switzerland. CERN's computer network is
connected to JANET (formerly UKERNA), the research and education
network, JANET aids CERN to disperse large data over a network grid
for closer analysis. This Cisco Systems router at CERN was probably
one of the first IP routers deployed in Europe.
Particle accelerators
Current complex
CERN operates a network of six accelerators and a decelerator. Each
machine in the chain increases the energy of particle beams before
delivering them to experiments or to the next more powerful
accelerator. Currently active machines are:
• Two linear accelerators generate low energy particles. Linac2
accelerates protons to 50 MeV for injection into the Proton
Synchrotron Booster (PSB), and Linac3 provides heavy ions at
4.2 MeV/u for injection into the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR).[12]
• The Proton Synchrotron Booster increases the energy of particles
generated by the proton linear accelerator before they are
transferred to the other accelerators.
• The Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) accelerates the ions from the ion Map of the Large Hadron Collider together with
linear accelerator, before transferring them to the Proton the Super Proton Synchrotron at CERN
Synchrotron (PS). This accelerator was commissioned in 2005, after

having been reconfigured from the previous Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR).
• The 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron (PS), built in 1959 and still operating as a feeder to the more powerful SPS.
• The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), a circular accelerator with a diameter of 2 kilometres built in a tunnel,
which started operation in 1976. It was designed to deliver an energy of 300 GeV and was gradually upgraded to
450 GeV. As well as having its own beamlines for fixed-target experiments, it has been operated as a
proton–antiproton collider (the SppS collider), and for accelerating high energy electrons and positrons which
were injected into the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP). From 2008 onwards, it will inject protons and
heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
• The On-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE), which is used to study unstable nuclei. The radioactive ions are
produced by the impact of protons at an energy of 1.0–1.4 GeV from the Proton Synchrotron Booster. It was first
commissioned in 1967 and was rebuilt with major upgrades in 1974 and 1992.
• REX-ISOLDE increases the charge states of ions coming from the ISOLDE targets, and accelerates them to a
maximum energy of 3 MeV/u.
CERN 5
• The Antiproton Decelerator (AD), which reduces the velocity of antiprotons to about 10% of the speed of light for
research into antimatter.
The Large Hadron Collider
Most of the activities at CERN are currently directed towards building a new
collider, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the experiments for it. The LHC
represents a large-scale, worldwide scientific cooperation project.
The LHC tunnel is located 100 metres underground, in the region between the
Geneva airport and the nearby Jura mountains. It uses the 27 km circumference
circular tunnel previously occupied by LEP which was closed down in
November 2000. CERN's existing PS/SPS accelerator complexes will be used to
pre-accelerate protons which will then be injected into the LHC.
Seven experiments (CMS, ATLAS, LHCb, MoEDAL[13] TOTEM, LHC-forward
and ALICE) will run on the collider; each of them will study particle collisions
from a different point of view, and with different technologies. Construction for
Construction of the CMS detector for
these experiments required an extraordinary engineering effort. Just as an
LHC at CERN
example, a special crane had to be rented from Belgium in order to lower pieces
of the CMS detector into its underground cavern, since each piece weighed
nearly 2,000 tons. The first of the approximately 5,000 magnets necessary for construction was lowered down a
special shaft at 13:00 GMT on 7 March 2005.
This accelerator will generate vast quantities of computer data, which CERN will stream to laboratories around the
world for distributed processing (making use of a specialised grid infrastructure, the LHC Computing Grid). In April
2005, a trial successfully streamed 600 MB/s to seven different sites across the world. If all the data generated by the
LHC is to be analysed, then scientists must achieve 1,800 MB/s before 2008.
The initial particle beams were injected into the LHC August 2008.[14] The first attempt to circulate a beam through
the entire LHC was at 8:28 GMT on 10 September 2008,[15] but the system went wrong because of a faulty magnet
connection, and it was stopped for repairs on 19 September 2008.
The LHC resumed its operation on Friday the 20th of November 2009 by successfully circulating two beams, each
with a power of 3.5 trillion electron volts. The challenge that the engineers then faced was to try and line up the two
beams so that they smashed into each other. This is like "firing two needles across the Atlantic and getting them to
hit each other" according to the LHC's main engineer Steve Myers, director for accelerators and technology at the
Swiss laboratory.
At 1200 BST on Tuesday the 30th of March 2010 the LHC successfully smashed two proton particle beams
travelling at 3.5 TeV (trillion electron volts), with a resultant force of 7 TeV. However this is just the start of a long
road toward the expected discovery of the Higgs boson. This is mainly because the amount of data produced is so
huge it could take up to 24 months to completely analyse it all. At the end of the 7 TeV experimental period, the
LHC will be shut down for maintenance for up to a year, with the main purpose of this shut down being to strengthen
the huge magnets inside the accelerator. When it re-opens, it will attempt to create 14 TeV events.
CERN 6
Decommissioned accelerators
• The original linear accelerator (LINAC 1).
• The 600 MeV Synchrocyclotron (SC) which started operation in 1957 and was shut down in 1991.
• The Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), an early collider built from 1966 to 1971 and operated until 1984.
• The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP), which operated from 1989 to 2000 and was the largest machine of
its kind, housed in a 27 km-long circular tunnel which now houses the Large Hadron Collider.
• The Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR), commissioned in 1982, which assembled the first pieces of true
antimatter, in 1995, consisting of nine atoms of antihydrogen. It was closed in 1996, and superseded by the
Antiproton Decelerator.
Sites
The smaller accelerators are located on the main
Meyrin site (also known as the West Area), which was
originally built in Switzerland alongside the French
border, but has been extended to span the border since
1965. The French side is under Swiss jurisdiction and
so there is no obvious border within the site, apart from
a line of marker stones. There are six entrances to the
Meyrin site:
• A, in Switzerland. Open for all CERN personnel at CERN's main site, as seen from Switzerland looking towards France.
specific times.
• B, in Switzerland. Open for all CERN personnel at
all times. Often referred to as the main entrance.
• C, in Switzerland. Open for all CERN personnel at
specific times.
• D, in Switzerland. Open for goods reception at
specific times.
• E, in France. Open for French-resident CERN
personnel at specific times. Controlled by customs
personnel. Named "Porte Charles de Gaulle" in
recognition of his role in the creation of the
CERN.[16]
• Tunnel entrance, in France. Open for equipment
transfer to and from CERN sites in France by
personnel with a specific permit. This is the only
Interior of office building 40 at the
permitted route for such transfers. Under the CERN Meyrin site. Building 40 hosts many
treaty, no taxes are payable when such transfers are offices for scientists working for CMS
made. Controlled by customs personnel. and Atlas.
The SPS and LEP/LHC tunnels are located

underground almost entirely outside the main site, and are mostly buried under French farmland and invisible from
the surface. However they have surface sites at various points around them, either as the location of buildings
associated with experiments or other facilities needed to operate the colliders such as cryogenic plants and access
shafts. The experiments themselves are located at the same underground level as the tunnels at these sites.
Three of these experimental sites are in France, with ATLAS in Switzerland, although some of the ancillary
cryogenic and access sites are in Switzerland. The largest of the experimental sites is the Prévessin site, also known
CERN 7
as the North Area, which is the target station for non-collider experiments on the SPS accelerator. Other sites are the
ones which were used for the UA1, UA2 and the LEP experiments (the latter which will be used for LHC
experiments).
Outside of the LEP and LHC experiments, most are officially named and numbered after the site where they were
located. For example, NA32 was an experiment looking at the production of charmed particles and located at the
Prévessin (North Area) site while WA22 used the Big European Bubble Chamber (BEBC) at the Meyrin (West
Area) site to examine neutrino interactions. The UA1 and UA2 experiments were considered to be in the
Underground Area, i.e. situated underground at sites on the SPS accelerator.
Financing (Budget 2009)
Member state Contribution Mil. CHF Mil. EUR
Germany 19.88 % 218.6 144.0
France 15.34 % 168.7 111.2
United Kingdom 14.70 % 161.6 106.5
Italy 11.51 % 126.5 83.4
Spain 8.52 % 93.7 61.8
Netherlands 4.79 % 52.7 34.7
Switzerland 3.01 % 33.1 21.8
Poland 2.85 % 31.4 20.7
Belgium 2.77 % 30.4 20.1
Sweden 2.76 % 30.4 20.0
Norway 2.53 % 27.8 18.3
Austria 2.24 % 24.7 16.3
Greece 1.96 % 20.5 13.5
Denmark 1.76 % 19.4 12.8
Finland 1.55 % 17.0 11.2
Czech Republic 1.15 % 12.7 8.4
Portugal 1.14 % 12.5 8.2
Hungary 0.78 % 8.6 5.6
Slovakia 0.54 % 5.9 3.9
Bulgaria 0.22 % 2.4 1.6
[17]
Exchange rates: 1 CHF = 0,659 EUR (May 25, 2009)
CERN 8
Member states
The original twelve (12) CERN signatories from 1954
were:
• Belgium
• Denmark
• France
• Germany (at first only West Germany)
• Greece
• Italy
• Netherlands
• Norway
• Sweden
• Switzerland
Member states of CERN as of 2008 Founding members
• United Kingdom
Members who joined CERN later
• Yugoslavia (later withdrawn)
All founding members have so far (as of 2008)
remained in the CERN organisation, except Yugoslavia
which left in 1961 and never re-joined.
Since its foundation, CERN regularly accepted new
members. All new members have remained in the
organisation continuously since their acceptance,
except Spain which joined in 1961, withdrew eight
years later, and joined anew in 1983. CERN's
membership history is as follows:
• Austria joined in 1959, bringing the total

number of members to 13.
• Yugoslavia left in 1961 (12 members)
• Spain joined in 1961 (thus increasing the
number of member states to 13 again), left in 1969
(12 members), rejoined in 1983 (13 members)
• Portugal joined in 1985 (14 member states) Animated map showing changes in CERN membership from 1954
• Finland joined in 1991 until 1999 (borders as of 1989 and 2008)
• Poland joined in 1991 (together with Finland
bringing the number of participating member states
to 16)
• Hungary joined in 1992 (17 members)
• Czech Republic joined in 1993
• Slovakia joined in 1993 (together with Czech
Republic increasing the total members to 19)
• Bulgaria joined in 1999 (20 member states)
There are currently twenty (20) member countries, 18 CERN members (in blue) and observers (in red: USA, Israel, Turkey,
of which are also European Union member states. Japan, India, and Russia) as of 2008
• Romania became a candidate for accession to

CERN in 2010 and will become the 21st member country in 2015[18]
CERN 9
Six (6) additional countries have observer status:[19]

• Turkey - since 1961
• Israel - since 1991
• Russia - since 1993
• Japan - since 1995
• United States - since 1997
• India - since 2002
Also observers are the following international organizations:
• UNESCO - since 1954
• European Commission - since 1985
Non-Member States (with dates of Co-operation Agreements) currently involved in CERN programmes are:
• Algeria
• Argentina – 11 March 1992
• Armenia – 25 March 1994
• Australia – 1 November 1991
• Azerbaijan – 3 December 1997
• Belarus – 28 June 1994
• Brazil – 19 February 1990 & October 2006
• Canada – 11 October 1996
• Chile – 10 October 1991
• People's Republic of China – 12 July 1991, 14 August 1997 & 17 February 2004
• Colombia – 15 May 1993
• Croatia – 18 July 1991
• Cuba
• Cyprus – 14 February 2006
• Estonia – 23 April 1996
• Georgia – 11 October 1996
• Iceland – 11 September 1996
• Iran – 5 July 2001
• Ireland
• Lithuania – 9 November 2004
• Macedonia – 27 April 2009[20]
• Mexico – 20 February 1998
• Montenegro – 12 October 1990
• Morocco – 14 April 1997
• New Zealand – 4 December 2003
• Pakistan – 1 November 1994. The possibility of Pakistan becoming an Observer State has been raised on
various occasions.
• Peru – 23 February 1993
• Romania – 1 October 1991. Since 12 December 2008 it has the Status of Candidate for Accession to
Membership.
• Serbia – 8 June 2001. In 2008 it applied for accession to CERN as a Member State.[21]
• Slovenia – 7 January 1991
• South Africa – 4 July 1992
• South Korea – 25 October 2006. It might become a candidate for CERN Observer Status in a few years.
• Republic of China (Taiwan)
CERN 10
• Thailand
• Ukraine – 2 April 1993
• Vietnam
Public exhibits
Facilities at CERN open to the public include:
• The Globe of Science and Innovation, which opened in
late 2005 and is used four times a week for special
exhibits.
• The Microcosm museum on particle physics and CERN
history.
In popular culture
• CERN is mentioned in several works of fiction and
science fiction such as Robert J. Sawyer's Flashforward
The Globe of Science and Innovation at CERN
and Dan Brown's Angels & Demons in which antimatter
figures prominently.
• CERN's Large Hadron Collider is the subject of a (scientifically accurate) rap video starring Katherine McAlpine
with some of the facility's staff.[22] [23]
• CERN is also referenced in several episodes of The Big Bang Theory - a US comedy show which frequently
references the natural sciences.
See also
• Lyn Evans, Swansea; present Project Leader of Cern
• Fermilab
• Large Hadron Collider
• List of Directors General of CERN
• Science and technology in Switzerland
• SLAC
• World Wide Web
References
[1] CERN.ch (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ About/ History54-en. html)
[2] CERN.ch (http:/ / dsu. web. cern. ch/ dsu/ ls/ MissionE. htm)
[3] CERN Website - Resources Planning and Control (http:/ / dg-rpc. web. cern. ch/
dg-rpc/ Scale. html)
[4] The CERN Name (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ Public/ Content/ Chapters/
AboutCERN/ WhatIsCERN/ CERNName/ CERNName-en. html), on the CERN
website. Last accessed on 25 October 2006.
[8] V. Fanti et al., Phys. Lett. B465 (1999) 335 (hep-ex/9909022) (http:/ / arxiv. org/ [24]
abs/ hep-ex/ 9909022v1) CERN: where the Web was born
[9] CERN.ch (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ Public/ en/ About/ WebStory-en. html)
[10] W3.org (http:/ / www. w3. org/ History/ 19921103-hypertext/ hypertext/ WWW/ TheProject. html)
[11] CERN.ch (http:/ / www. cern. ch/ ben/ TCPHIST. html)
CERN 11
[12] CERN Website - LINAC (http:/ / linac2. home. cern. ch/ linac2/ default. htm)
[13] CERN Courier, "MoEDAL becomes the LHC's magnificent seventh" (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 42329), May 5th 2010
[14] Overbye, Dennis (29 July 2008). " Let the Proton Smashing Begin. (The Rap Is Already Written.) (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 07/
29/ science/ 29cernrap. html)". The New York Times.
[15] CERN press release, 7 August 2008 (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2008/ PR06. 08E. html)
[16] " Red Carpet for CERN's 50th (http:/ / bulletin. cern. ch/ eng/ articles. php?bullno=45/ 2004& base=art)". CERN bulletin. November 2004.
[17] CERN.ch (http:/ / dg-rpc. web. cern. ch/ dg-rpc/ Budget/ Budget09. pdf)
[18] CERN.ch (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ )
[19] "ISAAR relationship data at CERN library" (http:/ / library. web. cern. ch/ library/ Archives/ archnet/ isaarcern. html). . Retrieved
2009-12-14.
[20] Macedonia joins CERN (SUP) (http:/ / www. mia. com. mk/ default. aspx?mId=1& vId=64153836& lId=2& title=MACEDONIA+ -+
INTERNAL+ AFFAIRS+ )
[21] Djelic to meet CERN Director General (http:/ / www. emportal. rs/ en/ news/ serbia/ 87520. html)
[22] Youtube.com (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=j50ZssEojtM)
[23] "Large Hadron Collider Rap Video Is a Hit" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2008/ 09/ 080910-odd-particl-AP. html),
National Geographic News. September 10, 2008. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
[24] Plaque #2196 on Open Plaques (http:/ / openplaques. org/ plaques/ 2196).
External links
• Official website (http://www.cern.ch)
• CERN at 50 (http://www.economist.com/science/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Story_ID=2535917)
• CERN Courier - International journal of high-energy physics (http://cerncourier.com)
• CERN chronology (http://library.cern.ch/archives/chrono/chrono_2002_cern.php)
Geographical coordinates: 46°14′03″N 6°03′10″E
Large Hadron Collider

Geographical coordinates: 46°14′N 06°03′E
LHC experiments
ATLAS A Toroidal LHC Apparatus
CMS Compact Muon Solenoid
LHCb LHC-beauty
ALICE A Large Ion Collider Experiment
TOTEM Total Cross Section, Elastic Scattering and Diffraction Dissociation
LHCf LHC-forward
MoEDAL Monopole and Exotics Detector At the LHC
LHC preaccelerators
p and Pb Linear accelerators for protons (Linac 2) and Lead (Linac 3)
(not marked) Proton Synchrotron Booster

PS Proton Synchrotron
SPS Super Proton Synchrotron
Intersecting Storage Rings CERN, 1971–1984
Super Proton Synchrotron CERN, 1981–1984
ISABELLE BNL, cancelled in 1983
Tevatron Fermilab, 1987–present
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider BNL, 2000–present
Superconducting Super Collider Cancelled in 1993
Large Hadron Collider CERN, 2009–present
Super Large Hadron Collider Proposed, CERN, 2019–
Very Large Hadron Collider Theoretical
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. It is expected that
it will address the most fundamental questions of physics, advancing our understanding of the deepest laws of nature.
The LHC lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference, as much as 175 metres (574 ft) beneath the
Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland. This synchrotron is designed to collide opposing particle beams of
either protons at an energy of 7 teraelectronvolts (1.12 microjoules) per particle, or lead nuclei at an energy of
574 TeV (92.0 µJ) per nucleus.[1] [2] The term hadron refers to particles composed of quarks.
The Large Hadron Collider was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) with the intention
of testing various predictions of high-energy physics, including the existence of the hypothesized Higgs boson[3] and
of the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetry.[4] It is funded by and built in collaboration with
over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories.[5]
On 10 September 2008, the proton beams were successfully circulated in the main ring of the LHC for the first
time,[6] but 9 days later operations were halted due to a serious fault.[7] On 20 November 2009 they were
successfully circulated again,[8] with the first proton–proton collisions being recorded 3 days later at the injection
energy of 450 GeV per beam.[9] After the 2009 winter shutdown, the LHC was restarted and the beam was ramped
up to 3.5 TeV per beam,[10] half its designed energy,[11] which is planned for after its 2012 shutdown. On 30 March
2010, the first planned collisions took place between two 3.5 TeV beams, which set a new world record for the
highest-energy man-made particle collisions.[12]
Purpose
Physicists hope that the LHC will help answer many of the most
fundamental questions in physics: questions concerning the basic laws
governing the interactions and forces among the elementary objects,
the deep structure of space and time, especially regarding the
intersection of quantum mechanics and general relativity, where
current theories and knowledge are unclear or break down altogether.
These issues include, at least:[13]
• Is the Higgs mechanism for generating elementary particle masses

via electroweak symmetry breaking indeed realised in nature?[14] It
is anticipated that the collider will either demonstrate or rule out the
A simulated event in the CMS detector, featuring existence of the elusive Higgs boson(s), completing (or refuting) the
the appearance of the Higgs boson Standard Model.[15] [16] [17]
• Is supersymmetry, an extension of the Standard Model and Poincaré
symmetry, realised in nature, implying that all known particles have supersymmetric partners?[18] [19] [20]
• Are there extra dimensions,[21] as predicted by various models inspired by string theory, and can we detect
them?[22]
• What is the nature of the Dark Matter which appears to account for 23% of the mass of the Universe?
Other questions are:
• Are electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force just different manifestations of a single
unified force, as predicted by various Grand Unification Theories?
• Why is gravity so many orders of magnitude weaker than the other three fundamental forces? See also Hierarchy
problem.
• Are there additional sources of quark flavours, beyond those already predicted within the Standard Model?
• Why are there apparent violations of the symmetry between matter and antimatter? See also CP violation.
• What was the nature of the quark-gluon plasma in the early universe? This will be investigated by heavy ion
collisions in ALICE.
Design
The LHC is the world's largest and highest-energy particle
accelerator.[1] [23] The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a
circumference of 27 kilometres (17 mi), at a depth ranging from 50 to
175 metres (160 to 574 ft) underground.
The 3.8-metre (12 ft) wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between
1983 and 1988, was formerly used to house the Large
Electron–Positron Collider.[24] It crosses the border between
Switzerland and France at four points, with most of it in France.
A Feynman diagram of one way the Higgs boson
Surface buildings hold ancillary equipment such as compressors,
may be produced at the LHC. Here, two quarks
each emit a W or Z boson, which combine to ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants.
make a neutral Higgs.
The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beam pipes that
intersect at four points, each containing a proton beam, which travel in
opposite directions around the ring. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep
the beams on their circular path, while an additional 392 quadrupole

magnets are used to keep the beams focused, in order to maximize the
chances of interaction between the particles in the four intersection
points, where the two beams will cross. In total, over 1,600
superconducting magnets are installed, with most weighing over 27
tonnes. Approximately 96 tonnes of liquid helium is needed to keep the
magnets at their operating temperature of 1.9 K (−271.25 °C), making
the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium
temperature.
Map of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN
Once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to

7 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets will be
increased from 0.54 to 8.3 teslas (T). The protons will each have an
energy of 7 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 14 TeV. At this
energy the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 7,500 and move at
about 0.999999991 c, or about 3 metres per second slower than the
speed of light (c).[25] It will take less than 90 microseconds (μs) for a
proton to travel once around the main ring – a speed of about 11,000
revolutions per second. Rather than continuous beams, the protons will
Superconducting quadrupole electromagnets are
be bunched together, into 2,808 bunches, so that interactions between
used to direct the beams to four intersection
points, where interactions between accelerated the two beams will take place at discrete intervals never shorter than 25
protons will take place. nanoseconds (ns) apart. However it will be operated with fewer
bunches when it is first commissioned, giving it a bunch crossing
interval of 75 ns.[26] The design luminosity of the LHC is 1034 cm-2s-1, providing a bunch collision rate of 40 MHz.
[27]
Prior to being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared by a series of systems that successively
increase their energy. The first system is the linear particle accelerator LINAC 2 generating 50-MeV protons, which
feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). There the protons are accelerated to 1.4 GeV and injected into the
Proton Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelerated to 26 GeV. Finally the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is used
to further increase their energy to 450 GeV before they are at last injected (over a period of 20 minutes) into the
main ring. Here the proton bunches are accumulated, accelerated (over a period of 20 minutes) to their peak 7-TeV
energy, and finally circulated for 10 to 24 hours while collisions occur at the four intersection points.[28]
The LHC physics program is mainly based on proton–proton collisions.

However, shorter running periods, typically one month per year, with heavy-ion
collisions are included in the program. While lighter ions are considered as well,
the baseline scheme deals with lead ions[29] (see A Large Ion Collider
Experiment). The lead ions will be first accelerated by the linear accelerator
LINAC 3, and the Low-Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) will be used as an ion storage
and cooler unit. The ions will then be further accelerated by the PS and SPS
before being injected into LHC ring, where they will reach an energy of 2.76
TeV per nucleon (or 575 TeV per ion), higher than the energies reached by the
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The aim of the heavy-ion program is to
investigate quark–gluon plasma, which existed in the early universe.
CMS detector for LHC
Detectors
Six detectors have been constructed at the LHC, located underground in large caverns excavated at the LHC's
intersection points. Two of them, the ATLAS experiment and the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), are large, general
purpose particle detectors.[23] A Large Ion Collider Experiment (ALICE) and LHCb, have more specific roles and
the last two, TOTEM and LHCf, are very much smaller and are for very specialized research. The BBC's summary
of the main detectors is:[30]
Detector Description
ATLAS one of two general purpose detectors. ATLAS will be used to look for signs of new physics, including the origins of mass and extra
dimensions.
CMS the other general purpose detector will, like ATLAS, hunt for the Higgs boson and look for clues to the nature of dark matter.
ALICE will study a "liquid" form of matter called quark–gluon plasma that existed shortly after the Big Bang.
LHCb equal amounts of matter and antimatter were created in the Big Bang. LHCb will try to investigate what happened to the "missing"
antimatter.
Operational timeline
The first beam was circulated through the collider on the morning of 10 September 2008.[30] CERN successfully
fired the protons around the tunnel in stages, three kilometres at a time. The particles were fired in a clockwise
direction into the accelerator and successfully steered around it at 10:28 local time.[31] The LHC successfully
completed its first major test: after a series of trial runs, two white dots flashed on a computer screen showing the
protons travelled the full length of the collider. It took less than one hour to guide the stream of particles around its
inaugural circuit.[32] CERN next successfully sent a beam of protons in a counterclockwise direction, taking slightly
longer at one and a half hours due to a problem with the cryogenics, with the full circuit being completed at 14:59. In
the original timeline of the LHC commissioning, the first "modest" high-energy collisions at a center-of-mass energy
of 900 GeV were expected to take place before the end of September 2008, and the LHC was expected to be
operating at 10 TeV by the time of the official inauguration on 21 October 2008.[33] However, due to the delay
caused by the above-mentioned incident, the collider was not operational until November 2009.[34] Despite the
delay, LHC was officially inaugurated on 21 October 2008, in the presence of political leaders, science ministers
from CERN's 20 Member States, CERN officials, and members of the worldwide scientific community.[35] CERN
scientists estimate that if the Standard Model is correct, a single Higgs boson may be produced every few hours. At
this rate, it may take about two to three years to collect enough data to discover the Higgs boson unambiguously.
Similarly, it may take one year or more before sufficient results concerning supersymmetric particles have been
gathered to draw meaningful conclusions.[1]
On 19 September 2008, a quench occurred in about 100 bending magnets in sectors 3 and 4, causing a loss of
approximately six tonnes of liquid helium, which was vented into the tunnel, and a temperature rise of about 100
kelvin in some of the affected magnets. Vacuum conditions in the beam pipe were also lost.[36] Shortly after the
incident CERN reported that the most likely cause of the problem was a faulty electrical connection between two
magnets, and that – due to the time needed to warm up the affected sectors and then cool them back down to
operating temperature – it would take at least two months to fix it.[37] Subsequently, CERN released a preliminary
analysis of the incident on 16 October 2008,[38] and a more detailed one on 5 December 2008.[39] Both analyses
confirmed that the incident was indeed initiated by a faulty electrical connection. A total of 53 magnets were
damaged in the incident and were repaired or replaced during the winter shutdown.[40]
Most of 2009 was spent on repairs and reviews from the damage caused by the quench incident. On November 20,
the first low-energy beams circulated in the tunnel for the first time since the incident. On December 15, 2009, the
first physics results from the LHC were reported, involving 284 collisions that took place in the ALICE detector.[41]
The early part of 2010 saw the continue ramp-up of beam in energies and early physic experiments. The results of
the first proton–proton collisions at energies higher than Fermilab's Tevatron proton–antiproton collisions have been
published, yielding greater-than-predicted charged hadron production.[42] The CMS paper reports that the increase in
the production rate of charged hadrons when the center-of-mass energy goes from 0.9 TeV to 2.36 TeV exceeds the
predictions of the theoretical models used in the analysis, with the excess ranging from 10% to 14%, depending upon
which model is used. The charged hadrons were primarily mesons (kaons and pions).[43] On 30 March 2010, LHC
set a record for high-energy collisions, by colliding proton beams at a combined energy level of 7 TeV. The attempt
was the third that day, after two unsuccessful attempts in which the protons had to be "dumped" from the collider
and new beams had to be injected.[44] CERN has declared a schedule to operate the LHC through the rest of 2010
and most of 2011 before the next scheduled shutdown.[45]
Timeline
Date Event
10 Sep 2008 CERN successfully fired the first protons around the entire tunnel circuit in stages.
19 Sep 2008 Magnetic quench occurred in about 100 bending magnets in sectors 3 and 4, causing a loss of approximately 6 tonnes of liquid
helium.
30 Sep 2008 First "modest" high-energy collisions planned but postponed due to accident.
16 Oct 2008 CERN released a preliminary analysis of the incident.
21 Oct 2008 Official inauguration.
5 Dec 2008 CERN released detailed analysis.
20 Nov 2009 Low-energy beams circulated in the tunnel for the first time since the incident.[46]
23 Nov 2009 First particle collisions in all four detectors at 450 GeV.[9]
30 Nov 2009 LHC becomes the world's highest-energy particle accelerator achieving 1.18 TeV per beam, beating the Tevatron's previous record of
[47]
0.98 TeV per beam held for eight years.
28 Feb 2010 The LHC continues operations ramping energies to run at 3.5 TeV for 18 months to two years, after which it will be shut down to
[48]
prepare for the 14 TeV collisions (7 TeV per beam).
30 Mar 2010 The two beams collided at 7 TeV (3.5 TeV per beam) in the LHC at 13:06 CEST, marking the start of the LHC research program.
Proposed upgrade
After some years of running, any particle physics experiment typically begins to suffer from diminishing returns:
each additional year of operation discovers less than the year before. The way around the diminishing returns is to
upgrade the experiment, either in energy or in luminosity. A luminosity upgrade of the LHC, called the Super LHC,
has been proposed,[49] to be made after ten years of LHC operation.
The optimal path for the LHC luminosity upgrade includes an increase in the beam current (i.e., the number of
protons in the beams) and the modification of the two high-luminosity interaction regions, ATLAS and CMS. To
achieve these increases, the energy of the beams at the point that they are injected into the (Super) LHC should also
be increased to 1 TeV. This will require an upgrade of the full pre-injector system, the needed changes in the Super
Proton Synchrotron being the most expensive.
Cost
With a budget of 9 billion US dollars (approx. €7.5bn or £6.19bn as of Jun 2010), the LHC is one of the most
expensive scientific instruments[50] ever built.[51] The total cost of the project is expected to be of the order of 4.6bn
Swiss francs (approx. $4.4bn, €3.1bn, or £2.8bn as of Jan 2010) for the accelerator and SFr 1.16bn (approx. $1.1bn,
€0.8bn, or £0.7bn as of Jan 2010) for the CERN contribution to the experiments.[52]
The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a budget of SFr 2.6bn, with another SFr 210M towards the
experiments. However, cost overruns, estimated in a major review in 2001 at around SFr 480M for the accelerator,
and SFr 50M for the experiments, along with a reduction in CERN's budget, pushed the completion date from 2005
to April 2007.[53] The superconducting magnets were responsible for SFr 180M of the cost increase. There were also
further costs and delays due to engineering difficulties encountered while building the underground cavern for the
Compact Muon Solenoid,[54] and also due to faulty parts provided by Fermilab.[55] Due to lower electricity costs
during the summer, it is expected that the LHC will normally not operate over the winter months,[56] although an
exception was made to make up for the 2008 start-up delays over the 2009/10 winter.
Computing resources
Data produced by LHC as well as LHC-related simulation will produce a total data output of 15 petabytes per year
(max throughput while running not stated).[57]
The LHC Computing Grid is being constructed to handle the massive amounts of data produced. It incorporates both
private fiber optic cable links and existing high-speed portions of the public Internet, enabling data transfer from
CERN to academic institutions around the world.
The Open Science Grid is used as the primary infrastructure in the United States, and also as part of an interoperable
federation with the LHC Computing Grid.
The distributed computing project LHC@home was started to support the construction and calibration of the LHC.
The project uses the BOINC platform, enabling anybody with an internet connection to use their computer idle time
to simulate how particles will travel in the tunnel. With this information, the scientists will be able to determine how
the magnets should be calibrated to gain the most stable "orbit" of the beams in the ring.
Safety of particle collisions

The experiments at the Large Hadron Collider sparked fears among the public that the particle collisions might
produce doomsday phenomena, involving the production of stable microscopic black holes or the creation of
hypothetical particles called strangelets.[58] Two CERN-commissioned safety reviews examined these concerns and
concluded that the experiments at the LHC present no danger and that there is no reason for concern,[59] [60] [61] a
conclusion expressly endorsed by the American Physical Society.[62]
Operational challenges
The size of the LHC constitutes an exceptional engineering challenge with unique operational issues on account of
the amount of energy stored in the magnets and the beams.[28] [63] While operating, the total energy stored in the
magnets is 10 GJ (equivalent to 2.4 tons of TNT) and the total energy carried by the two beams reaches 724 MJ (173
kilograms of TNT).[64]
Loss of only one ten-millionth part (10−7) of the beam is sufficient to quench a superconducting magnet, while the
beam dump must absorb 362 MJ (87 kilograms of TNT) for each of the two beams. These energies are carried by
very little matter: under nominal operating conditions (2,808 bunches per beam, 1.15×1011 protons per bunch), the
beam pipes contain 1.0×10−9 gram of hydrogen, which, in standard conditions for temperature and pressure, would
fill the volume of one grain of fine sand.
Construction accidents and delays

• On 25 October 2005, José Pereira Lages, a technician, was killed in the LHC when a switchgear that was being
transported fell on him.[65]
• On 27 March 2007 a cryogenic magnet support broke during a pressure test involving one of the LHC's inner
triplet (focusing quadrupole) magnet assemblies, provided by Fermilab and KEK. No one was injured. Fermilab
director Pier Oddone stated "In this case we are dumbfounded that we missed some very simple balance of
forces". This fault had been present in the original design, and remained during four engineering reviews over the
following years.[66] Analysis revealed that its design, made as thin as possible for better insulation, was not strong
enough to withstand the forces generated during pressure testing. Details are available in a statement from
Fermilab, with which CERN is in agreement.[67] [68] Repairing the broken magnet and reinforcing the eight
identical assemblies used by LHC delayed the startup date, then planned for November 2007.
• Problems occurred on 19 September 2008 during powering tests of the main dipole circuit, when an electrical
fault in the bus between magnets caused a rupture and a leak of six tonnes of liquid helium. The operation was
delayed for several months.[69] It is currently believed that a faulty electrical connection between two magnets
caused an arc, which compromised the liquid-helium containment. Once the cooling layer was broken, the helium
flooded the surrounding vacuum layer with sufficient force to break 10-ton magnets from their mountings. The
explosion also contaminated the proton tubes with soot.[39] [70] This accident was more recently thoroughly
discussed in a 22 February 2010 Superconductor Science and Technology article by CERN physicist Lucio
Rossi.[71]
• Two vacuum leaks were identified in July 2009, and the start of operations was further postponed to
mid-November 2009.[72]
Popular culture
The Large Hadron Collider has gained considerable attention from outside the scientific community and its progress
is followed by most popular science media. The LHC has also sparked the imaginations of authors of works of
fiction, such as novels, TV series, and video games, although descriptions of what it is, how it works, and projected
outcomes of the experiments are often only vaguely accurate, occasionally causing concern among the general
public.
The novel Angels & Demons, by Dan Brown, involves antimatter created at the LHC to be used in a weapon against
the Vatican. In response CERN published a "Fact or Fiction?" page discussing the accuracy of the book's portrayal of
the LHC, CERN, and particle physics in general.[73] The movie version of the book has footage filmed on-site at one
of the experiments at the LHC; the director, Ron Howard, met with CERN experts in an effort to make the science in
the story more accurate.[74]
In The Big Bang Theory, the episode The Large Hadron Collision features the Large Hadron Collider prominently.
The novel FlashForward, by Robert J. Sawyer, involves the search for the Higgs boson at the LHC. CERN
published a "Science and Fiction" page interviewing Sawyer and physicists about the book and the TV series based
on it.[75]
CERN employee Katherine McAlpine's "Large Hadron Rap" [76][77] surpassed 6 million YouTube views.[78] [79]
The band Les Horribles Cernettes was founded by female members of CERN. The name was chosen so to have the
same initials as the LHC.[80] [81] They are the first band to have a site on the World Wide Web,[82] and their photo
there was the first to ever appear on the Web.[83]
See also
• International Linear Collider
• List of accelerators in particle physics
References
[1] "What is LHCb" (http:/ / cdsmedia. cern. ch/ img/ CERN-Brochure-2008-001-Eng. pdf). CERN FAQ. CERN Communication Group. January
2008. p. 44. . Retrieved 2010-04-02.
[2] Amina Khan (31 March 2010). "Large Hadron Collider rewards scientists watching at Caltech" (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 2010/ mar/ 31/
science/ la-sci-hadron31-2010mar31). Los Angeles Times. . Retrieved 2010-04-02.
[3] "Missing Higgs" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ Science/ Higgs-en. html). CERN. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-10-10.
[4] "Towards a superforce" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ Science/ Superforce-en. html). CERN. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-10-10.
[5] Roger Highfield (16 September 2008). "Large Hadron Collider: Thirteen ways to change the world" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ earth/
main. jhtml?xml=/ earth/ 2008/ 09/ 16/ sciwriters116. xml). Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 2008-10-10.
[6] CERN Press Office (10 September 2008). "First beam in the LHC – Accelerating science" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/
Releases2008/ PR08. 08E. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2008-10-09.
[7] Paul Rincon (23 September 2008). "Collider halted until next year" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7632408. stm). BBC
News. . Retrieved 2008-10-09.
[8] CERN Press Office (20 November 2009). "The LHC is back" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2009/ PR16. 09E.
html). Press release. . Retrieved 2009-11-20.
[9] CERN Press Office (23 November 2009). "Two circulating beams bring first collisions in the LHC" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/
PressReleases/ Releases2009/ PR17. 09E. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2009-11-23.
[10] CERN Press Office (19 March 2010). "LHC sets new record – accelerates beams to 3.5 TeV" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/
[11] The New York Times (4 February 2010). "Collider to Operate Again, Though at Half Power" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 02/ 05/
science/ 05collide. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-02-05.
[12] BBC News (30 March 2010). "CERN LHC sees high-energy success" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8593780. stm). Press
release. . Retrieved 2010-03-30.
[13] Brian Greene (11 September 2008). "The Origins of the Universe: A Crash Course" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 09/ 12/ opinion/
12greene. html?_r=1& oref=slogin). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-04-17.
[14] "... in the public presentations of the aspiration of particle physics we hear too often that the goal of the LHC or a linear collider is to check
off the last missing particle of the Standard Model, this year's Holy Grail of particle physics, the Higgs boson. The truth is much less boring
than that! What we're trying to accomplish is much more exciting, and asking what the world would have been like without the Higgs
mechanism is a way of getting at that excitement." – Chris Quigg (2005). "Nature's Greatest Puzzles". arΧiv:hep-ph/0502070 [hep-ph].
[15] "Why the LHC" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ LHC/ WhyLHC-en. html). CERN. 2008. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[16] "Zeroing in on the elusive Higgs boson" (http:/ / www. science. doe. gov/ Accomplishments_Awards/ Decades_Discovery/ 35. html). US
Department of Energy. March 2001. . Retrieved 2008-12-11.
[17] "Accordingly, in common with many of my colleagues, I think it highly likely that both the Higgs boson and other new phenomena will be
found with the LHC."..."This mass threshold means, among other things, that something new—either a Higgs boson or other novel
phenomena—is to be found when the LHC turns the thought experiment into a real one." Chris Quigg (February 2008). "The coming
revolutions in particle physics" (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=the-coming-revolutions-in-particle-physics& page=3).
Scientific American. pp. 38–45. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[18] Shaaban Khalil (2003). "Search for supersymmetry at LHC". Contemporary Physics 44 (3): 193–201. doi:10.1080/0010751031000077378.
[19] Alexander Belyaev (2009). "Supersymmetry status and phenomenology at the Large Hadron Collider". Pramana 72 (1): 143–160.
doi:10.1007/s12043-009-0012-0.
[20] Anil Ananthaswamy (11 November 2009). "In SUSY we trust: What the LHC is really looking for" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/
article/ mg20427341. 200-in-susy-we-trust-what-the-lhc-is-really-looking-for. html). New Scientist. .
[21] Lisa Randall (2002). "Extra Dimensions and Warped Geometries" (http:/ / randall. physics. harvard. edu/ RandallCV/ Sciencearticle. pdf).
Science 296 (5572): 1422–1427. doi:10.1126/science.1072567. PMID 12029124. .
[22] Panagiota Kanti, "Black Holes at the LHC"; http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0802. 2218v2
[23] Joel Achenbach (March 2008). "The God Particle" (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2008/ 03/ god-particle/ achenbach-text). National
Geographic Magazine. . Retrieved 2008-02-25.
[24] "The Z factory" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ PUBLIC/ en/ Research/ LEP-en. html). CERN. 2008. . Retrieved 2009-04-17.
[25] "LHC: How Fast do These Protons Go?" (http:/ / journal. batard. info/ post/ 2008/ 09/ 12/ lhc-how-fast-do-these-protons-go). yogiblog. .
Retrieved 2008-10-29.
[26] "LHC commissioning with beam" (http:/ / lhc-commissioning. web. cern. ch/ lhc-commissioning/ ). CERN. . Retrieved 2009-04-17.
[27] Operational Experience of the ATLAS High Level Trigger with Single-Beam and Cosmic Rays (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 1228285/
files/ ATL-DAQ-PROC-2009-044. pdf)
[28] Jörg Wenninger (November 2007). "Operational challenges of the LHC" (http:/ / irfu. cea. fr/ Phocea/ file. php?class=std& file=Seminaires/
1595/ Dapnia-Nov07-partB. ppt) (PowerPoint). p. 53. . Retrieved 2009-04-17.
[29] "Ions for LHC (I-LHC) Project" (http:/ / project-i-lhc. web. cern. ch/ project-i-lhc/ Welcome. htm). CERN. 1 November 2007. . Retrieved
2009-04-17.
[30] Paul Rincon (10 September 2008). "'Big Bang' experiment starts well" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 7604293. stm). BBC News.
. Retrieved 2009-04-17.
[31] CERN Press Office (10 September 2008). "First beam in the LHC – Accelerating science" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/
[32] Mark Henderson (10 September 2008). "Scientists cheer as protons complete first circuit of Large Hadron Collider" (http:/ / www.
timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ uk/ science/ article4722261. ece). Times Online (London). . Retrieved 2008-10-06.
[33] Mark Henderson (18 September 2008). "'Big bang machine' is back on collision course after its glitches are fixed" (http:/ / www.
timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ uk/ science/ article4774817. ece). Times Online (London). . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[34] CERN Press Office (9 February 2009). "CERN management confirms new LHC restart schedule" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/
[35] CERN Press Office (21 October 2008). "CERN inaugurates the LHC" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2008/
PR16. 08E. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2008-10-21.
[36] "Interim Summary Report on the Analysis of the 19 September 2008 Incident at the LHC" (https:/ / edms. cern. ch/ file/ 973073/ 1/
Report_on_080919_incident_at_LHC__2_. pdf) (PDF). CERN. 15 October 2008. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[37] CERN Press Office (20 September 2008). "Incident in LHC sector 3–4" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2008/
PR09. 08E. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[38] CERN Press Office (16 October 2008). "CERN releases analysis of LHC incident" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/
[39] CERN Press Office (5 December 2008). "LHC to restart in 2009" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2008/ PR17.
08E. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2008-12-08.
[40] CERN Press Office (30 April 2009). "Final LHC magnet goes underground" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/
[41] First Science Produced at LHC (http:/ / news. softpedia. com/ news/ First-Science-Produced-at-LHC-129833. shtml) 2009-12-15
[42] V. Khachatryan et al. (CMS collaboration) (2010). "Transverse momentum and pseudorapidity distributions of charged hadrons in pp
collisions at √s = 0.9 and 2.36 TeV". Journal of High Energy Physics 2010 (2): 1–35. doi:10.1007/JHEP02(2010)041. arXiv:1002.0621.
[43] A. Trafton (5 February 2010). "Record-breaking collisions at LHC produce lots of mesons" (http:/ / www. rdmag. com/ News/ 2010/ 02/
General-Science-Record-breaking-collisions-at-LHC-produce-lots-of-mesons/ ). R&D Magazine. . Retrieved 2010-03-02.
[44] Associated Press (30 March 2010). "Big Bang Machine sets collision record" (http:/ / beta. thehindu. com/ sci-tech/ science/ article329160.
ece?homepage=true). The Hindu. .
[45] CERN Press Office (30 March 2010). "LHC research programme gets underway" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/
Releases2010/ PR07. 10E. html). CERN. .
[46] CERN (20 November 2009). "The LHC is back" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2009/ PR16. 09E. html). Press
[47] CERN (30 November 2009). "LHC sets new world record" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2009/ PR18. 09E.
html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-02.
[48] "Large Hadron Collider to come back online after break" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8524024. stm). BBC News. 19
February 2010. . Retrieved 2010-03-02.
[49] F. Ruggerio (29 September 2005). "LHC upgrade (accelerator)" (http:/ / chep. knu. ac. kr/ ICFA-Seminar/ upload/ 9. 29/ Morning/ session1/
Ruggiero-ICFA-05. pdf). 8th IFCA Seminar. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[50] "CERN - The Large Hadron Collider" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ LHC/ LHC-en. html). Public.web.cern.ch. . Retrieved
2010-08-28.
[51] A (very) small big bang (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?hl=en& sl=fr& u=http:/ / www. lienmultimedia. com/ article.
php3?id_article=22468& ei=qIs-TPDAC8G88gaV7NmhBA& sa=X& oi=translate& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBgQ7gEwAA& prev=/
search?q=http:/ / www. lienmultimedia. com/ article. php3%3Fid_article%3D22468& hl=en& client=firefox-a& hs=yCb& rls=org.
mozilla:en-US:official)
[52] "How much does it cost?" (http:/ / askanexpert. web. cern. ch/ AskAnExpert/ en/ Accelerators/ LHCgeneral-en. html#3). CERN. 2007. .
[53] Luciano Maiani (16 October 2001). "LHC Cost Review to Completion" (http:/ / user. web. cern. ch/ User/ LHCCost/ 2001-10-16/
LHCCostReview. html). CERN. . Retrieved 2001-01-15.
[54] Toni Feder (2001). "CERN Grapples with LHC Cost Hike" (http:/ / ptonline. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/ vol_54/ iss_12/ 21_2.
shtml). Physics Today 54 (12): 21. doi:10.1063/1.1445534. .
[55] "Bursting magnets may delay CERN collider project" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ scienceNews/ idUSL054919720070405). Reuters.
5 April 2007. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[56] Paul Rincon (23 September 2008). "Collider halted until next year" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 7632408. stm). BBC News. .
[57] "CERN LHC Computing" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ LHC/ Computing-en. html). CERN. 2008. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[58] Alan Boyle (2 September 2008). "Courts weigh doomsday claims" (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 09/ 02/ 1326534.
aspx). Cosmic Log. MSNBC. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[59] J.-P. Blaizot, J. Iliopoulos, J. Madsen, G.G. Ross, P. Sonderegger, H.-J. Specht (2003). "Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During
Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC" (http:/ / doc. cern. ch/ yellowrep/ 2003/ 2003-001/ p1. pdf). CERN. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[60] J. Ellis J, G. Giudice, M.L. Mangano, T. Tkachev, U. Wiedemann (LHC Safety Assessment Group) (5 September 2008). "Review of the
Safety of LHC Collisions". Journal of Physics G 35: 115004. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/35/11/115004. arXiv:0806.3414.
[61] "The safety of the LHC" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ LHC/ Safety-en. html). CERN. 2008. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[62] Division of Particles & Fields (http:/ / www. aps. org/ units/ dpf/ ). "Statement by the Executive Committee of the DPF on the Safety of
Collisions at the Large Hadron Collider" (http:/ / www. aps. org/ units/ dpf/ governance/ reports/ upload/ lhc_saftey_statement. pdf). American
Physical Society. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[63] "Challenges in accelerator physics" (http:/ / lhc. web. cern. ch/ lhc/ general/ acphys. htm). CERN. 14 January 1999. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[64] John Poole (2004). "Beam Parameters and Definitions" (https:/ / edms. cern. ch/ file/ 445830/ 5/ Vol_1_Chapter_2. pdf). .
[65] CERN Press Office (26 October 2005). "Message from the Director-General" (http:/ / user. web. cern. ch/ user/ QuickLinks/
Announcements/ 2005/ Accident. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[66] "Fermilab 'Dumbfounded' by fiasco that broke magnet" (http:/ / www. photonics. com/ content/ news/ 2007/ April/ 4/ 87089. aspx).
Photonics.com. 4 April 2007. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[67] CERN Press Office (1 June 2007). "Fermilab update on inner triplet magnets at LHC: Magnet repairs underway at CERN" (http:/ / user.
web. cern. ch/ user/ QuickLinks/ Announcements/ 2007/ LHCInnerTriplet_5. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[68] "Updates on LHC inner triplet failure" (http:/ / www. fnal. gov/ pub/ today/ lhc_magnet_archive. html). Fermilab Today. Fermilab. 28
September 2007. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[69] Paul Rincon (23 September 2008). "Collider halted until next year" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ in_depth/ 7632408. stm). BBC News. .
[70] Dennis Overbye (5 December 2008). "After repairs, summer start-up planned for collider" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 12/ 06/
science/ 06cern. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-12-08.
[71] http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 0953-2048/ 23/ 3/ 034001/ sust10_3_034001. pdf?request-id=70c5f5ed-6913-4a93-a944-14f91f848c14
[72] "News on the LHC" (http:/ / user. web. cern. ch/ user/ news/ 2009/ 090716. html). CERN. 16 July 2009. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[73] "Angels and Demons" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ Public/ en/ Spotlight/ SpotlightAandD-en. html). CERN. January 2008. . Retrieved
2009-09-28.
[74] Ceri Perkins (2 June 2008). "ATLAS gets the Hollywood treatment" (http:/ / atlas-service-enews. web. cern. ch/ atlas-service-enews/ news/
news_angelphoto. php). ATLAS e-News. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[75] "FlashForward" (http:/ / flashforward. web. cern. ch/ flashforward/ ). CERN. September 2009. . Retrieved 2009-10-03.
[76] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=j50ZssEojtM
[77] Katherine McAlpine (28 July 2008). "Large Hadron Rap" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=j50ZssEojtM). YouTube. . Retrieved
2009-09-28.
[78] Roger Highfield (6 September 2008). "Rap about world's largest science experiment becomes YouTube hit" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/
earth/ main. jhtml?xml=/ earth/ 2008/ 08/ 26/ scirap126. xml). Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[79] Jennifer Bogo (1 August 2008). "Large Hadron Collider rap teaches particle physics in 4 minutes" (http:/ / www. popularmechanics. com/
blogs/ science_news/ 4276090. html). Popular Mechanics. . Retrieved 2009-09-28.
[80] Malcolm W Brown (1998-12-29). "Physicists Discover Another Unifying Force: Doo-Wop" (http:/ / musiclub. web. cern. ch/ MusiClub/
bands/ cernettes/ Press/ NYT. pdf). New York Times (New York, USA). . Retrieved 2010-09-21.
[81] Heather McCabe (Feb 10 1999). "Grrl Geeks Rock Out" (http:/ / musiclub. web. cern. ch/ MusiClub/ bands/ cernettes/ Press/ Wired. pdf).
Wired News. . Retrieved 2010-09-21.
[82] James Gillies (6 September 2008). "Making a song and dance about physics" (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 27907). CERN
Courier (CERN). . Retrieved 2010-09-24.
[83] Silvano de Gennaro. "LHC: The First Band on the Web" (http:/ / musiclub. web. cern. ch/ MusiClub/ bands/ cernettes/ firstband. html).
CERN MusiClub. CERN. . Retrieved 2010-09-24.
External links
• Official website (http://lhc.web.cern.ch/lhc/)
• Overview of the LHC at CERN's public webpage (http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/LHC/LHC-en.html)
• CERN Courier magazine (http://www.cerncourier.com)
• CERN (http://twitter.com/cern) on Twitter
• CMS Experiment at CERN (http://twitter.com/CMSExperiment) on Twitter
• Unofficial CERN (http://twitter.com/LHCExperiment) on Twitter
• LHC Portal (http://www.lhcportal.com/) Web portal
• Lyndon Evans and Philip Bryant (eds) (2008). "LHC Machine" (http://www.iop.org/EJ/journal/-page=extra.
lhc/jinst). Journal of Instrumentation 3: S08001. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08001. Full documentation for
design and construction of the LHC and its six detectors (1600p).
• symmetry magazine LHC special issue August 2006 (http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000350),
special issue December 2007 (http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000562)
• New Yorker: Crash Course (http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/05/14/070514fa_fact_kolbert). The
world's largest particle accelerator.
• NYTimes: A Giant Takes On Physics' Biggest Questions (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/15/science/
15cern.html?ex=1336881600&en=7825f6702d7071e7&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss).
• Why a Large Hadron Collider? (http://seedmagazine.com/news/2006/07/why_a_large_hadron_collider.php)
Seed Magazine interviews with physicists.
• Thirty collected pictures during commissioning and post- 19 September 2008 incident repair (http://www.
boston.com/bigpicture/2009/11/large_hadron_collider_ready_to.html), from Boston Globe.
• Podcast Interview (http://omegataupodcast.net/2010/03/30-the-large-hadron-collider/) with CERN's Rolf
Landua about the LHC and the physics behind it
23
Experiments
List of LHC experiments

This is a list of current and proposed experiments that take place, or would take place, at the CERN Large Hadron
Collider (LHC). The LHC is the most energetic particle collider in the world, and will be used to test the accuracy of
the Standard Model (and particularly to search for the Higgs boson), and look for physics beyond the Standard
Model such as supersymmetry, extra dimensions, and others.
The list is first compiled from the SPIRES database, then missing information is retrieved from the online version
CERN's Grey Book. The most specific information of the two is kept, e.g. if the SPIRES database lists December
2008, while the Grey Book lists 22 December 2008, the Grey Book entry is shown. When there is a conflict between
the SPIRES database and the Grey Book, the SPIRES database information is listed, unless otherwise noted.
Large Hadron Collider experiments
LHC experiments
Experiment Location Spokesperson Description Proposed Approved Began Completed Link Website
ALICE IP2 Hans H. A large ion collider ?? 6 Feb 30 N/A SPIRES Website
Gutbrod, experiment: producing 1997 March [1] [3]
Eugenio Nappi, quark–gluon plasma 2010 Grey Book
Jurgen Schukraft by colliding lead [2]
nuclei (~2.76 TeV)
ATLAS IP1 Fabiola A toroidal LHC Dec 1994 31 Jan 30 N/A SPIRES Website
[4] apparatus: shedding 1996 March [5] [7]
Gianotti
light on the 2010 Grey Book
inconsistencies of the [6]
Standard Model
CMS IP5 Michel Jean Compact muon Oct 1992 31 Jan 30 N/A SPIRES Website
Della Negra solenoid: same 1996 March [8] [10]
purpose as for ATLAS 2010 Grey Book
[9]
LHCb IP8 Tatsuya Nakada LHC beauty ?? 17 Sep 30 N/A SPIRES Website
experiment: measuring 1998 March [11] [13]
certain B-hadron 2010 Grey Book
qualities such as [12]
asymmetries and CP
violations,
LHCf IP1 Yasushi Muraki LHC-foward: ?? 12 May Not N/A Grey Book Website
2004 yet [14] [15]
measurement of
neutral 0π meson
production, in order to
understand ultra high
energy cosmic rays
FELIX IP4 Karsten Eggert, Forward elastic and ?? ?? ?? ?? SPIRES Website

Cyrus Taylor inelastic experiment at [16] [17]
the LHC
FP420 IP1, IP5 Brian Cox Foward proton ?? ?? ?? ?? SPIRES Website

detectors at 420 m [18] [19]
[from the ATLAS
and/or CMS
interaction point(s)]
HV-QF IP5 Antonio Hadron very forward ?? ?? ?? ?? SPIRES Website

Ferrando calorimeter, quartz [20] [21]
fiber option
MOEDAL IP8 James L. Pinfold Monopole and exotic July 2 ?? ?? SPIRES Website
particle detector at the [22] [24] [25]
2009 December
LHC [23]
2009
TOTEM IP5 Karsten Eggert Total cross section, 1999 18 May Not N/A SPIRES Website
elastic scattering and 1999 yet [26] [28]
diffraction Grey Book
dissociation at the [27]
LHC
See also
Experiments
• List of Super Proton Synchrotron experiments
Facilities
• CERN: European Organization for Nuclear Research
• PS: Proton Synchrotron
• SPS: Super Proton Synchrotron
• ISOLDE: On-Line Isotope Mass Separator
• ISR: Intersecting Storage Rings
• LEP: Large Electron–Positron Collider
• LHC: Large Hadron Collider
Notes
[1] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-ALICE
[2] http:/ / greybook. cern. ch/ programmes/ experiments/ ALICE. html
[3] http:/ / aliceinfo. cern. ch/ Collaboration/ index. html
[4] Previously Peter Jenni
[5] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-ATLAS
[6] http:/ / greybook. cern. ch/ programmes/ experiments/ ATLAS. html
[7] http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ index. html
[8] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-CMS
[9] http:/ / greybook. cern. ch/ programmes/ experiments/ CMS. html
[10] http:/ / cms. cern. ch/ iCMS/
[11] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-B
[12] http:/ / greybook. cern. ch/ programmes/ experiments/ LHCB. html
[13] http:/ / lhcb. web. cern. ch/ lhcb/
[14] http:/ / greybook. cern. ch/ programmes/ experiments/ LHCF. html
[15] http:/ / www. stelab. nagoya-u. ac. jp/ LHCf/
[16] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-FELIX
[17] http:/ / felix. web. cern. ch/ FELIX/
[18] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-FP420
[19] http:/ / www. fp420. com/
[20] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-HV-QF
[21] http:/ / budoe. bu. edu/ ~sullivan/
[22] James Pinfold (2010). "The MoEDAL TDR" (http:/ / web. me. com/ jamespinfold/ MoEDAL_site/ TDR. html). . Retrieved 2010-04-11.
[23] James Pinfold (2010). "CERN Research Board Approves the MoEDAL Experiment" (http:/ / web. me. com/ jamespinfold/ MoEDAL_site/
MoEDAL_Milestones/ Entries/ 2009/ 12/ 2_CERN_Research_Board_Approves_the_MoEDAL_Experiment. html). The MoEDAL Milestone
Blog. . Retrieved 2010-04-11.
[24] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-MOEDAL
[25] http:/ / web. me. com/ jamespinfold/ MoEDAL_site/ Welcome. html
[26] http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ find/ experiments/ www2?ee=CERN-LHC-TOTEM
[27] http:/ / greybook. cern. ch/ programmes/ experiments/ TOTEM. html
[28] http:/ / totem. web. cern. ch/ Totem/
References
• SPIRES team (http://www.slac.stanford.edu/spires/about/people.shtml). "SPIRES database" (http://www.
slac.stanford.edu/spires/hep/). Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
• GS-AIF-FPF (http://ais.web.cern.ch/ais/manpower/). "Grey Book" (http://greybook.cern.ch/). CERN.
External links
• CERN website (http://public.web.cern.ch/public/)
• LHC website (http://lhc.web.cern.ch/lhc/)
• CERN Grey Book (http://greybook.cern.ch/)
• SPIRES database (http://www.slac.stanford.edu/spires/)
ALICE 26
ALICE
LHC experiments
LHCb LHC-beauty
LHCf LHC-forward
LHC preaccelerators
ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) is one of the six detector experiments being constructed at the Large
Hadron Collider at CERN. The other five are: ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb, and LHCf. ALICE is optimized to
study heavy ion collisions. Pb-Pb nuclei collisions will be studied at a centre of mass energy of 2.76 TeV per
nucleon. The resulting temperature and energy density are expected to be large enough to generate a quark-gluon
plasma, a state of matter wherein quarks and gluons are deconfined.
Inner Tracking System

The Inner Tracking System (ITS) consists of six cylindrical layers of silicon detectors. The layers surround the
collision point and measure the properties of the emerging particles, pin-pointing their positions to a fraction of a
millimetre. The ITS will recognize particles containing heavy quarks by identifying the points at which they decay.
ITS layers (counting from the interaction point):
• 2 layers of SPD (Silicon Pixel Detector),
• 2 layers of SDD (Silicon Drift Detector),
• 2 layers of SSD (Silicon Strip Detector).
ALICE 27
Time Projection Chamber

The ALICE Time Projection Chamber (TPC) is the main particle tracking device in ALICE. Charged particles
crossing the gas of the TPC ionize the gas atoms along their path, liberating electrons that drift towards the end
plates of the detector. An avalanche effect in the vicinity of the anode wires strung in the readout, will give the
necessary signal amplification. The positive ions created in the avalanche will induce a positive current signal on the
pad plane. The readout is done by the 557 568 pads that form the cathode plane of the multi-wire proportional
chambers (MWPC) located at the end plates. This gives the r and coordinates. The last coordinate, z, is given by
the drift time.
Transition Radiation Detector

Electrons and positrons can be discriminated from other charged
particles using the emission of transition radiation, X-rays emitted
when the particles cross many layers of thin materials. To develop such
a Transition Radiation Detector (TRD) for ALICE many detector
prototypes were tested in mixed beams of pions and electrons.
Time of Flight
Charged particles are identified in ALICE by Time-Of-Flight (TOF);
heavier particles are slower and so take longer to reach the outer layers The completed ALICE detector showing the
eighteen TRD modules (trapezoidal prisms in a
of the detector. For its TOF system ALICE uses detectors called
radial arrangement).
Multigap Resistive Plate Chambers (MRPC). There are approximately
160 000 MRPC pads with time resolution of about 100 ps distributed
over the large surface of 150 square meters. Using the tracking information from other detectors every track firing a
sensor is identified.
Photon Spectrometer
The Photon Spectrometer (PHOS) is designed to measure the temperature of collisions by detecting photons
emerging from them. It will be made of lead tungstate crystals. When high energy photons strike lead tungstate, they
make it glow, or scintillate, and this glow can be measured. Lead tungstate is extremely dense (denser than iron),
stopping most photons that reach it.
High Momentum Particle Identification Detector

The High Momentum Particle Identification Detector (HMPID) is a RICH detector to determine the speed of
particles beyond the momentum range available through energy loss (in ITS and TPC, p = 600 MeV) and through
time-of-flight measurements (in TOF, p = 1.2–1.4 GeV). Its momentum range is up to 3 GeV for pion/kaon
discrimination and up to 5 GeV for kaon/proton discrimination. It is the world's largest caesium iodide RICH
detector, with an active area of 11 m². A prototype was successfully tested at CERN in 1997 and currently takes data
at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in the US.
ALICE 28
Muon spectrometer
The muon spectrometer measures pairs of muons, in particular those coming from the decays of J/ψ and Upsilon
particles. Tracking chambers to detect the muons and reconstruct their trajectories will be made from a special
composite material, which is highly rigid but very thin. A set of resistive plate chambers (RPC) will act as a
triggering device.
Forward Multiplicity Detectors

The Forward Multiplicity Detector (FMD) consist of 5 large silicon discs with each 10 240 individual detector
channels to measure the charged particles emitted at small angles relative to the beam. The forward detectors also
comprise the main trigger detectors for timing (T0) and for collision centrality (V0). Another important forward
detector in ALICE is the Photon Multiplicity Detector (PMD). This is a pre-shower detector which measures the
multiplicity and spatial distribution of photons produced in the collisions.
Electro-Magnetic Calorimeter
The Electro-Magnetic Calorimeter (EM-Cal) will add greatly to the high momentum particle measurement
capabilities of ALICE.
External links
• Official ALICE Public Webpage [1] at CERN
• ALICE section on US/LHC Website [2]
• ALICE photography panorama [3]
• Photography panorama of ALICE detector center [4]
• K. Aamodt et al. (ALICE collaboration) (2008). "The ALICE experiment at the CERN LHC" [5]. Journal of
Instrumentation 3 (8): S08002. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08002. (Full design documentation)
References
[1] http:/ / aliceinfo. cern. ch/ Public/ Welcome. html
[2] http:/ / www. uslhc. us/ What_is_the_LHC/ Experiments/ ALICE
[3] http:/ / petermccready. com/ portfolio/ 07041606. html
[4] http:/ / petermccready. com/ portfolio/ 07041607. html
[5] http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ journal/ -page=extra. lhc/ jinst
ATLAS 29
ATLAS
LHC experiments
LHCb LHC-beauty
LHCf LHC-forward
LHC preaccelerators

ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS) is one of the six particle detector
experiments (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb, and LHCf) constructed at
the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a new particle accelerator at the European
Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland. ATLAS is 44 metres
long and 25 metres in diameter, weighing about 7,000 tonnes. The project is led by
Fabiola Gianotti and involves roughly 2,000 scientists and engineers at 165
institutions in 35 countries.[1] The construction was originally scheduled to be
completed in June 2007, but was ready and detected its first beam events on 10
September 2008.[2] The experiment is designed to observe phenomena that involve
highly massive particles which were not observable using earlier lower-energy
accelerators and might shed light on new theories of particle physics beyond the
Standard Model.
The ATLAS collaboration, the group of physicists building the detector, was
ATLAS logo. formed in 1992 when the proposed EAGLE (Experiment for Accurate Gamma,
Lepton and Energy Measurements) and ASCOT (Apparatus with Super
COnducting Toroids) collaborations merged their efforts into building a single, general-purpose particle detector for
the Large Hadron Collider.[3] The design was a combination of those two previous designs, as well as the detector
research and development that had been done for the Superconducting Supercollider. The ATLAS experiment was
ATLAS 30
proposed in its current form in 1994, and officially funded by the CERN member countries beginning in 1995.
Additional countries, universities, and laboratories joined in subsequent years, and further institutions and physicists
continue to join the collaboration even today. The work of construction began at individual institutions, with detector
components shipped to CERN and assembled in the ATLAS experimental pit beginning in 2003.
ATLAS is designed as a general-purpose detector. When the proton beams produced by the Large Hadron Collider
interact in the center of the detector, a variety of different particles with a broad range of energies may be produced.
Rather than focusing on a particular physical process, ATLAS is designed to measure the broadest possible range of
signals. This is intended to ensure that, whatever form any new physical processes or particles might take, ATLAS
will be able to detect them and measure their properties. Experiments at earlier colliders, such as the Tevatron and
Large Electron-Positron Collider, were designed based on a similar philosophy. However, the unique challenges of
the Large Hadron Collider—its unprecedented energy and extremely high rate of collisions—require ATLAS to be
larger and more complex than any detector ever built.
Background
The first cyclotron, an early type of particle accelerator, was built by
Ernest O. Lawrence in 1931, with a radius of just a few centimetres
and a particle energy of 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV). Since then,
accelerators have grown enormously in the quest to produce new
particles of greater and greater mass. As accelerators have grown, so
too has the list of known particles that they might be used to
investigate. The most comprehensive model of particle interactions
available today is known as the Standard Model of Particle Physics.
With the important exception of the Higgs boson, all of the particles
ATLAS experiment detector under construction
predicted by the model have been observed. While the standard model
in October 2004 in its experimental pit; the
predicts that quarks, electrons, and neutrinos should exist, it does not current status of construction can be seen on the
[4]
explain why the masses of the particles are so very different. Due to CERN website. Note the people in the
this violation of "naturalness" most particle physicists believe it is background, for comparison.
possible that the Standard Model will break down at energies beyond
the current energy frontier of about one teraelectronvolt (TeV) (set at the Tevatron). If such
beyond-the-Standard-Model physics is observed it is hoped that a new model, which is identical to the Standard
Model at energies thus far probed, can be developed to describe particle physics at higher energies. Most of the
currently proposed theories predict new higher-mass particles, some of which are hoped to be light enough to be
observed by ATLAS. At 27 kilometres in circumference, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) will collide two beams of
protons together, each proton carrying about 7 TeV of energy — enough energy to produce particles with masses up
to roughly ten times more massive than any particles currently known — assuming of course that such particles
exist. With an energy seven million times that of the first accelerator the LHC represents a "new generation" of
particle accelerators.
Particles that are produced in accelerators must also be observed, and this is the task of particle detectors. While
interesting phenomena may occur when protons collide it is not enough to just produce them. Particle detectors must
be built to detect particles, their masses, momentum, energies, charges, and nuclear spins. In order to identify all
particles produced at the interaction point where the particle beams collide, particle detectors are usually designed
with a similarity to an onion. The layers are made up of detectors of different types, each of which is adept at
observing specific types of particles. The different features that particles leave in each layer of the detector allow for
effective particle identification and accurate measurements of energy and momentum. (The role of each layer in the
detector is discussed below.) As the energy of the particles produced by the accelerator increases, the detectors
attached to it must grow to effectively measure and stop higher-energy particles. ATLAS is the largest detector ever
ATLAS 31
built at a particle collider as of 2008.[1]
Physics Program
ATLAS is intended to investigate many different types of physics that
might become detectable in the energetic collisions of the LHC. Some
of these are confirmations or improved measurements of the Standard
Model, while many others are searches for new physical theories.
One of the most important goals of ATLAS is to investigate a missing
piece of the Standard Model, the Higgs boson.[5] The Higgs
mechanism, which includes the Higgs boson, is invoked to give masses
to elementary particles, giving rise to the differences between the weak
force and electromagnetism by giving the W and Z bosons masses
while leaving the photon massless. If the Higgs boson is not discovered
by ATLAS, it is expected that another mechanism of electroweak
symmetry breaking that explains the same phenomena, such as A schematic, called a Feynman diagram, of two
technicolour, will be discovered. The Standard Model is simply not virtual gluons from colliding LHC protons
interacting to produce a hypothetical Higgs
mathematically consistent at the energies of the LHC without such a
boson, a top quark, and an antitop quark. These in
mechanism. The Higgs boson would be detected by the particles it turn decay into a specific combination of quarks
decays into; the easiest to observe are two photons, two bottom quarks, and leptons that is very unlikely to be duplicated
or four leptons. Sometimes these decays can only be definitively by other processes. Collecting sufficient evidence
of signals like this one may eventually allow
identified as originating with the Higgs boson when they are associated
ATLAS collaboration members to discover the
with additional particles; for an example of this, see the diagram at Higgs boson.
right.
The asymmetry between the behavior of matter and antimatter, known as CP violation, will also be investigated.[5]
Current CP-violation experiments, such as BaBar and Belle, have not yet detected sufficient CP violation in the
Standard Model to explain the lack of detectable antimatter in the universe. It is possible that new models of physics
will introduce additional CP violation, shedding light on this problem; these models might either be detected directly
by the production of new particles, or indirectly by measurements made of the properties of B-mesons. (LHCb, an
LHC experiment dedicated to B-mesons, is likely to be better suited to the latter).[6]
The top quark, discovered at Fermilab in 1995, has thus far had its properties measured only approximately. With
much greater energy and greater collision rates, LHC will produce a tremendous number of top quarks, allowing
ATLAS to make much more precise measurements of its mass and interactions with other particles.[7] These
measurements will provide indirect information on the details of the Standard Model, perhaps revealing
inconsistencies that point to new physics. Similar precision measurements will be made of other known particles; for
example, ATLAS may eventually measure the mass of the W boson twice as accurately as has previously been
achieved.
Perhaps the most exciting lines of investigation are those searching directly for new models of physics. One theory
that is the subject of much current research is broken supersymmetry. The theory is popular because it could
potentially solve a number of problems in theoretical physics and is present in almost all models of string theory.
Models of supersymmetry involve new, highly massive particles; in many cases these decay into high-energy quarks
and stable heavy particles that are very unlikely to interact with ordinary matter. The stable particles would escape
the detector, leaving as a signal one or more high-energy quark jets and a large amount of "missing" momentum.
Other hypothetical massive particles, like those in Kaluza-Klein theory, might leave a similar signature, but its
discovery would certainly indicate that there was some kind of physics beyond the Standard Model.
ATLAS 32
One remote possibility (if the universe contains large extra dimensions) is that microscopic black holes might be
produced by the LHC.[8] These would decay immediately by means of Hawking radiation, producing all particles in
the Standard Model in equal numbers and leaving an unequivocal signature in the ATLAS detector.[9] In fact, if this
occurs, the primary studies of Higgs bosons and top quarks would be conducted on those produced by the black
holes.
Components
The ATLAS detector consists of a series of ever-larger concentric cylinders around the interaction point where the
proton beams from the LHC collide. It can be divided into four major parts: the Inner Detector, the calorimeters, the
muon spectrometer and the magnet systems.[10] Each of these is in turn made of multiple layers. The detectors are
complementary: the Inner Detector tracks particles precisely, the calorimeters measure the energy of easily stopped
particles, and the muon system makes additional measurements of highly penetrating muons. The two magnet
systems bend charged particles in the Inner Detector and the muon spectrometer, allowing their momenta to be
measured.
The only established stable particles that cannot be detected directly are neutrinos; their presence is inferred by
noticing a momentum imbalance among detected particles. For this to work, the detector must be "hermetic", and
detect all non-neutrinos produced, with no blind spots. Maintaining detector performance in the high radiation areas
immediately surrounding the proton beams is a significant engineering challenge.
Inner detector
The Inner Detector begins a few centimetres from the proton beam
axis, extends to a radius of 1.2 metres, and is seven metres in length
along the beam pipe. Its basic function is to track charged particles by
detecting their interaction with material at discrete points, revealing
detailed information about the type of particle and its momentum.[11]
The magnetic field surrounding the entire inner detector causes
charged particles to curve; the direction of the curve reveals a particle's
charge and the degree of curvature reveals its momentum. The starting
points of the tracks yield useful information for identifying particles;
The ATLAS TRT central section, the outermost
for example, if a group of tracks seem to originate from a point other
part of the Inner Detector, as of September 2005,
than the original proton–proton collision, this may be a sign that the assembled on the surface and taking data from
particles came from the decay of a bottom quark (see B-tagging). The cosmic rays.
Inner Detector has three parts, which are explained below.
The Pixel Detector, the innermost part of the detector, contains three layers and three disks on each end-cap, with a
total of 1744 modules, each measuring two centimetres by six centimetres. The detecting material is 250 µm thick
silicon. Each module contains 16 readout chips and other electronic components. The smallest unit that can be read
out is a pixel (each 50 by 400 micrometres); there are roughly 47,000 pixels per module. The minute pixel size is
designed for extremely precise tracking very close to the interaction point. In total, the Pixel Detector will have over
80 million readout channels, which is about 50% of the total readout channels; such a large count created a design
and engineering challenge. Another challenge was the radiation the Pixel Detector will be exposed to because of its
proximity to the interaction point, requiring that all components be radiation hardened in order to continue operating
after significant exposures.
The Semi-Conductor Tracker (SCT) is the middle component of the inner detector. It is similar in concept and
function to the Pixel Detector but with long, narrow strips rather than small pixels, making coverage of a larger area
practical. Each strip measures 80 micrometres by 12.6 centimetres. The SCT is the most critical part of the inner
ATLAS 33
detector for basic tracking in the plane perpendicular to the beam, since it measures particles over a much larger area
than the Pixel Detector, with more sampled points and roughly equal (albeit one dimensional) accuracy. It is
composed of four double layers of silicon strips, and has 6.2 million readout channels and a total area of 61 square
meters.
The Transition radiation tracker (TRT), the outermost component of the inner detector, is a combination of a straw
tracker and a transition radiation detector. The detecting elements are drift tubes (straws), each four millimetres in
diameter and up to 144 centimetres long. The uncertainty of track position measurements (position resolution) is
about 200 micrometres, not as precise as those for the other two detectors, a necessary sacrifice for reducing the cost
of covering a larger volume and having transition radiation detection capability. Each straw is filled with gas that
becomes ionized when a charged particle passes through. The straws are held at about -1500V, driving the negative
ions to a fine wire down the centre of each straw, producing a current pulse (signal) in the wire. The wires with
signals create a pattern of 'hit' straws that allow the path of the particle to be determined. Between the straws,
materials with widely varying indices of refraction cause ultra-relativistic charged particles to produce transition
radiation and leave much stronger signals in some straws. Xenon gas is used to increase the number of straws with
strong signals. Since the amount of transition radiation is greatest for highly relativistic particles (those with a speed
very near the speed of light), and particles of a particular energy have a higher speed the lighter they are, particle
paths with many very strong signals can be identified as the lightest charged particles, electrons. The TRT has about
298,000 straws in total.
Calorimeters
The calorimeters are situated outside the solenoidal magnet that
surrounds the inner detector. Their purpose is to measure the energy
from particles by absorbing it. There are two basic calorimeter
systems: an inner electromagnetic calorimeter and an outer hadronic
calorimeter.[12] Both are sampling calorimeters; that is, they absorb
energy in high-density metal and periodically sample the shape of the
resulting particle shower, inferring the energy of the original particle
from this measurement.
The electromagnetic (EM) calorimeter absorbs energy from particles September 2005: the main barrel section of the
that interact electromagnetically, which include charged particles and ATLAS hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be
photons. It has high precision, both in the amount of energy absorbed moved inside the toroid magnets.
and in the precise location of the energy deposited. The angle between
the particle's trajectory and the detector's beam axis (or more precisely
the pseudorapidity) and its angle within the perpendicular plane are
both measured to within roughly 0.025 radians. The energy-absorbing
materials are lead and stainless steel, with liquid argon as the sampling
material, and a cryostat is required around the EM calorimeter to keep
it sufficiently cool.
The hadron calorimeter absorbs energy from particles that pass through
the EM calorimeter, but do interact via the strong force; these particles
One of the sections of the extensions of the
are primarily hadrons. It is less precise, both in energy magnitude and
hadronic calorimeter, waiting to be inserted in
in the localization (within about 0.1 radians only).[6] The late February 2006
energy-absorbing material is steel, with scintillating tiles that sample
the energy deposited. Many of the features of the calorimeter are chosen for their cost-effectiveness; the instrument
ATLAS 34
is large and comprises a huge amount of construction material: the main part of the calorimeter—the tile
calorimeter—is eight metres in diameter and covers 12 metres along the beam axis. The far-forward sections of the
hadronic calorimeter are contained within the EM calorimeter's cryostat, and use liquid argon as it does.
Muon spectrometer
The muon spectrometer is an extremely large tracking system, extending from a radius of 4.25 m around the
calorimeters out to the full radius of the detector (11 m).[10] Its tremendous size is required to accurately measure the
momentum of muons, which penetrate other elements of the detector; the effort is vital because one or more muons
are a key element of a number of interesting physical processes, and because the total energy of particles in an event
could not be measured accurately if they were ignored. It functions similarly to the inner detector, with muons
curving so that their momentum can be measured, albeit with a different magnetic field configuration, lower spatial
precision, and a much larger volume. It also serves the function of simply identifying muons—very few particles of
other types are expected to pass through the calorimeters and subsequently leave signals in the muon spectrometer. It
has roughly one million readout channels, and its layers of detectors have a total area of 12,000 square meters.
Magnet system
The ATLAS detector uses two large superconducting magnet systems
to bend charged particles so that their momenta can be measured. This
bending is due to the Lorentz force, which is proportional to velocity.
Since all particles produced in the LHC's proton collisions will be
traveling at very close to the speed of light, the force on particles of
different momenta is equal. (In the theory of relativity, momentum is
not proportional to velocity at such speeds.) Thus high-momentum
particles will curve very little, while low-momentum particles will
curve significantly; the amount of curvature can be quantified and the
The ends of four of eight ATLAS toroid magnets,
particle momentum can be determined from this value.
seen from the surface, about 90 metres above, in
The inner solenoid produces a two tesla magnetic field surrounding the September 2005.
Inner Detector.[13] This high magnetic field allows even very energetic
particles to curve enough for their momentum to be determined, and its nearly uniform direction and strength allow
measurements to be made very precisely. Particles with momenta below roughly 400 MeV will be curved so strongly
that they will loop repeatedly in the field and most likely not be measured; however, this energy is very small
compared to the several TeV of energy released in each proton collision.
The outer toroidal magnetic field is produced by eight very large air-core superconducting barrel loops and two
end-caps, all situated outside the calorimeters and within the muon system.[13] This magnetic field is 26 metres long
and 20 metres in diameter, and it stores 1.6 gigajoules of energy. Its magnetic field is not uniform, because a
solenoid magnet of sufficient size would be prohibitively expensive to build. Fortunately, measurements need to be
much less precise to measure momentum accurately in the large volume of the muon system.
ATLAS 35
Forward detectors
The ATLAS detector will be complemented with a set of detectors in
the very forward region. These detectors will be located in the LHC
tunnel far away from the interaction point. The basic idea is to measure
elastic scattering at very small angles in order to get a handle on the
absolute luminosity at the interaction point of ATLAS.
Part of the ATLAS, as it looked February 2007.
Data systems and analysis

The detector generates unmanageably large amounts of raw data, about 25 megabytes per event (raw; zero
suppression reduces this to 1.6 MB) times 40 million beam crossings per second in the center of the detector, for a
total of 1 petabyte/second of raw data.[14] The trigger system uses simple information to identify, in real time, the
most interesting events to retain for detailed analysis. There are three trigger levels, the first based in electronics on
the detector and the other two primarily run on a large computer cluster near the detector. After the first-level trigger,
about 100,000 events per second have been selected. After the third-level trigger, a few hundred events remain to be
stored for further analysis. This amount of data will require over 100 megabytes of disk space per second — at least
a petabyte each year.[15]
Offline event reconstruction will be performed on all permanently stored events, turning the pattern of signals from
the detector into physics objects, such as jets, photons, and leptons. Grid computing will be extensively used for
event reconstruction, allowing the parallel use of university and laboratory computer networks throughout the world
for the CPU-intensive task of reducing large quantities of raw data into a form suitable for physics analysis. The
software for these tasks has been under development for many years, and will continue to be refined once the
experiment is running.
Individuals and groups within the collaboration will write their own code to perform further analysis of these objects,
searching in the pattern of detected particles for particular physical models or hypothetical particles. These studies
are already being developed and tested on detailed simulations of particles and their interactions with the detector.
Such simulations give physicists a good sense of which new particles can be detected and how long it will take to
confirm them with sufficient statistical certainty.
ATLAS 36
Notes
[1] CERN (2006-11-20). "World's largest superconducting magnet switches on" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ Press/ PressReleases/
[2] "First beam and first events in ATLAS" (http:/ / www. atlas. ch/ news/ 2008/ first-beam-and-event. html). Atlas.ch. . Retrieved 2008-09-13.
[3] "ATLAS Collaboration records" (http:/ / library. cern. ch/ archives/ isad/ isaatlas. html). CERN Archive. . Retrieved 2007-02-25.
[4] "UX15 Installation; WEB cameras" (http:/ / atlaseye-webpub. web. cern. ch/ atlaseye-webpub/ web-sites/ pages/ UX15_webcams. htm).
ATLAS Control Room. cern.ch. . Retrieved September 15, 2010.
[5] "Introduction and Overview" (http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ TP/ NEW/ HTML/ tp9new/ node4.
html#SECTION00400000000000000000). ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994. .
[6] N. V. Krasnikov, V. A. Matveev (September 1997). "Physics at LHC" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-ph/ 9703204). Physics of Particles and
Nuclei 28 (5): 441–470. doi:10.1134/1.953049. .
[7] "Top-Quark Physics" (http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ TP/ NEW/ HTML/ tp9new/ node416. html#SECTION0024100000000000000000).
ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994. .
[8] C.M. Harris, M.J. Palmer, M.A. Parker, P. Richardson, A. Sabetfakhri and B.R. Webber (2005). "Exploring higher dimensional black holes at
the Large Hadron Collider". Journal of High Energy Physics 5: 053. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2005/05/053.
[9] J. Tanaka, T. Yamamura, S. Asai, J. Kanzaki (2005). "Study of Black Holes with the ATLAS detector at the LHC" (http:/ / www.
springerlink. com/ content/ x067g845688470r4/ ). The European Physical Journal C 41 (s2): 19–33. doi:10.1140/epjcd/s2005-02-008-x. .
[10] "Overall detector concept" (http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ TP/ NEW/ HTML/ tp9new/ node6. html#SECTION00420000000000000000).
ATLAS Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994. .
[11] "Inner detector" (http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ TP/ NEW/ HTML/ tp9new/ node10. html#SECTION00433000000000000000). ATLAS
Technical Proposal. CERN. 1994. .
[12] "Calorimetry" (http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ TP/ NEW/ HTML/ tp9new/ node9. html#SECTION00432000000000000000). ATLAS
[13] "Magnet system" (http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ TP/ NEW/ HTML/ tp9new/ node8. html#SECTION00431000000000000000). ATLAS
[14] Marjorie Shapiro. (June 18, 2007). Supersymmetry, Extra Dimensions and the Origin of Mass: Exploring the Nature of the Universe Using
PetaScale Data Analysis (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=-cdbnwaW34g). Event occurs at 35:00. . Retrieved 2007-12-08. See also
32:30 for information on the various trigger levels.
[15] "The sensitive giant" (http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ features/ doe/ 2004-03/ dnal-tsg032604. php). United States Department of Energy
Research News. March 2004. .
References
• ATLAS Technical Proposal. (http://atlas.web.cern.ch/Atlas/TP/tp.html) CERN: The Atlas Experiment.
Retrieved on 2007-04-10
• ATLAS Detector and Physics Performance Technical Design Report. (http://atlas.web.cern.ch/Atlas/
GROUPS/PHYSICS/TDR/access.html) CERN: The Atlas Experiment. Retrieved on 2007-04-10
• N. V. Krasnikov, V. A. Matveev (September 1997). "Physics at LHC" (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9703204).
Physics of Particles and Nuclei 28 (5): 441–470. doi:10.1134/1.953049.
External links
• Official ATLAS Public Webpage (http://atlas.ch) at CERN (The "award winning ATLAS movie" is a very good
general introduction!)
• Official ATLAS Collaboration Webpage (http://atlas.web.cern.ch/Atlas/internal/Welcome.html) at CERN
(Lots of technical and logistical information)
• ATLAS Cavern Webcams (http://atlaseye-webpub.web.cern.ch/atlaseye-webpub/web-sites/pages/
UX15_webcams.htm)
• Time lapse video of the assembly (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVrUR_SOykk)
• ATLAS section from US/LHC Website (http://www.uslhc.us/What_is_the_LHC/Experiments/ATLAS)
• PhysicsWorld article on LHC and experiments (http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/13/5/9/1)
• New York Times article on LHC and experiments (http://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/21/science/21HIGG.
html?ex=1130040000&en=5282f51cf019f1b7&ei=5070&ex=1082001600&en=39ccf65ca6047eb2&ei=5070)
ATLAS 37
• United States Department of Energy article on ATLAS (http://www.eurekalert.org/features/doe/2004-03/

dnal-tsg032604.php)
• The Large Hadron Collider ATLAS Experiment Virtual Reality (VR) photography panoramas (http://www.
petermccready.com/portfolio/05091901.html)
• Large Hadron Collider Project Director Dr Lyn Evans CBE on the engineering behind the ATLAS experiment,
Ingenia magazine, June 2008 (http://www.ingenia.org.uk/ingenia/articles.aspx?Index=489)
• Atlas Experiment News and social networking (http://www.AtlasExperiment.net)
• The ATLAS Collaboration, G Aad et al. (2008-08-14). "The ATLAS Experiment at the CERN Large Hadron
Collider" (http://www.iop.org/EJ/journal/-page=extra.lhc/jinst). Journal of Instrumentation 3 (S08003):
S08003. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08003. Retrieved 2008-08-26. (Full design documentation)
• Press release from October 2008 by EB Industries regarding the ATLAS project (http://ebindustries.com/
ATLAS article.pdf)
CMS 38
CMS
LHC experiments
LHCb LHC-beauty
LHCf LHC-forward
LHC preaccelerators
The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS)

experiment is one of two large
general-purpose particle physics detectors
built on the proton-proton Large Hadron
Collider (LHC) at CERN in Switzerland and
France. Approximately 3,600 people from
183 scientific institutes, representing 38
countries form the CMS collaboration who
built and now operate the detector.[1] It is
located in an underground cavern at Cessy
in France, just across the border from
Geneva.
View of the CMS endcap through the barrel sections. The ladder to the lower right
gives an impression of scale.
Background
Recent collider experiments such as the now-dismantled Large Electron-Positron Collider at CERN and the (as of
2010) still running Tevatron at Fermilab have provided remarkable insights into, and precision tests of the Standard
Model of Particle Physics. However, a number of questions remain unanswered.
CMS 39
A principal concern is the lack of any direct evidence for the Higgs Boson, the particle resulting from the Higgs
mechanism which provides an explanation for the masses of elementary particles. Other questions include
uncertainties in the mathematical behaviour of the Standard Model at high energies, the lack of any particle physics
explanation for dark matter and the reasons for the imbalance of matter and antimatter observed in the Universe.
The Large Hadron Collider and the associated experiments are designed to address a number of these questions.
Physics goals
The main goals of the experiment are:
• to explore physics at the TeV scale
• to discover the Higgs boson
• to look for evidence of physics beyond the standard model, such as supersymmetry, or extra dimensions
• to study aspects of heavy ion collisions
The ATLAS experiment, at the other side of the LHC ring is designed with similar goals in mind, and the two
experiments are designed to complement each other both to extend reach and to provide corroboration of findings.
Detector summary
CMS is designed as a general-purpose detector, capable of studying many aspects of proton collisions at 14 TeV, the
center-of-mass energy of the LHC particle accelerator. It contains subsystems which are designed to measure the
energy and momentum of photons, electrons, muons, and other products of the collisions. The innermost layer is a
silicon-based tracker. Surrounding it is a scintillating crystal electromagnetic calorimeter, which is itself surrounded
with a sampling calorimeter for hadrons. The tracker and the calorimetry are compact enough to fit inside the CMS
solenoid which generates a powerful magnetic field of 3.8 T. Outside the magnet are the large muon detectors, which
are inside the return yoke of the magnet.
CMS 40
CMS by layers
For full technical details about the CMS detector, please see the Technical Design Report [2].
The interaction point

This is the point in the centre of the detector at which proton-proton collisions occur between the two
counter-rotating beams of the LHC. At each end of the detector magnets focus the beams into the interaction point.
At collision each beam has a radius of 17 μm and the crossing angle between the beams is 285 μrad.
At full design luminosity each of the two LHC beams will contain 2,808 bunches of 1.15 × 1011 protons. The
interval between crossings is 25 ns, although the number of collisions per second is only 31.6 million due to gaps in
the beam as injector magnets are activated and deactivated.
At full luminosity each collision will produce an average of 20 proton-proton interactions. The collisions occur at a
centre of mass energy of 14 TeV. It is worth noting that the actual interactions occur between quarks rather than
protons, and so the actual energy involved in each collision will be lower, as determined by the parton distribution
functions.
The first which ran in September 2008 was expected to operate at a lower collision energy of 10 TeV but this was
prevented by the 19 September 2008 shutdown. When at this target level, the LHC will have a significantly reduced
luminosity, due to both fewer proton bunches in each beam and fewer protons per bunch. The reduced bunch
frequency does allow the crossing angle to be reduced to zero however, as bunches are far enough spaced to prevent
secondary collisions in the experimental beampipe.
Layer 1 – The tracker

Immediately around the interaction point the inner tracker serves to
identify the tracks of individual particles and match them to the
vertices from which they originated. The curvature of charged particle
tracks in the magnetic field allows their charge and momentum to be
measured.
The CMS silicon tracker consists of 13 layers in the central region and
14 layers in the endcaps. The innermost three layers (up to 11 cm
radius) consist of 100×150 μm pixels, 66 million in total.
The silicon strip tracker of CMS.
The next four layers (up to 55 cm radius) consist of 10 cm × 180 μm
silicon strips, followed by the remaining six layers of 25 cm × 180 μm
strips, out to a radius of 1.1 m. There are 9.6 million strip channels in total.
CMS 41
During full luminosity collisions the occupancy of the pixel layers per event is expected to be 0.1%, and 1–2% in the
strip layers. The expected SLHC upgrade will increase the number of interactions to the point where over-occupancy
may significantly reduce trackfinding effectiveness.
This part of the detector is the world's largest silicon detector. It has 205 m2 of silicon sensors (approximately the
area of a tennis court) comprising 76 million channels.[3]
Layer 2 – The Electromagnetic Calorimeter

The Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) is designed to measure with high accuracy the energies of electrons and
photons.
The ECAL is constructed from crystals of lead tungstate, PbWO4. This is an extremely dense but optically clear
material, ideal for stopping high energy particles. It has a radiation length of χ0 = 0.89 cm, and has a rapid light
yield, with 80% of light yield within one crossing time (25 ns). This is balanced however by a relatively low light
yield of 30 photons per MeV of incident energy.
The crystals used have a front size of 22 mm × 22 mm and a depth of 230 mm. They are set in a matrix of carbon
fibre to keep them optically isolated, and backed by silicon avalanche photodiodes for readout. The barrel region
consists of 61,200 crystals, with a further 7,324 in each of the endcaps.
At the endcaps the ECAL inner surface is covered by the preshower subdetector, consisting of two layers of lead
interleaved with two layers of silicon strip detectors. Its purpose is to aid in pion-photon discrimination.
Preparing lead tungstate crystals for the ECAL

CMS 42
Layer 3 – The Hadronic Calorimeter

The purpose of the Hadronic Calorimeter (HCAL) is both to
measure the energy of individual hadrons produced in each event,
and to be as near to hermetic around the interaction region as
possible to allow events with missing energy to be identified.
The HCAL consists of layers of dense material (brass or steel)
interleaved with tiles of plastic scintillators, read out via
wavelength-shifting fibres by hybrid photodiodes. This
combination was determined to allow the maximum amount of
absorbing material inside of the magnet coil.
Half of the Hadron Calorimeter
The high pseudorapidity region is instrumented by the Hadronic Forward detector. Located
11 m either side of the interaction point, this uses a slightly different technology of steel absorbers and quartz fibres
for readout, designed to allow better separation of particles in the congested forward region.
The brass used in the endcaps of the HCAL used to be Russian artillery shells.[4]
Layer 4 – The magnet

Like most particle physics detectors, CMS has a large solenoid magnet. This allows the charge/mass ratio of particles
to be determined from the curved track that they follow in the magnetic field. It is 13 m long and 6 m in diameter,
and its refrigerated superconducting niobium-titanium coils were originally intended to produce a 4 T magnetic field.
It was recently announced that the magnet will run at 3.8 T instead of the full design strength in order to maximize
longevity.[5]
The inductance of the magnet is 14 Η and the nominal current for 4 T is 19,500 A, giving a total stored energy of
2.66 GJ, equivalent to about half-a-tonne of TNT. There are dump circuits to safely dissipate this energy should the
magnet quench. The circuit resistance (essentially just the cables from the power converter to the cryostat) has a
value of 0.1 mΩ which leads to a circuit time constant of nearly 39 hours. This is the longest time constant of any
circuit at CERN. The operating current for 3.8 T is 18,160 A, giving a stored energy of 2.3 GJ.
CMS 43
Layer 5 – The muon detectors and return yoke

To identify muons and measure their momenta, CMS uses three types of detector: drift tubes (DT), cathode strip
chambers (CSC) and resistive plate chambers (RPC). The DTs are used for precise trajectory measurements in the
central barrel region, while the CSCs are used in the end caps. The RPCs provide a fast signal when a muon passes
through the muon detector, and are installed in both the barrel and the end caps.
The Hadron Calorimeter Barrel (in the foreground, on the yellow A part of the Magnet Yoke,
frame) waits to be inserted into the superconducting magnet (the silver with drift tubes and
cylinder in the centre of the red magnet yoke). resistive-plate chambers in
the barrel region.
Collecting and collating the data
Pattern recognition
New particles discovered in CMS will be typically unstable and
rapidly transform into a cascade of lighter, more stable and better
understood particles. Particles travelling through CMS leave
behind characteristic patterns, or ‘signatures’, in the different
layers, allowing them to be identified. The presence (or not) of any
new particles can then be inferred.
Trigger system
To have a good chance of producing a rare particle, such as a
Higgs boson, a very large number of collisions are required. Most
collision events in the detector are "soft" and do not produce
interesting effects. The amount of raw data from each crossing is
approximately 1 MB, which at the 40 MHz crossing rate would
result in 40 TB of data a second, an amount that the experiment
cannot hope to store or even process properly. The trigger system
reduces the rate of interesting events down to a manageable 100
per second.
To accomplish this, a series of "trigger" stages are employed. All

Testing the data read-out electronics for the tracker.
the data from each crossing is held in buffers within the detector
CMS 44
while a small amount of key information is used to perform a fast, approximate calculation to identify features of
interest such as high energy jets, muons or missing energy. This "Level 1" calculation is completed in around 1 µs,
and event rate is reduced by a factor of about thousand down to 50 kHz. All these calculations are done on fast,
custom hardware using reprogrammable FPGAs.
If an event is passed by the Level 1 trigger all the data still buffered in the detector is sent over fibre-optic links to
the "High Level" trigger, which is software (mainly written in C++) running on ordinary computer servers. The
lower event rate in the High Level trigger allows time for much more detailed analysis of the event to be done than
in the Level 1 trigger. The High Level trigger reduces the event rate by a further factor of about a thousand down to
around 100 events per second. These are then stored on tape for future analysis.
Data analysis
Data that has passed the triggering stages and been stored on tape is duplicated using the Grid to additional sites
around the world for easier access and redundancy. Physicists are then able to use the Grid to access and run their
analyses on the data.
Some possible analyses might be:
• Looking at events with large amounts of apparently missing energy, which implies the presence of particles that
have passed through the detector without leaving a signature, such as neutrinos.
• Looking at the kinematics of pairs of particles produced by the decay of a parent, such as the Z boson decaying to
a pair of electrons or the Higgs boson decaying to a pair of tau leptons or photons, to determine the properties and
mass of the parent.
• Looking at jets of particles to study the way the quarks in the collided protons have interacted.
Milestones
1998 Construction of surface buildings for CMS begins.
2000 LEP shut down, construction of cavern begins.
2004 Cavern completed.
10 September 2008 First beam in CMS.
23 November 2009 First collisions in CMS.
30 March 2010 First 7 TeV collisions in CMS.
The insertion of the vacuum tank, YE+2 descent into the cavern YE+1, a component of CMS Computer-generated event
June 2002 weighing 1,270 tonnes, finishes display of protons hitting a
its 100 m descent into the CMS tungsten block just upstream
cavern, January 2007 of CMS on the first beam
day, September 2008
CMS 45
References
[1] (http:/ / cms-project-cmsinfo. web. cern. ch/ cms-project-cmsinfo/ Collaboration/ index. html)
[2] http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 922757/ files/ lhcc-2006-001. pdf
[3] CMS installs the world's largest silicon detector (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 32915), CERN Courier, Feb 15, 2008
[4] CMS HCAL history - CERN (http:/ / cms. web. cern. ch/ cms/ Detector/ HCAL/ History. html)
[5] http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 1748-0221/ 5/ 03/ T03021/ pdf/ 1748-0221_5_03_T03021. pdf Precise mapping of the magnetic field in the CMS
barrel yoke using cosmic rays
• Della Negra, Michel; Petrilli, Achille; Herve, Alain; Foa, Lorenzo; (2006) (PDF). CMS Physics Technical Design
Report Volume I: Software and Detector Performance (http://doc.cern.ch//archive/electronic/cern/preprints/
lhcc/public/lhcc-2006-001.pdf). CERN.
External links
• CMS home page (http://cms.cern.ch/)
• CMS Outreach (http://cmsinfo.cern.ch/)
• CMS Times (http://cmsinfo.cern.ch/outreach/CMSTimes.html)
• CMS section from US/LHC Website (http://www.uslhc.us/What_is_the_LHC/Experiments/CMS)
• http://petermccready.com/portfolio/07041601.html (http://petermccready.com/portfolio/07041601.html)
Panoramic view - click and drag to look around the experiment under construction (with sound!) (requires
Quicktime)
• The assembly of the CMS detector, step by step, through a 3D animation (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=7FiLC2m4oR8)
• The CMS Collaboration, S Chatrchyan et al. (2008-08-14). "The CMS experiment at the CERN LHC" (http://
www.iop.org/EJ/journal/-page=extra.lhc/jinst). Journal of Instrumentation 3: S08004.
doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08004. Retrieved 2008-08-26 (Full design documentation)
LHCb 46
LHCb
Geographical coordinates: 46°14′27.64″N 6°5′48.96″E
LHC experiments
LHCb LHC-beauty
LHCf LHC-forward
LHC preaccelerators
The LHCb (standing for "Large Hadron Collider beauty" where "beauty" refers to the bottom quark) experiment is
one of six particle physics detector experiments built on the Large Hadron Collider accelerator at CERN. LHCb is a
specialized b-physics experiment, particularly aimed at measuring the parameters of CP violation in the interactions
of b-hadrons (heavy particles containing a bottom quark).
The LHCb detector

The fact that both B hadrons are predominantly produced in the same forward cone as B meson production is
exploited in the layout of the LHCb detector. The LHCb detector is a single arm forward spectrometer with a polar
angular coverage from 10 to 300 milliradians (mrad) in the horizontal and 250 mrad in the vertical plane. The
asymmetry between the horizontal and vertical plane is determined by a large dipole magnet with the main
component in the vertical direction.
The vertex detector (known as the vertex locator or VELO) is built around the proton interaction region. It is used to
measure the particle trajectories close to the interaction point in order to precisely separate primary and secondary
vertices, e.g. for B-tagging.
The RICH-1 detector (Ring imaging Cherenkov detector) is located directly after the vertex detector. It is used for
particle identification of low-momentum tracks.
The main tracking system is placed before and after the dipole magnet. It is used to reconstruct the trajectories of
charged particles and to measure their momenta.
LHCb 47
Following the tracking system is RICH-2. It allows the identification of the particle type of high-momentum tracks.
The electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters provide measurement of the energy of electrons, photons, and
hadrons. These measurements are used at trigger level to identify the particles with high transversal moment (high-Pt
particles).
The muon system is used to identify and trigger on muons in the events.
LHCb Physics analyses

After the LHC starts colliding protons at a useful rate for LHCb, in early 2010, LHCb aims to make several
measurements on physics phenomena involving B mesons as an early priority. These include:
• Measuring an upper limit on the branching ratio of the rare decay.
• Measuring the forward-backward asymmetry of the muon pair in the flavour changing neutral current
decay. Such a flavour changing neutral current cannot occur at tree-level in the Standard
Model of Particle Physics, and only occurs through box and loop Feynman diagrams; properties of the decay can
be strongly modified by new Physics.
• Measuring the CP violating phase in the decay , caused by interference between the decays with
and without oscillations. This phase is one of the CP observables with the smallest theoretical
uncertainty in the Standard Model, and can be significantly modified by new Physics.
• Measuring properties of radiative B decays, i.e. B meson decays with photons in the final states. Specifically,
these are again flavour changing neutral current decays.
LHCb 48
See also
External links
• LHCb Public Webpage [1]
• LHCb section from US/LHC Website [2]
• A. Augusto Alves Jr. et al. (LHCb Collaboration) (2008). "The LHCb Detector at the LHC" [5]. Journal of
Instrumentation 3: S08005. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08005. (Full design documentation)
References
[1] http:/ / lhcb-public. web. cern. ch/ lhcb-public/
[2] http:/ / www. uslhc. us/ What_is_the_LHC/ Experiments/ LHCb
LHCf 49
LHCf
The LHCf experiment, the smallest of the six

experiments on the LHC
LHC experiments
LHCb LHC-beauty
LHCf LHC-forward
LHC preaccelerators
The LHCf ("Large Hadron Collider forward") is a special-purpose Large Hadron Collider experiment for
astroparticle (cosmic ray) physics, and one of six detectors being constructed in the LHC accelerator at CERN. The
other five are: ATLAS, ALICE, CMS, TOTEM, and LHCb. LHCf is designed to study the particles generated in the
"forward" region of collisions, those almost directly in line with the colliding proton beams. It therefore consists of
two detectors, 140 m on either side of an intersection point.
Because of this large distance, it can co-exist with a more conventional detector surrounding the intersection point,
and shares the intersection point IP1 with the much larger general-purpose ATLAS experiment.
LHCf 50
Purpose
The LHCf is intended to measure the energy and numbers of neutral pions (π0) produced by the collider. This will
hopefully help explain the origin of ultra-high energy cosmic rays. The results will complement other high-energy
cosmic ray measurements from the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, and the Telescope Array in Utah.
References
• LHCf section on US/LHC Website [1]
• LHCf: a tiny new experiment joins the LHC [2], CERN Courier, Nov 1, 2006, retrieved on 2009-03-25.
(Describes the location of the experiment.)
• The LHCf experiment at LHC [3]
• Technical Design Report of LHCf [4]
• O Adriani et al. (LHCf Collaboration) (2008). "The LHCf detector at the CERN Large Hadron Collider". Journal
of Instrumentation 3 (8): S08006. doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08006. (Full design documentation)
References
[1] http:/ / www. uslhc. us/ What_is_the_LHC/ Experiments/ LHCf
[2] http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 29732
[3] http:/ / www. particle. cz/ conferences/ c2cr2005/ talks/ Adriani. pdf
[4] http:/ / doc. cern. ch/ / archive/ electronic/ cern/ preprints/ lhcc/ public/ lhcc-2005-032. pdf
FP420
The FP420 R&D project or the FP420 experiment was an international collaboration with members from 29
institutes from 10 countries.[1] The aim was to assess the feasibility of installing proton tagging detectors at 420 m
from the interaction points of the ATLAS and CMS experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). One of the
most notable members of the team was Brian Cox, who can be seen in the five part BBC television series entitled
Wonders of the Solar System which first aired in March 2010.
By detecting protons that have lost less than 1% of their longitudinal momentum, it is possible to obtain information
that could yield insight on various phenomena of high-energy physics. These measurements would be unique at the
LHC, and would be difficult to obtain at both existing and future linear colliders.
See also
• List of Large Hadron Collider experiments
References
[1] "FP420 R&D Project" (http:/ / www. fp420. com/ ). . Retrieved 2010-03-31.
External links
• FP420 R&D Project website (http://www.fp420.com/)
• Papers and Reviews (http://www.fp420.com/papers.html)
TOTEM 51
TOTEM
LHC experiments
LHCb LHC-beauty
LHCf LHC-forward
LHC preaccelerators
TOTal Elastic and diffractive cross section Measurement (TOTEM) is one of the six detector experiments being
constructed at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. The other five are: ATLAS, ALICE, CMS, LHCb, and LHCf. It
shares intersection point IP5 with the Compact Muon Solenoid. The detector aims at measurement of total cross
section, elastic scattering and diffractive processes.
See also
External links
• TOTEM Public Webpage [1]
• TOTEM section on US/LHC Website [2]
• The TOTEM Collaboration, G Anelli et al. (2008-08-14), "The TOTEM Experiment at the CERN Large Hadron
Collider" [5], Journal of Instrumentation 3 (S08007): S08007, doi:10.1088/1748-0221/3/08/S08007, retrieved
2008-08-26 (Full design documentation)
TOTEM 52
References
[1] http:/ / totem. web. cern. ch/ Totem
[2] http:/ / www. uslhc. us/ What_is_the_LHC/ Experiments/ TOTEM
53
Technology
LHC Computing Grid

The LHC Computing Grid, launched on October 3, 2008,[1] is a distribution network designed by CERN to handle
the massive amounts of data produced by the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It incorporates both private fiber optic
cable links and existing high-speed portions of the public Internet.
The data stream from the detectors provides approximately 300 GB/s, which is filtered for "interesting events",
resulting in a "raw data" stream of about 300 MB/s. The CERN computer center, considered "Tier 0" of the LHC
Computing Grid, has a dedicated 10 Gb/s connection to the counting room.[2]
The project is expected to generate 27 TB of raw data per day, plus 10 TB of “event summary data”, which represents
the output of calculations done by the CPU farm at the CERN data center.[2] This data is sent out from CERN to
eleven Tier 1 academic institutions in Europe, Asia, and North America, via dedicated 10 Gbit/s links. More than
150 Tier 2 institutions are connected to the Tier 1 institutions by general-purpose national research and education
networks.[2] The data produced by the LHC on all of its distributed computing grid is expected to add up to 10–15
PB of data each year.[3]
The Tier 1 institutions receive specific subsets of the raw data, for which they serve as a backup repository for
CERN. They also perform reprocessing when recalibration is necessary.[2] The primary configuration for the
computers used in the grid is based on Scientific Linux.
Distributed computing resources for analysis by end-user physicists are provided by the Open Science Grid,
Enabling Grids for E-sciencE,[2] and LHC@home projects.
See also
• Openlab (CERN)
References
[1] "LHC GridFest" (http:/ / lcg. web. cern. ch/ LCG/ lhcgridfest/ ). CERN. 2008. .
[2] final-draft-4-key (http:/ / gridcafe. web. cern. ch/ gridcafe/ animations/ LHCdata/ LHCdata. html)
[3] Brodkin, Jon (28 April 2008). "Parallel Internet: Inside the Worldwide LHC computing grid" (http:/ / www. techworld. com/ mobility/
features/ index. cfm?featureid=4074& pn=2). Techworld.com. .
External links
• Official webpage (http://lcg.web.cern.ch/LCG/) The World Wide LHC Computer Grid
LHC@home 54
LHC@home
LHC@home is a distributed computing project using the BOINC framework, run by volunteers for the CERN in
Switzerland. Its goal is to help maintain and improve the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a CERN project to create a
large particle accelerator which became active in September 2008. Data from the project is used by engineers to
improve the operation and efficiency of the accelerator, and to predict problems that could arise from adjustment or
modification of the LHC's equipment. The project is administered by volunteers, and receives no funding from
CERN.
BOINC users who are considering joining this project should know that it only occasionally has work; the project is
used for design and repair considerations related to the LHC. There are currently no plans to use the project to do
computation on the data that will be collected by the LHC.
A CERN collider project

The project was first introduced as a beta on September 1, 2004 and a record 1000 users signed up within 24 hours.
The project went public, with a 5000 user limit, on September 29 to commemorate CERN's 50th anniversary.
Currently there is no user limit and qualification.
Project software
The project software involves a program called "SixTrack", created by Frank Schmidt, downloaded via BOINC onto
participant computers running Windows or Linux. SixTrack simulates particles accelerating through the 27 km (17
mi)-long LHC to find their orbit stability.
• In one workunit, 60 particles are simulated travelling 100,000 or 1,000,000 loops, which would take about 10
seconds in an actual run. This is sixtrack.
• The orbit stability data is used to detect if a particle in orbit goes off-course and runs into the tube wall—if this
happened too often in actual running, this would cause damage to the accelerator which would need repairs.
• A new experimental version called SixTrackbnl started to be sent to computers in early November.
• Garfield is a newer application, although not many workunits have been seen lately.
See also
• List of distributed computing projects
• LHC Computing Grid
External links
• LHC@home Project Page [1]
• Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) [2]
• SixTrack homepage [3]
LHC@home 55
References
[1] http:/ / lhcathome. cern. ch/
[2] http:/ / boinc. berkeley. edu/
[3] http:/ / frs. web. cern. ch/ frs/
Proton Synchrotron Booster

The Proton Synchrotron Booster, a synchrotron, is the first and smallest circular proton accelerator in the
accelerator chain at the CERN Large Hadron Collider injection complex[1]. The accelerator was built in 1972, and
contains four superimposed rings with a radius of 25 meters. It takes protons with an energy of 50 MeV from the
linear accelerator Linac2 and accelerates them up to 1.4 GeV, ready to be injected into the Proton Synchrotron. It can
also take ions from the Linac3 pre-accelerated in the LEIR.
The PS Booster actually consists of four identical rings mounted one above the other.
External links
• PS Booster Machine: layout and photographs [2]
References
[1] http:/ / ps-div. web. cern. ch/ ps-div/ LHC-PS/ LHC-PS. html
[2] http:/ / psb-machine. web. cern. ch/ psb-machine/
VELO
The Vertex Locator at LHCb is called the VELO. Its primary purpose is to provide high precision measurements of
the tracks of charged particles resulting from pp collisions at the LHC.
The detector operates at 7 mm from the LHC beam. This implies an enormous flux of particles; thus the VELO has
been designed to withstand integrated fluences of more than 1014p/cm2 per year for a period of about three years.
The detector operates in vacuum and is cooled to approximately −25 °C using a biphase CO2 system. The data of the
VELO detector are amplified and read out by the Beetle ASIC.
The VELO provides critical tracking information for the LHCb experiment.
References
• The LHCb VELO (from the VELO group) [1]
• VELO Public Pages(from the LHCb experiment) [2]
References
[1] http:/ / lhcb-vd. web. cern. ch/ lhcb-vd/ default. htm
[2] http:/ / lhcb-public. web. cern. ch/ lhcb-public/ en/ Detector/ VELO-en. html
56
Theory
Standard Model
The Standard Model of particle physics is
a theory concerning the electromagnetic,
weak, and strong nuclear interactions, which
mediate the dynamics of the known
subatomic particles. Developed throughout
the early and middle 20th century, the
current formulation was finalized in the mid
1970s upon experimental confirmation of
the existence of quarks. Since then,
discoveries of the bottom quark (1977), the
top quark (1995) and the tau neutrino (2000)
have given credence to the standard model.
Because of its success in explaining a wide
variety of experimental results, the standard
model is sometimes regarded as a theory of
almost everything.
Still, the standard model falls short of being

a complete theory of fundamental
interactions because it does not incorporate
the physics of general relativity, such as
The Standard Model of elementary particles, with the gauge bosons in the
gravitation and dark energy. The theory rightmost column.
does not contain any viable dark matter
particle that possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does not correctly
account for neutrino oscillations (and their non-zero masses). Although the standard model is theoretically
self-consistent, it has several unnatural properties giving rise to puzzles like the strong CP problem and the hierarchy
problem.
Nevertheless, the standard model is important to theoretical and experimental particle physicists alike. For
theoreticians, the standard model is a paradigm example of a quantum field theory, which exhibits a wide range of
physics including spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies, non-perturbative behavior, etc. It is used as a basis for
building more exotic models which incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions and elaborate symmetries
(such as supersymmetry) in an attempt to explain experimental results at variance with the Standard Model such as
the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations. In turn, the experimenters have incorporated the standard
model into simulators to help search for new physics beyond the standard model from relatively uninteresting
background.
Recently, the standard model has found applications in other fields besides particle physics such as astrophysics and
cosmology, in addition to nuclear physics.
Standard Model 57
Historical background
The first step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon Glashow's discovery, in 1960, of a way to combine the
electromagnetic and weak interactions.[1] In 1967, Steven Weinberg[2] and Abdus Salam[3] incorporated the Higgs
mechanism[4] [5] [6] into Glashow's electroweak theory, giving it its modern form.
The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model.
This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the fermions. The Higgs mechanism is also believed to give
rise to the masses of quarks and leptons.
After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were discovered at CERN in 1973,[7] [8] [9] [10] the
electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in
Physics for discovering it. The W and Z bosons were discovered experimentally in 1981, and their masses were
found to be as the Standard Model predicted.
The theory of the strong interaction, to which many contributed, acquired its modern form around 1973–74, when
experiments confirmed that the hadrons were composed of fractionally charged quarks.
Overview
At present, matter and energy are best understood in terms of the kinematics and interactions of elementary particles.
To date, physics has reduced the laws governing the behavior and interaction of all known forms of matter and
energy to a small set of fundamental laws and theories. A major goal of physics is to find the "common ground" that
would unite all of these theories into one integrated theory of everything, of which all the other known laws would
be special cases, and from which the behavior of all matter and energy could be derived (at least in principle).[11]
The Standard Model groups two major extant theories — quantum electroweak and quantum chromodynamics —
into an internally consistent theory that describes the interactions between all known particles in terms of quantum
field theory. For a technical description of the fields and their interactions, see Standard Model (mathematical
formulation).
Particle content
Elementary particles: fermions
Organization of Fermions
Charge First generation Second generation Third generation
Quarks Up Charm Top

+2⁄3 u c t
Down Strange Bottom

−1⁄3 d s b
Leptons −1 Electron Muon Tau

e− μ− τ−
0 Electron neutrino νe Muon neutrino νμ Tau neutrino ντ
The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of spin-1⁄2 known as fermions. According to the spin-statistics
theorem, fermions respect the Pauli exclusion principle. Each fermion has a corresponding antiparticle.
The fermions of the Standard Model are classified according to how they interact (or equivalently, by what charges
they carry). There are six quarks (up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom), and six leptons (electron, electron
neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino). Pairs from each classification are grouped together to form a
generation, with corresponding particles exhibiting similar physical behavior (see table).
Standard Model 58
The defining property of the quarks is that they carry color charge, and hence, interact via the strong interaction. A
phenomenon called color confinement results in quarks being perpetually (or at least since very soon after the start of
the Big Bang) bound to one another, forming color-neutral composite particles (hadrons) containing either a quark
and an antiquark (mesons) or three quarks (baryons). The familiar proton and the neutron are the two baryons having
the smallest mass. Quarks also carry electric charge and weak isospin. Hence they interact with other fermions both
electromagnetically and via the weak nuclear interaction.
The remaining six fermions do not carry color charge and are called leptons. The three neutrinos do not carry electric
charge either, so their motion is directly influenced only by the weak nuclear force, which makes them notoriously
difficult to detect. However, by virtue of carrying an electric charge, the electron, muon, and tau all interact
electromagnetically.
Each member of a generation has greater mass than the corresponding particles of lower generations. The first
generation charged particles do not decay; hence all ordinary (baryonic) matter is made of such particles.
Specifically, all atoms consist of electrons orbiting atomic nuclei ultimately constituted of up and down quarks.
Second and third generations charged particles, on the other hand, decay with very short half lives, and are observed
only in very high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all generations also do not decay, and pervade the universe, but
rarely interact with baryonic matter.
Force mediating particles

Interactions in physics are the ways
that particles influence other particles.
At a macroscopic level,
electromagnetism allows particles to
interact with one another via electric
and magnetic fields, and gravitation
allows particles with mass to attract
one another in accordance with
Einstein's general relativity. The
standard model explains such forces as
resulting from matter particles
exchanging other particles, known as
force mediating particles (Strictly
speaking, this is only so if interpreting
literally what is actually an
Summary of interactions between particles described by the Standard Model.
approximation method known as
perturbation theory, as opposed to the
exact theory). When a force mediating particle is exchanged, at a macroscopic level the effect is equivalent to a force
influencing both of them, and the particle is therefore said to have mediated (i.e., been the agent of) that force. The
Feynman diagram calculations, which are a graphical form of the perturbation theory approximation, invoke "force
mediating particles" and when applied to analyze high-energy scattering experiments are in reasonable agreement
with the data. Perturbation theory (and with it the concept of "force mediating particle") in other situations fails.
These include low-energy QCD, bound states, and solitons.
The known force mediating particles described by the Standard Model also all have spin (as do matter particles), but
in their case, the value of the spin is 1, meaning that all force mediating particles are bosons. As a result, they do not
follow the Pauli exclusion principle. The different types of force mediating particles are described below.
Standard Model 59
• Photons mediate the electromagnetic force between electrically charged particles. The photon is massless and is
well-described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.
• The W+, W−, and Z gauge bosons mediate the weak interactions between particles of different flavors (all quarks
and leptons). They are massive, with the Z being more massive than the W±. The weak interactions involving the
W± act on exclusively left-handed particles and right-handed antiparticles. Furthermore, the W± carry an electric
charge of +1 and −1 and couple to the electromagnetic interactions. The electrically neutral Z boson interacts with
both left-handed particles and antiparticles. These three gauge bosons along with the photons are grouped together
which collectively mediate the electroweak interactions.
• The eight gluons mediate the strong interactions between color charged particles (the quarks). Gluons are
massless. The eightfold multiplicity of gluons is labeled by a combination of color and an anticolor charge (e.g.,
red–antigreen).[12] Because the gluon has an effective color charge, they can interact among themselves. The
gluons and their interactions are described by the theory of quantum chromodynamics.
The interactions between all the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized by the diagram at the top
of this section.
The Higgs boson

The Higgs particle is a hypothetical massive scalar elementary particle theorized by Robert Brout, François Englert,
Peter Higgs, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble in 1964 (see 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers) and
is a key building block in the Standard Model.[13] [14] [15] [16] It has no intrinsic spin, and for that reason is classified
as a boson (like the force mediating particles, which have integer spin). Because an exceptionally large amount of
energy and beam luminosity are theoretically required to observe a Higgs boson in high energy colliders, it is the
only fundamental particle predicted by the Standard Model that has yet to be observed.
The Higgs boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model, by explaining why the other elementary particles, the
photon and gluon excepted, are massive. In particular, the Higgs boson would explain why the photon has no mass,
while the W and Z bosons are very heavy. Elementary particle masses, and the differences between
electromagnetism (mediated by the photon) and the weak force (mediated by the W and Z bosons), are critical to
many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter. In electroweak theory, the Higgs
boson generates the masses of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau) and quarks.
As yet, no experiment has directly detected the existence of the Higgs boson. It is hoped that the Large Hadron
Collider at CERN will confirm the existence of this particle. It is also possible that the Higgs boson may already
have been produced but overlooked.[17]
Field content
The standard model has the following fields:
Spin 1
1. A U(1) gauge field Bμν with coupling g′ (weak U(1), or weak hypercharge)
2. An SU(2) gauge field Wμν with coupling g (weak SU(2), or weak isospin)
3. An SU(3) gauge field Gμν with coupling gs (strong SU(3), or color charge)
Spin 1⁄2
The spin 1⁄2 particles are in representations of the gauge groups. For the U(1) group, we list the value of the weak
hypercharge instead. The left-handed fermionic fields are:
1. An SU(3) triplet, SU(2) doublet, with U(1) weak hypercharge 1⁄3 (left-handed quarks)
2. An SU(3) triplet, SU(2) singlet, with U(1) weak hypercharge 2⁄3 (left-handed down-type antiquark)
Standard Model 60
3. An SU(3) singlet, SU(2) doublet with U(1) weak hypercharge −1 (left-handed lepton)
4. An SU(3) triplet, SU(2) singlet, with U(1) weak hypercharge −4⁄3 (left-handed up-type antiquark)
5. An SU(3) singlet, SU(2) singlet with U(1) weak hypercharge 2 (left-handed antilepton)
By CPT symmetry, there is a set of right-handed fermions with the opposite quantum numbers.
This describes one generation of leptons and quarks, and there are three generations, so there are three copies of each
field. Note that there are twice as many left-handed lepton field components as left-handed antilepton field
components in each generation, but an equal number of left-handed quark and antiquark fields.
Spin 0
1. An SU(2) doublet H with U(1) hyper-charge −1 (Higgs field)
Note that |H|2, summed over the two SU(2) components, is invariant under both SU(2) and under U(1), and so it can
appear as a renormalizable term in the Lagrangian, as can its square.
This field acquires a vacuum expectation value, leaving a combination of the weak isospin, I3, and weak hypercharge
unbroken. This is the electromagnetic gauge group, and the photon remains massless. The standard formula for the
electric charge (which defines the normalization of the weak hypercharge, Y, which would otherwise be somewhat
arbitrary) is:[18]
Lagrangian
The Lagrangian for the spin 1 and spin 1⁄2 fields is the most general renormalizable gauge field Lagrangian with no
fine tunings:
• Spin 1:
where the traces are over the SU(2) and SU(3) indices hidden in W and G respectively. The two-index objects are the
field strengths derived from W and G the vector fields. There are also two extra hidden parameters: the theta angles
for SU(2) and SU(3).
The spin-1⁄2 particles can have no mass terms because there is no right/left helicity pair with the same SU(2) and
SU(3) representation and the same weak hypercharge. This means that if the gauge charges were conserved in the
vacuum, none of the spin 1⁄2 particles could ever swap helicity, and they would all be massless.
For a neutral fermion, for example a hypothetical right-handed lepton N (or Nα in relativistic two-spinor notation),
with no SU(3), SU(2) representation and zero charge, it is possible to add the term:
This term gives the neutral fermion a Majorana mass. Since the generic value for M will be of order 1, such a particle
would generically be unacceptably heavy. The interactions are completely determined by the theory – the leptons
introduce no extra parameters.
Standard Model 61
Higgs mechanism
The Lagrangian for the Higgs includes the most general renormalizable self interaction:
The parameter v2 has dimensions of mass squared, and it gives the location where the classical Lagrangian is at a
minimum. In order for the Higgs mechanism to work, v2 must be a positive number. v has units of mass, and it is the
only parameter in the standard model which is not dimensionless. It is also much smaller than the Planck scale; it is
approximately equal to the Higgs mass, and sets the scale for the mass of everything else. This is the only real
fine-tuning to a small nonzero value in the standard model, and it is called the Hierarchy problem.
It is traditional to choose the SU(2) gauge so that the Higgs doublet in the vacuum has expectation value (v,0).
Masses and CKM matrix

The rest of the interactions are the most general spin-0 spin-1⁄2 Yukawa interactions, and there are many of these.
These constitute most of the free parameters in the model. The Yukawa couplings generate the masses and mixings
once the Higgs gets its vacuum expectation value.
The terms L*HR generate a mass term for each of the three generations of leptons. There are 9 of these terms, but by
relabeling L and R, the matrix can be diagonalized. Since only the upper component of H is nonzero, the upper
SU(2) component of L mixes with R to make the electron, the muon, and the tau, leaving over a lower massless
component, the neutrino. {Neutrino oscillation show neutrinos have mass. http:/ / operaweb. lngs. infn. it/ spip.
php?rubrique14 31May2010 Press Release.}
The terms QHU generate up masses, while QHD generate down masses. But since there is more than one
right-handed singlet in each generation, it is not possible to diagonalize both with a good basis for the fields, and
there is an extra CKM matrix.
Theoretical aspects
Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian
Parameters of the Standard Model

Symbol Description Renormalization Value
scheme (point)
me Electron mass 511 keV
mμ Muon mass 105.7 MeV
mτ Tau mass 1.78 GeV
mu Up quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 1.9 MeV
md Down quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 4.4 MeV
ms Strange quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 87 MeV
mc Charm quark mass μMS = mc 1.32 GeV
mb Bottom quark mass μMS = mb 4.24 GeV
mt Top quark mass On-shell scheme 172.7 GeV
θ12 CKM 12-mixing angle 13.1°

Standard Model 62
δ CKM CP-violating Phase 0.995
g1 U(1) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.357
g2 SU(2) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.652
g3 SU(3) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 1.221
θQCD QCD vacuum angle ~0
μ Higgs quadratic coupling Unknown
λ Higgs self-coupling strength Unknown
Technically, quantum field theory provides the mathematical framework for the standard model, in which a
Lagrangian controls the dynamics and kinematics of the theory. Each kind of particle is described in terms of a
dynamical field that pervades space-time. The construction of the standard model proceeds following the modern
method of constructing most field theories: by first postulating a set of symmetries of the system, and then by writing
down the most general renormalizable Lagrangian from its particle (field) content that observes these symmetries.
The global Poincaré symmetry is postulated for all relativistic quantum field theories. It consists of the familiar
translational symmetry, rotational symmetry and the inertial reference frame invariance central to the theory of
special relativity. The local SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1) gauge symmetry is an internal symmetry that essentially defines the
standard model. Roughly, the three factors of the gauge symmetry give rise to the three fundamental interactions.
The fields fall into different representations of the various symmetry groups of the Standard Model (see table). Upon
writing the most general Lagrangian, one finds that the dynamics depend on 19 parameters, whose numerical values
are established by experiment. The parameters are summarized in the table at right.
The QCD sector

The QCD sector defines the interactions between quarks and gluons, with SU(3) symmetry, generated by Ta. Since
leptons do not interact with gluons, they are not affected by this sector.
is the gluon field strength, are the Dirac matrices, D stands for the isospin doublet section, U stands for a
unitary matrix, and gs is the strong coupling constant.
The electroweak sector

The electroweak sector is a Yang–Mills gauge theory with the symmetry group U(1)×SU(2)L,
where Bμ is the U(1) gauge field; YW is the weak hypercharge — the generator of the U(1) group; is the
three-component SU(2) gauge field; are the Pauli matrices — infinitesimal generators of the SU(2) group. The
subscript L indicates that they only act on left fermions; g′ and g are coupling constants.
Standard Model 63
The Higgs sector

In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a complex spinor of the group SU(2)L:
where the indexes + and 0 indicate the electric charge (Q) of the components. The weak isospin (YW) of both
components is 1.
Before symmetry breaking, the Higgs Lagrangian is:
which can also be written as:
Additional symmetries of the Standard Model

From the theoretical point of view, the Standard Model exhibits four additional global symmetries, not postulated at
the outset of its construction, collectively denoted accidental symmetries, which are continuous U(1) global
symmetries. The transformations leaving the Lagrangian invariant are:
The first transformation rule is shorthand meaning that all quark fields for all generations must be rotated by an
identical phase simultaneously. The fields , and , are the 2nd (muon) and 3rd (tau)
generation analogs of and fields.
By Noether's theorem, each symmetry above has an associated conservation law: the conservation of baryon number,
electron number, muon number, and tau number. Each quark is assigned a baryon number of 1/3, while each
antiquark is assigned a baryon number of -1/3. Conservation of baryon number implies that the number of quarks
minus the number of antiquarks is a constant. Within experimental limits, no violation of this conservation law has
been found.
Similarly, each electron and its associated neutrino is assigned an electron number of +1, while the antielectron and
the associated antineutrino carry −1 electron number. Similarly, the muons and their neutrinos are assigned a muon
number of +1 and the tau leptons are assigned a tau lepton number of +1. The Standard Model predicts that each of
these three numbers should be conserved separately in a manner similar to the way baryon number is conserved.
These numbers are collectively known as lepton family numbers (LF). Symmetry works differently for quarks than
for leptons, mainly because the Standard Model predicts that neutrinos are massless. However, it was recently found
that neutrinos have small masses and oscillate between flavors, signaling that the conservation of lepton family
number is violated.
In addition to the accidental (but exact) symmetries described above, the Standard Model exhibits several
approximate symmetries. These are the "SU(2) custodial symmetry" and the "SU(2) or SU(3) quark flavor
symmetry."
Standard Model 64
Symmetries of the Standard Model and Associated Conservation Laws

Symmetry Lie Group Symmetry Type Conservation Law
Poincaré Translations×SO(3,1) Global symmetry Energy, Momentum, Angular momentum
Gauge SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1) Local symmetry Color charge, Weak isospin, Electric charge, Weak hypercharge
Baryon phase U(1) Accidental Global symmetry Baryon number
Electron phase U(1) Accidental Global symmetry Electron number
Muon phase U(1) Accidental Global symmetry Muon number
Tau phase U(1) Accidental Global symmetry Tau number
Field content of the Standard Model

Field Spin Gauge group Baryon Electron
(1st generation) Representation Number Number
Left-handed quark ( , , )
Left-handed up antiquark ( , , )
Left-handed down antiquark ( , , )
Left-handed lepton ( , , )
Left-handed antielectron ( , , )
Hypercharge gauge field ( , , )
Isospin gauge field ( , , )
Gluon field ( , , )
Higgs field ( , , )
List of standard model fermions

This table is based in part on data gathered by the Particle Data Group.[19]
Left-handed fermions in the Standard Model

Generation 1
Fermion Symbol Electric Weak Weak Color Mass **

(left-handed) charge isospin hypercharge charge *
Electron 511 keV
Positron 511 keV
Electron neutrino < 2 eV ****
Electron antineutrino < 2 eV ****
Up quark ~ 3 MeV ***
Up antiquark ~ 3 MeV ***
Down quark ~ 6 MeV ***
Down antiquark ~ 6 MeV ***
Generation 2
Standard Model 65

Muon 106 MeV
Antimuon 106 MeV
Muon neutrino < 2 eV ****
Muon antineutrino < 2 eV ****
Charm quark ~ 1.337 GeV
Charm antiquark ~ 1.3 GeV
Strange quark ~ 100 MeV
Strange antiquark ~ 100 MeV
Generation 3

Tau 1.78 GeV
Antitau 1.78 GeV
Tau neutrino < 2 eV ****
Tau antineutrino < 2 eV ****
Top quark 171 GeV
Top antiquark 171 GeV
Bottom quark ~ 4.2 GeV
Bottom antiquark ~ 4.2 GeV
Notes:
• * These are not ordinary abelian charges, which can be added together, but are labels of group representations of Lie groups.
• ** Mass is really a coupling between a left-handed fermion and a right-handed fermion. For example, the mass of an electron is really a
coupling between a left-handed electron and a right-handed electron, which is the antiparticle of a left-handed positron. Also neutrinos show
large mixings in their mass coupling, so it's not accurate to talk about neutrino masses in the flavor basis or to suggest a left-handed electron
antineutrino.
• *** The masses of baryons and hadrons and various cross-sections are the experimentally measured quantities. Since quarks can't be isolated
because of QCD confinement, the quantity here is supposed to be the mass of the quark at the renormalization scale of the QCD scale.
• **** The Standard Model assumes that neutrinos are massless. However, several contemporary experiments prove that neutrinos oscillate
[20]
between their flavour states, which could not happen if all were massless. It is straightforward to extend the model to fit these data but there
are many possibilities, so the mass eigenstates are still open. See Neutrino#Mass.
Tests and predictions

The Standard Model (SM) predicted
the existence of the W and Z bosons,
gluon, and the top and charm quarks
before these particles were observed.
Their predicted properties were
experimentally confirmed with good Log plot of masses in the Standard Model.
precision. To give an idea of the
success of the SM, the following table compares the measured masses of the W and Z bosons with the masses
predicted by the SM:
Standard Model 66
Quantity Measured (GeV) SM prediction (GeV)
Mass of W boson 80.398 ± 0.025 80.390 ± 0.018
Mass of Z boson 91.1876 ± 0.0021 91.1874 ± 0.0021
The SM also makes several predictions about the decay of Z bosons, which have been experimentally confirmed by
the Large Electron-Positron Collider at CERN.
Challenges to the standard model

There is some experimental evidence consistent with neutrinos having mass, which the Standard Model does not
allow.[21] To accommodate such findings, the Standard Model can be modified by adding a non-renormalizable
interaction of lepton fields with the square of the Higgs field. This is natural in certain grand unified theories, and if
new physics appears at about 1016 GeV, the neutrino masses are of the right order of magnitude.
Currently, there is one elementary particle predicted by the Standard Model that has yet to be observed: the Higgs
boson. A major reason for building the Large Hadron Collider is that the high energies of which it is capable are
expected to make the Higgs observable. However, as of August 2008, there is only indirect empirical evidence for
the existence of the Higgs boson, so that its discovery cannot be claimed. Moreover, there are serious theoretical
reasons for supposing that elementary scalar Higgs particles cannot exist (see Quantum triviality).
A fair amount of theoretical and experimental research has attempted to extend the Standard Model into a Unified
Field Theory or a Theory of everything, a complete theory explaining all physical phenomena including constants.
Inadequacies of the Standard Model that motivate such research include:
• Does not attempt to explain gravitation, and there is no known way of adapting the quantum field theory of the
sort the Standard Model employs freely, with general relativity, the canonical theory of gravitation. This means,
among other things, that we have no good theory for the very early universe;
• Seems rather ad-hoc and inelegant, requiring 19 numerical constants whose values are unrelated and arbitrary.
Although the Standard Model, as it now stands, cannot explain why neutrinos have masses (and the specifics of
neutrino mass are still unclear), it is believed that explaining neutrino mass will require an additional 7 or 8
constants;
• Gives rise to the hierarchy problem, namely why the weak scale and Planck scale are so disparate;
• Should be modified so as to be consistent with the emerging "standard model of cosmology." Specifically, a truly
satisfactory theory of the elementary particles and of the fundamental interactions must explain the initial
conditions of the universe that gave rise to certain observed properties of the present-day universe, properties such
as the predominance of matter over antimatter (matter/antimatter asymmetry), and its isotropy and homogeneity
over large distances.
It should be remarked that neither Unified Field Theory nor the Theory of everything are presently able to address
and solve these problems in conclusive ways.
Standard Model 67
See also
• Elementary particle:
• Boson, Fermion
• Fundamental interaction:
• Quantum electrodynamics
• Strong interaction:
• Color charge, Quantum chromodynamics, Quark model
• Weak interaction:
• Electroweak theory, Fermi theory of beta decay, Weak hypercharge, Weak isospin
• Gauge theory
• Nontechnical introduction to gauge theory
• Open questions: BTeV experiment, CP violation, Neutrino masses, Quark matter
• Quantum field theory
• Standard Model:
• Beyond the...
• Mathematical formulation of
• Diagrams:
• Feynman
• Penguin
• Flavour
• Generation
• Higgs mechanism
• Higgs boson
• Unparticle physics
• 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers
• Lagrangian
• Noncommutative standard model
• J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics
• C.R. Hagen
Notes and references

Notes
[1] S.L. Glashow (1961). "Partial-symmetries of weak interactions". Nuclear Physics 22: 579–588. doi:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2.
[2] S. Weinberg (1967). "A Model of Leptons". Physical Review Letters 19: 1264–1266. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.19.1264.
[3] A. Salam (1968). N. Svartholm. ed. Elementary Particle Physics: Relativistic Groups and Analyticity. Eighth Nobel Symposium. Stockholm:
Almquvist and Wiksell. pp. 367.
[4] F. Englert, R. Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters 13: 321–323.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321.
[5] P.W. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters 13: 508–509.
[6] G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, T.W.B. Kibble (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters 13:
585–587. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585.
[7] F.J. Hasert et al. (1973). "Search for elastic muon-neutrino electron scattering". Physics Letters B 46: 121.
doi:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90494-2.
[8] F.J. Hasert et al. (1973). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the gargamelle neutrino experiment". Physics
Letters B 46: 138. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90499-1.
Standard Model 68
[9] F.J. Hasert et al. (1974). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle neutrino experiment". Nuclear
Physics B 73: 1. doi:10.1016/0550-3213(74)90038-8.
[10] D. Haidt (4 October 2004). "The discovery of the weak neutral currents" (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 29168). CERN
Courier. . Retrieved 2008-05-08.
[11] "Details can be worked out if the situation is simple enough for us to make an approximation, which is almost never, but often we can
understand more or less what is happening." from The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. pp. 2–7
[12] Technically, there are nine such color–anticolor combinations. However there is one color symmetric combination that can be constructed
out of a linear superposition of the nine combinations, reducing the count to eight.
[13] F. Englert, R. Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters 13: 321–323.
[14] P.W. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters 13: 508–509.
[15] G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, T.W.B. Kibble (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters 13:
585–587. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585.
[16] G.S. Guralnik (2009). "The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and
Gauge Particles". International Journal of Modern Physics A 24: 2601–2627. doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431. arXiv:0907.3466.
[17] A. Cho (23 January 2008). "Higgs Hiding in Plain Sight?" (http:/ / sciencenow. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 2008/ 123/ 3).
ScienceNOW. . Retrieved 2008-05-08.
[18] The normalization Q = I3 + Y is sometimes used instead.
[19] W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group) (2006). "Review of Particle Physics: Quarks" (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2006/ tables/ qxxx. pdf). Journal
of Physics G 33: 1. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001. .
[20] W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group) (2006). "Review of Particle Physics: Neutrino mass, mixing, and flavor change" (http:/ / pdg. lbl.
gov/ 2007/ reviews/ numixrpp. pdf). Journal of Physics G 33: 1. .
[21] http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2010/ PR08. 10E. html
References
Further reading
• R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern
Physics. Plume.
• B.A. Schumm (2004). Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hopkins
University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
• V. Stenger (2000). Timeless Reality. Prometheus Books. See chapters 9–12 in particular.
Introductory textbooks
• I. Aitchison, A. Hey (2003). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: A Practical Introduction.. Institute of Physics.
ISBN 9780585445502.
• W. Greiner, B. Müller (2000). Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions. Springer. ISBN 3-540-67672-4.
• G.D. Coughlan, J.E. Dodd, B.M. Gripaios (2006). The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for Scientists.
Cambridge University Press.
• D.J. Griffiths (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-60386-4.
• G.L. Kane (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.
Advanced textbooks
• T.P. Cheng, L.F. Li (2006). Gauge theory of elementary particle physics. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-851961-3. Highlights the gauge theory aspects of the Standard Model.
• J.F. Donoghue, E. Golowich, B.R. Holstein (1994). Dynamics of the Standard Model. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0521476522. Highlights dynamical and phenomenological aspects of the Standard Model.
• L. O'Raifeartaigh (1988). Group structure of gauge theories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34785-8.
Highlights group-theoretical aspects of the Standard Model.
Journal articles
• E.S. Abers, B.W. Lee (1973). "Gauge theories". Physics Reports 9: 1–141. doi:10.1016/0370-1573(73)90027-6.
Standard Model 69
• Y. Hayato et al. (1999). "Search for Proton Decay through p → νK+ in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector".
Physical Review Letters 83: 1529. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1529.
• S.F. Novaes (2000). "Standard Model: An Introduction". arΧiv:hep-ph/0001283 [hep-ph].
• D.P. Roy (1999). "Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions — A Progress Report.".
arΧiv:hep-ph/9912523 [hep-ph].
• F. Wilczek (2004). "The Universe Is A Strange Place". arΧiv:astro-ph/0401347 [astro-ph].
External links
• " Standard Model - explanation for beginners (http://cms.web.cern.ch/cms/Physics/StandardPackage/index.
html)" LHC
• " Standard Model may be found incomplete, (http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns9999404)"
New Scientist.
• " Observation of the Top Quark (http://www-cdf.fnal.gov/top_status/top.html)" at Fermilab.
• " The Standard Model Lagrangian. (http://cosmicvariance.com/2006/11/23/thanksgiving)" After electroweak
symmetry breaking, with no explicit Higgs boson.
• " Standard Model Lagrangian (http://nuclear.ucdavis.edu/~tgutierr/files/stmL1.html)" with explicit Higgs
terms. PDF, PostScript, and LaTeX versions.
• " The particle adventure. (http://particleadventure.org/)" Web tutorial.
• Nobes, Matthew (2002) "Introduction to the Standard Model of Particle Physics" on Kuro5hin: Part 1, (http://
www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/5/1/3712/31700) Part 2, (http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/5/14/
19363/8142) Part 3a, (http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/7/15/173318/784) Part 3b. (http://www.
kuro5hin.org/story/2002/8/21/195035/576)
Particle physics
Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the
elementary subatomic constituents of matter and
radiation, and the interactive relationship between
them. It is also called high energy physics, because
many elementary particles do not occur under normal
circumstances in nature due to energetic instability, but
can be created and detected during high energy
collisions with other particles, as is done in particle
accelerators.
Scientific research in this area has produced a long list

of particles.
Collision of 2 beams of gold atoms recorded by RHIC

Particle physics 70
Subatomic particles
Modern particle physics research is focused
on subatomic particles, including atomic
constituents such as electrons, protons, and
neutrons (protons and neutrons are actually
composite particles, made up of quarks),
particles produced by radioactive and
scattering processes, such as photons,
neutrinos, and muons, as well as a wide
range of exotic particles.
Strictly speaking, the term particle is a

misnomer because the dynamics of particle
physics are governed by quantum
mechanics. As such, they exhibit
wave-particle duality, displaying
particle-like behavior under certain
experimental conditions and wave-like
behavior in others (more technically they are
described by state vectors in a Hilbert space;
see quantum field theory). Following the
convention of particle physicists,
An image showing 6 quarks, 6 leptons and the interacting particles, according to
"elementary particles" refer to objects such the Standard Model
as electrons and photons, it is well known
that these "particles" display wave-like properties as well.
All the particles and their interactions observed to date can almost be described entirely by a quantum field theory
called the Standard Model. The Standard Model has 17 species of elementary particles: 12 fermions (24 if you count
antiparticles separately), 4 vector bosons (5 if you count antiparticles separately), and 1 scalar boson. These
elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of other species of
particles discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the experimental
tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is an incomplete description of nature, and
that a more fundamental theory awaits discovery. In recent years, measurements of neutrino mass have provided the
first experimental deviations from the Standard Model.
Particle physics has had a large impact on the philosophy of science. Some particle physicists adhere to
reductionism, a point of view that has been criticized and defended by philosophers and scientists. Part of the debate
is described below.[1] [2] [3] [4]
History
The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates to at least the 6th century BC. The philosophical
doctrine of atomism and the nature of elementary particles were studied by ancient Greek philosophers such as
Leucippus, Democritus and Epicurus; ancient Indian philosophers such as Kanada, Dignāga and Dharmakirti;
medieval scientists such as Alhazen, Avicenna and Algazel; and early modern European physicists such as Pierre
Gassendi, Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton. The particle theory of light was also proposed by Alhazen, Avicenna,
Gassendi and Newton. These early ideas were founded in abstract, philosophical reasoning rather than
experimentation and empirical observation.
Particle physics 71
In the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was
composed of a single, unique type of particle. Dalton and his contemporaries believed these were the fundamental
particles of nature and thus named them atoms, after the Greek word atomos, meaning "indivisible". However, near
the end of the century, physicists discovered that atoms were not, in fact, the fundamental particles of nature, but
conglomerates of even smaller particles. The early 20th century explorations of nuclear physics and quantum physics
culminated in proofs of nuclear fission in 1939 by Lise Meitner (based on experiments by Otto Hahn), and nuclear
fusion by Hans Bethe in the same year. These discoveries gave rise to an active industry of generating one atom from
another, even rendering possible (although not profitable) the transmutation of lead into gold. They also led to the
development of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a bewildering variety of particles were found in
scattering experiments. This was referred to as the "particle zoo". This term was deprecated after the formulation of
the Standard Model during the 1970s in which the large number of particles was explained as combinations of a
(relatively) small number of fundamental particles.
The Standard Model

The current state of the classification of elementary particles is the Standard Model. It describes the strong, weak,
and electromagnetic fundamental forces, using mediating gauge bosons. The species of gauge bosons are the gluons,
W− and W+ and Z bosons, and the photons. The model also contains 24 fundamental particles, which are the
constituents of matter. Finally, it predicts the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson, which is yet to
be discovered.
Experimental laboratories
In particle physics, the major international laboratories are:
• Brookhaven National Laboratory (Long Island, United States). Its main facility is the Relativistic Heavy Ion
Collider (RHIC) which collides heavy ions such as gold ions and polarized protons. It is the world's first heavy
ion collider, and the world's only polarized proton collider.
• Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (Novosibirsk, Russia)
• CERN, (Franco-Swiss border, near Geneva). Its main project is now the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which had
its first beam circulation on 10 September 2008, and is now the world's most energetic collider of protons. It will
also be the most energetic collider of heavy ions when it begins colliding lead ions in 2010. Earlier facilities
include the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP), which was stopped in 2001 and then dismantled to give way
for LHC; and the Super Proton Synchrotron, which is being reused as a pre-accelerator for LHC.
• DESY (Hamburg, Germany). Its main facility is the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage (HERA), which collides
electrons and positrons with protons.
• Fermilab, (Batavia, United States). Its main facility is the Tevatron, which collides protons and antiprotons and
was the highest energy particle collider in the world until the Large Hadron Collider surpassed it on 29 November
2009.
• KEK, (Tsukuba, Japan). It is the home of a number of experiments such as K2K, a neutrino oscillation experiment
and Belle, an experiment measuring the CP violation of B mesons.
• SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (Menlo Park, United States). Its main facility is PEP-II, which collides
electrons and positrons.
Many other particle accelerators exist.
The techniques required to do modern experimental particle physics are quite varied and complex, constituting a
sub-specialty nearly completely distinct from the theoretical side of the field. See Category:Experimental particle
physics for a partial list of the ideas required for such experiments.
Particle physics 72
Theory
Theoretical particle physics attempts to develop the models, theoretical framework, and mathematical tools to
understand current experiments and make predictions for future experiments. See also theoretical physics. There are
several major interrelated efforts in theoretical particle physics today. One important branch attempts to better
understand the standard model and its tests. By extracting the parameters of the Standard Model from experiments
with less uncertainty, this work probes the limits of the Standard Model and therefore expands our understanding of
nature's building blocks. These efforts are made challenging by the difficulty of calculating quantities in quantum
chromodynamics. Some theorists working in this area refer to themselves as phenomenologists and may use the
tools of quantum field theory and effective field theory. Others make use of lattice field theory and call themselves
lattice theorists.
Another major effort is in model building where model builders develop ideas for what physics may lie beyond the
Standard Model (at higher energies or smaller distances). This work is often motivated by the hierarchy problem and
is constrained by existing experimental data. It may involve work on supersymmetry, alternatives to the Higgs
mechanism, extra spatial dimensions (such as the Randall-Sundrum models), Preon theory, combinations of these, or
other ideas.
A third major effort in theoretical particle physics is string theory. String theorists attempt to construct a unified
description of quantum mechanics and general relativity by building a theory based on small strings, and branes
rather than particles. If the theory is successful, it may be considered a "Theory of Everything".
There are also other areas of work in theoretical particle physics ranging from particle cosmology to loop quantum
gravity.
This division of efforts in particle physics is reflected in the names of categories on the preprint archive [5]: hep-th
(theory), hep-ph (phenomenology), hep-ex (experiments), hep-lat (lattice gauge theory).
The future
Particle physicists internationally agree on the most important goals of particle physics research in the near and
intermediate future. The overarching goal, which is pursued in several distinct ways, is to find and understand what
physics may lie beyond the standard model. There are several powerful experimental reasons to expect new physics,
including dark matter and neutrino mass. There are also theoretical hints that this new physics should be found at
accessible energy scales. Most importantly, though, there may be unexpected and unpredicted surprises which will
give us the most opportunity to learn about nature.
Much of the efforts to find this new physics are focused on new collider experiments. A (relatively) near term goal is
the completion of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in 2008 which will continue the search for the Higgs boson,
supersymmetric particles, and other new physics. An intermediate goal is the construction of the International Linear
Collider (ILC) which will complement the LHC by allowing more precise measurements of the properties of newly
found particles. A decision for the technology of the ILC has been taken in August 2004, but the site has still to be
agreed upon.
Additionally, there are important non-collider experiments which also attempt to find and understand physics beyond
the Standard Model. One important non-collider effort is the determination of the neutrino masses since these masses
may arise from neutrinos mixing with very heavy particles. In addition, cosmological observations provide many
useful constraints on the dark matter, although it may be impossible to determine the exact nature of the dark matter
without the colliders. Finally, lower bounds on the very long lifetime of the proton put constraints on Grand
Unification Theories at energy scales much higher than collider experiments will be able to probe any time soon.
Particle physics 73
See also
• Atomic physics
• Beyond the Standard Model
• Elementary particle
• High pressure physics
• Interactions:
• Strong
• Weak
• Introduction to quantum mechanics
• List of accelerators in particle physics
• List of particles:
• Baryon
• Boson
• Fermion
• Hadron
• Lepton
• Meson
• Quark
• Magnetic Monopole
• Micro black hole
• Resonance (particle physics)
• Rochester conference
• Standard model (mathematical formulation)
• Stanford Physics Information Retrieval System
• Subatomic particle
• Timeline of particle physics
• Unparticle physics
References
[1] "Review of particle physics" (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ ). .
[2] "Particle Physics News and Resources" (http:/ / www. interactions. org/ ). .
[3] "CERN Courier - International Journal of High-Energy Physics" (http:/ / cerncourier. com). .
[4] "Particle physics in 60 seconds" (http:/ / www. symmetrymagazine. org/ cms/ ?pid=1000345). .
[5] http:/ / www. arxiv. org
Further reading
General readers
• Frank Close (2004) Particle Physics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280434-0.
• --------, Michael Marten, and Christine Sutton (2002) The Particle Odyssey: A Journey to the Heart of the Matter.
Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-850486-1.
• Ford, Kenneth W. (2005) The Quantum World. Harvard Univ. Press.
• Oerter, Robert (2006) The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern
Physics. Plume.
• Schumm, Bruce A. (2004) Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. John Hopkins Univ.
Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
Particle physics 74
Gentle texts
• Frank Close (2006) The New Cosmic Onion. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-58488-798-2.
• Coughlan, G. D., J. E. Dodd, and B. M. Gripaios (2006) The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for
Scientists, 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. An undergraduate text for those not majoring in physics.
Harder
A survey article:
• Robinson, Matthew B., Karen R. Bland, Gerald Cleaver, and J. R. Dittmann (2008) "A Simple Introduction to
Particle Physics" - Part 1, 135pp. (http://arxiv.org/abs/0810.3328v1) and Part 2, nnnpp. (http://arxiv.org/
abs/0908.1395v1) Baylor University Dept. of Physics.
Texts:
• Griffiths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-60386-4.
• Kane, Gordon L. (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.
• Perkins, Donald H. (1999). Introduction to High Energy Physics. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-62196-8.
• Povh, Bogdan (1995). Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts. Springer-Verlag.
ISBN 0-387-59439-6.
External links
• The Particle Adventure (http://particleadventure.org/) - educational project sponsored by the Particle Data
Group of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
• symmetry magazine (http://www.symmetrymagazine.org)
• Nobes, Matthew (2002) "Introduction to the Standard Model of Particle Physics" on Kuro5hin: Part 1, (http://
www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/5/1/3712/31700) Part 2, (http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/5/14/
19363/8142) Part 3a, (http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/7/15/173318/784) Part 3b. (http://www.
kuro5hin.org/story/2002/8/21/195035/576)
• CERN (http://public.web.cern.ch/public/) - European Organization for Nuclear Research
• Fermilab (http://www.fnal.gov/)
Superpartner 75
Superpartner
In particle physics, a superpartner (also sparticle) is a hypothetical elementary particle. Supersymmetry is one of
the synergistic bleeding-edge theories in current high-energy physics which predicts the existence of these "shadow"
particles.
The word superpartner is a portmanteau of the words supersymmetry and partner (sparticle is a portmanteau of
supersymmetry and particle).
Theoretical predictions
According to the supersymmetry theory, each fermion should have a partner boson, the fermion's superpartner and
each boson should have a partner fermion. When the more familiar leptons, photons, and quarks were produced in
the Big Bang, each one was accompanied by a matching sparticle: sleptons, photinos and squarks. This state of
affairs occurred at a time when the universe was undergoing a rapid phase change, and theorists believe this state of
affairs lasted only some ten trillionth of a ten trillionth of a nanosecond (10−35 seconds) before the particles we see
now "condensed" out and froze into space-time. Sparticles have not existed naturally since that time.
Exact unbroken supersymmetry would predict that a particle and its superpartners would have the same mass. No
superpartners of the Standard Model particles have yet been found. This may indicate that supersymmetry is
incorrect, or it may also be the result of the fact that supersymmetry is not an exact, unbroken symmetry of nature. If
a superpartner is found, its mass would determine the scale at which supersymmetry is broken.
For particles that are real scalars (such as an axion), there is a fermion superpartner as well as a second, real scalar
field. For axions, these particles are often referred to as axinos and saxions.
In extended supersymmetry there may be more than one superparticle for a given particle. For instance, with two
copies of supersymmetry in four dimensions, a photon would have two fermion superpartners and a scalar
superpartner.
In zero dimensions (often known as matrix mechanics), it is possible to have supersymmetry, but no superpartners.
However, this is the only situation where supersymmetry does not imply the existence of superpartners.
Recreating superpartners
If the supersymmetry theory is correct, it should be possible to recreate these particles in high-energy particle
accelerators. Doing so will not be an easy task; these particles may have masses up to a thousand times greater than
their corresponding "real" particles.
Until recently, colliders did not have the power to create these supermassive particles, but the newly built Large
Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland and France will be able to achieve collisions in the 14 TeV
(tera-electron-volt) range, which is more than adequate to determine if these superpartner particles exist.
Superpartner 76
See also
• Chargino
• Gluino
• Gravitino as a superpartner of the hypothetical graviton
• Neutralino
• Sfermion
External links
• Argonne National Laboratory [1]
• Large Hadron Collider [2]
• CERN homepage [3]
References
[1] http:/ / www. anl. gov/ OPA/ Frontiers2000/ b5excell. html
[2] https:/ / edms. cern. ch/ cedar/ plsql/ cedarw. site_home
[3] http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/
Supersymmetry
In particle physics, supersymmetry (often abbreviated SUSY) is a symmetry that relates elementary particles of one
spin to other particles that differ by half a unit of spin and are known as superpartners. In a theory with unbroken
supersymmetry, for every type of boson there exists a corresponding type of fermion with the same mass and internal
quantum numbers, and vice-versa.
So far, there is only indirect evidence for the existence of supersymmetry.[1] Since the superpartners of the Standard
Model particles have not been observed, supersymmetry, if it exists, must be a broken symmetry, allowing the
superparticles to be heavier than the corresponding Standard Model particles.
If supersymmetry exists close to the TeV energy scale, it allows for a solution of the hierarchy problem of the
Standard Model, i.e., the fact that the Higgs boson mass is subject to quantum corrections which — barring
extremely fine-tuned cancellations among independent contributions — would make it so large as to undermine the
internal consistency of the theory. In supersymmetric theories, on the other hand, the contributions to the quantum
corrections coming from Standard Model particles are naturally canceled by the contributions of the corresponding
superpartners. Other attractive features of TeV-scale supersymmetry are the fact that it allows for the high-energy
unification of the weak interactions, the strong interactions and electromagnetism, and the fact that it provides a
candidate for Dark Matter and a natural mechanism for electroweak symmetry breaking.
Another advantage of supersymmetry is that supersymmetric quantum field theory can sometimes be solved.
Supersymmetry is also a feature of most versions of string theory, though it can exist in nature even if string theory
is incorrect.
The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model is one of the best studied candidates for physics beyond the Standard
Model. Theories of gravity that are also invariant under supersymmetry are known as supergravity theories.
Supersymmetry 77
History
A supersymmetry relating mesons and baryons was first proposed, in the context of hadronic physics, by Hironari
Miyazawa in 1966, but his work was ignored at the time.[2] [3] [4] [5] In the early 1970s, J. L. Gervais and B. Sakita
(in 1971), Yu. A. Golfand and E.P. Likhtman (also in 1971), D.V. Volkov and V.P. Akulov (in 1972) and J. Wess
and B. Zumino (in 1974) independently rediscovered supersymmetry, a radically new type of symmetry of spacetime
and fundamental fields, which establishes a relationship between elementary particles of different quantum nature,
bosons and fermions, and unifies spacetime and internal symmetries of the microscopic world. Supersymmetry first
arose in the context of an early version of string theory by Pierre Ramond, John H. Schwarz and Andre Neveu, but
the mathematical structure of supersymmetry has subsequently been applied successfully to other areas of physics;
firstly by Wess, Zumino, and Abdus Salam and their fellow researchers to particle physics, and later to a variety of
fields, ranging from quantum mechanics to statistical physics. It remains a vital part of many proposed theories of
physics.
The first realistic supersymmetric version of the Standard Model was proposed in 1981 by Howard Georgi and Savas
Dimopoulos and is called the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model or MSSM for short. It was proposed to solve
the hierarchy problem and predicts superpartners with masses between 100 GeV and 1 TeV. As of 2009 there is no
irrefutable experimental evidence that supersymmetry is a symmetry of nature. In 2010 the Large Hadron Collider at
CERN is scheduled to produce the world's highest energy collisions and offers the best chance at discovering
superparticles for the foreseeable future. Recently prediction markets like intrade offered scientific contracts that
give estimates for that probability.
Applications
Extension of possible symmetry groups

One reason that physicists explored supersymmetry is because it offers an extension to the more familiar symmetries
of quantum field theory. These symmetries are grouped into the Poincaré group and internal symmetries and the
Coleman–Mandula theorem showed that under certain assumptions, the symmetries of the S-matrix must be a direct
product of the Poincaré group with a compact internal symmetry group or if there is no mass gap, the conformal
group with a compact internal symmetry group. In 1971 Golfand and Likhtman were the first to show that the
Poincaré algebra can be extended through introduction of four anticommuting spinor generators (in four
dimensions), which later became known as supercharges. In 1975 the Haag-Lopuszanski-Sohnius theorem analyzed
all possible superalgebras in the general form, including those with an extended number of the supergenerators and
central charges. This extended super-Poincaré algebra paved the way for obtaining a very large and important class
of supersymmetric field theories.
The supersymmetry algebra

Traditional symmetries in physics are generated by objects that transform under the tensor representations of the
Poincaré group and internal symmetries. Supersymmetries, on the other hand, are generated by objects that transform
under the spinor representations. According to the spin-statistics theorem, bosonic fields commute while fermionic
fields anticommute. Combining the two kinds of fields into a single algebra requires the introduction of a Z2-grading
under which the bosons are the even elements and the fermions are the odd elements. Such an algebra is called a Lie
superalgebra.
The simplest supersymmetric extension of the Poincaré algebra, expressed in terms of two Weyl spinors, has the
following anti-commutation relation:
Supersymmetry 78
and all other anti-commutation relations between the Qs and commutation relations between the Qs and Ps vanish. In
the above expression are the generators of translation and are the Pauli matrices.
There are representations of a Lie superalgebra that are analogous to representations of a Lie algebra. Each Lie
algebra has an associated Lie group and a Lie superalgebra can sometimes be extended into representations of a Lie
supergroup.
The Supersymmetric Standard Model

Incorporating supersymmetry into the Standard Model requires doubling the number of particles since there is no
way that any of the particles in the Standard Model can be superpartners of each other. With the addition of new
particles, there are many possible new interactions. The simplest possible supersymmetric model consistent with the
Standard Model is the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) which can include the necessary
additional new particles that are able to be superpartners of those in the Standard Model.
One of the main motivations for SUSY
comes from the quadratically divergent
contributions to the Higgs mass squared.
The quantum mechanical interactions of the
Higgs boson causes a large renormalization
of the Higgs mass and unless there is an
accidental cancellation, the natural size of
the Higgs mass is the highest scale possible.
This problem is known as the hierarchy
problem. Supersymmetry reduces the size of
the quantum corrections by having
automatic cancellations between fermionic
and bosonic Higgs interactions. If
supersymmetry is restored at the weak scale,
then the Higgs mass is related to
Cancellation of the Higgs boson quadratic mass renormalization between fermionic
supersymmetry breaking which can be top quark loop and scalar stop squark tadpole Feynman diagrams in a
induced from small non-perturbative effects supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model
explaining the vastly different scales in the
weak interactions and gravitational interactions.
In many supersymmetric Standard Models there is a heavy stable particle (such as neutralino) which could serve as a
Weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter candidate. The existence of a supersymmetric dark matter
candidate is closely tied to R-parity.
The standard paradigm for incorporating supersymmetry into a realistic theory is to have the underlying dynamics of
the theory be supersymmetric, but the ground state of the theory does not respect the symmetry and supersymmetry
is broken spontaneously. The supersymmetry break can not be done permanently by the particles of the MSSM as
they currently appear. This means that there is a new sector of the theory that is responsible for the breaking. The
only constraint on this new sector is that it must break supersymmetry permanently and must give superparticles TeV
scale masses. There are many models that can do this and most of their details do not currently matter. In order to
parameterize the relevant features of supersymmetry breaking, arbitrary soft SUSY breaking terms are added to the
theory which temporarily break SUSY explicitly but could never arise from a complete theory of supersymmetry
breaking.
Supersymmetry 79
Gauge Coupling Unification

One piece of evidence for supersymmetry existing is gauge coupling unification. The renormalization group
evolution of the three gauge coupling constants of the Standard Model is somewhat sensitive to the present particle
content of the theory. These coupling constants do not quite meet together at a common energy scale if we run the
renormalization group using the Standard Model.[1] With the addition of minimal SUSY joint convergence of the
coupling constants is projected at approximately 1016 GeV.[1]
Supersymmetric quantum mechanics

Supersymmetric quantum mechanics adds the SUSY superalgebra to quantum mechanics as opposed to quantum
field theory. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics often comes up when studying the dynamics of supersymmetric
solitons and due to the simplified nature of having fields only functions of time (rather than space-time), a great deal
of progress has been made in this subject and is now studied in its own right.
SUSY quantum mechanics involves pairs of Hamiltonians which share a particular mathematical relationship, which
are called partner Hamiltonians. (The potential energy terms which occur in the Hamiltonians are then called
partner potentials.) An introductory theorem shows that for every eigenstate of one Hamiltonian, its partner
Hamiltonian has a corresponding eigenstate with the same energy. This fact can be exploited to deduce many
properties of the eigenstate spectrum. It is analogous to the original description of SUSY, which referred to bosons
and fermions. We can imagine a "bosonic Hamiltonian", whose eigenstates are the various bosons of our theory. The
SUSY partner of this Hamiltonian would be "fermionic", and its eigenstates would be the theory's fermions. Each
boson would have a fermionic partner of equal energy.
SUSY concepts have provided useful extensions to the WKB approximation. In addition, SUSY has been applied to
non-quantum statistical mechanics through the Fokker-Planck equation.
Mathematics
SUSY is also sometimes studied mathematically for its intrinsic properties. This is because it describes complex
fields satisfying a property known as holomorphy, which allows holomorphic quantities to be exactly computed.
This makes supersymmetric models useful toy models of more realistic theories. A prime example of this has been
the demonstration of S-duality in four-dimensional gauge theories that interchanges particles and monopoles.
General supersymmetry
Supersymmetry appears in many different contexts in theoretical physics that are closely related. It is possible to
have multiple supersymmetries and also have supersymmetric extra dimensions.
Extended supersymmetry
It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry transformation. Theories with more than one
supersymmetry transformation are known as extended supersymmetric theories. The more supersymmetry a theory
has, the more constrained the field content and interactions are. Typically the number of copies of a supersymmetry
is a power of 2, i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8. In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the minimal number
of supersymmetry generators is four in four dimensions and having eight copies of supersymmetry means that there
are 32 supersymmetry generators.
The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possible is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry
generators automatically have massless fields with spin greater than 2. It is not known how to make massless fields
with spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of supersymmetry generators considered is 32. This
corresponds to an N = 8 supersymmetry theory. Theories with 32 supersymmetries automatically have a graviton.
Supersymmetry 80
[6]
In four dimensions there are the following theories, with the corresponding multiplets (CPT adds a copy,
whenever they are not invariant under such symmetry)
• N=1
Chiral multiplet: (0,1⁄2) Vector multiplet: (1⁄2,1) Gravitino multiplet: (1,3⁄2) Graviton multiplet: (3⁄2,2)
• N=2
hypermultiplet: (-1⁄2,02,1⁄2) vector multiplet: (0,1⁄22,1) supergravity multiplet: (1,3⁄22,2)
• N=4
Vector multiplet: (-1,-1⁄24,06,1⁄24,1) Supergravity multiplet: (0,1⁄24,16,3⁄24,2)
• N=8
Supergravity multiplet: (-2,-3⁄28,-128,-1⁄256,070,1⁄256,128,3⁄28,2)
Supersymmetry in alternate numbers of dimensions

It is possible to have supersymmetry in dimensions other than four. Because the properties of spinors change
drastically between different dimensions, each dimension has its characteristic. In d dimensions, the size of spinors is
roughly 2d/2 or 2(d − 1)/2. Since the maximum number of supersymmetries is 32, the greatest number of dimensions in
which a supersymmetric theory can exist is eleven.
Supersymmetry as a quantum group

Supersymmetry can be reinterpreted in the language of noncommutative geometry and quantum groups. In
particular, it involves a mild form of noncommutativity, namely supercommutativity. See the main article for more
details.
Supersymmetry in quantum gravity

Supersymmetry is part of a larger enterprise of theoretical physics to unify everything we know about the physical
world into a single fundamental framework of physical laws, known as the quest for a Theory of Everything (TOE).
A significant part of this larger enterprise is the quest for a theory of quantum gravity, which would unify the
classical theory of general relativity and the Standard Model, which explains the other three basic forces in physics
(electromagnetism, the strong interaction, and the weak interaction), and provides a palette of fundamental particles
upon which all four forces act. Two of the most active approaches to forming a theory of quantum gravity are string
theory and loop quantum gravity (LQG), although in theory, supersymmetry could be a component of other
theoretical approaches as well.
For string theory to be consistent, supersymmetry appears to be required at some level (although it may be a strongly
broken symmetry). In particle theory, supersymmetry is recognized as a way to stabilize the hierarchy between the
unification scale and the electroweak scale (or the Higgs boson mass), and can also provide a natural dark matter
candidate. String theory also requires extra spatial dimensions which have to be compactified as in Kaluza-Klein
theory.
Loop quantum gravity (LQG), in its current formulation, predicts no additional spatial dimensions, nor anything else
about particle physics. These theories can be formulated in three spatial dimensions and one dimension of time,
although in some LQG theories dimensionality is an emergent property of the theory, rather than a fundamental
assumption of the theory. Also, LQG is a theory of quantum gravity which does not require supersymmetry. Lee
Smolin, one of the originators of LQG, has proposed that a loop quantum gravity theory incorporating either
supersymmetry or extra dimensions, or both, be called "loop quantum gravity II".
If experimental evidence confirms supersymmetry in the form of supersymmetric particles such as the neutralino that
is often believed to be the lightest superpartner, some people believe this would be a major boost to string theory.
Supersymmetry 81
Since supersymmetry is a required component of string theory, any discovered supersymmetry would be consistent
with string theory. If the Large Hadron Collider and other major particle physics experiments fail to detect
supersymmetric partners or evidence of extra dimensions, many versions of string theory which had predicted certain
low mass superpartners to existing particles may need to be significantly revised. The failure of experiments to
discover either supersymmetric partners or extra spatial dimensions, as of 2009, has encouraged loop quantum
gravity researchers.
See also
• Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry (book)
• Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model
• Quantum group
• Supergravity
• Supergeometry
• Supergroup
• Superspace
• Supercharge
References
[1] Gordon L. Kane, The Dawn of Physics Beyond the Standard Model, Scientific American, June 2003, page 60 and The frontiers of physics,
special edition, Vol 15, #3, page 8 "Indirect evidence for supersymmetry comes from the extrapolation of interactions to high energies."
[2] H. Miyazawa (1966). "Baryon Number Changing Currents". Prog. Theor. Phys. 36 (6): 1266–1276. doi:10.1143/PTP.36.1266.
[3] H. Miyazawa (1968). "Spinor Currents and Symmetries of Baryons and Mesons". Phys. Rev. 170 (5): 1586–1590.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.170.1586.
[4] Michio Kaku, Quantum Field Theory, ISBN 0-19-509158-2, pg 663.
[5] Peter Freund, Introduction to Supersymmetry, ISBN 0-521-35675-X, pages 26-27, 138.
[6] Polchinski,J. String theory. Vol. 2: Superstring theory and beyond, Appendix B
Further reading
• Miyazawa Supersymmetry (http://nucl.phys.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/kimiko/fm50/catto.pdf) by Sultan Catto, 2008
• A Supersymmetry Primer (http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ph/9709356) by S. Martin, 1999
• Introduction to Supersymmetry (http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-th/9612114) By Joseph D. Lykken, 1996
• An Introduction to Supersymmetry (http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ph/9611409) By Manuel Drees, 1996
• Introduction to Supersymmetry (http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-th/0101055) By Adel Bilal, 2001
• An Introduction to Global Supersymmetry (http://www.physics.uc.edu/~argyres/661/susy2001.pdf) by
Philip Arygres, 2001
• Weak Scale Supersymmetry (http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521857864) by
Howard Baer and Xerxes Tata, 2006.
• Cooper, F., A. Khare and U. Sukhatme. "Supersymmetry in Quantum Mechanics." Phys. Rep. 251 (1995) 267-85
(arXiv:hep-th/9405029).
• Junker, G. Supersymmetric Methods in Quantum and Statistical Physics, Springer-Verlag (1996).
• Gordon L. Kane.Supersymmetry: Unveiling the Ultimate Laws of Nature Basic Books, New York (2001). ISBN
0-7382-0489-7.
• Gordon L. Kane and Shifman, M., eds. The Supersymmetric World: The Beginnings of the Theory, World
Scientific, Singapore (2000). ISBN 981-02-4522-X.
• D.V. Volkov, V.P. Akulov, Pisma Zh.Eksp.Teor.Fiz. 16 (1972) 621; Phys.Lett. B46 (1973) 109.
• V.P. Akulov, D.V. Volkov, Teor.Mat.Fiz. 18 (1974) 39.
Supersymmetry 82
• Weinberg, Steven, The Quantum Theory of Fields, Volume 3: Supersymmetry, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, (1999). ISBN 0-521-66000-9.
• Wess, Julius, and Jonathan Bagger, Supersymmetry and Supergravity, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
(1992). ISBN 0-691-02530-4.
• Bennett GW, et al.; Muon (g−2) Collaboration (2004). "Measurement of the negative muon anomalous magnetic
moment to 0.7 ppm". Physical Review Letters 92 (16): 161802. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.161802.
PMID 15169217.
• Brookhaven National Laboratory (Jan. 8, 2004). New g−2 measurement deviates further from Standard Model
(http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/2004/bnlpr010804.htm). Press Release.
• Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Sept 25, 2006). Fermilab's CDF scientists have discovered the
quick-change behavior of the B-sub-s meson. (http://www.fnal.gov/pub/presspass/press_releases/
CDF_meson.html) Press Release.
External links
• "Particle wobble shakes up supersymmetry" (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/714), Cosmos magazine,
September 2006
Higgs boson 83
Higgs boson
Higgs boson
A simulated event, featuring the appearance of the Higgs boson
Composition: Elementary particle
Particle statistics: Bosonic
Status: Hypothetical
Theorized: F. Englert, R. Brout, P. Higgs, G. S. Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and T. W. B. Kibble 1964
Mass: between 115 and 185 GeV/c2 (predicted)
Spin: 0
The Higgs boson is a hypothetical massive scalar elementary particle predicted to exist by the Standard Model of
particle physics. At present there are no known elementary scalar bosons (spin-0 particles) in nature, although many
composite spin-0 particles are known. The existence of the particle is postulated as a means of resolving
inconsistencies in current theoretical physics, and attempts are being made to confirm the existence of the particle by
experimentation, using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN and the Tevatron at Fermilab. Other theories
exist that do not anticipate the Higgs boson, described elsewhere as the Higgsless model.
The Higgs boson is the only Standard Model particle that has not been observed and is thought to be the mediator of
mass. Experimental detection of the Higgs boson would help explain the origin of mass in the universe. The Higgs
boson would explain the difference between the massless photon, which mediates electromagnetism, and the massive
W and Z bosons, which mediate the weak force. If the Higgs boson exists, it is an integral and pervasive component
of the material world.
Arguments based on the Standard Model suggest the mass of the Higgs is below 1.4 TeV. Therefore the Large
Hadron Collider[1] is expected to provide experimental evidence of the existence or non-existence of the Higgs
boson. Experiments at Fermilab also continue previous attempts at detection, albeit hindered by the lower energy of
the Tevatron accelerator, although it theoretically has the necessary energy to produce the Higgs boson. It has been
reported that Fermilab physicists suggest that the odds of the Tevatron detecting the Higgs boson, if indeed it exists,
are between 50% and 96%, depending on its mass.[2]
Higgs boson 84
Origin of the theory

The Higgs mechanism (or
[3]
"Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble" ) which gives mass
to vector bosons, was theorized in 1964 by François Englert and
Robert Brout ("boson scalaire");[4] in October of the same year by
Peter Higgs,[5] working from the ideas of Philip Anderson; and
independently by Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble,[6]
who worked out the results by the spring of 1963.[7]
The three papers written on this discovery by Guralnik, Hagen, Kibble,

2010 APS J.J. Sakurai Prize Winners
Higgs, Brout, and Englert were each recognized as milestone papers
during Physical Review Letters 50th anniversary celebration.[8] While
each of these famous papers took similar approaches, the contributions and differences between the 1964 PRL
Symmetry Breaking papers is noteworthy. These six physicists were also awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for
Theoretical Particle Physics for this work.[9]
Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam were the first to apply the Higgs mechanism to the electroweak symmetry
breaking. The electroweak theory predicts a neutral particle whose mass is not far from that of the W and Z bosons.
Theoretical overview
The Higgs boson particle is one quantum component of the
theoretical Higgs field. In empty space, the Higgs field has an
amplitude different from zero; i.e., a non-zero vacuum expectation
value. The existence of this non-zero vacuum expectation plays a
fundamental role: it gives mass to every elementary particle that
couples to the Higgs field, including the Higgs boson itself. In
particular, the acquisition of a non-zero vacuum expectation value A one-loop Feynman diagram of the first-order
spontaneously breaks electroweak gauge symmetry, which correction to the Higgs mass. The Higgs boson couples
strongly to the top quark so it may decay into top
scientists often refer to as the Higgs mechanism. This is the
anti-top quark pairs.
simplest mechanism capable of giving mass to the gauge bosons
while remaining compatible with gauge theories. In essence, this
field is analogous to a pool of molasses that "sticks" to the otherwise massless fundamental particles that travel
through the field, converting them into particles with mass that form, for example, the components of atoms. Prof.
David J. Miller of University College London provided a simple explanation of the Higgs Boson, for which he won
an award.[10]
In the Standard Model, the Higgs field consists of two neutral and two charged component fields. Both of the
charged components and one of the neutral fields are Goldstone bosons, which act as the longitudinal
third-polarization components of the massive W+, W–, and Z bosons. The quantum of the remaining neutral
component corresponds to the massive Higgs boson. Since the Higgs field is a scalar field, the Higgs boson has no
spin, hence no intrinsic angular momentum. The Higgs boson is also its own antiparticle and is CP-even.
The Standard Model does not predict the mass of the Higgs boson. If that mass is between 115 and 180 GeV/c2, then
the Standard Model can be valid at energy scales all the way up to the Planck scale (1016 TeV). Many theorists
expect new physics beyond the Standard Model to emerge at the TeV-scale, based on unsatisfactory properties of the
Standard Model. The highest possible mass scale allowed for the Higgs boson (or some other electroweak symmetry
breaking mechanism) is 1.4 TeV; beyond this point, the Standard Model becomes inconsistent without such a
mechanism, because unitarity is violated in certain scattering processes. Many models of supersymmetry predict that
Higgs boson 85
the lightest Higgs boson (of several) will have a mass only slightly above the current experimental limits, at around
120 GeV or less.
Supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model (so called SUSY) predict the existence of whole families of Higgs
bosons, as opposed to a single Higgs particle of the Standard Model. Among the SUSY models, in the Minimal
Supersymmetric extension (MSSM) the Higgs mechanism yields the smallest number of Higgs bosons: there are two
Higgs doublets, leading to the existence of a quintet of scalar particles: two CP-even neutral Higgs bosons h and H, a
CP-odd neutral Higgs boson A, and two charged Higgs particles H±.
There are over a hundred theoretical Higgs-mass predictions.[11]
Experimental search
As of August 2010, the Higgs boson
has yet to be confirmed
experimentally,[12] despite large efforts
invested in accelerator experiments at
CERN and Fermilab.
Prior to the year 2000, the data Status as of August 2010, to 95% confidence interval
gathered at the LEP collider at CERN
allowed an experimental lower bound
to be set for the mass of the Standard
Model Higgs boson of 114.4 GeV/c2 at
95% confidence level. The same
experiment has produced a small
number of events that could be
interpreted as resulting from Higgs
bosons with mass just above said
cutoff—around 115 GeV—but the
number of events was insufficient to
draw definite conclusions.[13] The LEP
was shut down in 2000 due to A Feynman diagram of one way the Higgs boson may
construction of its successor, the Large be produced at the LHC. Here, two gluons decay into a
top/anti-top pair, which then combine to make a neutral
Hadron Collider which is expected to
Higgs.
be able to confirm or reject the
existence of the Higgs boson. Full
operational mode was delayed until mid-November 2009, because of a serious fault discovered with a number of
magnets during the calibration and startup phase.[14] [15]
At the Fermilab Tevatron, there are ongoing experiments searching for the Higgs boson. As of July 2010, combined
data from CDF and DØ experiments at the Tevatron were
Higgs boson 86
sufficient to exclude the Higgs boson in the range between

158 GeV/c2 and 175 GeV/c2 at the 95% confidence level.[16] [17]
Data collection and analysis in search of Higgs are intensifying
since March 30, 2010 when the LHC began operating at 3.5 Tev
and is rapidly approaching in its design range of 7 Tev, well above
that at which detection should occur.[18]
A Feynman diagram of another way the Higgs boson

may be produced at the LHC. Here, two quarks each
emit a W or Z boson, which combine to make a neutral
Higgs.
It may be possible to estimate the mass of the Higgs boson indirectly. In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson has a
number of indirect effects; most notably, Higgs loops result in tiny corrections to masses of W and Z bosons.
Precision measurements of electroweak parameters, such as the Fermi constant and masses of W/Z bosons, can be
used to constrain the mass of the Higgs. As of 2006, measurements of electroweak observables allowed the exclusion
of a Standard Model Higgs boson having a mass greater than 285 GeV/c2 at 95% CL, and estimated its mass to be
129 GeV/c2 (the central value corresponds to approximately 138 proton masses).[19] As of August 2009, the
Standard Model Higgs boson is excluded by electroweak measurements above 186 GeV at 95% CL. However, it
should be noted that these indirect constraints make the assumption that the Standard Model is correct. One may still
discover a Higgs boson above 186 GeV if it is accompanied by other particles between Standard Model and GUT
scales.
Some have argued that there already exists potential evidence,[20] [21] [22] but to date no such evidence has convinced
the physics community.
In a 2009 preprint,[23] it has been suggested (and reported under headlines such as Higgs could reveal itself in
Dark-Matter collisions[24] ) that the Higgs Boson might not only interact with the above-mentioned particles of the
Standard model of particle physics, but also with the mysterious WIMPs ("weakly interacting massive particles") of
the Dark matter, playing a most-important role in recent astrophysics. In this case, it is natural to augment the above
Feynman diagrams by terms representing such an interaction.
In principle, a relation between the Higgs particle and the Dark matter would be "not unexpected", since, (i), the
Higgs field does not directly couple to the quanta of light (i.e. the photons), while at the same time, (ii), it generates
mass. However, "dark matter" is a metonymy for the discrepancy between the apparent observed mass of the
universe and that given by the standard model and is not a component of any known theory of physics so the
usefulness of this conjecture is limited.
Barring discovery during current intensive efforts, it will be sometime after the end of the current physics fill at the
LHC in 2011 and some further months or years of analysis of the collected data before scientists can confidently
believe there is no such thing as a Higgs boson.
Higgs boson 87
Alternatives for electroweak symmetry breaking

In the years since the Higgs boson was proposed, several alternatives to the Higgs mechanism have been proposed.
All of the alternative mechanisms use strongly interacting dynamics to produce a vacuum expectation value that
breaks electroweak symmetry. A partial list of these alternative mechanisms are
• Technicolor[25] is a class of models that attempts to mimic the dynamics of the strong force as a way of breaking
electroweak symmetry.
• Extra dimensional Higgsless models where the role of the Higgs field is played by the fifth component of the
gauge field.[26]
• Abbott-Farhi models of composite W and Z vector bosons.[27]
• Top quark condensate.
• Braid model of Standard Model particles by Sundance Bilson-Thompson, compatible with loop quantum gravity
and similar theories.[28]
"The God particle"

The Higgs boson is often referred to as "the God particle" by the media,[29] after the title of Leon Lederman's book,
The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?.[30] While use of this term may have
contributed to increased media interest in particle physics and the Large Hadron Collider,[30] many scientists dislike
it.[29] In a renaming competition, a jury of physicists chose the name "the champagne bottle boson" as the best
popular name.[31]
See also
• List of particles
• Higgs mechanism
• Overview and Differences of 1964 PRL Symmetry Breaking papers
• Quantum triviality
• Yukawa interaction
• ZZ diboson
• Higgs boson in fiction
Notes
[1] "Huge $10 billion collider resumes hunt for 'God particle' - CNN.com" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2009/ TECH/ 11/ 11/ lhc. large. hadron.
collider. beam/ index. html). CNN. 2009-11-11. . Retrieved 2010-05-04.
[2] "Race for 'God particle' heats up" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7893689. stm). BBC News. 2009-02-17. . Retrieved
2010-01-05.
[3] Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble Mechanism on Scholarpedia (http:/ / www. scholarpedia. org/ article/
Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble_mechanism)
[4] Englert, François; Brout, Robert (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters 13: 321–23.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321
[5] Higgs, Peter (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters 13: 508–509.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508
[6] Guralnik, Gerald; Hagen, C. R.; Kibble, T. W. B. (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters 13:
585–587. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585
[7] Guralnik, Gerald S. (2009). "The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
and Gauge Particles". International Journal of Modern Physics A24: 2601–2627. doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431. arXiv:0907.3466
[8] Physical Review Letters - 50th Anniversary Milestone Papers (http:/ / prl. aps. org/ 50years/ milestones#1964). Physical Review Letters.
[9] "American Physical Society - J. J. Sakurai Prize Winners" (http:/ / www. aps. org/ units/ dpf/ awards/ sakurai. cfm).
[10] A quasi-political Explanation of the Higgs Boson; for Mr Waldegrave, UK Science Minister 1993 (http:/ / www. hep. ucl. ac. uk/ ~djm/
higgsa. html)
[11] T. Schücker (2007). "Higgs-mass predictions". arΧiv:0708.3344 [hep-ph].
Higgs boson 88
[12] Scientists present first “bread-and-butter” results from LHC collisions (http:/ / www. symmetrymagazine. org/ breaking/ 2010/ 06/ 08/
scientists-present-first-bread-and-butter-results-from-lhc-collisions/ ) Symmetry Breaking, 8 June 2010
[13] W.-M. Yao et al. (2006). Searches for Higgs Bosons "Review of Particle Physics" (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2006/ reviews/ higgs_s055. pdf).
Journal of Physics G 33: 1. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001. Searches for Higgs Bosons.
[14] "CERN management confirms new LHC restart schedule" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2009/ PR02. 09E.
html). CERN Press Office. 9 February 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-10.
[15] "CERN reports on progress towards LHC restart" (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2009/ PR09. 09E. html).
CERN Press Office. 19 June 2009. . Retrieved 2009-07-21.
[16] T. Aaltonen et al. (CDF and DØ Collaborations) (2010). "Combination of Tevatron searches for the standard model Higgs boson in the
W+W− decay mode". arΧiv:1001.4162 [hep-ex].
[17] "Fermilab experiments narrow allowed mass range for Higgs boson" (http:/ / www. fnal. gov/ pub/ presspass/ press_releases/
Higgs-mass-constraints-20100726-images. html). Fermilab. 26 July 2010. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.
[18] CERN Bulletin Issue No. 18-20/2010 - Monday 3 May 2010 (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ journal/ CERNBulletin/ 2010/ 18/ News Articles/
1262593?ln=en)
[19] " H0 Indirect Mass Limits from Electroweak Analysis. (http:/ / pdglive. lbl. gov/ popupblockdata. brl?nodein=S055HEW& inscript=Y&
fsizein=1)"
[20] Potential Higgs Boson discovery: " Higgs Boson: Glimpses of the God particle. (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ channel/ fundamentals/
mg19325934. 600-higgs-boson-glimpses-of-the-god-particle. html)" New Scientist, 02 March 2007
[21] " 'God particle' may have been seen, (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 3546973. stm)" BBC news, 10 March 2004.
[22] US experiment hints at 'multiple God particles' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ science_and_environment/ 10313875. stm) BBC News 14
June 2010
[23] arXiv:0912.0004 Higgs in Space! (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0912. 0004)
[24] Physics World, (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ news/ 41218), a website supported by the British Institute of Physics
[25] S. Dimopoulos and Leonard Susskind (1979). "Mass Without Scalars". Nuclear Physics B 155: 237–252.
doi:10.1016/0550-3213(79)90364-X.
[26] C. Csaki and C. Grojean and L. Pilo and J. Terning (2004). "Towards a realistic model of Higgsless electroweak symmetry breaking".
Physical Review Letters 92: 101802. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.101802. arXiv:hep-ph/0308038.
[27] L. F. Abbott and E. Farhi (1981). "Are the Weak Interactions Strong?". Physics Letters B 101: 69. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(81)90492-5.
[28] Bilson-Thompson, Sundance O.; Markopoulou, Fotini; Smolin, Lee (2007). "Quantum gravity and the standard model". Class. Quantum
Grav. 24 (16): 3975–3993. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/24/16/002. arXiv:hep-th/0603022.
[29] Ian Sample (29 May 2009). "Anything but the God particle" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ blog/ 2009/ may/ 29/
why-call-it-the-god-particle-higgs-boson-cern-lhc). London: The Guardian. . Retrieved 2009-06-24.
[30] Ian Sample (3 March 2009). "Father of the God particle: Portrait of Peter Higgs unveiled" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ blog/
2009/ mar/ 02/ god-particle-peter-higgs-portrait-lhc). London: The Guardian. . Retrieved 2009-06-24.
[31] Sample, Ian (2009-06-12). "Higgs competition: Crack open the bubbly, the God particle is dead" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/
blog/ 2009/ jun/ 05/ cern-lhc-god-particle-higgs-boson). The Guardian (London). . Retrieved 2010-05-04.
References
• " The LEP Electroweak Working Group. (http://lepewwg.web.cern.ch/LEPEWWG/)"
• " Particle Data Group: Review of searches for Higgs bosons. (http://pdg.lbl.gov/2005/reviews/
contents_sports.html#hyppartetc)"
• Leon Lederman and Dick Teresi, 1993. The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?
Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN 0-395-55849-2, paperback ISBN 0-385-31211-3.
• " Fermilab Results Change Estimated Mass Of Postulated Higgs boson. (http://www.spacedaily.com/news/
physics-04s.html)"
• " Higgs boson on the horizon. (http://physicsweb.org/article/news/4/9/2/1)"
• " Signs of mass-giving particle get stronger. (http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20001104/fob6.asp)"
• " Higgs boson: One page explanation. (http://www.phy.uct.ac.za/courses/phy400w/particle/higgs.htm)" In
1993, the UK Science Minister, William Waldegrave, challenged physicists to produce a one page answer to the
question "What is the Higgs boson, and why do we want to find it?"
• " Higgs mechanism/boson simple explanation via cartoon. (http://www.pparc.ac.uk/ps/bbs/bbs_mass_hm.
asp)"
• " Higgs physics at the LHC. (http://www.quark.lu.se/~atlas/thesis/egede/thesis-node6.html)"
• " Quark experiment predicts heavier Higgs. (http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99995095)"
Higgs boson 89
• Martin, Richard, " The God Particle and the Grid. (http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.04/grid_pr.
html)"
• " The Higgs boson (http://www.exploratorium.edu/origins/cern/ideas/higgs.html)" by the CERN
exploratorium.
• " Higgs Boson - the search for the God particle. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/
inourtime_20041118.shtml)" BBC Radio 4: "In Our Time"
Further reading
• G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen and T.W.B. Kibble (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles".
• F. Englert and R. Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review
Letters 13: 321. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321.
• P. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries, Massless Particles and Gauge Fields". Physics Letters 12: 132.
doi:10.1016/0031-9163(64)91136-9.
• P. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters 13: 508.
• P. Higgs (1966). "Spontaneous Symmetry Breakdown without Massless Bosons". Physical Review 145: 1156.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.145.1156.
• Y. Nambu and G. Jona-Lasinio (1961). "Dynamical Model of Elementary Particles Based on an Analogy with
Superconductivity". Physical Review 122: 345–358. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.122.345.
• J. Goldstone, A. Salam and S. Weinberg (1962). "Broken Symmetries". Physical Review 127: 965.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.127.965.
• P.W. Anderson (1963). "Plasmons, Gauge Invariance, and Mass". Physical Review 130: 439.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.130.439.
• A. Klein and B.W. Lee (1964). "Does Spontaneous Breakdown of Symmetry Imply Zero-Mass Particles?".
• W. Gilbert (1964). "Broken Symmetries and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters 12: 713.
External links
• Explanation for beginners (http://cms.web.cern.ch/cms/Physics/HuntingHiggs/index.html)
• At Fermilab, the Race Is on for the 'God Particle' (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/24/science/24ferm.
html)
• Physics World, Introducing the little Higgs (http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/11353)
• A quasi-political Explanation of the Higgs Boson (http://www.hep.ucl.ac.uk/~djm/higgsa.html)
• The Atom Smashers, a blog about the making of a documentary about the search for the Higgs boson (http://
www.theatomsmashers.blogspot.com/)
• In CERN Courier, Steven Weinberg reflects on spontaneous symmetry breaking (http://cerncourier.com/cws/
article/cern/32522)
• Steven Weinberg Praises Teams for Higgs Boson Theory (http://www.pas.rochester.edu/urpas/news/
Hagen_030708)
• Steven Weinberg on LHC (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zl4W3DYTIKw)
• Physical Review Letters - 50th Anniversary Milestone Papers (http://prl.aps.org/50years/milestones#1964)
• Imperial College London on PRL 50th Anniversary Milestone Papers (http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/
newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_13-6-2008-12-42-20?newsid=38514)
Higgs boson 90
• The God Particle, from National Geographic Magazine (http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/03/

god-particle/achenbach-text)
• "Tevatron experiments double-team Higgs boson", sets lower bound at 170GeV (http://www.physorg.com/
news137076565.html)
• The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
and Gauge Particles (http://arxiv.org/abs/0907.3466)
• The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
and Gauge Particles (PDF) (http://arxiv.org/abs/0907.3466v1)
• Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble Mechanism on Scholarpedia (http://www.scholarpedia.org/
article/Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble_mechanism)
• History of Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble Mechanism on Scholarpedia (http://www.scholarpedia.
org/article/Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble_mechanism_(history))
• Sakurai Prize Videos (http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=BDA16F52CA3C9B1D)
• God Particle Overview (http://www.godparticle.com/)
• Fermilab 'closing in' on the God particle (http://www.newscientist.com/article/
dn16618-fermilab-closing-in-on-the-god-particle.html)
• The Hunt for the Higgs at Tevatron (http://apps3.aps.org/aps/meetings/april10/roser.pdf)
• Artist's vision of Higgs boson by a Prague based fine art photographer Jan Krasňan (from his series created in
January 2009) (http://krasnan.com/abstract.pdf)
• In Our Time:Higgs Boson (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y2b7) BBC Radio 4 programme
91
Safety
Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron

Collider
The safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron
Collider has been questioned in the media, on the
Internet and through the courts. Particle physics
experiments were ongoing as of March 2010 at the
Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world's largest and
most powerful particle accelerator, built by the
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)
near Geneva, in Switzerland.[1] [2] The claimed dangers
of the LHC particle collisions, which began in
November 2009, include doomsday scenarios involving
the production of stable micro black holes and the
creation of hypothetical particles called strangelets.[3]
To address such concerns, CERN mandated a group of

independent scientists to review these scenarios. In a
report issued in 2003, they concluded that, like current A simulated particle collision in the LHC.
particle experiments such as the Relativistic Heavy Ion

Collider (RHIC), the LHC particle collisions pose no conceivable threat.[4] A second review of the evidence
commissioned by CERN was released in 2008. The report, prepared by a group of physicists affiliated to CERN but
not involved in the LHC experiments, reaffirmed the safety of the LHC collisions in light of further research
conducted since the 2003 assessment.[5] [6] It was reviewed and endorsed by a CERN committee of 20 external
scientists and by the Executive Committee of the Division of Particles & Fields of the American Physical Society,[7]
[8]
and was later published in the peer-reviewed Journal of Physics G by the UK Institute of Physics, which also
endorsed its conclusions.[5] [9] The report ruled out any doomsday scenario at the LHC: the physical conditions and
events that will be created in the LHC experiments occur naturally in the universe without hazardous
consequences.[5]
Particle accelerator
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy
particle accelerator complex, intended to collide opposing beams of either
protons or lead nuclei with very high kinetic energy.[10] [11] It was built by the
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) near Geneva, in
Switzerland. The LHC's main purpose is to explore the validity and limitations of
the Standard Model, the current theoretical picture for particle physics. The first
particle collisions at the LHC took place shortly after startup in November 2009,
at energies up to 1.2 TeV per beam.[12] .
On 30 March 2010, the first planned collisions took place between two 3.5 TeV
beams, which set another new world record for the highest energy man-made
particle collisions.[13]
The LHC's CMS detector.
Due to problematic connections between the superconducting magnets that guide
the beams, the LHC will not run at its designed 7 TeV per beam (14 TeV
center-of-mass) until after a long shutdown that is scheduled to begin at the end of 2011.[14]
Safety concerns
In the run up to the commissioning of the LHC, Walter L. Wagner (an original opponent of the RHIC), Luis Sancho
(a Spanish science writer) and Otto Rössler (a German biochemist) have expressed concerns over the safety of the
LHC, and have attempted to halt the beginning of the experiments through petitions to the US and European
Courts.[1] [15] [16] [17] [18] These opponents assert that the LHC experiments have the potential to create low velocity
micro black holes that could grow in mass or release dangerous radiation leading to doomsday scenarios, such as the
destruction of the Earth.[3] [19] Other claimed potential risks include the creation of theoretical particles called
strangelets, magnetic monopoles and vacuum bubbles.[3] [19]
Based on such safety concerns, US federal judge Richard Posner[20] , Future of Humanity Institute research associate
Toby Ord[21] and others[22] [23] [24] [25] have argued that the LHC experiments are too risky to undertake. In the book
Our Final Century: Will the Human Race Survive the Twenty-first Century?, English cosmologist and astrophysicist
Martin Rees calculated an upper limit of 1 in 50 million for the probability that the Large Hadron Collider will
produce a global catastrophe or black hole.[15] However, Rees has also reported not to be "losing sleep over the
collider," and trusts the scientists who have built it.[26] He has stated: "My book has been misquoted in one or two
places. I would refer you to the up-to-date safety study."[27]
These risk assessments of catastrophic scenarios at the LHC have sparked fears among the public,[1] and scientists
associated with the project have received protests. The Large Hadron Collider team revealed that they had received
death threats and threatening emails and phone calls demanding the experiment be halted.[27] On 9 September 2008,
Romania's Conservative Party held a protest before the European Commission mission to Bucharest, demanding that
the experiment be halted because it feared that the LHC could create dangerous black holes.[28] [29]
Media coverage of safety concerns

The safety concerns regarding the LHC collisions have attracted widespread media attention.[1] [30] Various widely
circulated newspapers have reported doomsday fears in connection with the collider, including The Times,[31] The
Guardian,[32] The Independent,[33] The Sydney Morning Herald,[34] and Time.[35] Among other media sources, CNN
mentioned that "Some have expressed fears that the project could lead to the Earth's demise,"[36] but it assured its
readers with comments from scientists like John Huth, who said that it was "baloney".[36] MSNBC said that, "there
are more serious things to worry about"[37] and allayed fears that "the atom-smasher might set off earthquakes or
other dangerous rumblings".[37] The results of an online survey it conducted "indicate that a lot of [the public] know
enough not to panic".[37] The BBC stated, "the scientific consensus appears to be on the side of CERN's theorists"[38]
who say the LHC has "no conceivable danger".[38] Brian Greene in the New York Times reassured readers by
saying,"If a black hole is produced under Geneva, might it swallow Switzerland and continue on a ravenous rampage
until the earth is devoured? It’s a reasonable question with a definite answer: no."[39]
The tabloids also covered the safety concerns. The Daily Mail produced headlines such as "Are we all going to die
next Wednesday?"[40] and "End of the world postponed as broken Hadron Collider out of commission until the
spring"[41] . The Sun quoted Otto Rössler saying, "The weather will change completely, wiping out life. There will
be a Biblical Armageddon."[42] After the launch of the collider, it had a story entitled, "Success! The world hasn't
ended".[43]
On 10 September 2008, a 16-year-old girl from Sarangpur, Madhya Pradesh, India committed suicide, having
become distressed about predictions of an impending "doomsday" made on an Indian news channel (Aaj Tak)
covering the LHC.[44]
After the dismissal of the federal lawsuit, The Daily Show's correspondent John Oliver interviewed Walter L.
Wagner, who declared that he believed the chance of the LHC destroying the earth to be 50%, since it will either
happen or it won't.[45] [46]
Safety reviews
Concerns similar to those for the LHC were raised in connection with the RHIC particle accelerator.[47] [48] [49] [50]
After detailed studies, scientists reached such conclusions as "beyond reasonable doubt, heavy-ion experiments at
RHIC will not endanger our planet"[51] and that there is "powerful empirical evidence against the possibility of
dangerous strangelet production."[52]
CERN-commissioned reports
Drawing from research performed to assess the safety of the RHIC collisions, the LHC Safety Study Group, a group
of independent scientists, performed a safety analysis of the LHC, and released their findings in the 2003 report
Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC. The report concluded that there is
"no basis for any conceivable threat".[4] Several of its arguments were based on the predicted evaporation of
hypothetical micro black holes by Hawking radiation and on the theoretical predictions of the Standard Model with
regard to the outcome of events to be studied in the LHC. One argument raised against doomsday fears was that
collisions at energies equivalent to and higher than those of the LHC have been happening in nature for billions of
years apparently without hazardous effects, as ultra-high-energy cosmic rays impact Earth's atmosphere and other
bodies in the universe.[4]
In 2007, CERN mandated a group of five particle physicists not involved in the LHC experiments — the LHC Safety
Assessment Group (LSAG), consisting of John Ellis, Gian Giudice, Michelangelo Mangano and Urs Wiedemann, of
CERN, and Igor Tkachev, of the Institute for Nuclear Research in Moscow — to monitor the latest concerns about
the LHC collisions.[6] On 20 June 2008, in light of new experimental data and theoretical understanding, the LSAG
issued a report updating the 2003 safety review, in which they reaffirmed and extended its conclusions that "LHC
collisions present no danger and that there are no reasons for concern".[5] [6] The LSAG report was then reviewed by
CERN’s Scientific Policy Committee (SPC), a group of external scientists that advises CERN’s governing body, its
Council.[7] [17] [53] The report was reviewed and endorsed by a panel of five independent scientists, Peter
Braun-Munzinger, Matteo Cavalli-Sforza, Gerard 't Hooft, Bryan Webber and Fabio Zwirner, and their conclusions
were unanimously approved by the full 20 members of the SPC.[53] On 5 September 2008, the LSAG's "Review of
the safety of LHC collisions" was published in the Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics by the UK
Institute of Physics, which endorsed its conclusions in a press release that announced the publication.[5] [9]
Following the July 2008 release of the LSAG safety report,[5] the Executive Committee of the Division of Particles
and Fields (DPF) of the American Physical Society, the world's second largest organization of physicists, issued a
statement approving the LSAG's conclusions and noting that "this report explains why there is nothing to fear from
particles created at the LHC".[8] On 1 August 2008, a group of German quantum physicists, the Committee for
Elementary Particle Physics (KET),[54] published an open letter further dismissing concerns about the LHC
experiments and carrying assurances that they are safe based on the LSAG safety review.[2] [55]
Other publications
On 20 June 2008, Steven Giddings and Michelangelo Mangano issued a research paper titled the "Astrophysical
implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes", where they develop arguments to exclude any risk of
dangerous black hole production at the LHC.[56] On 18 August 2008, this safety review was published in the
Physical Review D,[57] and a commentary article which appeared the same day in the journal Physics endorsed
Giddings' and Mangano's conclusions.[58] The LSAG report draws heavily on this research.[17]
On 9 February 2009, a paper titled "Exclusion of black hole disaster scenarios at the LHC" was published in the
journal Physics Letters B.[59] The article, which summarizes proofs aimed at ruling out any possible black hole
disaster at the LHC, relies on a number of new safety arguments as well as certain arguments already present in
Giddings' and Mangano's paper "Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes".[56]
Safety arguments
Micro black holes

Although the Standard Model of particle physics predicts that LHC energies are far too low to create black holes,
some extensions of the Standard Model posit the existence of extra spatial dimensions, in which it would be possible
to create micro black holes at the LHC at a rate of the order of one per second.[60] [61] [62] [63] [64] According to the
standard calculations these are harmless because they would quickly decay by Hawking radiation.[62] Hawking
radiation is a thermal radiation predicted to be emitted by black holes due to quantum effects. Because Hawking
radiation allows black holes to lose mass, black holes that lose more matter than they gain through other means are
expected to dissipate, shrink, and ultimately vanish. Smaller micro black holes (MBHs), which could be produced at
the LHC, are currently predicted by theory to be larger net emitters of radiation than larger black holes, and to shrink
and dissipate instantly.[65] The LHC Safety Assessment Group (LSAG) indicates that "there is broad consensus
among physicists on the reality of Hawking radiation, but so far no experiment has had the sensitivity required to
find direct evidence for it."[5]
According to the LSAG, even if micro black holes were produced by the LHC and were stable, they would be unable
to accrete matter in a manner dangerous for the Earth. They would also have been produced by cosmic rays and have
stopped in neutron stars and white dwarfs, and the stability of these astronomical bodies means that they cannot be
dangerous:[5] [66]
Stable black holes could be either electrically charged or neutral. [...] If stable microscopic black holes had no
electric charge, their interactions with the Earth would be very weak. Those produced by cosmic rays would
pass harmlessly through the Earth into space, whereas those produced by the LHC could remain on Earth.
However, there are much larger and denser astronomical bodies than the Earth in the Universe. Black holes
produced in cosmic-ray collisions with bodies such as neutron stars and white dwarf stars would be brought to
rest. The continued existence of such dense bodies, as well as the Earth, rules out the possibility of the LHC
producing any dangerous black holes.[6]
Strangelets
Strangelets are small fragments of strange matter—a hypothetical form of quark matter—that contain roughly equal
numbers of up, down, and strange quarks and that are more stable than ordinary nuclei (strangelets would range in
size from a few femtometers to a few meters across).[5] If strangelets can actually exist, and if they were produced at
the LHC, they could conceivably initiate a runaway fusion process in which all the nuclei in the planet would be
converted to strange matter, similar to a strange star.[5]
The probability of the creation of strangelets decreases at higher energies.[5] As the LHC operates at higher energies
than the RHIC or the heavy ion programs of the 1980s and 1990s, the LHC is less likely to produce strangelets than
its predecessors.[5] Furthermore, models indicate that strangelets are only stable or long-lived at low temperatures.
Strangelets are bound at low energies (in the range of 1–10 MeV), while the collisions in the LHC release energies in
the range of 14 TeV. The second law of thermodynamics precludes the formation of a cold condensate that is an
order of magnitude cooler than the surrounding medium. This can be illustrated by the example of trying to form an
ice cube in boiling water.[5]
Specific concerns and responses

Otto Rössler, a German chemistry professor at the University of Tübingen, argues that micro black holes created in
the LHC could grow exponentially.[67] [68] [69] [70] [71] On 4 July 2008, Rössler met with a CERN physicist, Rolf
Landua, with whom he discussed his safety concerns.[72] Following the meeting, Landua asked another expert,
Hermann Nicolai, Director of the Albert Einstein Institute, in Germany, to examine Rössler's arguments.[72] Nicolai
reviewed Otto Rössler's research paper on the safety of the LHC[68] and issued a statement highlighting logical
inconsistencies and physical misunderstandings in Rössler's arguments.[73] Nicolai concluded that "this text would
not pass the referee process in a serious journal."[71] [73] Domenico Giulini also commented with Hermann Nicolai
on Otto Rössler's thesis, concluding that "his argument concerns only the General Theory of Relativity (GRT), and
makes no logical connection to LHC physics; the argument is not valid; the argument is not self-consistent."[74] On 1
August 2008, a group of German physicists, the Committee for Elementary Particle Physics (KET),[54] published an
open letter further dismissing Rössler's concerns and carrying assurances that the LHC is safe.[2] [55] Otto Rössler
was due to meet Swiss president Pascal Couchepin in August 2008 to discuss this concern,[75] but it was later
reported that the meeting had been canceled as it was believed Rössler and his fellow opponents would have used the
meeting for their own publicity.[76]
On 10 August 2008, Rainer Plaga, a German astrophysicist, posted a research paper on the arXiv Web archive
concluding that LHC safety studies have not definitely ruled out the potential catastrophic threat from microscopic
black holes, including the possible danger from Hawking radiation emitted by black holes.[3] [77] [78] [79] In a
follow-up paper posted on the arXiv on 29 August 2008, Steven Giddings and Michelangelo Mangano, the authors
of the research paper "Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes",[56] responded to
Plaga's concerns.[80] They pointed out what they see as a basic inconsistency in Plaga's calculation, and argued that
their own conclusions on the safety of the collider, as referred to in the LHC safety assessment (LSAG) report,[5]
remain robust.[80] Giddings and Mangano also referred to the research paper "Exclusion of black hole disaster
scenarios at the LHC", which relies on a number of new arguments to conclude that there is no risk due to mini black
holes at the LHC.[3] [59] . On 19 January 2009 Roberto Casadio, Sergio Fabi and Benjamin Harms posted on the
arXiv a paper, later published on Physical Review D, ruling out the catastrophic growth of black holes in the scenario
considered by Plaga.[81] In reaction to the criticisms, Plaga updated his paper on the arXiv on 26 September 2008
and again on 9 August 2009.[77] So far, Plaga's paper has not been published in a peer-reviewed journal.
Legal challenges
On 21 March 2008, a complaint requesting an injunction to halt the LHC's startup was filed by Walter L. Wagner
and Luis Sancho against CERN and its American collaborators, the US Department of Energy, the National Science
Foundation and the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, before the United States District Court for the District of
Hawaii.[19] [82] [83] The plaintiffs demanded an injunction against the LHC's activation for 4 months after issuance of
the LHC Safety Assessment Group's (LSAG) most recent safety documentation, and a permanent injunction until the
LHC can be demonstrated to be reasonably safe within industry standards.[84] The US Federal Court scheduled trial
to begin 16 June 2009.[85]
The LSAG review, issued on 20 June 2008 after outside review, found "no basis for any concerns about the
consequences of new particles or forms of matter that could possibly be produced by the LHC".[5] The US
Government, in response, called for summary dismissal of the suit against the government defendants as untimely
due to the expiration of a six-year statute of limitations (since funding began by 1999 and has essentially been
completed already), and also called the hazards claimed by the plaintiffs "overly speculative and not credible".[86]
The Hawaii District Court heard the government's motion to dismiss on 2 September 2008,[1] and on 26 September
the Court issued an order granting the motion to dismiss on the grounds that it had no jurisdiction over the LHC
project.[87] A subsequent appeal by the plaintiffs was dismissed by the Court on 24 August 2010.[88]
On 26 August 2008, a group of European citizens, led by a German biochemist Otto Rössler, filed a suit against
CERN in the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.[69] The suit, which was summarily rejected on the
same day, alleged that the Large Hadron Collider posed grave risks for the safety of the 27 member states of the
European Union and their citizens.[31] [35] [69]
Late in 2009 a review of the legal situation by Eric Johnson, a lawyer, was published in the Tennessee Law
Review.[89] [90] [91] In February 2010 a summary of Johnson's article appeared as an opinion piece in New
Scientist.[92]
In February 2010, the German Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) rejected an injunction petition to
halt the LHC's operation as unfounded, without hearing the case, stating that the opponents had failed to produce
plausible evidence for their theories.[93]
References
[1] Boyle, Alan (2 September 2008). " Courts weigh doomsday claims (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 09/ 02/ 1326534.
aspx)". Cosmic Log. msnbc.com.
[2] Hawley, Charles (6 August 2008). " Physicists Allay Fears of the End of the World (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ international/ world/
0,1518,570487,00. html)". Spiegel Online.
[3] Boyle, Alan (19 August 2008). " Twists in the Doomsday debate (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 08/ 19/ 1276192.
aspx?Ajax_CallBack=true)". Cosmic Log. msnbc.com.
[4] Blaizot JP, Iliopoulos J, Madsen J, Ross GG, Sonderegger P, Specht HJ (2003). Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion
Collisions at the LHC (http:/ / doc. cern. ch/ yellowrep/ 2003/ 2003-001/ p1. pdf) (PDF, 176 KiB). CERN. Geneva. CERN-2003-001 (http:/ /
cdsweb. cern. ch/ search?sysno=002372601cer).
[5] Ellis J, Giudice G, Mangano ML, Tkachev I, Wiedemann U (LHC Safety Assessment Group) (5 September 2008). " Review of the Safety of
LHC Collisions (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0806. 3414)" (PDF, 586 KiB). ''Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics. 35, 115004
(18pp). doi:10.1088/0954-3899/35/11/115004. arXiv:0806.3414. CERN record (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 1111112?ln=fr).
[6] " The safety of the LHC (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ public/ en/ LHC/ Safety-en. html)". CERN 2008 (CERN website).
[7] CERN Scientific Policy Committee (2008). SPC Report on LSAG Documents (http:/ / indico. cern. ch/ getFile. py/ access?contribId=20&
resId=0& materialId=0& confId=35065). CERN record (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 1113558?ln=fr).
[8] " Statement by the Executive Committee of the DPF on the Safety of Collisions at the Large Hadron Collider (http:/ / www. aps. org/ units/
dpf/ governance/ reports/ upload/ lhc_saftey_statement. pdf)" (PDF, 40 KiB) issued by the Division of Particles & Fields (http:/ / www. aps.
org/ units/ dpf/ ) (DPF) of the American Physical Society (APS)
[9] " LHC switch-on fears are completely unfounded (http:/ / www. iop. org/ Media/ Press Releases/ press_31275. html)". The Institute of
Physics. PR 48 (08). 5 September 2008.
[10] CERN Communication Group (January 2008). " CERN FAQ — LHC: the guide (http:/ / cdsmedia. cern. ch/ img/
CERN-Brochure-2008-001-Eng. pdf)" (PDF). CERN. Geneva (44p).
[11] Achenbach, Joel (1 March 2008). " The God Particle (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2008/ 03/ god-particle/ achenbach-text)".
National Geographic Magazine.
[12] CERN press release (2009)". LHC ends 2009 run on a high note. (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2009/ PR20.
09E. html)"
[13] BBC News (30 March 2010). "CERN LHC sees high-energy success" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8593780. stm). Press
[14] Symmetry Breaking, a joint Fermilab/SLAC publication. " CERN’s new LHC plan: Two years at 3.5 TeV. (http:/ / www.
symmetrymagazine. org/ breaking/ 2010/ 02/ 01/ cerns-new-lhc-plan-two-years-at-3-5-tev/ )"
[15] " Some fear debut of powerful atom-smasher (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ TECH/ 06/ 30/ doomsdaycollider. ap/ index. html)"
CNN.com. 30 June 2008.
[16] Muir, Hazel. (28 March 2008). " Particle smasher 'not a threat to the Earth' (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn13555)".
NewScientist.com.
[17] Overbye, Dennis (21 June 2008). " Earth Will Survive After All, Physicists Say (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 06/ 21/ science/
21cernw. html)". The New York Times.
[18] Sancho, Luis (June 2008). " Fear review (http:/ / www. harpers. org/ archive/ 2008/ 06/ 0082053)". Harper's Magazine.
[19] Boyle, Alan (27 March 2008). " Doomsday Fears Spark Lawsuit (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 03/ 27/ 823924.
[20] Catastrophe: "Risk and Response"; http:/ / www. bsos. umd. edu/ gvpt/ lpbr/ subpages/ reviews/ posner505. htm
[21] Toby Ord, Rafaela Hillerbrand, Anders Sandberg Probing the Improbable: Methodological Challenges for Risks with Low Probabilities and
High Stakes (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0810. 5515v1) (PDF). arXiv:0810.5515 Journal of Risk Research, Volume 13, Issue 2 March 2010, pages
191 - 205.
[22] Bailey, Ronald (2 September 2008). " A 1-in-1,000 Chance of Götterdämmerung: Will European physicists destroy the world? (http:/ /
www. reason. com/ news/ show/ 128492. html)". Reason Magazine.
[23] Crease, Robert P. (May 2005). " Are accelerators dangerous? (http:/ / physicsworldarchive. iop. org/ index. cfm?action=summary& doc=18/
5/ phwv18i5a24@pwa-xml& qt=)" Physics World.
[24] Warner, Gerald (10 September 2008). " We must be wary of scientific research (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ opinion/ main. jhtml?xml=/
opinion/ 2008/ 09/ 10/ do1005. xml)". telegraph.co.uk.
[25] Deatrick, Sherry R. (May–June 2008). " Large Hadron Collider: Cause for ConCERN or Tempest in a Teapot? (http:/ / www. system-safety.
org/ ejss/ past/ mayjune2008ejss/ focus_p1. php)" Journal of System Safety. Vol. 44, No. 3.
[26] Overbye, Dennis (15 April 2008). " Gauging a Collider’s Odds of Creating a Black Hole (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 15/ science/
15risk. html)". The New York Times.
[27] Highfield, Roger (5 September 2008). " Scientists get death threats over Large Hadron Collider (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ earth/ main.
jhtml?xml=/ earth/ 2008/ 09/ 05/ scilhc105. xml)". Telegraph.co.uk.
[28] " UPDATE: Small Romanian party sparks mockery saying LHC experiment may create tiny black holes and that CERN experiment should
be halted (http:/ / english. hotnews. ro/
stiri-top_news-4283851-update-small-romanian-party-sparks-mockery-saying-lhc-experiment-may-create-tiny-black-holes-and-that-cern-experiment-should-halted
htm)". Hotnews.ro. 9 septembrie 2008.
[29] " Threats Won't Stop Collider (http:/ / www. photonics. com/ content/ news/ 2008/ September/ 9/ 93181. aspx)". Photonics.Com. 9
September 2008.
[30] Henderson, Mark (5 September 2008). " The Large Hadron Collider: how the press demeans science (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/
comment/ columnists/ guest_contributors/ article4677821. ece)". The Times.
[31] Sugden, Joanna (6 September 2008). " Large Hadron Collider will not turn world to goo, promise scientists (http:/ / www. timesonline. co.
uk/ tol/ news/ uk/ article4682260. ece)". Times Online.
[32] Carus, Felicity (7 September 2008). " Should we be concerned when the world's largest subatomic particle experiment is switched on in
Geneva? (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ news/ blog/ 2008/ sep/ 07/ 1)" guardian.co.uk.
[33] Connor, Steve (5 September 2008). " The Big Question: Is our understanding of the Universe about to be transformed? (http:/ / www.
independent. co. uk/ news/ science/ the-big-question-is-our-understanding-of-the-universe-about-to-be-transformed-919480. html)". The
Independent.
[34] " Massive physics experiment on Wednesday (http:/ / news. smh. com. au/ world/
massive-physics-experiment-on-wednesday-20080908-4byr. html)". The Sydney Morning Herald. 8 September 2008.
[35] Harrell, Eben (4 September 2008). " Collider Triggers End-of-World Fears (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ health/ article/
0,8599,1838947,00. html?imw=Y)". Time.com.
[36] Landau, Elizabeth (8 September 2008). " Multibillion-dollar collider to probe nature's mysteries (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ TECH/ 09/
08/ lhc. collider/ ?iref=mpstoryview)". CNN.
[37] Boyle, Alan (12 September 2008). " Big Bang sparks big reaction (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 09/ 12/ 1386080.
aspx)". Cosmic Log. msnbc.
[38] Rincon, Paul (23 June 2008). " Earth 'not at risk' from collider (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 7468966. stm)". BBC News.
[39] Greene, Brian (11 September 2008). " The Origins of the Universe: A Crash Course (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 09/ 12/ opinion/
12greene. html?_r=1& pagewanted=1& ref=opinion& oref=slogin)." The New York Times.
[40] " Are we all going to die next Wednesday? (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ sciencetech/ article-1052354/ Are-going-die-Wednesday.
html)". Daily Mail.
[41] " End of the world postponed as broken Hadron Collider out of commission until the spring (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ sciencetech/
article-1058710/ End-world-postponed-broken-Hadron-Collider-commission-spring. html)". Daily Mail. 24 September 2008.
[42] " Boffins set to cause Big Bang (http:/ / www. thesun. co. uk/ sol/ homepage/ news/ article1660207. ece)". The Sun. 8 September 2008.
[43] " Success! The world hasn't ended (http:/ / www. thesun. co. uk/ sol/ homepage/ news/ article1668971. ece)". The Sun. 10 September 2008.
[44] " Girl suicide 'over Big Bang fear' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 7609631. stm)". BBC News. 11 September 2008.
[45] Andersen, Kurt The Genesis 2.0 Project (http:/ / www. vanityfair. com/ culture/ features/ 2010/ 01/ hadron-collider-201001) published in
Vanity Fair Jan. 2010. p.96
[46] The Daily Show April 30, 2009: Large Hadron Collider (http:/ / www. thedailyshow. com/ watch/ thu-april-30-2009/ large-hadron-collider)
[47] Matthews, Robert (28 August 1999). " A Black Hole Ate My Planet (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg16322014.
700-a-black-hole-ate-my-planet. html)". New Scientist.
[48] Horizon: End Day. BBC. 2005.
[49] Wagner, Walter (July 1999). "Black holes at Brookhaven?". (Letters to the Editors) Scientific American. 281: 8.
[50] Wilczek, Frank (July 1999). "Reply to “Black holes at Brookhaven” by W.L. Wagner". Scientific American. 281(1): 5.
[51] Dar, Arnon; De Rújula, Alvaro; & Heinz, Ulrich (16 December 1999). " Will relativistic heavy ion colliders destroy our planet? (http:/ /
arxiv. org/ pdf/ hep-ph/ 9910471v1)" (PDF). Physics Letters B. 470(1): 142-48. doi:10.1016/S0370-2693(99)01307-6. arXiv:hep-ph/9910471.
CERN-TH/99-324 (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 479729?ln=fr).
[52] Jaffe, Robert L.; Busza, Wit; Sandweiss, Jack; & Wilczek, Frank. (14 July 2000). " Review of Speculative “Disaster Scenarios” at RHIC
(http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ hep-ph/ 9910333v3)" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 72(4): 1125-140. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.72.1125.
arXiv:hep-ph/9910333. MIT-CTP-2908 (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 403566?ln=fr).
[53] " CERN Council looks forward to LHC start-up (http:/ / press. web. cern. ch/ press/ PressReleases/ Releases2008/ PR05. 08E. html)".
PR05.08 (20 June 2008). CERN 2008.
[54] Website of the Committee for Elementary Particle Physics (KET) (http:/ / www. ketweb. de/ ) (in German).
[55] Mättig, Peter (1 August 2008). " Official statement of the German Committee for Elementary Particle Physics (KET) (http:/ / www. ketweb.
de/ pressemitteilungen/ 20080801_PM_Der_LHC_ist_sicher. pdf)" (in German) (PDF, 21 KiB). Committee for Elementary Particle Physics
(KET).
[56] Giddings, Steven B.; & Mangano, Michelangelo L. (18 August 2008). " Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black
holes (http:/ / physics. aps. org/ pdf/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevD. 78. 035009. pdf)" (PDF, 919 KiB). Physical Review D. 78, 035009 (47 pages).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.78.035009. arXiv:0806.3381v1. CERN-PH-TH/2008-025 (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 1111084?ln=fr).
[57] Mgrdichian, Laura (1 September 2008). " Physicists Rule Out the Production of Dangerous Black Holes at the LHC (http:/ / www. physorg.
com/ news139467844. html)". PhysOrg.com.
[58] Peskin, Michael (18 August 2008). " The end of the world at the Large Hadron Collider? (http:/ / physics. aps. org/ articles/ v1/ 14)".
Physics. 1 (14). American Physical Society. doi:10.1103/Physics.1.14.
[59] Koch B, Bleicher M, Stöcker H (9 February 2009). Exclusion of black hole disaster scenarios at the LHC (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0807.
3349v2) (PDF). Physics Letters B. 672 (1): 71–76. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2009.01.003. arXiv:0807.3349. CERN record (http:/ / cdsweb. cern.
ch/ record/ 1116656)
[60] Giddings, Steven B. and Thomas, Scott D. (19 June 2001), " High-energy colliders as black hole factories: The End of short distance physics
(http:/ / arXiv. org/ abs/ hep-ph/ 0106219)" (PDF), arXiv:hep-ph/0106219, "Physical Review" D65: 056010.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.65.056010.
[61] Dimopoulos, Savas; & Landsberg, Greg (27 June 2001). " Black Holes at the LHC (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ hep-ph/ 0106295v1)" (PDF),
arXiv:hep-ph/0106295v1, Physical Review Letters 87: 161602 (4p). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.161602.
[62] Barrau, Aurélien; & Grain, Julien (12 November 2004). " The case for mini black holes (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/
29199)". CERN Courier. CERN.
[63] Panagiota Kanti (2008). "Black Holes at the LHC". arΧiv:0802.2218v2 [hep-th].
[64] Choptuik, M. and Pretorius, F. (17 March 2010) " Ultra Relativistic Particle Collisions (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0908. 1780v1)" (PDF),
Physical Review Letters 104, 111101 (2010) (http:/ / prl. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v104/ i11/ e111101)
[65] Cavaglià, Marco (29 January 2007). " Particle accelerators as black hole factories? (http:/ / www. einstein-online. info/ en/ spotlights/
accelerators_bh/ index. html)". Einstein-Online. Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (Albert Einstein Institute).
[66] Schewe, Phil (9 September 2008). " Mini Black Holes No Danger (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/ 2008/ split/ 871-1. html)". Inside Science
Research — Physics news update. Number 871 #1. American Institute of Physics.
[67] Rössler, Otto (2008). " A Rational and Moral and Spiritual Dilemma (http:/ / www. wissensnavigator. com/ documents/
spiritualottoeroessler. pdf)" (PDF, 24 KiB).
[68] Rössler, Otto (2008). " Abraham-Solution to Schwarzschild Metric Implies That CERN Miniblack Holes Pose a Planetary Risk (http:/ /
www. wissensnavigator. com/ documents/ OTTOROESSLERMINIBLACKHOLE. pdf)" (PDF, 88 KiB).
[69] Gray, Richard (9 September 2008). " Legal bid to stop CERN atom smasher from destroying the world (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/
news/ worldnews/ europe/ 2650665/ Legal-bid-to-stop-CERN-atom-smasher-from-destroying-the-world. html)". Telegraph.co.uk.
[70] Patorski, Gregor (10 September 2008). " Grösstes Verbrechen der Menschheit (http:/ / www. 20min. ch/ news/ wissen/ story/ 24668213)" (in
German). 20 Minuten.
[71] " Publicity für eine fragwürdige Hypothese (http:/ / www. nzz. ch/ nachrichten/ wissenschaft/
unverstaendnis_fuer_couchepins_dialog_mit_einem_kritiker_des_cern_1. 790605. html)" (in German). NZZ Online. 23 July 2008.
[72] Schmidt, Von Wolf (7 September 2008). " Der Prophet des Planetentods (http:/ / www. taz. de/ 1/ zukunft/ wissen/ artikel/ 1/
der-prophet-des-planetentods/ )" (in German). Taz.de.
[73] "Comments from Prof. Dr. Hermann Nicolai, Director, Max Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik (Albert-Einstein-Institut) Potsdam,
Germany on speculations raised by Professor Otto Rössler about the production of black holes at the LHC." (July 2008) (http:/ /
environmental-impact. web. cern. ch/ environmental-impact/ Objects/ LHCSafety/ NicolaiComment-en. pdf) (PDF, 16 KiB).
[74] Giulini, Domenico; and Nicolai, Hermann (August 2008). On the arguments of O.E. Rössler (http:/ / environmental-impact. web. cern. ch/
environmental-impact/ Objects/ LHCSafety/ NicolaiFurtherComment-en. pdf) (PDF, 96 KiB).
[75] " Couchepin trifft Cern-Kritiker Rössler (http:/ / www. nzz. ch/ nachrichten/ kultur/ literatur_und_kunst/
roessler_schwarze_loecher_cern_couchepin_1. 789024. html)" (in German). NZZ Online. 21 July 2008.
[76] " Kein Gespräch zwischen Couchepin und Cern-Kritiker (http:/ / www. nzz. ch/ nachrichten/ wissenschaft/
kein_gespraech_zwischen_couchepin_und_cern-kritiker_1. 810880. html)" (in German). NZZ Online. 20 August 2008.
[77] Plaga, Rainer (10 August 2008). On the potential catastrophic risk from metastable quantum-black holes produced at particle colliders
(http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0808. 1415v3) (PDF). arXiv:0808.1415v3.
[78] Clery, Daniel; & Cho, Adrian (5 September 2008). "Large Hadron Collider: Is the LHC a Doomsday Machine?" Science. Vol. 321. no.
5894, p. 1291. doi:10.1126/science.321.5894.1291.
[79] Brean, Joseph (9 September 2008). " Is the end nigh? Science experiment could swallow Earth, critics say (http:/ / www. nationalpost. com/
news/ story. html?id=777940& p=1)". National Post.
[80] Giddings, Steven B.; & Mangano, Michelangelo L. (29 August 2008). Comments on claimed risk from metastable black holes (http:/ / arxiv.
org/ pdf/ 0808. 4087v1) (PDF). arXiv:0808.4087. CERN-PH-TH/2008-184.
[81] R. Casadio, S. Fabi and B. Harms Possibility of Catastrophic Black Hole Growth in the Warped Brane-World Scenario at the LHC (http:/ /
prd. aps. org/ abstract/ PRD/ v80/ i8/ e084036) (PDF).
[82] Overbye, Dennis (29 March 2008). " Asking a Judge to Save the World, and Maybe a Whole Lot More (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/
03/ 29/ science/ 29collider. html)". The New York Times.
[83] " Sancho v. U.S. Department of Energy et al. (1:2008cv00136) (http:/ / dockets. justia. com/ docket/ court-hidce/ case_no-1:2008cv00136/
case_id-78717/ )". Justia Federal District Court Filings & Dockets. 21 March 2008.
[84] " Documentation submitted by plaintiff (http:/ / www. lhcdefense. org/ lhc_legal. php)". LHCDefense.org.
[85] Boyle, Alan (16 June 2008). " Doomsday under debate (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 06/ 16/ 1146317. aspx)".
Cosmic Log. msnbc.com.
[86] Overbye, Dennis (27 June 2008). " Government Seeks Dismissal of End-of-World Suit Against Collider (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/
06/ 27/ science/ 27collider. html)". The New York Times.
[87] Boyle, Alan (26 September 2008). " Doomsday Lawsuit Dismissed (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 09/ 26/ 1457536.
[88] Harris, David (26 August 2010). " LHC lawsuit dismissed by US court (http:/ / www. symmetrymagazine. org/ breaking/ 2010/ 08/ 26/
lhc-lawsuit-dismissed-by-us-court/ )". symmetrybreaking. SLAC/Fermilab.
[89] Johnson, Eric E.. "The Black Hole Case". Tennessee Law Review 76: 819–908.
[90] Johnson (2009). "The Black Hole Case: The Injunction Against the End of the World". arΧiv:0912.5480v2 [physics.soc-ph].
[91] Cartlidge, Edwin (Feb 2, 2010). "Law and the end of the world" (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ indepth/ 41564). physicsworld.com
(Institute of Physics). . Retrieved 2010-04-01.
[92] Johnson, Eric E. (23 February 2010). "CERN on trial: could a lawsuit shut the LHC down?" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/
mg20527485. 700-cern-on-trial-could-a-lawsuit-shut-the-lhc-down. html?full=true). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2010-04-01.
[93] BVerfG, 2 BvR 2502/08 vom 18.2.2010 (http:/ / www. bundesverfassungsgericht. de/ entscheidungen/ rk20100218_2bvr250208. html)
External links
• "The safety of the LHC" (http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/LHC/Safety-en.html), CERN webpage.
• "The LHC is safe" (video) (http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1120625?ln=en), talk by John Ellis at CERN, on 14
August 2008.
Micro black hole

MBH redirects here. It can also refer to the Hayist Bases Movement, or a unit of power - a thousand BTUs
per hour.
Micro black holes are tiny black holes, also called quantum mechanical black holes or mini black holes, for
which quantum mechanical effects play an important role.[1]
It is possible that such quantum primordial black holes were created in the high-density environment of the early
Universe (or big bang), or possibly through subsequent phase transitions. They might be observed by astrophysicists
in the near future, through the particles they are expected to emit by Hawking radiation.
Some theories involving additional space dimensions predict that micro black holes could be formed at an energy as
low as the TeV range, which will be available in particle accelerators such as the LHC (Large Hadron Collider).
Popular concerns have then been raised over end-of-the-world scenarios (see Safety of particle collisions at the Large
Hadron Collider). However, such quantum black holes would instantly evaporate, either totally or leaving only a
very weakly interacting residue. Beside the theoretical arguments, we can notice that the cosmic rays bombarding the
Earth do not produce any damage, although they reach center of mass energies in the range of hundreds of TeV.
Minimum mass of a black hole

In principle, a black hole can have any mass above the Planck mass. To make a black hole, one must concentrate
mass or energy sufficiently that the escape velocity from the region in which it is concentrated exceeds the speed of
light. This condition gives the Schwarzschild radius, , where G is Newton's constant and c is the
speed of light, as the size of a black hole of mass M. On the other hand, the Compton wavelength, ,
where h is Planck's constant, represents a limit on the minimum size of the region in which a mass M at rest can be
localized. For sufficiently small M, the reduced Compton wavelength ( , where ħ is Dirac's constant)
exceeds half the Schwarzschild radius, and no black hole description exists. This smallest mass for a black hole is
thus approximately the Planck mass.
Some extensions of present physics posit the existence of extra dimensions of space. In higher-dimensional
spacetime, the strength of gravity increases more rapidly with decreasing distance than in three dimensions. With
certain special configurations of the extra dimensions, this effect can lower the Planck scale to the TeV range.
Examples of such extensions include large extra dimensions, special cases of the Randall-Sundrum model, and
String theory configurations like the GKP solutions. In such scenarios, black hole production could possibly be an
important and observable effect at the LHC.[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] It would also be a common natural phenomenon induced
by the cosmic rays.
Stability of a micro black hole
Hawking radiation
In 1974 Stephen Hawking argued that due to quantum effects, black holes "evaporate" by a process now referred to
as Hawking Radiation in which elementary particles (photons, electrons, quarks, gluons, etc.) are emitted.[6] His
calculations show that the smaller the size of the black hole, the faster the evaporation rate, resulting in a sudden
burst of particles as the micro black hole suddenly explodes.
Any primordial black hole of sufficiently low mass will Hawking evaporate to near the Planck mass within the
lifetime of the Universe. In this process, these small black holes radiate away matter. A rough picture of this is that
pairs of virtual particles emerge from the vacuum near the event horizon, with one member of a pair being captured,
and the other escaping the vicinity of the black hole. The net result is the black hole loses mass (due to conservation
of energy). According to the formulae of black hole thermodynamics, the more the black hole loses mass the hotter it
becomes, and the faster it evaporates, until it approaches the Planck mass. At this stage a black hole would have a
Hawking temperature of TP / 8π (5.6×1032 K), which means an emitted Hawking particle would have an energy
comparable to the mass of the black hole. Thus a thermodynamic description breaks down. Such a mini-black hole
would also have an entropy of only 4π nats, approximately the minimum possible value. At this point then, the
object can no longer be described as a classical black hole, and Hawking's calculations also break down.
While Hawking radiation is sometimes questioned,[7] Leonard Susskind summarizes an expert perspective in his
recent book:[8] "Every so often, a physics paper will appear claiming that black holes don't evaporate. Such papers
quickly disappear into the infinite junk heap of fringe ideas."
Conjectures for the final state

Conjectures for the final fate of the black hole include total evaporation and production of a Planck mass-sized black
hole remnant. It is possible that such Planck-mass black holes, no longer able either to absorb energy gravitationally
like a classical black hole because of the quantised gaps between their allowed energy levels, nor to emit Hawking
particles for the same reason, may in effect be stable objects. In such case, they would be WIMPs (weakly
interacting massive particles); this could explain dark matter.
Primordial black holes
Formation in the early Universe

Production of a black hole requires concentration of mass or energy within the corresponding Schwarzschild radius.
It is hypothesized that shortly after the big bang the Universe was dense enough to fit within its own Schwarzschild
radius. Even so, at that time the Universe was not able to collapse into a singularity due to its uniform mass
distribution and rapid growth. This, however, does not fully exclude the possibility that black holes of various sizes
may have emerged locally. A black hole formed in this way is called a primordial black hole and is the most widely
accepted theory for the possible creation of micro black holes.
Expected observable effects

Primordial black holes of initial masses around 1015 grams would be completing their evaporation today; lighter
primordial black holes would have already evaporated.[1] In optimistic circumstances, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space
Telescope satellite, launched in June 2008, might detect experimental evidence for evaporation of nearby black holes
by observing gamma ray bursts.[9] [10] [11] It is unlikely that a collision between a microscopic black hole and an
object such as a star or a planet would be noticeable. This is due to the fact that the small radius and high density of
the black hole would allow it to pass straight through any object consisting of normal atoms, interacting with only
few of its atoms while doing so. It has, however, been suggested that a small black hole (of sufficient mass) passing
through the Earth would produce a detectable acoustic or seismic signal.[12] [13] [14] [15]
Manmade micro black holes
Can we produce micro black holes?

In familiar three-dimensional gravity, the minimum energy of a microscopic black hole is 1019 GeV, which would
have to be condensed into a region on the order of the Planck length. This is far beyond the limits of any current
technology. It is estimated that to collide two particles to within a distance of a Planck length with currently
achievable magnetic field strengths would require a ring accelerator about 1000 light years in diameter to keep the
particles on track. Stephen Hawking also said in chapter 6 of his Brief History of Time that physicist John Archibald
Wheeler once calculated that a very powerful hydrogen bomb using all the deuterium in all the water on Earth could
also generate such a black hole, but Hawking does not provide this calculation or any reference to it to support this
assertion.
However, in some scenarios involving extra dimensions of space, the Planck mass can be as low as the TeV range.
The Large hadron collider (LHC) has a design energy of 14 TeV for proton-proton collisions and 1150 TeV for
Pb-Pb collisions. In these circumstances, it was argued in 2001 that black hole production could be an important and
observable effect at the LHC [2] [3] [4] [5] [16] or future higher-energy colliders. Such quantum black holes should
decay emitting sprays of particles that could be seen by detectors at these facilities.[2] [3] A recent paper by Choptuik
and Pretorius, published on March 17, 2010 in Physical Review Letters presents a computer-generated proof that
micro black holes must form from two colliding particles with sufficient energy, which might be allowable at the
energies of the LHC if additional dimensions are present other than the customary four (three space, one time).[17]
[18]
Safety arguments
Hawking's calculation[6] and more general quantum mechanical arguments predict that micro black holes evaporate
almost instantaneously. Additional safety arguments beyond those based on Hawking radiation were given in the
paper [19] [20] , which showed that in hypothetical scenarios with stable black holes that could damage Earth, such
black holes would have been produced by cosmic rays and would have already destroyed known astronomical
objects such as the Earth, Sun, neutron stars, or white dwarfs. Further, microscopic black holes generated from a
particle accelerator are very small in size and are expected to have a high velocity, making it impossible for them to
accrete a dangerously large amount of mass before leaving the earth for good.
Black holes in quantum theories of gravity

It is possible, in some theories of quantum gravity, to calculate the quantum corrections to ordinary, classical black
holes. Contrarily to conventional black holes which are solutions of gravitational field equations of the general
theory of relativity, quantum gravity black holes incorporate quantum gravity effects in the vicinity of the origin,
where classical a curvature singularity occurs. According to the theory employed to model quantum gravity effects,
there are different kinds of quantum gravity black holes, namely loop quantum black holes, noncommutative black
holes, asympotically safe black holes. In these approaches black holes are singularity free.
Fiction
• In David Brin's novel Earth a manmade micro black hole slips into the core of the earth.
• In Dan Simmons's novels Ilium and Olympos, a major landmark is "Paris Crater", the site where a man made
micro black hole's containment field failed, and the black hole sank toward the centre of the earth before
collapsing (presumably in accordance with the Hawking radiation theory), leaving a volcanic crater in its wake.
• In the short story How We Lost the Moon, A True Story by Frank W. Allen, which is actually written by Paul J.
McAuley, a micro black hole is accidentally created on the Moon and gradually consumes it.[21]
• Larry Niven's Hugo Award-winning stories The Hole Man and The Borderland of Sol deal with "quantum black
holes".
• In Martin Caidin's novel Star Bright, an object is created during an implosion-fusion test that has essentially the
properties of a micro black hole, though it is not given that name. The object is eventually destroyed, but the
resulting explosion destroys a huge area around it.
• In Steven R. Donaldson's 5 volume Gap series of books he presents singularity grenades as anti-spaceship cosmic
weapons that release a micro black hole on impact with a ship.
• In Bungie's award-winning Halo Series, spaceships travel through space by ripping the space-time continuum by
artificially generating thousands of micro black holes that quickly evaporate via Hawking radiation.
Notes
[1] B.J. Carr and S.B. Giddings, "Quantum black holes," Scientific American 292N5 (2005) 30. (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article.
cfm?id=quantum-black-holes)
[2] Giddings, S. B.; Thomas, S. D. (2002). "High-energy colliders as black hole factories: The End of short distance physics". Phys. Rev. D 65
(5): 056010. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.65.056010. arXiv:hep-ph/0106219.
[3] Dimopoulos, S.; Landsberg, G. L. (2001). "Black Holes at the Large Hadron Collider". Phys. Rev. Lett. 87 (16): 161602.
arXiv:hep-ph/0106295.
[4] Johnson, George (September 11, 2001). "Physicists Strive to Build A Black Hole" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2001/ 09/ 11/ science/
physicists-strive-to-build-a-black-hole. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.
[5] "The case for mini black holes" (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 29199). CERN courier. Nov 2004. .
[6] Hawking, S. W. (1975). "Particle Creation by Black Holes". Commun. Math. Phys. 43 (3): 199–220. doi:10.1007/BF02345020.
[7] Helfer, A. D. (2003). "Do black holes radiate?". Reports on Progress in Physics 66 (6): 943. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/66/6/202.
arXiv:gr-qc/0304042.
[8] Susskind, L. (2008). The Black Hole War: My battle with Stephen Hawking to make the world safe for quantum mechanics. New York: Little,
Brown. ISBN 9780316016407.
[9] Barrau, A. (2000). "Primordial black holes as a source of extremely high energy cosmic rays". Astroparticle Physics 12 (4): 269–275.
doi:10.1016/S0927-6505(99)00103-6.
[10] McKee, M. (30 May 2006). "Satellite could open door on extra dimension" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/
dn9240-satellite-could-open-door-on-extra-dimension. html). New Scientist. .
[11] "Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope: "Mini" black hole detection" (http:/ / fermi. gsfc. nasa. gov/ help/ tech/ minibh. html). .
[12] Khriplovich, I. B.; Pomeransky, A. A.; Produit, N.; Ruban, G. Yu. (2008). "Can one detect passage of small black hole through the Earth?".
Physical Review D 77 (6): 064017. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064017.
[13] Khriplovich, I. B.; Pomeransky, A. A.; Produit, N.; Ruban, G. Yu.. "Passage of small black hole through the Earth. Is it detectable?".
Pre-Print. arXiv:0801.4623.
[14] Cain, Fraser (20 June 2007). "Are Microscopic Black Holes Buzzing Inside the Earth?" (http:/ / www. universetoday. com/ 2007/ 06/ 20/
are-microscopic-black-holes-buzzing-inside-the-earth). Universe Today. .
[15] The Schwarzschild radius of a 1015 grams black hole is ~148 fm (148 ? 10?15 m) (which is much smaller than an atom, but larger than an
atomic nucleus)
[16] Schewe, Phillip F.; Stein, Ben; Riordon, James (September 26, 2001). "??". Bulletin of Physics News (American Institute of Physics) 558.
[17] Choptuik, Matthew W.; Pretorius, Frans (2010). "Ultrarelativistic Particle Collisions". Phys. Rev. Lett. 104 (11): 111101.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.111101. arXiv:0908.1780.
[18] Peng, G. X.; Wen, X. J.; Chen, Y. D. (2006). "New solutions for the color-flavor locked strangelets". Physics Letters B 633 (2–3): 314–318.
doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2005.11.081. arXiv:hep-ph/0512112.
[19] S.B. Giddings and M.L. Mangano, "Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes," arXiv:0806.3381 (http:/ /
arxiv. org/ abs/ 0806. 3381), Phys. Rev. D78: 035009, 2008 (http:/ / link. aps. org/ doi/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevD. 78. 035009)
[20] M.E. Peskin, "The end of the world at the Large Hadron Collider?" Physics 1, 14 (2008) (http:/ / physics. aps. org/ articles/ v1/ 14)
[21] http:/ / www. bestsf. net/ reviews/ mcauleylittlemachines. html
References
• D. Page, Phys. Rev. D13 (1976) 198 (http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v13/i2/p198_1) : first detailed
studies of the evaporation mechanism
• B.J. Carr & S.W. Hawking, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc 168 (1974) 399 (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/
nph-bib_query?bibcode=1974MNRAS.168..399C) : links between primordial black holes and the early universe
• A. Barrau et al., Astron. Astrophys. 388 (2002) 676 (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0112486) , Astron.
Astrophys. 398 (2003) 403 (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0207395) , Astrophys. J. 630 (2005) 1015 (http://
arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0505436) : experimental searches for primordial black holes thanks to the emitted
antimatter
• A. Barrau & G. Boudoul, Review talk given at the International Conference on Theoretical Physics TH2002
(http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0212225) : cosmology with primordial black holes
• A. Barrau & J. Grain, Phys. Lett. B 584 (2004) 114 (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0311238) : searches for new
physics (quantum gravity) with primordial black holes
• P. Kanti, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A19 (2004) 4899 (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0402168) : evaporating black holes
and extra-dimensions
• D. Ida, K.-y. Oda & S.C.Park, (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0602188): determination of black hole's life and
extra-dimensions
• Sabine Hossenfelder: What Black Holes Can Teach Us, hep-ph/0412265 (http://www.arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/
0412265)
• L. Modesto, PhysRevD.70.124009 (http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0407097): Disappearance of Black Hole
Singularity in Quantum Gravity
• P. Nicolini, A. Smailacic, E. Spallucci, j.physletb.2005.11.004 (http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0510112):
Noncommutative geometry inspired Schwarzschild black hole
• A. Bonanno, M. Reuter, PhysRevD.73.083005 (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0602159): Spacetime Structure of
an Evaporating Black Hole in Quantum Gravity
External links
• Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes (http://arxiv.org/abs/0806.3381)
• A. Barrau & J. Grain, The Case for mini black holes (http://www.cerncourier.com/main/article/44/9/22) : a
review of the searches for new physics with micro black holes possibly formed at colliders
• Mini Black Holes Might Reveal 5th Dimension (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/
060626_mystery_monday.html) - Space.com
• Doomsday Machine Large Hadron Collider? (http://www.ostina.org/content/view/3547/1077/) - A scientific
essay about energies, dimensions, black holes, and the associated public attention to CERN, by Norbert Frischauf
(also available as Podcast)
Strangelet
A strangelet is a hypothetical particle consisting of a bound state of roughly equal numbers of up, down, and strange
quarks. Its size would be a minimum of a few femtometers across (with the mass of a light nucleus). Once the size
becomes macroscopic (on the order of meters across), such an object is usually called a quark star or "strange star"
rather than a strangelet. An equivalent description is that a strangelet is a small fragment of strange matter. The term
"strangelet" originates with E. Farhi and R. Jaffe.[1] Strangelets have been suggested as a dark matter candidate.[2]
Theoretical possibility
Strange matter hypothesis

The known particles with strange quarks are unstable because the strange quark is heavier than the up and down
quarks, so strange particles, such as the Lambda particle, which contains an up, down, and strange quark, always lose
their strangeness, by decaying via the weak interaction to lighter particles containing only up and down quarks. But
states with a larger number of quarks might not suffer from this instability. This is the "strange matter hypothesis" of
Bodmer [3] and Witten.[2] According to this hypothesis, when a large enough number of quarks are collected
together, the lowest energy state is one which has roughly equal numbers of up, down, and strange quarks, namely a
strangelet. This stability would occur because of the Pauli exclusion principle; having three types of quarks, rather
than two as in normal nuclear matter, allows more quarks to be placed in lower energy levels.
Strangelet 105
Relationship with nuclei

A nucleus is a collection of a large number of up and down quarks, confined into triplets (neutrons and protons).
According to the strange matter hypothesis, strangelets are more stable than nuclei, so nuclei are expected to decay
into strangelets. But this process may be extremely slow because there is a large energy barrier to overcome: as the
weak interaction starts making a nucleus into a strangelet, the first few strange quarks form strange baryons, such as
the Lambda, which are heavy. Only if many conversions occur almost simultaneously will the number of strange
quarks reach the critical proportion required to achieve a lower energy state. This is very unlikely to happen, so even
if the strange matter hypothesis were correct, nuclei would never be seen to decay to strangelets because their
lifetime would be longer than the age of the universe.
Size
The stability of strangelets depends on their size. This is because of (a) surface tension at the interface between quark
matter and vacuum (which affects small strangelets more than big ones), and (b) screening of charges, which allows
small strangelets to be charged, with a neutralizing cloud of electrons/positrons around them, but requires large
strangelets, like any large piece of matter, to be electrically neutral in their interior. The charge screening distance
tends to be of the order of a few femtometers, so only the outer few femtometers of a strangelet can carry charge.[4]
The surface tension of strange matter is unknown. If it is smaller than a critical value (a few MeV per square
femtometer[5] ) then large strangelets are unstable and will tend to fission into smaller strangelets (strange stars
would still be stabilized by gravity). If it is larger than the critical value, then strangelets become more stable as they
get bigger.
Natural or artificial occurrence

Although nuclei do not decay to strangelets, there are other ways to create strangelets, so if the strange matter
hypothesis is correct there should be strangelets in the universe. There are at least three ways they might be created
in nature:
• Cosmogonically, i.e., in the early universe when the QCD confinement phase transition occurred. It is possible
that strangelets were created along with the neutrons and protons which form ordinary matter.
• High energy processes. The universe is full of very high-energy particles (cosmic rays). It is possible that when
these collide with each other or with neutron stars they may provide enough energy to overcome the energy
barrier and create strangelets from nuclear matter.
• Cosmic ray impacts. In addition to head-on collisions of cosmic rays, ultra high energy cosmic rays impacting on
Earth's atmosphere may create strangelets.
These scenarios offer possibilities for observing strangelets. If there are strangelets flying around the universe, then
occasionally a strangelet should hit Earth, where it would appear as an exotic type of cosmic ray. If strangelets can
be produced in high energy collisions, then we might make them at heavy-ion colliders.
Accelerator production
At heavy ion accelerators like RHIC, nuclei are collided at relativistic speeds, creating strange and antistrange quarks
which could conceivably lead to strangelet production. The experimental signature of a strangelet would be its very
high ratio of mass to charge, which would cause its trajectory in a magnetic field to be extremely straight. The STAR
collaboration has searched for strangelets produced at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider,[6] but none were found.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is even less likely to produce strangelets,[7] but searches are planned[8] for the
LHC ALICE detector.
Strangelet 106
Space-based detection
The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), an instrument which is planned to be mounted on the International Space
Station, could detect strangelets.[9]
Possible seismic detection

In May 2002, a group of researchers at Southern Methodist University reported the possibility that strangelets may
have been responsible for a seismic event recorded on October 22 and November 24 in 1993.[10] The authors later
retracted their claim, after finding that the clock of one of the seismic stations had a large error during the relevant
period.[11]
It has been suggested that the International Monitoring System being set up to verify the Comprehensive Nuclear
Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) may be useful as a sort of "strangelet observatory" using the entire Earth as its detector. The
IMS will be designed to detect anomalous seismic disturbances down to 1 kiloton of TNT's equivalent energy release
or less, and could be able to track strangelets passing through Earth in real time if properly exploited.
Dangers
If the strange matter hypothesis is correct and a strangelet comes in contact with a lump of ordinary matter such as
Earth, it could convert the ordinary matter to strange matter.[12] [13] This "ice-nine" disaster scenario is as follows:
one strangelet hits a nucleus, catalyzing its immediate conversion to strange matter. This liberates energy, producing
a larger, more stable strangelet, which in turn hits another nucleus, catalyzing its conversion to strange matter. In the
end, all the nuclei of all the atoms of Earth are converted, and Earth is reduced to a hot, large lump of strange matter.
This is not a concern for strangelets in cosmic rays because they are produced far from Earth and have had time to
decay to their ground state, which is predicted by most models to be positively charged, so they are electrostatically
repelled by nuclei, and would rarely merge with them.[14] [15] But high-energy collisions could produce negatively
charged strangelet states which live long enough to interact with the nuclei of ordinary matter.[16]
The danger of catalyzed conversion by strangelets produced in heavy-ion colliders has received some media
attention,[17] [18] and concerns of this type were raised[12] [19] at the commencement of the Relativistic Heavy Ion
Collider (RHIC) experiment at Brookhaven, which could potentially have created strangelets. A detailed analysis[13]
concluded that the RHIC collisions were comparable to ones which naturally occur as cosmic rays traverse the solar
system, so we would already have seen such a disaster if it were possible. RHIC has been operating since 2000
without incident. Similar concerns have been raised about the operation of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at
CERN[20] but such fears are dismissed as far-fetched by scientists.[20] [21] [22]
In the case of a neutron star, the conversion scenario seems much more plausible. A neutron star is in a sense a giant
nucleus (20 km across), held together by gravity, but it is electrically neutral and so does not electrostatically repel
strangelets. If a strangelet hit a neutron star, it could convert a small region of it, and that region would grow to
consume the entire star, creating a quark star.[23]
All the issues discussed above relating to the conversion of ordinary matter to strange matter only arise if the strange
matter hypothesis is true, and its surface tension is larger than the aforementioned critical value.
Debate about the strange matter hypothesis

The strange matter hypothesis remains unproven. No direct search for strangelets in cosmic rays or particle
accelerators has seen a strangelet (see references in earlier sections). If any of the objects we call neutron stars could
be shown to have a surface made of strange matter, this would indicate that strange matter is stable at zero pressure,
which would vindicate the strange matter hypothesis. But there is no strong evidence for strange matter surfaces on
neutron stars (see below).
Strangelet 107
Another argument against the hypothesis is that if it were true, all neutron stars should be made of strange matter,
and otherwise none should be.[24] Even if there were only a few strange stars initially, violent events such as
collisions would soon create many strangelets flying around the universe. Because one strangelet will convert a
neutron star to strange matter, by now all neutron stars would have been converted. This argument is still debated,[25]
[26] [27] [28]
but if it is correct then showing that one neutron star has a conventional nuclear matter crust would
disprove the strange matter hypothesis.
Because of its importance for the strange matter hypothesis, there is an ongoing effort to determine whether the
surfaces of neutron stars are made of strange matter or nuclear matter. The evidence currently favors nuclear matter.
This comes from the phenomenology of X-ray bursts, which is well-explained in terms of a nuclear matter crust,[29]
and from measurement of seismic vibrations in magnetars.[30]
In fiction
An episode of Odyssey 5 featured an attempt to destroy the planet by intentionally creating negatively charged
strangelets in a particle accelerator.[31]
The BBC docufiction End Day features a scenario where a particle accelerator in New York City explodes, creating
a strangelet and starting a catastrophic chain reaction which destroys Earth.
The story "A Matter most Strange" in the collection Indistinguishable from Magic by Robert L. Forward deals with
the making of strangelet in a particle accelerator.
Impact (novel), published in 2010 and written by Douglas Preston, deals with a strangelet that impacts the Earth and
Moon and passes through.
Killer Strangelets is a children's novel, written by CT Furlong and published by Inside Pocket which features a
scenario whereby a group of kids are forced to embark on a mission to CERN to stop an evil scientist, who is
involved with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) project, from using Killer Strangelets to destroy the planet.
References
[1] E. Farhi and R. Jaffe, "Strange Matter", Phys. Rev. D30, 2379 (1984) (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRD/ v30/ i11/ p2379_1)
[2] E. Witten, "Cosmic Separation Of Phases" Phys. Rev. D30, 272 (1984) (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRD/ v30/ i2/ p272_1)
[3] A. Bodmer "Collapsed Nuclei" Phys. Rev. D4, 1601 (1971) (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRD/ v4/ i6/ p1601_1)
[4] H. Heiselberg, "Screening in quark droplets", Phys. Rev. D48, 1418 (1993) (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRD/ v48/ i3/ p1418_1)
[5] M. Alford, K. Rajagopal, S. Reddy, A. Steiner, "The Stability of Strange Star Crusts and Strangelets", Phys. Rev. D73 114016 (2006)
arXiv:hep-ph/0604134 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-ph/ 0604134)
[6] STAR Collaboration, "Strangelet search at RHIC", arXiv:nucl-ex/0511047 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ nucl-ex/ 0511047)
[7] Ellis J, Giudice G, Mangano ML, Tkachev I, Wiedemann U (LHC Safety Assessment Group) (5 September 2008). " Review of the Safety of
LHC Collisions (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 0954-3899/ 35/ 11/ 115004/ g8_11_115004.
pdf?request-id=1973667e-34da-47a4-b75a-08624558a81b)" (PDF, 586 KiB). ''Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics. 35,
115004 (18pp). doi:10.1088/0954-3899/35/11/115004. arXiv:0806.3414. CERN record (http:/ / cdsweb. cern. ch/ record/ 1111112?ln=fr).
[8] A. Angelis et al., "Model of Centauro and strangelet production in heavy ion collisions", Phys. Atom. Nucl. 67:396-405 (2004)
arXiv:nucl-th/0301003 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ nucl-th/ 0301003)
[9] J. Sandweiss, "Overview of strangelet searches and Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer: When will we stop searching?" J. Phys. G30:S51-S59
(2004) (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ abstract/ 0954-3899/ 30/ 1/ 004)
[10] D. Anderson et al., "Two seismic events with the properties for the passage of strange quark matter through the earth"
arXiv:astro-ph/0205089 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0205089)
[11] E.T. Herrin et al., "Seismic Search for Strange Quark Nuggets" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0505584)
[12] A. Dar, A. De Rujula, U. Heinz, "Will relativistic heavy ion colliders destroy our planet?", Phys. Lett. B470:142-148 (1999)
arXiv:hep-ph/9910471 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-ph/ 9910471)
[13] W. Busza, R. Jaffe, J. Sandweiss, F. Wilczek, "Review of speculative 'disaster scenarios' at RHIC", Rev. Mod. Phys.72:1125-1140 (2000)
arXiv:hep-ph/9910333 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-ph/ 9910333)
[14] J. Madsen, "Intermediate mass strangelets are positively charged", Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 (2000) 4687-4690 (2000) arXiv:hep-ph/0008217
(http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-ph/ 0008217)
Strangelet 108
[15] J. Madsen "Strangelets in Cosmic Rays", for Proceedings of 11th Marcel Grossmann Meeting, Germany, Jul 2006, arXiv:astro-ph/0612784
(http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0612784)
[16] J. Schaffner-Bielich, C. Greiner, A. Diener, H. Stoecker, "Detectability of strange matter in heavy ion experiments", Phys. Rev.
C55:3038-3046 (1997), arXiv:nucl-th/9611052 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ nucl-th/ 9611052)
[17] New Scientist, 28 August 1999: "A Black Hole Ate My Planet" (http:/ / www. kressworks. com/ Science/ A_black_hole_ate_my_planet.
htm)
[18] Horizon: End Days, an episode of the BBC television series Horizon
[19] W. Wagner, "Black holes at Brookhaven?" and reply by F. Wilzcek, Letters to the Editor, Scientific American July 1999
[20] Dennis Overbye, Asking a Judge to Save the World, and Maybe a Whole Lot More, NY Times, 29 March 2008 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/
2008/ 03/ 29/ science/ 29collider. html?ref=us)
[21] "Safety at the LHC" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ Public/ en/ LHC/ Safety-en. html). .
[22] J. Blaizot et al., "Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC", CERN library record (http:/ / cdsweb.
cern. ch/ search?sysno=002372601cer) CERN Yellow Reports Server (PDF) (http:/ / doc. cern. ch/ yellowrep/ 2003/ 2003-001/ p1. pdf)
[23] Astrophys. Journal 310: 261. 1986. "Strange stars" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1986ApJ. . . 310. . 261A).
[24] J. Friedman and R. Caldwell, "Evidence against a strange ground state for baryons", Phys. Lett. B264, 143-148 (1991)
[25] J. Madsen, "Strangelets as cosmic rays beyond the GZK-cutoff", Phys. Rev. Lett. 90:121102 (2003) arXiv:stro-ph/0211597 (http:/ / www.
arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0211597)
[26] S. Balberg, "Comment on 'strangelets as cosmic rays beyond the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin cutoff'", Phys. Rev. Lett. 92:119001 (2004),
arXiv:astro-ph/0403503 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0403503)
[27] J. Madsen, "Reply to Comment on Strangelets as Cosmic Rays beyond the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin Cutoff", Phys. Rev.Lett. 92:119002
(2004), arXiv:astro-ph/0403515 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0403515)
[28] J. Madsen, "Strangelet propagation and cosmic ray flux",Phys. Rev. D71, 014026 (2005) arXiv:astro-ph/0411538 (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/
abs/ astro-ph/ 0411538)
[29] A. Heger, A. Cumming, D. Galloway, S. Woosley, "Models of Type I X-ray Bursts from GS 1826-24: A Probe of rp-Process Hydrogen
Burning", arXiv:0711.1195 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0711. 1195)
[30] A. Watts and S. Reddy, "Magnetar oscillations pose challenges for strange stars", MNRAS, 379, L63 (2007) arXiv:astro-ph/0609364 (http:/
/ arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0609364)
[31] Odyssey 5: Trouble with Harry (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0664394/ ), an episode of the Canadian science fiction television series
Odyssey 5 by Manny Coto (2002)
Further reading
• Holden, Joshua (May 17, 1998). "The Story of Strangelets" (http://www.physics.rutgers.edu/~jholden/
strange/strange.html). Rutgers. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
• Fridolin Weber (2004). "Strange Quark Matter and Compact Stars". arΧiv:astro-ph/0407155 [astro-ph].
• Jes Madsen (1998). "Physics and Astrophysics of Strange Quark Matter". arΧiv:astro-ph/9809032 [astro-ph].
109
Future
Super Large Hadron Collider

The Super Large Hadron Collider (SLHC) is a proposed upgrade to the Large Hadron Collider to be made after
around ten years of operation. The upgrade aims at increasing the luminosity of the machine by a factor of 10, up to
1035cm−2s−1, providing a better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements.
Many different paths exist for upgrading the collider. A collection of different designs of the high luminosity
interaction regions is being maintained by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).[1] A workshop
was held in 2006 to establish which are the most promising options.[2] A comprehensive press article on this
workshop can be found at the CERN Courier [3]. A summary of the possible machine parameters can be found at
Machine parameters collection [4].
Increasing LHC luminosity involves reduction of beam size at the collision point and either reduction of bunch
length and spacing, or significant increase in bunch length and population. The maximum integrated luminosity
increase of the existing options is about a factor of 4 higher than the LHC ultimate performance, unfortunately far
below the LHC upgrade project's initial ambition of a factor of 10. However, at the latest LUMI'06 workshop,[2]
several suggestions were proposed that would boost the LHC peak luminosity by a factor of 10 beyond nominal
towards 1035 cm−2s−1.
The resultant higher event rate poses important challenges for the particle detectors located in the collision areas.[5]
Injector upgrade
As part of the Phase 2 Super LHC, significant changes would be made to the proton injector.
Superconducting Proton Linac (SPL): Accelerating protons with superconducting radio frequency cavities to an
energy of 5GeV.
Proton Synchrotron 2 (PS2): Accelerating the beam from 5GeV at injection to 50GeV at extraction.
Super Proton Synchroton (SPS) Upgraded: The present SPS would be substantially upgraded to handle in increased
beam intensity from PS2.
Super Large Hadron Collider 110
References
[1] IR optics collection (http:/ / care-hhh. web. cern. ch/ care-hhh/ SuperLHC_IRoptics/ IRoptics. html)
[2] LUMI 06 workshop (http:/ / care-hhh. web. cern. ch/ CARE-HHH/ LUMI-06/ default. html)
[3] http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 29838
[4] http:/ / care-hhh. web. cern. ch/ CARE-HHH/ LUMI-06/ lhcupgradeparameters. htm
[5] ATLAS upgrade web page (http:/ / atlas. web. cern. ch/ Atlas/ GROUPS/ UPGRADES/ )
Very Large Hadron Collider 111
Very Large Hadron Collider

The Very Large Hadron Collider (VLHC) is a name for a hypothetical future hadron collider with performance
significantly beyond the Large Hadron Collider.[1]
There is no planned location or schedule for the VLHC; the name is used only to discuss the technological feasibility
of such a collider and ways that it might be designed.
Given that such a performance increase necessitates a correspondingly large increase in size, cost, and power
requirements, a significant amount of international collaboration over a period of decades would be required to
construct such a collider.
See also
• Particle physics
References
[1] Glanz, James (2001-07-10). "Physicists Unite, Sort of, on Next Collider" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2001/ 07/ 10/ science/
physicists-unite-sort-of-on-next-collider. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-06-27.
External links
• vlhc.org (http://vlhc.org/), a Fermilab webpage on VLHC research and development
• VLHC Design Materials (http://tdserver1.fnal.gov/tddoc/DesignStudyReport/)
Article Sources and Contributors

CERN Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389293260 Contributors: 21655, 2T, A-giau, A. di M., Aaker, Abcdefg007, Abdel.a.saleh, AcademyAD, Addshore, Adipop34,
Aeusoes1, Af648, Ahoerstemeier, Alby, AlexGR1987, Alexandra lb, Alexandre Gilbert, Ali@gwc.org.uk, Alias777, Allstarecho, Alsandro, Amakuru, Ameliorate!, Ancheta Wis, Andreask,
Andrejj, Andrius.v, Angelastic, Aop27, Apyule, AquaTeen13, ArnoLagrange, Arx Fortis, Athaenara, Aymatth2, Azileron, Beefyt, Ben-Zin, Benplowman, Berchemboy, Beta Orionis, Bevo,
Billranton, Blacklemon67, Bosons in a bucket, Brandon, Brescia567, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, Bryan Derksen, Bsegal, Caknuck, Caltas, Calypso, Capricorn42, Caroline Sanford, Cenarium,
Che090572, Christian List, Chronitis, Chstens, Clappyyay, CommonsDelinker, Coolcaesar, CrazyPhunk, Credema, CredoFromStart, Cruist22, Cs302b, Ctbolt, D.stewart, DIEXEL, DJCJ, DV8
2XL, DagosNavy, Danemaricich, Danski14, Dark jedi requiem, David Kernow, David Schaich, David.Monniaux, Dessources, Dferg, DinosaursLoveExistence, Discospinster, DmitTrix, Dod1,
Download, Drbrain, Dtaw2001, Dumelow, Easter Monkey, Edward, Egg, Ehn, Elfrah, Elpaw, Elwell, Empty2005, Engmark, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Equendil, Erkcan, Estevoaei, Everyking,
FDJoshua22, Famspear, FayssalF, Felix Wiemann, Ferocious osmosis, Finn-Zoltan, FloydRTurbo, Frecklefoot, Freefry, Freerk, FreplySpang, Fribbler, Fsiler, Funky Monkey, Future Perfect at
Sunrise, Galoubet, Geeky Freak, George100, Georgexu316, Gephart, Ghettobodhi, Gillis, Gimboid13, Gnomon Kelemen, Goudzovski, Greenshed, Greg2415r, GregorB, Grindl, Gurubrahma,
Harp, Hdc-en, He6kd, Headbomb, Hemlock Martinis, HenkvD, Heron, HistoryStudent113, Hoggy79, HolIgor, Hugh Mason, Hughly741, Humblefool, Huseyx2, IIIIIIIII, IRP, Icestorm815, Ida
Shaw, Illuminatiscott, Immunize, Itai, J Slaughts, J.delanoy, JFG, JabberWok, Jakeckrug, JamieS93, Jan.veverka, Jancikotuc, Jauerback, Jennavecia, Jerome Charles Potts, Jersildj00, Jhutchin,
Jla464, Jll, Jmnbatista, JonasRH, Jonesy22, Jordi Burguet Castell, Joriz, Jorophose, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joy, Jpbowen, Jpgordon, Justwes, KPH2293, Karada, Kencf0618, Khukri, Kidlittle,
Kingokings, Kirankumarpec, Knowledge Seeker, Koavf, Koffieyahoo, Korg, Kozuch, Kukini, Kumarg83, Kurroth, Kuru, Kusunose, Kwamikagami, Kyuko, LOLx9000, Laurascudder,
LeaveSleaves, LeedsKing, LessHeard vanU, Letdorf, Life, Liberty, Property, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Linas, Llywelyn2000, Looxix, Lousyd, Lucy-marie, Luminite2, MER-C, MONGO, Mac,
MadGeographer, Magioladitis, Martarius, Matchups, Mbell, Mets501, Michael Fitzgerald, Michael Zimmermann, MichaelMaggs, Miquonranger03, MrHat1065, Ms2ger, Napy1kenobi,
NastalgicCam, NawlinWiki, Nbumbic, NerdyNSK, Nergaal, Netoholic, Nicoosuna, Night w, Nono64, Notheruser, NuclearWarfare, Oda Mari, OlEnglish, Ora, OwenBlacker, Pazmanpro, Philip
Trueman, Pizza1512, Pladask, Pne, Poptropica, Porterjoh, PostScript, Prisonblues, Pshent, Ptk, Pvosta, Qasinka, Qertis, Quale, Rama, Raso mk, Raxxel, Raysonho, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Rnt20,
Robert L, Robin klein, Rogermw, Ronark, RoyBoy, Rror, Ruud Koot, RxS, SCZenz, Sai2020, Saippuakauppias, Scaler1112, Schutz, Seattle Skier, Sergio.ballestrero, Shandris, Shanedidona,
SheffieldSteel, Sheliak, Shoofy, Sidonie2000, Simeon H, Simfish, Snappy, Snorgle, Sod aries, Softssa, SpNeo, Speer320, Spoon!, Srbounds, Ssolbergj, Staka, SteveTraylen, StewartMH,
Stringer1993, Stsang, Suruena, Tanvirzaman, Ted Easton, TedE, The Fish, The Wild Falcon, Thealaskinwonder, Tide rolls, Tikiwont, TimRI, Tkessler, Tothwolf, TubularWorld, TurboNOMAD,
TypoDotOrg, UNSCRAMBLER, Uiteoi, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, UsagiM, Usergreatpower, Vazelos13, Velho, Venske, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vinsci, Vyznev Xnebara, WackerSK, Waggers, Wake me
up in anarchy, Wavelength, Wellington1000, Wert909gram, Whitepaw, Whkoh, Wik, Wikiborg, Wikidudeman, Wogsland, Wolvve85, Xanzzibar, Xchbla423, Xltel, Xris0, Yinchongding,
Youandme, Yungjoepugs, Zigger, Zonder, Zykure, Zzyzx11, 613 anonymous edits
Large Hadron Collider Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389853279 Contributors: (jarbarf), -Majestic-, 02millers, 03md, 123smellmyfeet, 1dragon, 2bornot2b,
343GuiltySpark343, 4johnny, 842U, 84user, 99chromehead, A. di M., A.R., A3RO, AMK1211, Abdullais4u, AbhishekSinghRana, AcademyAD, Acepectif, Acroterion, Addw, Adejam,
Adhalanay, Adilch, Advertiseo, Afowler, Ageekgal, Ahoerstemeier, Ajeetkumar81, Aka042, Al Farnsworth, Alamgir, Alaniaris, Alansohn, Alberto da Calvairate, Alexgenaud, Alexius08,
Ali@gwc.org.uk, Amaurea, Amire80, Amorymeltzer, Andefs, AndersFeder, Andre Engels, Andrewlp1991, Andrius.v, Andy M. Wang, Anetode, Anna Frodesiak, Anonyfuss, Anonymous
Dissident, Antimatter Dilbert, Apis O-tang, Apparition11, ArglebargleIV, Army1987, Arnoutf, Arobic, Arpingstone, Arronax50, Art LaPella, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, AssegaiAli,
AstroHurricane001, Atelerix, Atif.t2, Austin512, Autonova, Autumn Fall, AvalonTreman, Axl, AzureFury, B3llit0, Backspace, Baclough, Balcerzak, Bambaiah, Barak Sh, Baryn,
Basejumper123, Bastique, Batista619, Batmanand, Beatsbox, Beeblebrox, Beehive101, Beetstra, Beland, Belismakr, Bella Swan, BenRG, Bender235, Benplowman, Bergdohle, Beta Orionis,
Bevo, Bigbluefish, Bigboy101011, Biguana, BillC, BillFlis, Biologicithician, Blaxthos, Blehfu, Bm gub, Bmoc2012tms, Bobo192, Bodhikun, Boing! said Zebedee, Boodlesthecat, Booyabazooka,
Branddobbe, Brandon, BreakerLOLZ, Brickwall04, Bryan Derksen, Bsadowski1, Bsimmons666, Bubba73, Buckethed, Buddy431, Bugnot, Buridan, Burzmali, CIreland, Caco de vidro,
CaelumArisen, Cakedamber, CamB42424, Camronwest, Camw, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, CaptinJohn, CardinalDan, Cariniabean, Casmiky, Catgut, Cathardic, Cbetan, Cbrown1023,
Cenarium, Centrx, Cerebellum, Ceyockey, Cgingold, Cgwaldman, Ch1n4m4n, Chaleur, Chem-MTFC, Chickenweed, Chihuong bk, Chovain, Chris G, Chrishomingtang, Chriss789, Christina
Silverman, Chronitis, Chrumps, ChuChingadas, Chzz, Citedegg, Closedmouth, Cmanser, Coasterlover1994, Colmsherry, Colonel Warden, Connelly, Connormah, Contribut, Courcelles, Crisis,
Cristi.falcas, Cstaffa, Ctjf83, Ctmt, Cvet, CyberSkull, Cyclades, DMacks, DMurphy, DVdm, Dacool7, Daelian, Daf, Dailycare, DanielCD, DanielDeibler, Dante Alighieri, Dark Formal,
Darklombax, Darrenhusted, Darsie from german wiki pedia, Darth Mike, DataMatrix, Dauto, Davemck, David Gerard, David Schaich, David.Monniaux, DavidB601, Davodd, Dbutler1986,
Deagle AP, Deamon138, Deb, Debresser, December21st2012Freak, Decltype, Deconstructhis, Deon, Der Falke, Dirtygreek, Discospinster, Djchainz, Djinn65, Docjudith, DoctorJoeE, Donfbreed,
Doradus, Dormskirk, DoubleBlue, Douchedoom, Dpr101188, Dracoblaze4, DragonFury, Dreadstar, Dricherby, Drrngrvy, Dtely, Duncan, Duncan.france, Dux is me, Dycedarg, Długosz, ESkog,
EarthRise33, Earthsky, Eastlaw, Ebenonce, EdC, EdTrist, Edward, Eeekster, Egil, Ehn, Eintragung ins Nichts, ElationAviation, Electron9, Eliasen, Elipongo, Elliot Lipeles, Elonka, Emily Jensen,
EmilyUndead, Epbr123, Error792, Esb, Estevoaei, Esthurin, EuroWikiWorld, Eurobas, Evans1982, Ever388, Evercat, Everyme, Ewhite2, Excellt127, Eyu100, F Notebook, FT2,
Faithlessthewonderboy, Falcon8765, Falcon9x5, Fama Clamosa, Fanatix, Fanman904, Felix Dance, Felixhudson, Final Philosopher, Fl4ian, Fletcher, Florentino floro, Flukas, Fluteflute,
FlyingToaster, FrF, Franjesus, Frazzydee, Frecklefoot, Fred Stober, FreddoT, Fredrik, Freerk, Friendly Neighbour, Frikandel, FunkDemon, Funkysapien, Furrykef, GDallimore, Gabbe, Gbrandt,
Geckon, Ged UK, GeeJo, Geepster, Geljamin, Gene Nygaard, General Epitaph, Gflashwnox, Giftlite, Gimmetrow, Ginsengbomb, Gjtorikian, GlobetrottingAussie, Gmeyerowitz, God=nocioni,
GorillaWarfare, Gortu, Goudzovski, Gourra, Gouryella, Gppande, Grahn, GrandDrake, Grayshi, Greatrobo76, GreenGourd, Gregb, GregorB, Griffles, GruBBy, Guoguo12, GuyanaMan, Gwen
Gale, Gökhan, H2g2bob, HEL, HalfShadow, HamburgerRadio, Hamiltondaniel, Harej, Harp, Haseth, Hashiq, Hazard-SJ, Headbomb, Hechser, Hedgehawk, Heggied, HelloDenyo, Henryodell,
Herbee, HexaChord, Hibernian, Hickorybark, Hiflyer, HisNameIsChris, Hj FUN, Homocion, Hqb, Hu, Huddahbuddah, Hurricane Floyd, Hydrargyrum, Hydrogen Iodide, Hypergeek14, I hate to
register, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, ISD, ISGTW, Ice Cold Beer, Iconoclast09, Ifrit, Iloveham, Inferiorjon, Insanity Incarnate, Interchange88, InternetMeme, Iridescent, Islander, Istvan, Itain'tsobad,
Ixfd64, J Milburn, J.delanoy, JBsupreme, JCDenton2052, JabberWok, Jac16888, Jacj, Jacob Poon, Jacob2718, James Frankcom, Jamesofur, Jamesooders, Janke, Japo, JarahE, Jdiemer, Jeff G.,
Jeffakolb, Jeffrey Mall, Jeffrey Solimine, Jh51681, Jim, Jimbob16314, Jlcoving, Jll, Jmcc150, Jmnbatista, JoanneB, Joeylawn, JohnCD, Jokestress, Jonterry4, Joopercoopers, Joseph Solis in
Australia, Josh3580, Joshua Issac, Josiah Rowe, Jredmond, Jtankers, Juhachi, Juhanson, Juliancolton, Jushi, Justinb52, Jóhann Heiðar Árnason, Kae1is, Kanags, Kane5187, Karenjc, Kartano,
Kavehmz, Keaton, Keenan Pepper, Keilana, Kelvin Case, Kevin Mason Barnard, Khukri, Kilo-Lima, Kittybrewster, Kjkolb, Kludger, Kocio, Kralizec!, Krsont, Kslotte, Ktr101, Kubigula,
Kuralyov, Kurtilein, KyleMac, Kylehung, Kyro, Kyurkewicz, Lamikae, Lantrix, Laurascudder, LeadSongDog, LeaveSleaves, Lee Carre, Leeyc0, Lenary, Leon7, Lesdo234, Lethesl, Lets Enjoy
Life, Libriantichi, Lifeboatpres, Lightmouse, Lihaas, Lilac Soul, Linas, Linmhall, Lode, LonelyMarble, Loren.wilton, Lotje, Louprado, LovesMacs, Ltlighter, LttS, Lumidek, Lycurgus,
MAGZine, MFH, MMS2013, MZMcBride, MacFodder, Maccy69, Mackmgg, Magog the Ogre, Mahanga, Mako098765, Malinaccier, Managerpants, Manu-ve Pro Ski, Marcus Qwertyus,
Marek69, Mariekshan, Markhoney, MassKnowledgeLearner, Master michael 90, Maurice Carbonaro, Mavrisa, MaxSem, Maxime.Debosschere, McSly, Mcewan, Mean as custard, Meltonkt,
Mentisock, Message From Xenu, Mgambentok, Mhworth, Michael C Price, Michael Farris, Michael Hardy, MichaelMaggs, Michelle Roberts, Mickeyhill, Mike Peel, Mike Rosoft, Mimihitam,
Mindmatrix, Minna Sora no Shita, Miquonranger03, Miss Madeline, Mitch Ames, Mix Bouda-Lycaon, Mjspe1, Mkhan-95, Mmenal, Mononomic, Moravice, Mpatel, Mpwheatley, Mr flea, Mr.
Quertee, Mr.Unknown, MrOllie, Mrcoolbp, Mriya, Mrund, Msablic, Mspraveen, Mtbaldyred, MuZemike, Muad, Muhammedpbuh, Mwvandersteen, My76Strat, Mygerardromance, NORD74,
Nacre 10, Nanouniverse, Narutolovehinata5, Natural Cut, NawlinWiki, Nburden, Ndavies2, Ndenison, Nekura, NellieBly, Neo256, Nephron, Netanel h, NewEnglandYankee, Newone,
Newzebras, Nihiltres, Nineko, Ninjagecko, Nitya Dharma, Nmajmani, Nocarrier813, Noplasma, Northfox, Ntse, NuclearWarfare, Nucleusboy, Nukes4Tots, Num43, Nunocordeiro, Nurg, Oak,
Ohms law, Ohmyyes, Olaf Davis, Oldnoah, Oldsoul, Olegwiki, OllieFury, Omweb, Onanysunday, Oni Lukos, Ooogly, Orion11M87, Ottawa4ever, Ottre, OverlordQ, Owen214, Oxymoron83,
Ozabluda, PL290, PSimeon, Paaulinho, Pac72, Paintman, Palad1n, Paragon12321, Paul Suhler, Pclover, Pdcook, Pedant75, Pedro, Pejman47, PenguiN42, Per piotrr Edman, Perfect Proposal,
Persian Poet Gal, Peter johnson4, PeterMcCready, PeterS32, Phancy Physicist, Pharotic, Phasma Felis, Phenylalanine, Phil Boswell, Philc 0780, Philip Trueman, PhilipO, Phlegm Rooster,
PhySusie, Physicistjedi, Physicsdavid, Phyte, Piano non troppo, Piggyspider123, Pikematerson, Piksi, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pill, PimRijkee, Pinkadelica, Pip2andahalf, Pizza1512, Plasticup,
Pleriche, PlumCrumbleAndCustard, PointOfPresence, Pokesausage, Pol098, Polaroids4x5, Polishhill, Ponty Pirate, Possum, Praveen pillay, Prestonmag, Priceman86, Princeb11, Profgregory,
Prowikipedians, Pseudoanonymous, PsychoJosh, Ptrslv72, Purslane, Puzl bustr, Pwhitwor, Pyfan, Pyrrhus16, QWERTYMASTR, QuadrivialMind, QuantumAmyrillis, QuantumShadow,
Quentonamos, Quirkie, Ququ, RBPierce, RG2, RJHall, RJaguar3, Rachel Pearce, Radical Mallard, RainbowOfLight, Rainwarrior, Rama, RandomXYZb, Rara bb, Ravedave, Realtruth.co.nr, Red,
Red Act, Red Sunset, Reddawnz, Redroach, Redwodka, Reinis, Remnar, Res2216firestar, Resonant.Interval, Retbutler92, RexNL, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Richard1990, RichardNeill,
RickWagnerPhD, Rio, Rjwilmsi, Rls, RoToR, Rob.bastholm, Robert K S, Robfrost, Robma, Rod57, Rodeo90, Rogermw, Romanm, Ronark, Ronhjones, Rossenglish, RotaryAce, Rotiro,
RotoSequence, RoyBoy, Rpeh, Rsholmes, Rtomas, Rubicon, Rursus, Rwxrwxrwx, Rygel, Ryulong, SCZenz, SColombo, SPat, SVTCobra, Safetynut, Salamurai, Salsa Shark, Sammy00193,
Samsara, Sandeepsuri, Sanders muc, SaveTheWhales, ScAvenger, Scaler1112, Scarecroe, Schapel, Scoops, ScorpO, Scottfisher, Scrivener72, Sdedeo, Seddon, Seeleschneider, Semorrison,
Septuagent, Seraphim, Setanta747 (locked), Sfsupro, ShadowUltra, Shadowjams, ShakataGaNai, ShandraShazam, Shandris, Shanel, Shanmugammpl, Shaunofthefuzz7, Shawnlandden,
SheffieldSteel, Sheliak, Sheps999, Shiftyalex1, Shivarudra, Siawase, Sidonuke, SilkTork, Simesa, Simfish, SimonMenashy, Siriusvector, Skizzik, SkyWalker, Sladen, Slaniel, SlaterDeterminant,
Sligocki, SlimVirgin, Smarts53, Smite-Meister, Smitty Mcgee, Snailwalker, Snowmanradio, SoWhy, Sockies, Soler97, Someguy1221, Somno, Sp00n, SpaceFlight89, Spaluch1, Spellage,
Spinal232, Spinoff, Spitfire, SqueakBox, Sroc, Ssbarker, Ssolbergj, Stack, Staka, Starwed, StaticVision, Stefinho360, StephenBuxton, Stephenb, Stevertigo, Stew560, Stickee, Strait, Stsang,
Sumsum2010, Superbeecat, Suruena, Sverdrup, Swatjester, Swedernish, SwordSmurf, THC Loadee, THMRK1, TJRC, TSRL, Taco325i, TakuyaMurata, Tanthalas39, Tarret, TarzanASG, Tayste,
Tbhotch, Tcnuk, Teamnumberawesome, Techdawg667, Techman224, TechnoFaye, Tefalstar, Terryblack, Texture, The Anome, The Firewall, The Rogue Penguin, The Thing That Should Not
Be, The way, the truth, and the light, The wub, TheBlueFox, TheNeutroniumAlchemist, TheSuave, Theevildoctorodewulfe, Themorrissey, Theo Pardilla, Thingg, ThinkBlue, Thiseye,
Thomasedavis, Thomasmackat41, Thorenn, Thumperward, Ticklemefugly, Tide rolls, TimProof, Timothylord, Timwi, Tkgd2007, Tmckeage, Tnicol, Toba, Tommyt, Tone, Tony1,
Torchwoodwho, Totakeke423, Tourettes1993, Tpbradbury, TravisAF, Trekkie4christ, Trevor Johns, Trickett rocks, Trilobitealive, Trotter, Trusilver, Truthanado, Tuduser, TunaSushi,
Tyco.skinner, Tznkai, Uiteoi, Uncle Dick, Uni4dfx, Unsuspected, Vanir-sama, Vanisheduser12345, Veldin963, Verbal, Verdatum, Versus22, Victorgmartins, Viraz, Visor, Vitalikk, Vivio
Testarossa, Voidxor, Voortle, Vsmith, Wafulz, Wangi, WannabeAmatureHistorian, WaysToEscape, Wbrice83186, Wdfarmer, WebScientist, WeirdEars, WereSpielChequers, WikiLaurent,
Wikidsoup, Wildthing61476, William Avery, Willking1979, Wiseoldbum, Wk muriithi, Wleizero, Wnt, Wolf1728, Wond3rbread1991, Wonderflash1111, WookieInHeat, Wotnow, Wtmitchell,
Wwheaton, XJamRastafire, XP1, Xasdas, Xertoz, YUL89YYZ, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yellowdesk, Yhkhoo, Ylai, Yuefairchild, ZZ9pluralZalpha, Zaak, Zargulon, Zimbabweed, Zomglolwtfzor,
Zonk43, Zsinj, Ztbbq, Ztobor, Zykure, Zythe, 1421 anonymous edits
List of LHC experiments Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=359030335 Contributors: Auntof6, Headbomb, Ironholds, Rursus, Tetrflare, Xezbeth, 5 anonymous edits
ALICE Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380523181 Contributors: Andrius.v, Caiyu, Connor Behan, Dsupriya, Econ oh my, Edgar181, Erik J, Erwinrossen, Franznavach,
Harp, Headbomb, Javachan, Khukri, Kyurkewicz, Laurascudder, LeoNomis, Madhero88, MagdaGa, Meno25, Merrybrit, Mnmngb, One, RafaAzevedo, Rich Farmbrough, SCZenz, Seneka,
Sensenmann, Tainels, Tide rolls, Xinebbsa, Мыша, 55 anonymous edits
ATLAS Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=388673677 Contributors: 84user, AB, AcademyAD, Akamad, Amapelli, AndrewWatt, Andrius.v, Apis O-tang, Bcrowell,
Bobblewik, Bovineone, Bridgeplayer, Bunchofgrapes, Bzzybee13, Charles Matthews, Ciphers, Col. Hauler, Cowman109, Curps, Cyberia23, Cynicism addict, Davdde, Djinn65,
DragonflySixtyseven, Ehn, Erkcan, Flying fish, Francphy5, Francs2000, Freakofnurture, Frencheigh, GangofOne, Gene Nygaard, Gregb, Gurch, Harp, Harryboyles, Headbomb, Herr apa, Ida
Shaw, Jag123, Jmnbatista, Joopercoopers, Juhanson, Khukri, Kozuch, Kyurkewicz, Laurascudder, LeoNomis, Linas, Loodog, Lumidek, Lupin, MagdaGa, Mako098765, Mallorn, Mandavi,
Manfalk, Martijn Hoekstra, Master z0b, Matt Crypto, Maxkramer, Mets501, Mithridates, Mjaekel, Neparis, O. Harris, Orion11M87, Pediadeep, PeterMcCready, Plasticup, Rama, Rich
Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rob.derosa, SCZenz, SandyGeorgia, Sdedeo, Sfdan, Sheliak, SimonP, SinWin, Spellmaster, Splash, Ssayler, Suruena, Susvolans, The wub, Tony1, Tushar.bhatnagar, V9,
Vald, WISo, Wayward, Wiki alf, Woodrowr, Z6, Zondor, 120 anonymous edits
CMS Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389077931 Contributors: Angelastic, Beno1000, Besselfunctions, Bkell, Bornerdogge, Chandrasonic, Chronitis, Cougarsoul, Dirc,
Erkcan, Everyme, Falcorian, GeeJo, Gene Nygaard, Harp, Headbomb, Herbee, Icalanise, Isnow, JabberWok, Jimbrooke, Jll, Jz 007, Khukri, Kyurkewicz, Laurascudder, LeoNomis, LokiClock,
LorenzoB, MagdaGa, MartinGrunewald, Michael Hardy, Mnmngb, Murielvd, Netrapt, Nevit, Nonnormalizable, Ojs, Pizza1512, Qking, Rama, Reality3chick, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi,
SchmittM, Sheliak, Slashme, Slathering, Spellage, Suruena, Techieb0y, Tiki2099, Tkolberg, Topperfalkon, TriTertButoxy, WISo, Zarniwoot, Δζ, 81 anonymous edits
LHCb Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389487070 Contributors: A1056207, AndyBuckley, Barry m, Conscious, DJIndica, Davdde, GraemeL, Harp, Headbomb, Keenan
Pepper, Khukri, Kyurkewicz, Larosch, Laurascudder, LeoNomis, Linas, Mark Williamson, Minimac, Nick, Oswald le fort, Pip2andahalf, Pkoppenb, Remuel, Rich Farmbrough, Ryan Roos,
SCZenz, Sheliak, Spike Wilbury, Steve Quinn, Themisb, Turnstep, WISo, 27 anonymous edits
LHCf Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=353282917 Contributors: Alby, Alessia2703, Alynna Kasmira, Bobo192, CaptinJohn, Davdde, Erkcan, Headbomb, Javachan, Khukri,
Kyurkewicz, Laurascudder, LeoNomis, Orion11M87, Puzl bustr, Rich Farmbrough, Sheliak, 11 anonymous edits
FP420 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=353524901 Contributors: Headbomb, Jakkinx, Rettetast, Slyatslys, Thomas Blomberg
TOTEM Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=388666339 Contributors: 7segment, Adrian 1111, Conscious, Francoroldan, Gortu, Harp, Headbomb, Javachan, Jcw69, Kaspar.jan,
Khukri, Kyurkewicz, Laurascudder, LeoNomis, Philopp, Rapsar, Rich Farmbrough, Sheliak, 12 anonymous edits
LHC Computing Grid Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378876848 Contributors: Beland, Bender235, BillinSanDiego, Bobbias, Cgingold, Chrishomingtang, Cobaltbluetony,
Egil, Eleveneleven, Ethyr, Fifieldt, GregorB, Headbomb, IG-64, JMacalinao, Jbond00747, JukoFF, Kolbasz, Legosock, Lightmouse, Mattgirling, Pakaraki, Randysnow, Sim@simpol.net,
Superm401, Twigboy, Walkingstick3, 33 anonymous edits
LHC@home Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=354069016 Contributors: .snoopy., 100110100, Bender235, Beno1000, Beyazid, Bovineone, Bruce89, Cgingold, Creidieki,
Dirk P Broer, Echoray, Erkcan, Eyreland, FayssalF, Gamer007, GeneralBelly, Giftlite, Headbomb, Hellcat fighter, Hex87, Ilyanep, Jjhat1, Justice Marshall, Kinhull, Laurascudder, LeoNomis,
Lzur, Maurice Carbonaro, Minghong, Mr. Billion, Noderaser, Nucleusboy, PrimeHunter, Professorolous, Pstanton, Rich Farmbrough, RoyBoy, SCZenz, The CISer, Valodzka, Wdfarmer,
Wikiacc, Wwoods, Ysangkok, ZeroOne, 13 anonymous edits
Proton Synchrotron Booster Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=353617189 Contributors: Andrius.v, Buddy431, Eshmo, Headbomb, Khukri, Laurascudder, Rtomas, Sheliak, 4
anonymous edits
VELO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=357996895 Contributors: Bhadani, Headbomb, Larosch, Madcoverboy, Malcolma, Nateji77, Passportguy, Themisb
Standard Model Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389696646 Contributors: A. di M., APH, Addshore, Afteread, Agasicles, Agasides, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alinor,
Aliotra, Alison, AmarChandra, Andre Engels, AnonMoos, Aoosten, Arivero, AugPi, Awren, AxelBoldt, Axl, Bakken, Bambaiah, Bamkin, Barak Sh, Bassbonerocks, BenRG, Benbest,
Bender235, Beta Orionis, Bevo, Bodhitha, Bookalign, Bovineone, Brews ohare, Brim, Brockert, Bryan Derksen, Bubba73, Bytbox, C0nanPayne, CYD, Caco de vidro, CattleGirl, Chris the
speller, ChristopherWillis, Complexica, Craig Bolon, Crazz bug 5, Crum375, D-Notice, DWHalliday, Daniel.Cardenas, DannyWilde, Dauto, Dave1g, David Barnard, David Schaich, David
spector, Dbenbenn, Dbraize, Deepmath, DerNeedle, Derek Ross, Dextrose, Dfan, Diagramma Della Verita, Djr32, Dmmaus, Dratman, Drhex, Drrngrvy, Dstudent, Dv82matt, Dysepsion, Edsegal,
Eeekster, Egg, Ekjon Lok, El C, Elsweyn, Epbr123, Ernsts, Escalona, FT2, Faethon, Faethon34, Faethon36, Fences and windows, Fogger, FrankTobia, Gary King, Gatortpk, Geremia, Giftlite,
Glenn, Gnixon, Goop Goop, Goudzovski, Gparker, Gscshoyru, Guarracino, Guy Harris, H2g2bob, HEL, Hal peridol, Haoherb428, Harp, Harrigan, Headbomb, Herbee, Hexane2000, Hirak 99,
HorsePunchKid, HungarianBarbarian, Icairns, Icalanise, Iomesus, Isis, Itinerant1, J Milburn, J.delanoy, JLaTondre, JabberWok, Jacksonwalters, Jagged 85, JamesAM, JarahE, JeffBobFrank,
Jeffq, Jeodesic, Jessemv, Jgwacker, Jmnbatista, Joshmt, Jrf, Jrtayloriv, Jrw@pobox.com, JulesH, Julesd, Kacser, Kate, KathrynLybarger, Kenmint, Kocio, Laurascudder, LeYaYa, Len Raymond,
Leszek Jańczuk, Likebox, LilHelpa, Linas, Lomn, Looxix, Lottamiata, Macumba, Maldmac, Melchoir, Metacomet, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Michaelbusch, Mindmatrix, Mjamja,
Monedula, Moose-32, Mosaffa, MovGP0, Mpatel, Mxn, Naraht, Nozzer42, Ohwilleke, Ordovico, Orion11M87, Orionus, Patrick, Pharotic, Phr, Phys, Physicist brazuca, Physics therapist,
Populus, QFT, QMarion II, Qwertyca, R.e.b., RG2, Ram-Man, Rama, Raven in Orbit, Rbj, Reddi, Rjwilmsi, Rmrfstar, Roadrunner, Robdunst, Roscoe x, SCZenz, Schucker, SebastianHelm,
Securiger, Setanta747 (locked), Setreset, SheepNotGoats, Sheliak, Silly rabbit, Sligocki, Soarhead77, Sonjaaa, Stannered, Steve Quinn, Stevertigo, Stillnotelf, Superm401, Superwj5, Swamy g,
TPickup, Tanner Swett, Tarcieri, Tariqhada, Template namespace initialisation script, TenOfAllTrades, Tetracube, Texture, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The Transliterator,
Thunderboltz, Tom Lougheed, TriTertButoxy, Truthnlove, Twas Now, UniversumExNihilo, Van helsing, Verdy p, Vessels42, Voorlandt, VoxMoose, WJBscribe, Waggers, Wilhelm-physiker,
Wwheaton, Xerxes314, Xezbeth, YellowMonkey, Yevgeny Kats, Youandme, 292 anonymous edits
Particle physics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=388883848 Contributors: 128.12.93.xxx, 142.58.249.xxx, 64.26.98.xxx, APH, Agerom, Ahoerstemeier, Allstarecho,
Almostcrime, AndreasJS, Archer7, Arekku, Ark, Aroodman, Arthena, Atlant, Austin Maxwell, Awmarcz, AxelBoldt, Bambaiah, Bamkin, Barbara Shack, Battlemage, Bdesham, Bennylin, Bevo,
Bggoldie, Bm gub, BobertWABC, Bobo192, Bodhitha, Boing! said Zebedee, Boud, Brandonlovescrashincastles, Brews ohare, BurtPeck, CRGreathouse, CRKingston, CWii, CYD, Calmypal,
Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Celithemis, Ch2pgj, Chenyu, Cjc38, CloudNineAC, Complex (de), Comrade42, Conversion script, Csgwon, Cybercobra, DHN,
DV8 2XL, Dauto, Deglr6328, Dev 176, Diligent Terrier, Discospinster, Djegan, Docu, Dominick, Donarreiskoffer, Donzzz77, Edward Z. Yang, El C, El Snubbe, Ellywa, Eloquence, EmanCunha,
Emijrp, Eog1916, Erwinrossen, FT2, Falcon8765, Falconkhe, Fieldday-sunday, Fruge, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Owen, Gary King, Gbrandt, GeorgeLouis, Ghalhud, Giftlite, Glenn, Gnixon,
Gnomon Kelemen, Goodnightmush, Goudzovski, Graham87, Hdeasy, Head, Headbomb, Hectorthebat, Henry W. Schmitt, Hfastedge, Howdychicken, Howie Goodell, Ilmari Karonen, Immunize,
Inwind, Iridescent, Isnow, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JRR Trollkien, JaGa, Jagged 85, Jameskeates, Jamesontai, JamieS93, Jgwacker, JimVC3, Jimbill4321, Joe N, Joe iNsecure, Jomoal99, JonasRH,
Joshmt, Jpowell, Jung dalglish, Jxzj, Kakofonous, Karol Langner, Kenneth M Burke, Kocio, Korath, Kozuch, Kuru, Kurzon, LX, Langsytank, Larry Sanger, Laussy, Le sacre, Lee Daniel Crocker,
Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Ling.Nut, Looxix, Lor772, Lseixas, Lumidek, Lupin, MER-C, MK8, Mako098765, Marcus Qwertyus, Master Jay, Matt Crypto, Matt Gies, Matthew Woodcraft,
Mattmartin, Maurreen, Mav, Mayumashu, Mcneile, Md7t, Melchoir, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Metrictensor, Mets501, Michael Hardy, MichaelMaggs, Micraboy, Mignon, Mike2vil,
MoogleEXE, Mouse7525, Mpatel, Mullactalk, Munkay, Mxn, NellieBly, News0969, Novacatz, NuclearWinner, Ohwilleke, Oldnoah, Olexandr Kravchuk, OpenToppedBus, Orion11M87,
Orpheus, Oxymoron83, Palfrey, Pandacomics, Party, Patrick, Pcd72, Pchapman47879, Penarestel, Pet3r, PhySusie, Phys, Physics, Physicsdavid, Physis, Planlips, Plastadity, Poopfacer,
PranksterTurtle, QFT, RE, Ragesoss, Raphtee, Raul654, Ravi12346, Redvers, Res2216firestar, Rholton, Rich Farmbrough, Rje, Rl, Roadrunner, Rorro, Ryan Postlethwaite, SCZenz,
Saeed.Veradi, SaltyBoatr, Sanders muc, Savidan, ScienceApologist, Scottfisher, Selkem, Shawn in Montreal, Silly rabbit, SimonMayer, SimonP, Sjakkalle, Smarcus, Snigbrook, Sodium,
Someguy1221, Srleffler, Stephenb, Steve Quinn, SwordSmurf, TallMagic, Techraj, The Epopt, Tpbradbury, Trecool12, Trelvis, Truthnlove, Tycho, UncleDouggie, UninvitedCompany, Urvabara,
Van helsing, VictorFlaushenstein, Vishnava, Voidxor, Voyajer, Wavelength, Who, Witguiota, XJamRastafire, Ylai, Zanzerjewel, Ъыь, 367 anonymous edits
Superpartner Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384571760 Contributors: Alai, Antixt, Barak Sh, Bobathon71, Carlog3, Conscious, Donarreiskoffer, Drrngrvy, Duncan.france,
Giftlite, Headbomb, Jgwacker, Kocio, LovroZitnik, Madacs, Maliz, Mpatel, Phys, R.e.b., Reedy, Roadrunner, SCZenz, SimonP, SkyLined, 5 anonymous edits
Supersymmetry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386727850 Contributors: Acjohnson55, Ancheta Wis, Andre Engels, Anville, Arivero, Barak Sh, BenRG, Blaxthos, Bodera,
Bryan Derksen, C9, CES1596, Cadmasteradam, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cgingold, Chaos, Charles Matthews, Charleswestbrook, Chessmaster7m, Cless Alvein, Closedmouth, Complexica,
Crum375, Cuboidal, DO'Neil, Dan Gluck, Ddimensões, Deglr6328, Drrngrvy, Duk, Eddie Nixon, El C, Epolk, F Notebook, Ferkelparade, Francescog, Fropuff, Gagoga ju, Gary King, Giftlite,
Gil987, Girl Scout cookie, Gparker, Gsard, Gus Polly, HaloStereo1, Headbomb, IMSoP, J.christianson, JarahE, Jcpilman, Jeandré du Toit, Jgwacker, Jordan14, Josiah Rowe, Jpod2,
Kawakameha, Kborland, Kevin Hickerson, Killing Vector, Koeplinger, Kostisl, Kurochka, Lambiam, LiDaobing, LostLeviathan, Lumidek, MFH, Maarten van Vliet, Maliz, Maury Markowitz,
Maxim Razin, Maximus Rex, Mdanziger, Mgnbar, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mira, Mishas42, Monedula, Mor, Moyogo, Mpatel, Mporter, Nn123645, Nonnormalizable, Nowhither,
Ohwilleke, Pearle, Pharotic, Phys, PhysPhD, Plumpurple, Ptrslv72, Puzl bustr, QFT, R.e.b., RG2, RJFJR, Radagast83, Raul654, Reaverdrop, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner, Robma,
Roybb95, Rursus, Salgueiro, Sam Hocevar, Scrabby, SeventyThree, Sheliak, Smack, Solarapex, Stevertigo, Susy is it, Taw, Ted BJ, That Guy, From That Show!, TheMaster42, Theresa knott,
TimothyRias, Tktktk, TriTertButoxy, Tweet Tweet, Unconcerned, VermillionBird, Wangjiaji, Wavelength, WikHead, Wtmitchell, Xerxes314, Xiaphias, Yevgeny Kats, Zahd, Zentropa77, 163
anonymous edits
Higgs boson Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389130570 Contributors: -dennis-, 1ForTheMoney, A Man In Black, A. di M., ABF, Aardvark23, Abdullais4u, Adrideba,
Alansohn, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Alyjack, AnOddName, Anaxial, AndersFeder, AndrewN, Andrius.v, Angelo souti, AnonMoos, Anonymi, Antixt, Archelon, Art LaPella, Artur80, Asmeurer,
Atomicthumbs, AxelBoldt, Baad, Bambaiah, Bbbl67, Bcody80, Bcorr, BenRG, Bender235, Benplowman, Betterusername, Bevo, Big Brother 1984, Biker Biker, Bjankuloski06en, BobertWABC,
Bodhitha, Bookofjude, Boson15, Brian Fenton, Brians, Bryan Derksen, Bubba73, BullRangifer, C S, CYD, Cadmasteradam, Caknuck, Calmer Waters, CamB424, CamB4242, CesarB, Cgd8d,
Cgwaldman, CharlesC, Chetvorno, Chreod, ChrisO, Christopher Thomas, Chuckupd, Cinkcool, Closedmouth, Consumed Crustacean, CrazyInSane, Cructacean, D'Agosta, DBGustavson,
DKqwerty, DMurphy, Daniel C, DannyDaWriter, Dante Alighieri, Dauto, Dave3457, David spector, Dbachmann, DeadlyMETAL, Deceglie, Dekker451, Dirkbb, Discospinster, Diza,
Donarreiskoffer, DrGaellon, Dragon of the Pants, Dratman, Drmies, DÅ‚ugosz, EchetusXe, Ehn, Eikern, El C, ElfQrin, Eliga, Endersdouble, Epastore, Er ouz, Eritain, Ernsts, Excirial, Fatram,
Fiziker, Fleisher, Fleminra, Flyguy649, Foobar, Foober, Foonle77, Fotoni, Frglee, Frymaster, Fæ, GDallimore, Gaurav, Giandrea, Giftlite, Gil987, Gobbledygeek, Goethean, Golbez, Goudzovski,
GregorB, Gurch, Gwib, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Harold f, Harp, Headbomb, Hellbus, Herbee, Heron, Higgshunter, Hippypink, Icairns, Iknowyourider, Ilmari Karonen, Impunv, Infestor, Irenan,
Itinerant, Itinerant1, Iwpg, J M Rice, J mcandrews, J.delanoy, JCSantos, JTiago, JabberWok, Jacques Antoine, JasonAQuest, Jc odcsmf, Jde123, Jdigitalbath, Jehochman, Jezzabr, Jfromcanada,
Jgwacker, Jimtpat, Jkl, JohnArmagh, Johnflux, Jomoal99, JonathanDP81, Jonburchel, Jor63, Joriki, JorisvS, Josh Cherry, Jpod2, Jtuggle, Justinrossetti, KHamsun, Kaihsu, KapilTagore,
Kbdank71, Kbk, Kborland, Keith-264, Kencf0618, Kendrick7, Kenneth Dawson, Kgf0, Koavf, Kocio, Konor org, Kooo, Krioni, Kyng, La goutte de pluie, Lambiam, Laplacian, Laurascudder,
Lee M, Lethe, Lewisxxxusa, LilHelpa, Linas, Loves martyr, Lycurgus, M-Falcon, Mani1, Manning Bartlett, Marcel Kosko, Marcus Brute, Markdavid2000, Martaf, Martijn Hoekstra,
Martinthoegersen, Mary at CERN, Maryhit, Master1228, Masterofpsi, Matan568, McSly, McVities, Mcorazao, Meier99, Melchoir, Meldor, Merovingian, Mesons, Mgimpel, Michael C Price,
Mike Peel, Mindmatrix, Minimac, Moeron, Moose-32, Mukadderat, Mx3, Mxn, My76Strat, N4tur4le, Nafhan, NawlinWiki, NeilN, Netrapt, NeverWorker, Newone, Newzebras, Nightscream,
Nihiltres, NikiAnna, Nimur, Nobleacuff, Nondisclosure, Norm mit, Northumbrian, Norvy, Novemberrain94, Now dance, fu.cker, dance!, Nsbinsnj, Nskillen, Nurg, Nuujinn, Oddz, Ohnoitsjamie,
Onesius, Opkdx, Oreo Priest, Orionus, Owain, Pagw, Paine Ellsworth, PeterTheWall, Peterbullockismyname, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, Photonh2o, Phys, PhysicsGrad2013, Pie4all88,
Pip2andahalf, Pizza1512, Praveen pillay, ProjeX, Proofreader77, Pulickkal, Quadell, Quasipalm, Quatschman, Qutezuce, R.e.b., Rangelov, Raoul NK, Reinoutr, Resonance cascade,
RetiredUser2, Reuben, RevenDS, Rich Farmbrough, Rick7425, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner, RobertG, Roman à clef, Rotiro, Rursus, Ruslik0, SCZenz, Safety Cap, Salsb, Sasquatch, Sbove, Sburke,
ScAvenger, Schucker, Selva, ShaneCavanaugh, Shawn@garbett.org, Shimgray, Shirifan, Sjdunn9, Slawojarek, Sligocki, Spemble, Splarka, SqueakBox, Srleffler, StAnselm, StaticGull, Steve
Quinn, StevenVerstoep, Strait, Superm401, Tburket, Tbushman, Tdent, TeunSpaans, Tevatron, The Original Wildbear, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheBendster, Thor Waldsen, Three887,
Thruston, Tide rolls, Tigga en, Tim Shuba, Tom12519, TotoBaggins, Tpbradbury, TriTertButoxy, Tritium6, Twas Now, Universalsuffrage, Usp, V1adis1av, Varlaam, WAS 4.250, WLU, Waldir,
Weaselpit, WikiUserPedia, Wikiborg, Wmlschlotterer, Wnt, Xerxes314, Yevgeny Kats, Ylee, Yoweigh, Zekemurdock, Zentropa, 511 anonymous edits
Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386684822 Contributors: 2over0, Ageekgal, Alansohn, Alexius08,
Allemandtando, Andrew Nutter, Annoyed with fanboys, Apalsola, Apparition11, Artichoker, Atkinson 291, Ayrton Prost, B7T, BCEagle21, Barak Sh, Baronnet, BenRG, Blehfu, Blueknightex,
Bobo192, Boccobrock, BoogieRock, Bovineone, Bytbox, Canberra User, Cgingold, Chovain, Closedmouth, Cmpd1, Colonel Warden, ConspiracyFAIL, Conte0, Contribut, Cybercobra,
DannyDaWriter, Darkensei, Darkoneko, Darrenhusted, Davidbeaumont, Dayewalker, Dferg, Dkasak, Dr.K., Dustand, Eaefremov, Eeekster, Elonka, Emmalouise99, Excirial, FeanorStar7,
Feedahungryhippo, Fetchcomms, Fieldday-sunday, Fred Stober, Frostlion, Furrykef, Gazimoff, General Epitaph, GregorB, HaeB, Headbomb, Hqb, HumanJHawkins, Ilikefood, Ilmari Karonen,
IngerAlHaosului, Islander, J.delanoy, Jalabi99, James Frankcom, Jamie C, Jeffq, Jehochman, John Nevard, Johnson Lau, Jonathan Drain, Jtankers, Jtrainor, Jwoodger, Kevin, Khukri, Koavf, Lfh,
MMS2013, Mandarax, MarkTB, Maxime.Debosschere, Mcorazao, MickMacNee, Milesgillham, Million Moments, Miquonranger03, Mmerlo, Moondyne, NerdyNSK, Newone, Oldnoah,
Orbnauticus, Orion11M87, Ormers, Patfrank, Perardi, Phenylalanine, PhySusie, Physchim62, Plasticup, Profgregory, Psychlohexane, Ptrslv72, RKT, Radical Mallard, RainbowOfLight, Rorro,
SCZenz, SaveTheWhales, ScienceApologist, SheffieldSteel, Sizif, Smith609, SoSaysChappy, Sockatume, Sophus Bie, Sparrowgoose, SqueakBox, Stabby Joe, Staka, Steve Smith,
Stevenfruitsmaak, Stevenj, Strait, Strayan, Swagmuncher, THEemu, Th1rt3en, The Anome, TheBilly, TheDoober, Thumperward, TimothyRias, Tombomp, TrevorX, Verbal, Vyznev Xnebara,
Woohookitty, Wwheaton, XXOni-kunXx, Yar Kramer, Yellowdesk, 170 anonymous edits
Micro black hole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381339222 Contributors: Againme, Aisphording, Antaeus Feldspar, Antixt, ArmAndLeg, Aswarp, Auric,
BalanceRestored, Bender235, Bento00, Berndf, Blanchardb, Blue Tie, Bobwhitten, BradBeattie, Caco de vidro, Cacycle, Cam-Ann, Capricorn42, Chovain, Chris the speller, Christopher Thomas,
Clarityfiend, Clark89, CrankyScorpion, Crunchy Numbers, D, Danielgrad, Deamon138, DeathNomad, Deb, Deconstructhis, Delldot, Discospinster, Diverman, DonJStevens, Donald Albury,
Draugen, Dreadstar, EdC, Eequor, Egil, Ehn, El C, Ersik, Esorbalo, FF2010, Fairandbalanced, FineCheeses, Fkara, Fleela, Giftlite, GraemeL, Gravitivistically, GregorB, Headbomb, Hellbus,
Henrygb, IVAN3MAN, Iluvcapra, Ixfd64, JForget, Jack Merridew, Jamesontai, Jeff G., Jennavecia, Jheald, Jheise, Katieh5584, Khukri, Lainagier, Lenticel, Lethesl, Light current, Linas,
Lysdexia, Mandarax, Martin-C, Mazarin07, Mckaysalisbury, Meelar, Melamed katz, Natecull, NonvocalScream, Norbi et Orbi, Nsaa, Numbo3, Oerjan, Olau, Oldnoah, Oni Lukos, Opie, Otus,
Palpatine, Patrick, Paxfeline, Phenylalanine, Philip Trueman, Physprof, Pjf, Profgregory, Quasarq, Qxz, RBM 72, Radical Mallard, RayBirks, Rmrfstar, Roadrunner, Ronhjones, SJP, Scepia,
Scootey, Scpark, Siener, Silverhill, Sinus, Skunkboy74, Smithbrenon, Snowolf, Spiralx, Supersheep, Sverdrup, Tarotcards, Teehee123, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thiseye, Timwi, Trilobite,
Trilobitealive, Uiteoi, Utan Vax, V1adis1av, Vanisheduser12345, Velho, Vinsfan368, Viriditas, Wesino, Wiki alf, WikiFew, WurmWoode, XJamRastafire, Yettie0711, Zeimusu, ‫دمحأ‬, 182
anonymous edits
Strangelet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390250394 Contributors: 3vil-Lyn, Army1987, Barak Sh, Barry Haworth, Brad Rousse, CharacterZero, Chkno, Chouca, Chovain,
Christopher Thomas, Cybercobra, Danielgrad, Dark Formal, Dark Shikari, Darksun, Davidhorman, Demophon, Dmitry Brant, DomQ, Edvvc, Eyu100, Fourohfour, Gerasime, Gunark, Headbomb,
Henry the 1st, Homocion, Hydraton31, Il Sc0rpi0ne, Insidepocket, It Is Me Here, Jackol, JarahE, Johann137, Johnthescavenger, Joquarky, Julesd, Justacec, Kgf0, Killing Vector, KungFuMonkey,
Lainagier, Lethesl, Light current, LokiClock, Maxime.Debosschere, Mjamja, MoeDrippins, NawlinWiki, Nfwu, NightmareZ, Nihiltres, OS2Warp, OlEnglish, Oldnoah, Oliver Pereira, Orange
Suede Sofa, Oxymoron83, Pauli133, Petero9, Pgan002, Phenylalanine, Physchim62, PsychoJosh, Radical Mallard, Retodon8, Rich Farmbrough, Rickythesk8r, Robert Treat, Someguy1221,
Specious, Squideshi, Suslindisambiguator, Takeshi Nakagawa, Twir, V1adis1av, Viapx, Werdna, Xanzzibar, Выползень, 145 anonymous edits
Super Large Hadron Collider Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=357640905 Contributors: Astavats, BenRG, Bngrybt, Bobo192, Calwiki, Courcelles, DaL33T, Dbiel,
Discospinster, Epbr123, Father McKenzie, Fieldday-sunday, Franamax, Fumitol, HEL, HappyArtichoke, Headbomb, Jasonbuzz, Kay Dekker, Khukri, Kocio, Laurascudder, Materialscientist,
MaverickFurmeson, OlEnglish, QuantumShadow, Rjwilmsi, Rtomas, Seba5618, Shadowjams, Skizzik, Ste1n, TechnoFaye, The Anome, WriterHound, Ygrange, Zorx12, 85 anonymous edits
Very Large Hadron Collider Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387263506 Contributors: Aly89, Andrewa, Anna Lincoln, Astavats, Azcolvin429, Bevo, CoRdigALZ,
Dbachmann, Fatal!ty, Guy Thoreau, Halfdan, Headbomb, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JackSeoul, Joe446465446, Laurascudder, LeoNomis, Mac Davis, Northgrove, PMDrive1061, Ponty Pirate,
RogueNinja, SCZenz, Salamurai, Science Guy, Seba5618, Skizzik, Tcncv, Verbal, ViperSnake151, WilliamH, Worm That Turned, XSG, Yin Huang, Zzuuzz, 44 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:CERN logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN_logo.svg License: unknown Contributors: Ssolbergj
Image:CERN member states.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN_member_states.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Ssolbergj
File:Flag of Switzerland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:-xfi-, User:Marc Mongenet,
User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Germany.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Pumbaa80
Image:Cernfounders.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cernfounders.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Hoshie, User:NerdyNSK
Image:CERN1999.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN1999.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:NerdyNSK
Image:First Web Server.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Web_Server.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:Coolcaesar at en.wikipedia
Image:Ciscosystemsrouteratcern.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ciscosystemsrouteratcern.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Coolcaesar
Image:Location Large Hadron Collider.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Location_Large_Hadron_Collider.PNG License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:Zykure
Image:Construction of LHC at CERN.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Construction_of_LHC_at_CERN.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: Andrius.v, Deadstar, Square87
Image:CERN-aerial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN-aerial.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Moumou82, Schutz,
Túrelio, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Bldng40cropped.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bldng40cropped.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Gillis Danielsen
File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp, User:SKopp,
User:SKopp, User:SKopp
File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Italy.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: see below
File:Flag of Spain.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pedro A. Gracia Fajardo, escudo de Manual de Imagen
Institucional de la Administración General del Estado
File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Poland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Mareklug, User:Wanted
File:Flag of Belgium (civil).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bean49, David Descamps,
Dbenbenn, Denelson83, Fry1989, Howcome, Ms2ger, Nightstallion, Oreo Priest, Rocket000, Sir Iain, ThomasPusch, Warddr, Zscout370, 3 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Sweden.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hejsa, Herbythyme, J budissin, Jon Harald Søby,
Klemen Kocjancic, Lefna, Mattes, Meno25, Mormegil, Odder, Peeperman, Pl2241, Quilbert, Reisio, Sir Iain, Str4nd, Tabasco, Tene, Thomas Blomberg, Thuresson, Wiklas, Wouterhagens,
Zscout370, 33 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Norway.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of Austria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Greece.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code) (talk)
File:Flag of Denmark.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Madden
File:Flag of Finland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: special commission (of
code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. Colors according to Appendix No. 3 of czech legal Act 3/1993. cs:Zirland.
File:Flag of Portugal.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AFBorchert, ALE!, Afonso Silva, Anime Addict
AA, Bluedenim, Boicote, Conscious, Denniss, DieBuche, Eddo, Er Komandante, Flad, FoeNyx, Fry1989, Herbythyme, Jelte, Kam Solusar, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Mattes, Nick,
Nightstallion, Reisio, Rkt2312, Skatefreak, Stunteltje, Thomas Gun, Thomas81, Tuvalkin, Zscout370, 30 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Hungary.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Slovakia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Avala, Denelson83, Fry1989, Homo lupus,
Ikonact, Kallerna, Klemen Kocjancic, Martyr, Mattes, Neq00, Pumbaa80, SKopp, Scroch, Serjio-pt, Spacebirdy, Srtxg, Ultratomio, Vonvon, Zscout370, 9 anonymous edits
Image:CERN members.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN_members.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:CrazyPhunk
Image:CERN-Membership-History.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN-Membership-History.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
User:Bolonium, User:Hoshie, User:NerdyNSK
Image:CERN-Observers.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN-Observers.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:NerdyNSK
File:Flag of SFR Yugoslavia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg License: unknown Contributors: Zscout370 at en.wikipedia
File:Flag of Romania.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AdiJapan
File:Flag of Turkey.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of Israel.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnonMoos, Bastique, Bobika, Brown spite, Captain
Zizi, Cerveaugenie, Drork, Etams, Fred J, Fry1989, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Humus sapiens, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Luispihormiguero, Madden, Neq00, NielsF, Nightstallion, Oren
neu dag, Patstuart, PeeJay2K3, Pumbaa80, Ramiy, Reisio, SKopp, Technion, Typhix, Valentinian, Yellow up, Zscout370, 31 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AVRS, AndriusG, Artem Karimov, Davepape, Dmitry
Strotsev, Drieskamp, Enbéká, Fred J, Gleb Borisov, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Kiensvay, Klemen Kocjancic, Kwj2772, Mattes, Maximaximax, Miyokan, Nightstallion, Ondřej Žváček, Pianist,
Pumbaa80, Putnik, R-41, Radziun, Rainman, Reisio, Rfc1394, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Sasa Stefanovic, SeNeKa, Srtxg, Stianbh, Wikiborg, Winterheart, Zscout370, Zyido, ОйЛ, 34 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of Japan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various
File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn,
User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the United Nations.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Denelson83,
User:Madden, User:Zscout370, User:Denelson83, User:Madden, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Europe.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:-xfi-, User:Dbenbenn, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Nightstallion, User:Paddu, User:Verdy p, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Algeria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Algeria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Argentina.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of Armenia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Australia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ian Fieggen
File:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex Spade, Brandmeister, Charismaniac,
Dbenbenn, Denelson83, Enbéká, Er Komandante, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Jacobolus, Mattes, NTK, Neq00, Proger, Reality006, SKopp, Sir Iain, ThomasPusch, Tiptoety, Zscout370, ‫نامجرت‬05, 9
anonymous edits
File:Flag of Belarus.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andrew c, Bender235, Denelson83, Gmaxwell,
Homo lupus, Joey-das-WBF, Klemen Kocjancic, Liftarn, Neq00, Nightstallion, Permjak, Pianist, Pumbaa80, Sir Iain, SndrAndrss, Str4nd, Takadraka, Vzb83, Zscout370, ОйЛ, 12 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of Brazil.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Brazilian Government
File:Flag of Canada.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:E Pluribus Anthony, User:Mzajac
File:Flag of Chile.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Colombia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Croatia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Croatia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnyFile, Argo Navis, Denelson83, Denniss, Dijxtra,
Klemen Kocjancic, Kseferovic, Minestrone, Multichill, Neoneo13, Nightstallion, O, PatríciaR, Platonides, R-41, Rainman, Reisio, Rocket000, Suradnik13, Zicera, Zscout370, 5 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Cuba.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: see below
File:Flag of Cyprus.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Cyprus.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnonMoos, Consta, Dbenbenn, Denelson83,
Duduziq, Er Komandante, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Krinkle, Mattes, NeoCy, Neq00, Nightstallion, Oleh Kernytskyi, Pumbaa80, Reisio, Telim tor, ThomasPusch, Vzb83, 15 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of Estonia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:PeepP, User:SKopp
File:Flag of Georgia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Iceland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason
File:Flag of Iran.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iran.svg License: unknown Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Ireland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Lithuania.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Macedonia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Gabbe, User:SKopp
File:Flag of Mexico.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:AlexCovarrubias, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Montenegro.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Montenegro.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:B1mbo, User:Froztbyte
File:Flag of Morocco.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Denelson83, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of New Zealand.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adambro, Arria Belli, Bawolff,
Bjankuloski06en, ButterStick, Denelson83, Donk, Duduziq, EugeneZelenko, Fred J, Fry1989, Hugh Jass, Ibagli, Jusjih, Klemen Kocjancic, Mamndassan, Mattes, Nightstallion, O, Peeperman,
Poromiami, Reisio, Rfc1394, Shizhao, Tabasco, Transparent Blue, Väsk, Xufanc, Zscout370, 35 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Pakistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abaezriv, AnonMoos, Badseed, Dbenbenn,
Duduziq, Fry1989, Gabbe, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Juiced lemon, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Mollajutt, Neq00, Pumbaa80, Rfc1394, Srtxg, ThomasPusch, Túrelio, Zscout370, 8 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of Peru.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of Serbia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: ABF, Avala, B1mbo, Denelson83, EDUCA33E,
Herbythyme, Imbris, Nightstallion, Nikola Smolenski, Nuno Gabriel Cabral, R-41, Rainman, Rokerismoravee, Sasa Stefanovic, Siebrand, ThomasPusch, Túrelio, Zscout370, 7 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Slovenia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Slovenia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp, User:Vzb83, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of South Africa.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of South Korea.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various
File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: 555, Bestalex,
Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk,
Rkt2312, Rocket000, Runningfridgesrule, Samwingkit, Shizhao, Sk, Tabasco, Vzb83, Wrightbus, Zscout370, 72 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Thailand.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andy Dingley, Chaddy, Duduziq, Emerentia,
Gabbe, Gurch, Homo lupus, Juiced lemon, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Neq00, Paul 012, Rugby471, Sahapon-krit hellokitty, TOR, Teetaweepo, Xiengyod, Zscout370, Δ, 22 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Ukraine.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jon Harald Søby, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Vietnam.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Lưu Ly
Image:CERN Globe of Science and Innovation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN_Globe_of_Science_and_Innovation.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Lysippos, TomAlt
Image:Where the WEB was born.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
Contributors: Max Braun
Image:LHC.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LHC.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Harp
File:CMS Higgs-event.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Belfer00, Echtner, Harp, Kaldari, Lapka, Luxo, Pieter
Kuiper, 1 anonymous edits
File:BosonFusion-Higgs.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BosonFusion-Higgs.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Booyabazooka,
User:Harp
File:Location Large Hadron Collider.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Location_Large_Hadron_Collider.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.0 Contributors: User:Zykure
File:LHC quadrupole magnets.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LHC_quadrupole_magnets.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Andrius.v
File:Construction of LHC at CERN.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Construction_of_LHC_at_CERN.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: Andrius.v, Deadstar, Square87
Image:ALICE Detector.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ALICE_Detector.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Connor Behan
Image:ATLAS-logo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ATLAS-logo.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Andrius.v, Melesse
Image:CERN Atlas Caverne.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN_Atlas_Caverne.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Nikolai Schwerg
Image:gg to ttH.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gg_to_ttH.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ephraim33, Harp, Helix84, Joelholdsworth, Pieter Kuiper,
Setreset
Image:ATLAS TRT.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ATLAS_TRT.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Gorgo, Harp
Image:ATLAS HCal.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ATLAS_HCal.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Mdd, Pieter Kuiper, Skaller, 1
anonymous edits
Image:CERN-Rama-33.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CERN-Rama-33.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:Rama
Image:ATLAS Above.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ATLAS_Above.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Gorgo, Harp
Image:Atlas detector CERN feb2007.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atlas_detector_CERN_feb2007.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sindre Skrede
Image:CMS Under Construction Apr 05.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Under_Construction_Apr_05.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Julian Williams
Image:CMScollaborationPoster.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMScollaborationPoster.png License: unknown Contributors: Harp, Joey-das-WBF, Luxo,
Massimiliano Lincetto, Newone, 1 anonymous edits
Image:CMS Slice.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Slice.gif License: unknown Contributors: Harp, Joey-das-WBF, Luxo, Pieter Kuiper, Red devil 666, 1
anonymous edits
Image:CMS Silicon Tracker Arty HiRes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Silicon_Tracker_Arty_HiRes.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Jz 007, Luxo,
Newone, Pieter Kuiper, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Lead Tungstate Crystal Preparation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lead_Tungstate_Crystal_Preparation.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Jz 007,
Luxo
Image:CMS Hcal 26 01 2007.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Hcal_26_01_2007.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Luxo,
Murielvd
Image:HCAL Prepared for insertion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HCAL_Prepared_for_insertion.jpg License: unknown Contributors: David Barney
Image:CMS Magnet barrel Ring with Muon chambers.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Magnet_barrel_Ring_with_Muon_chambers.jpg License: unknown
Contributors: Julian Williams
Image:Tracker FED Testing.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tracker_FED_Testing.jpg License: unknown Contributors: S. Boreham
Image:Insertion of vac-tank 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Insertion_of_vac-tank_2.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Harp, Luxo, WikipediaMaster
Image:CMS Yep2 descent.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Yep2_descent.gif License: unknown Contributors: webcam
Image:YE Plus1 descends into cavern.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:YE_Plus1_descends_into_cavern.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Max Brice (?)
Image:Run62063ev2433.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Run62063ev2433.png License: unknown Contributors: CMS Collaboration
Image:Lhcbview.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lhcbview.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Harp
Image:LHCf.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LHCf.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Alby
Image:Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg License: Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:MissMJ
Image:Elementary particle interactions.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elementary_particle_interactions.svg License: unknown Contributors: User:Stannered
Image:Particle chart Log.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Particle_chart_Log.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Arivero, 1 anonymous edits
Image:First Gold Beam-Beam Collision Events at RHIC at 100 100 GeV c per beam recorded by STAR.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Gold_Beam-Beam_Collision_Events_at_RHIC_at_100_100_GeV_c_per_beam_recorded_by_STAR.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Dbc334, Dmgultekin, Doodledoo, FlickreviewR, Herald Alberich, Kuaile Long, Odie5533, Romanm, Roomba, Saperaud, Yarnalgo, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Hqmc-vector.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hqmc-vector.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:VermillionBird
File:AIP-Sakurai-best.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AIP-Sakurai-best.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: self
Image:One-loop-diagram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:One-loop-diagram.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: JabberWok
Image:HiggsGraph 07-26-2010 hr.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HiggsGraph_07-26-2010_hr.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:JohnFlux
Image:Gluon-top-higgs.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gluon-top-higgs.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:JabberWok
Image:BosonFusion-Higgs.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BosonFusion-Higgs.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Booyabazooka,
User:Harp
Image:CMS Higgs-event.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Belfer00, Echtner, Harp, Kaldari, Lapka, Luxo,
Pieter Kuiper, 1 anonymous edits
License 118
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

Hadron Collider

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Deskripsi Asli:

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Hadron Collider

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Large Hadron Collider

Experiments, Technology, Theory and

Headquarters Geneva, Switzerland

Director General Rolf-Dieter Heuer

Website http:/ / www. cern. ch/

The 12 founding member states of CERN in 1954

54 years after its foundation, membership to

The World Wide Web began as a CERN project called ENQUIRE,

Prior to the Web's development, CERN had been a pioneer in the

Synchrotron (PS). This accelerator was commissioned in 2005, after

The Large Hadron Collider

The SPS and LEP/LHC tunnels are located

Financing (Budget 2009)

Member state Contribution Mil. CHF Mil. EUR

Germany 19.88 % 218.6 144.0

France 15.34 % 168.7 111.2

United Kingdom 14.70 % 161.6 106.5

Italy 11.51 % 126.5 83.4

Spain 8.52 % 93.7 61.8

Netherlands 4.79 % 52.7 34.7

Switzerland 3.01 % 33.1 21.8

Poland 2.85 % 31.4 20.7

Belgium 2.77 % 30.4 20.1

Sweden 2.76 % 30.4 20.0

Norway 2.53 % 27.8 18.3

Austria 2.24 % 24.7 16.3

Greece 1.96 % 20.5 13.5

Denmark 1.76 % 19.4 12.8

Finland 1.55 % 17.0 11.2

Czech Republic 1.15 % 12.7 8.4

Portugal 1.14 % 12.5 8.2

Hungary 0.78 % 8.6 5.6

Slovakia 0.54 % 5.9 3.9

Bulgaria 0.22 % 2.4 1.6

• Austria joined in 1959, bringing the total

• Romania became a candidate for accession to

Six (6) additional countries have observer status:[19]

Large Hadron Collider

ATLAS A Toroidal LHC Apparatus

CMS Compact Muon Solenoid

ALICE A Large Ion Collider Experiment

TOTEM Total Cross Section, Elastic Scattering and Diffraction Dissociation

MoEDAL Monopole and Exotics Detector At the LHC

p and Pb Linear accelerators for protons (Linac 2) and Lead (Linac 3)

(not marked) Proton Synchrotron Booster

SPS Super Proton Synchrotron

Intersecting Storage Rings CERN, 1971–1984

Super Proton Synchrotron CERN, 1981–1984

ISABELLE BNL, cancelled in 1983

Tevatron Fermilab, 1987–present

Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider BNL, 2000–present

Superconducting Super Collider Cancelled in 1993

Large Hadron Collider CERN, 2009–present

Super Large Hadron Collider Proposed, CERN, 2019–

Very Large Hadron Collider Theoretical

• Is the Higgs mechanism for generating elementary particle masses

the beams on their circular path, while an additional 392 quadrupole

Map of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN

Once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to

The LHC physics program is mainly based on proton–proton collisions.

16 Oct 2008 CERN released a preliminary analysis of the incident.

21 Oct 2008 Official inauguration.