Primary Structure - sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

Globular
● spherical / ball-shaped; has a tertiary structure ; hydrophilic / polar, groups on outside
water soluble
● R ‘more than one polypeptide’; quaternary

Secondary protein structure

● regular order/pattern, based on H-bonds ;
● between CO– group of one amino acid and NH– group of another ;
● alpha-helix and β-pleated sheet ;

Tertiary protein structure

● folding coiling
● interactions between, R groups side chains ;
● hydrogen bonds, disulfide, bonds/bridges between cysteine (S–H) groups, ionic
bonds between ionised amine and carboxylic acid groups, hydrophobic interactions
between non-polar side chains, hydrogen between polar groups (NH– and CO–)
● active site, specific/precise, shape ;
● Globular, spherical shape ;
● amino acids with, hydrophilic/polar, R groups facing to outside

Roles of water within plant cells

● Solvent; transport medium ; maintaining turgidity; photosynthesis; maintains water
potential (gradient) ; hydrophilic interactions of membranes ;
● R hydrogen bonding unqualified by ref. to membranes

Mode of action of enzymes

● Substrate binds with the active site
● Shapes are complementary, A ‘lock and key’ / induced fit R ‘same shape’
● Further detail of substrate binding to active site ; like hydrogen bonds, the active site
changes slightly to accommodate the sbustrate
● Forms enzyme-substrate / E-S, complex ;
● Lowers activation energy / reactions occur at low(er) temperatures ; by providing an
alternate pathway, holds the things closer so that bonds are easier to break or form,
● Not used up in reaction and remains unchanged ;
● High turnover number / catalyse many reactions per unit time ;

Why DNA replication is semiconservative

● Each strand of the original DNA acts as a template for the synthesis of a
complementary strand
● The new DNA (molecule) has one original strand and one new strand ; R ‘half old
and half new’ unless clearly referring to two strands

Importance of hydrogen bonding in DNA

● It holds the polynucleotides and its bases together to form a double helix
● Maybe hydrogen bonds give DNA stability but allow it to be broken for transcription
and translation
The covalent bond between 2 nucleotides - phosphodiester

DNA structure
● double helix ;
● strands are held together by hydrogen bonds (between bases) ;
● complementary base pairing / described as A-T and C-G ; A purine pairs with
pyrimidine R thiamine
● antiparallel stands / strands are 3’ to 5’ and 5’ to 3’ ; A strands run in opposite
directions
● (each strand has a sugar phosphate backbone with) phosphodiester bonds ;
● (monomers / units /DNA) are (DNA) nucleotides /polynucleotide strands ;
● (nucleotide = ) deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous (organic) base ;

Mutations
● idea that, mutagens, damage / breaks, DNA and repair errors (may) occur ;
● (so leads to) incorrect, nucleotide / base, inserted (during replication)/ change in,
nucleotide / base, sequence (of
● DNA/RNA) ;
● new allele (may be) formed ;
● may result in an altered polypeptide

Electron microscope
● 0.5nm resolution
● Resolution as ability to differentiate between two points close together
● Disadvantages
● only dead specimens can be viewed
● Increased costs associated with, time/training requires, more electrical power
; requires stable, high voltage supplies/currents ;
● sensitive to external magnetic fields ;
● difficult to operate/requires technical training ;
● samples more difficult to prepare and treatment may distort structures
● monochrome/black and white only ;
● not portable/can only be used in specific locations

Light microscope
● 200nm resolution
Role of mRNA
● Transcription, copying a complementary code from a DNA strand to code for a
sequence of amino acids
● Translation, actually putting the sequence of amino acids together
● Attaches to a ribosome
● tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes
● The codon on the mRNA is complementary to the anticodon on the tRNA and that is
how the sequence of amino acids is made
● So complementary base pairing, 6 bases a time in the ribosome
● mRNA is short lived, does not last long

Role of tRNA
● (tRNA) carries amino acid to ribosome ;
● specificity of amino acid carried ; A role in ensuring correct primary structure
● anticodon (on tRNA): codon (on mRNA) binding ;
● complementary / base pairing ; A A-U, C-G
● ref to tRNA binding sites within ribosome ;
● two tRNAs bound to, mRNA / ribosome, at same time ;
● amino acids held close to each other ;
● For peptide bond formation ;
● (tRNA) can be reused / binds another amino acid ;

Phospholipid
● Differs from normal lipid as it has 2 fatty acids instead of 3 and the 1 acid is replaced
by a phosphate group.
● Can form a bilayer ;
● Has hydrophobic core and barrier to water-soluble substances
 ● hydrophilic / phosphate, head, forming H bonds with water ;
● contribution to fluid nature of membrane mainly saturated fatty acids, less fluid e.g.
mainly unsaturated fatty acids,

Characteristics of metaphase only

● chromosomes / (sister) chromatids, line up at the, equator
● centromeres attached to spindle fibres ;
● centrioles, located at poles ; R ends
● ref. spindle fully formed, spindle fibres extend from poles R ref. to nuclear envelope
absent (in anaphase also)

Importance of mitosis
● replacement of cells ;
● repair of tissue ; R repair of cells
● growth / increase in cell numbers ;
● asexual reproduction / vegetative propagation ; R cloning
● maintains / same, number of chromosomes ; A two sets of chromosomes / diploid /
2n genetically identical to parents ;
● A produces daughter cells that are genetically identical A ref. clone(s) ref to rejection
/ self vs non-self ;

Centrioles and spindle behaviour in mitosis

● ref. to, duplication / replication, of centrioles (in late interphase / before prophase); A
dividing R splitting
● (centriole pairs) move to opposite poles in prophase ; accept asters or centrosomes
for centrioles
● (movement allows) spindle formation / organisation of spindle fibres / microtubule
assembly / microtubule organisation / AW, (in prophase) ;
● (late prophase / early metaphase / metaphase), chromosomes / centromeres, attach
to, spindle fibres / microtubules ;
● chromosomes, line up / aligned / AW, at, equator / metaphase plate ;
● ref. separation of, sister / identical, chromatids, at anaphase (to poles) ; A sister
chromatids move to opposite poles at anaphase A daughter chromosomes for sister
chromatids
● ref., pulling / shortening, by, microtubules / spindle fibres ; AW

Membrane fluidity
● Higher temperature, more fluid
● More unsaturated fatty acids, more fluid
● Shorter fatty acids, more fluid
● More cholesterol…?

Membrane fluid mosaic model

The Fluid Mosaic Model states that membranes are composed of a Phospholipid Bilayer with
various protein molecules floating around within it. The ‘Fluid’ part represents how some
parts of the membrane can move around freely, if they are not attached to other parts of the
cell. The ‘mosaic’ part illustrates the ‘patchwork’ of proteins that is found in the Phospholipid
Bilayer.
If things cant cross the cell surface membrane
● Too large
● Hydrophilic so cant pass through hydrophobic section of the phospholipid bilayer
● No specific membrane transport proteins

More acidic for enzymes means

● Hydrogen and ionic bonds are broken
● The shape of the active site changes
● Tertiary structure of the enzymes changes

Induced fit mechanism

● substrate enters the active site ;
● active site, (partially) flexible/ changes shape slightly ;
● ref. provides a better fit/ moulds around ;
● allows interaction of R groups (of active site) with substrate ;

Endocytosis
● Invaginates means to engulf
● fits into / complementary to, receptor/GM1 ; A complementary shape
● membrane pinches in/invaginates /AW ; A engulfs /envelops
● membrane fusion ;
● (endocytotic) vesicle / vacuole, formed ;
● ATP/ energy, required ;

Cell Signalling
● acts at target cell ;
● binds to receptor
● receptor (located) in, cell surface/ plasma, membrane ;
● sets off /AW, response in the cell/ described response(s)
● triggers secondary messenger
● activates enzyme(s)
● signals / causes / stimulates, cell to divide/ cytokinesis
● 1 ref. to hormones, released into / arrive at adipocyte in, blood stream ;
● A released by another, cell / tissue (elsewhere in the body)
● 2 hormone is, (chemical) signal / signalling molecule / messenger molecule ;
● 3 (adipocyte is) target cell ; A (adipose is) target tissue
● 4 (hormone) binds to / AW, receptor ;
● in context of on cell surface membrane of adipocyte
● 5 ref.to receptor (shape) complementary to hormone ;
● A specific receptor for hormone
● 6 (binding) triggers / stimulates, reactions within the cell ;
● A cascade of reactions
● I binding causes a reaction to occur
● 7 cell signalling results in a response, qualified ;
● e.g. triglyceride breakdown
● fatty acids (and glycerol) produced
● fatty acids leave, the cell / via transport protein
Mutations can prevent synthesis - no start code,

Gene
● Section of DNA (sequence of nucleotides/bases) that codes for a polypeptide