A. Define the following terminologies.

1. Parties
According to The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, political parties is
defined as “an organization whose aim is to gain control of the government
apparatus, usually through the election of its candidates to public office”.
Additionally, political parties take many forms, but their functions are similar: to
supply personnel for government positions to organize these personnel around the
formation and implementation of public policy and to serve in a mediating role
between individuals and their government.

2. Governance
In an article by Tamaya (2014), he defined governance as the exercise of
power or authority by political leaders for the well-being of their country’s citizens
or subjects. It is a complex process whereby some sectors pf the society wield
power, and enact and promulgate public policies which directly affect human and
institutional interactions, and economic and social development.

3. Government
It is defined as the “establish form of rule and ultimate authority within a
society or a nation”. Additionally, the institution that has authority and that makes
decisions to resolve conflicts or allocate benefits and privileges. (Wilson &
Dilulio,2004)

4. State
As stated by Morada and Encarnacion Tadem (2006), states is “an
organization composed of numerous agencies led and coordinated by the state’s
leadership (executive authority ), which has the ability or authority to make and
implement the binding rules for all the people as well as the parameters of
rulemaking for other social organizations in a given territory, using force if
necessary” .

5. Nation
 Barrington (1997) defines nation as a “named human population sharing an
historic territory, common myths, and historical memories, a mass public culture,
a common economy and common legal rights and duties for all members”.

6. Country
As stated by Jones,J.(1964), he defined country as as “ the region that is
identified as a distinct national entity in political geography”. He also added that a
country may be an independent sovereign state or a part of a larger state, as a
non-sovereign or formerly sovereign political division, or a geographic region
associated with sets of previously independent or differently associated people
with distinct political characteristics.

7. Political Science
According to an article by Roskin (n.d), he defines political science as the
“systematic study of governance by the application of empirical and generally
scientific methods of analysis”. As traditionally defined and studied, political
science examines the state and its organs and institutions. The contemporary
discipline, however, considerably broader than this encompassing studies of all
the societal, cultural, and psychological factors that mutually influence the
operation of government and the body politic.

B. What are the fields related to political science?

1. Sociology
Sociology studies social life and human interactions, from how groups form
to how large organizations run to how people interact with one another. Political
scientists make use of sociological studies and methods when examining, for
example, how small group dynamics affect the decision-making process, how
people acquire and maintain power, and how political culture shapes our attitudes.

2. Economics
Politics and economics often intersect. Studying government without also
studying economics, especially in free-market societies such as the United States,
is not possible. Political scientists examine such economic issues as the effects
government policy has on the economy, the role money plays in campaigns, and
how nations arrive at trade agreements.
3. Psychology
Psychology studies the way the human mind works, helping us to
understand why people behave the way that they do. Political scientists sometimes
use the insights of psychology to analyze a president’s or voter’s behavior or to
explain why some people are more prone to supporting certain governments and
ideologies.

4. Anthropology
Anthropology examines cultures within a society and theorizes about how
those cultures affect society. Anthropologists explore how people acquire cultural
values. Because culture often has a strong effect on behavior, political scientists
rely on anthropological studies and methods.

5. Law
Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or
governmental institutions to regulate behavior. It has been defined both as "the
Science of Justice" and "the Art of Justice".Law is a system that regulates and
ensures that individuals or a community adhere to the will of the state. State-
enforced laws can be made by a collective legislature or by a single legislator,
resulting in statutes, by the executive through decrees and regulations, or
established by judges through precedent, normally in common law jurisdictions.
Private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration
agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court
process.

6. History
History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired
by investigation")is the study of the past as it is described in written
documents.Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory. It is
an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery,
collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these
events.

7. Geography
Geography (from Greek: geographia, literally "earth description")is a field of
science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena
of the Earth and planets. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks
an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely
where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be.
8. Philosophy
Philosophy(from Greek, philosophia, literally "love of wisdom") is the study
of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was probably coined by
Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE). Philosophical methods include questioning, critical
discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation.

C. What are the branches/major areas of political science?

1. Normative Political Theory

This field interprets, critiques, and constructs philosophical conceptions and
arguments concerning morally appropriate and prudent standards and purposes
for political actors and regimes. Topics includes historically influential theories, the
genealogy of political ideas, democratic theory, and contemporary theories of
legitimacy, identity, ethics, the good society, and social justice.

2. Political Behavior and Identities (BI)

This field is concerned with the formation and acquisition of political
attitudes, beliefs, and preferences by individuals and groups; and how those
beliefs, attitudes, and preferences, as well as various social identities map onto
political behaviors and decision-making. Specific areas of study within this field
include the origin, nature, and measurement of public opinion; voting and elections;
mass participation; collective action; political parties; interest groups; and
disruptive political action.

3. Political Economy (PE)

This field examines the reciprocal relationships between politics and
markets, both within and among countries, using a variety of analytical tools,
including those of economics. Its concerns include interactions among economic
and political development; cooperation and conflict among nations, groups, and
individuals; the distribution of material resources and political power; the effects of
political actors and institutions on economic outcomes; the causes and
consequences of technological and structural change, growth, and globalization;
and regulation.

4. Political Institutions (PI)

 This field studies the formal and informal rules, practices, and regularities
at both the domestic and international level that guide and constrain political
choices and activities. It is concerned with the emergence, dynamics, and
consequences of institutions in both authoritarian and non-authoritarian regimes.
This focus includes constitutional design and how the organization of legislatures,
parties, judiciaries, markets and other social structures shape relationships
between individuals and states and, in turn, the factors shaping the emergence
and evolution of those institutions.

5. Political Methodology (M)

This field focuses on scholarship directed at providing appropriate
methodologies for investigating theoretically motivated political questions.
Departmental activities in methods are organized around deductive/analytical,
empirical/inductive, and computational approaches to modeling political
phenomena.

6. Security, Peace, and Conflict (SPC)

This field is dedicated to the study of political violence – armed conflict both
within and across state borders – and to the study of politics in the shadow of
violence. We seek to understand the causes of armed conflict and violence, the
conduct and consequences of the use of violence and coercion by state and non-
state actors, and the conditions under which the peace and security of states,
societies, groups and individuals can be protected. Toward these ends, we
examine the policies and strategies used by states and other political agents –
both domestic and international – to control, manage, contain or prevent the use
of political violence.

7. Political Theory/Political Philosophy

The sub-fields serve as the study of the foundation of political science. The
two subfields mentioned are almost the same in the sense that they focused on
the different foundational ideas of politics. However, it must be understood as two
distinct disciplines. On the one hand, the field of Political Philosophy is something
more normative and universal in some sense. It tries to answer the question: what
is ought to be? It focuses on the ideas that has something to do with what is ideal.
On the other hand, Political Theory is a more scientific and context-sensitive
in nature. It means that political theory can change when the context changes (time
and place). This means that it looks at how the theories apply to specific
environments. It tries to answer the question: how? Hence, it looks at how
structures work and govern the society. Again, they are distinct from each other
but, they focus both on the framework and foundation of political science. his
subfield of political science is most useful for academicians and theorists.

8. Comparative Politics
Another subfield of political science is the Comparative Politics. This is the
subfields of political science that deals with the study of political institutions and
political culture of different states. Basically, its aim is to study these variables
deeply to compare these states. The reason for this is to come up with important
lessons that can be used, for example, by up with important lessons that can be
used, for example, by “developing nations” for them to achieve development.
Consequently, this subfield uses both quantitative (e.g. statistical treatment) and
qualitative method (e.g thick descriptions) in their comparison .This subfields is
helpful for policy-makers and government officials so that they can make the
situation better among their countries.

9.International Relations
The subfield of international relations focuses on the international system.
More specifically, it looks at the different state actors, non-state actors, and all the
interactions that happen in the international system. This subfield seeks to explain
the different phenomena happening in world as a whole. This subfield has another
related subfield called Political Economy and international political economy). This
aforementioned subfield focuses on the interplay of politics and economics in both
domestic and international society. Thus, this relatively new subfield arose
because of new developments in the world. This subfield is useful for foreign
policy-makers and ambassadors.

10. Law
Another subfield of political science is the study of law. This subfield focuses
on the formal rules established by society through a legislative or any other similar
institution. Apparently, this is one of the more important subfields of political
science. There was even a time that the study of law became equal to the study of
political science. This is the traditional-formal school in the discipline. Basically,
this subfield focuses on how laws affect human behavior and society as a whole.
This study is useful for lawyers and legal experts.

11.Public Administration
The subfield of Public Administration is always considered as political
science in practice. This is a study that focuses on the actual management and
governance done by the government. More specifically, this subfield looks at the
bureaucracy-specialized government agencies that deal with the actual
 administration of society-as an important agent in managing the state. Public
administration gives emphasis on the different activities like planning, organizing,
staffing coordinating and budgeting. Consequently, this subfield helps in trying to
make the administration of different countries better. This subfield is most useful
for government officials and bureaucrats.

D. What are the elements of the state?

The elements of the state are as follows:

1.People
People is the entire body of those citizens of a state who are invested
with political power for political purposes. It should be large enough to be
self-sufficient and small enough to be well governed.

2.Territory
Territory is a geographical area under the jurisdiction of another
country or sovereign power or state. It must be a fixed territory which the
inhabitants occupy.

3.Government
Government is the totality of authorities which rule a society by
prescribing and carrying out fundamental rules which regulate the freedom
of its members. It is whole class of officeholders upon whom devolve the
executive, legislative, judicial, and administrative functions of the state.

4.Sovereignity
It is the supreme, absolute and uncontrollable power by which an
independent state is governed. It is the paramount control of the constitution
and the frame of government and its administration.

There are two types of sovereignty:

(i) Internal Sovereignty:

means the power of the State to order and regulate the activities of
all the people, groups and institutions which are at work within its territory.
All these institutions always act in accordance with the laws of the State.
The State can punish them for every violation of any of its laws.

(ii) External Sovereignty:

 It means complete independence of the State from external control. It also
means the full freedom of the State to participate in the activities of the community
of nations. Each state has the sovereign power to formulate and act on the basis
of its independent foreign policy.

External sovereignty of the State can also be defined as its sovereign

equality with every other state. State voluntarily accepts rules of international law.
These cannot be forced upon the State. India is free to sign or not to sign any
treaty with any other state. No state can force it to do so.

E. Research on the Philippine Political Development.

a.) Pre-Spanish era

Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was split into
numerous barangays, which were not unlike the Greek city-states. These
barangays warred, made peace, traded and had relations with each other.
In Mindanao, Islamic sultanates such as the Sultanate of Sulu and Maguindanao,
prospered. Ferdinand Magellan's death in 1521 can be partly attributed to a
dispute between Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon for control of Cebu.
The Kingdom of Maynila was trading with China and other nearby empires
when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi conquered the kingdom in 1565 and assimilated it
with the other kingdoms he had conquered nearby to unite the Philippines under
Spanish rule.

b.) Spanish era

Upon the subjugation of the local population in Manila and Cebu, the
Spaniards refused the locals any political participation. The old ruling class in the
pre-Spanish era were given essentially powerless government posts. Several
revolts erupted against Spain but were all defeated. In 1808, when Joseph
Bonaparte became king of Spain, the liberal constitution of Cadiz was adopted,
giving the Philippines representation to the Spanish Cortes. However, once the
Spanish overthrew the Bonapartes, the Philippine, and indeed colonial,
representation in the Spanish Cortes was rescinded.

The restoration of Philippine representation to the Cortes was one of the

grievances of the Illustrados, the learned indigenous class during the late 1800s.
The Illustrados mounted a campaign that would include indigenous voices in
running the government. However, the Katipunan advocated complete Philippine
independence, thereby starting the Philippine Revolution in 1896. After the
execution of José Rizal in December 30, 1896, the leader of the Illustrados who
disapproved of the revolution, the rebellion intensified. Cavite, Bulacan and
Morong were the main areas of conflict; the Katipunan in Cavite had won several
battles against the Spaniards, but was split into the Magdiwang and Magdalo
factions. A conference was held in 1897 to unite the two factions, but instead
caused further division that led to the execution of Andres Bonifacio, who was then
the leader of the Katipunan; Bonifacio's death passed the control of the Katipunan
to Emilio Aguinaldo.

The death of Bonifacio also caused several of the revolutionaries to be

demoralized; Aguinaldo and his men retreated northward until reaching Biak-na-
Bato in San Miguel, Bulacan. The Spaniards and the revolutionaries signed the
Pact of Biak-na-Bato, that provided for Aguinaldo's surrender and exile to Hong
Kong, and amnesty and payment of indemnities by the Spaniards to the
revolutionaries. However, both sides eventually violated the agreement, and this
gave an opportunity for the United States admiral George Dewey to lead his
squadron to Manila Bay, defeating the Spanish navy. Aguinaldo returned from
exile, most of the Philippine revolutionaries rallying to his cause, and negotiated
with the Americans, while the Americans in 1898 defeated the Spaniards in what
was called a mock battle in Manila, and took control of the city. Aguinaldo then
proclaimed the independence of the Philippines on June 12, 1898 at his home in
Cavite. A Congress was convened in January 1899 in Barasoain Church and
inaugurated the first Philippine Republic.
The Philippine–American War erupted in February in a skirmish in Manila;
the Filipinos lost the battle, and Aguinaldo again began a northward retreat.
Aguinaldo was captured on April 1, 1901 at Palanan, Isabela, while the Americans
had already started setting up civil governments in areas that had already been
pacified.

c.) American era

The Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by
1901, and the Americans passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to introduce
a national government; by 1907, an election to the Philippine Assembly was held.
Led by Sergio Osmeña, the assembly was held predominantly by the Nacionalista
Party, which advocated independence; they were opposed by the Progresista
Party, which advocated statehood within the United States. The Americans
controlled the Philippine Commission, the upper house of the Philippine
Legislature. The Nacionalista-dominated Philippine Assembly, and later the
Philippine Senate, which was created by the Jones Law and replaced the
Philippine Commission, was often at odds with the Governor-General. However,
the Nacionalistas were split into camps loyal to Osmeña and Senate President
Manuel L. Quezon. Several independence missions were sent to Washington,
D.C.; the OsRox Mission led by Osmeña and House Speaker Manuel Roxas
resulted in the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act. However, the Senate rejected this; a new
law, the Tydings–McDuffie Act which was marginally different and more
importantly, was supported by Quezon, was approved and paved the way for the
Commonwealth of the Philippines.

Quezon and Osmeña reconciled, and both were easily elected as president
and vice president respectively, in 1935. The Nacionalistas controlled the now
unicameral National Assembly for the entirety of the Commonwealth, with the
understanding that the Americans would grant independence in the near future.
Quezon pressed for constitutional amendments that would allow him to obtain a
second term, and the restoration of a bicameral legislature. Quezon did obtain both
amendments, with the newly restored Senate now being elected at-large instead
of per districts, as what was done during the pre-Commonwealth era. Quezon,
Osmeña and the Nacionalista Party as a whole both won the elections in 1941 in
much larger margins.

The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II delayed this
granting of independence, forced the Commonwealth government to go into exile,
and subjected the country to a puppet government. The KALIBAPI became the
sole legal political party, and Jose P. Laurel was declared president of the Second
Philippine Republic. This nationalist KALIBAPI government espoused anti-
American sentiment. Exiled leaders of the previous first Commonwealth
government, including Quezon and Osmeña, provided limited support to the U.S.
Despite the relationship with Japanese officials and opposition to U.S. control, the
nationalist KALIBAPI government of Laurel refused to declare war on the U.S.
However, the Americans reconquered the country in 1944, and Osmeña, who had
succeeded Quezon upon the latter's death, restored the Commonwealth
government. The first meeting of a bicameral Commonwealth Congress occurred.

The Nacionalistas were split anew in the 1946 presidential election, with
Manuel Roxas setting up what would later be the Liberal Party. Roxas defeated
Osmeña, and became the last president of the Commonwealth; the Americans
agreed to grant independence on July 4, 1946.

d.) Independent era

 Roxas succumbed to a heart attack in 1948, allowing Vice President Elpidio
Quirino to rule the country for the next six years, after winning in 1949. Quirino's
Liberal government was widely seen as corrupt, and was easily beaten by his
former Defense secretary Ramon Magsaysay in the 1953 election. Magsaysay,
who oversaw the surrender of the longimplemented a "Filipino First" policy and an
austerity program. Garcia was defeated by his Vice President, Diosdado
Macapagal of the Liberal Party, in 1961. Macapagal initiated a return to a system
of free enterprise not seen since the Quirino administration. However, Macapagal's
policies faced a stiff opposition in Congress, where the Nacionalistas hold the
majority. Macapagal was defeated in 1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos.

Marcos' infrastructure projects was the feature policy of his term, he was
the first president to be reelected, in 1969, although the election was tainted by
violence and allegations that Marcos used the treasury to fund his campaign.
However, significant protests, such as the First Quarter Storm, the communist and
Moro insurgencies, and civil unrest, heightened. This made Marcos in 1972
declare martial law and suspend the constitution. A new constitution calling for a
semi-presidential government was approved in 1973, but Marcos still ruled by
decree until 1978, when the Interim Batasang Pambansa was elected. However,
opposition groups, whose leaders mostly had already left in exile, boycotted the
election, and Marcos still allowed martial law to continue. Marcos did end martial
law in 1981, but opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election,
which Marcos easily won.
Opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was slain upon his return to the
country in 1983. By this time, the government was marred by alleged rampant
corruption and allegations of human rights violations. The opposition participated
in the 1984 parliamentary election and won several seats, but not enough to topple
Marcos' KBL. To counter growing opposition, Marcos called a snap election in
1986, the opposition nominated Benigno's widow Corazon as their candidate.
Marcos was declared the winner, but the opposition refused to accept the result,
alleging that the election was rigged. The People Power Revolution drove Marcos
from power, and Aquino became president. Aquino ruled by decree in 1987 when
a new constitution restoring the presidential system was approved. In the ensuing
legislative election, the administration parties won most of the seats in Congress.

d.) Post-People Power era

Corazon Aquino was inaugurated president on February 25, 1986; it was

one of two presidential inaugurations that day.
 Aquino's government was mired by coup attempts, high inflation and
unemployment, and natural calamities, but introduced land reform and market
liberalization. Aquino's administration also saw the pullout of the U.S. bases in
Subic Bay and Clark. As the 1992 election grew closer, Aquino declined to run
even though she could do so, and instead supported Ramon Mitra; she later
backtracked and threw her support to Fidel V. Ramos, who later won albeit under
controversial circumstances. Ramos had to face an ongoing energy crisis which
had started during the Aquino administration which was resolved when Ramos
issued contracts favorable to power producers. The Ramos administration hosted
the 1996 APEC summit, reinstated the death penalty, signed a peace agreement
with the Moro National Liberation Front, and bore the brunt of the 1997 Asian
financial crisis. He wanted to amend the constitution, but Aquino and other sectors
opposed the measure and backed off. Ramos' vice president Joseph Estrada
defeated the former's partymate Jose de Venecia and several others in the 1998
election in a comfortable margin; meanwhile de Venecia's running mate Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo was elected vice president.

Estrada expanded the land reform program and the death penalty, and
refused to sign contracts with sovereign guarantees on public projects. Estrada
also wanted to amend the constitution but was again rebuffed by Aquino, the
Catholic Church and the left. The administration launched an "all-out war" against
the Moro Islamic Liberation Front that saw the government retaking Camp
Abubakar, the main rebel encampment. However, the administration was
embroiled in charges of cronyism and corruption; the Juetengate scandal led to his
impeachment by the House of Representatives. In the impeachment trial,
Estrada's allies in the Senate successfully prevented evidence to be presented;
this triggered massive protests. Days later, in what would be called the 2001 EDSA
Revolution, the Armed Forces of the Philippines withdrew their support to Estrada
and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo; the Supreme Court later
ruled the presidency as vacant, and Estrada left Malacañang Palace.
s
Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20, 2001. Four months later,
Estrada's supporters lay siege to the presidential palace but were later expelled;
Arroyo's People Power Coalition won a majority of seats in the 2001 elections and
therefore consolidated power. In 2003, Arroyo put down a coup attempt in the
central business district. Arroyo faced Fernando Poe, Jr., a friend of Estrada, along
with three others in 2004, and won on a slim plurality. Months after Poe died on
December, it was exposed, via wiretapped conversations, that Arroyo rigged the
election. On a national address, Arroyo said that she was "sorry on a lapse of
judgment." The opposition did not let up, and she had to put down two more coup
 attempts. The opposition united in the 2007 Senate election and won easily, but
Arroyo's allies still held the House of Representatives. At the end of her presidency,
Arroyo became the most unpopular president on record, with increases on taxes,
attempts to amend the constitution, and the alleged illegitimacy of her
administration as the reasons.
Before the 2010 election, Arroyo's party nominated Gilberto Teodoro for
president; however, some quarters suggested that Arroyo was secretly supporting
Manny Villar, who was the frontrunner. However, former president Aquino died,
and her son, Benigno Aquino III, overtook Villar in the polls. Estrada overtook Villar
in the polls, but still lost to Aquino. Aquino embarked on anti-corruption drive, saw
the economy grew and maintain high popularity. However, with natural calamities,
and scams on the use of pork barrel and other discretionary funds coming into
light, the Aquino administration had to contend with rising opposition.
In 2016, Aquino's handpicked successor, Mar Roxas, grandson of Manuel
Roxas, was decisively defeated by Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte in the 2016
Presidential Election. Duterte then implemented a massive War on Drugs.

e.) Ethnic Legislative Council

Due to the lack of indigenous representation in both houses of Congress, a

proposal has been made where an ethnic legislative council will be established.
This council of ethnic groups shall have one representation from each and every
ethno-linguistic tribe in the country, totaling 135 council members. The council shall
have at least 5 representations in the House of Representative and 1 in the Senate.
The representing members to be put in the House and the Senate shall be
determined by the 135 council members among themselves. According to the
Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, through its Atlas Filipinas as certified by the National
Commission for Culture and the Arts, there are 135 living languages in the
Philippines, each belonging to one ethno-linguistic tribe. Each ethnic member shall
be elected by citizens with the same ethnic inclination. The proposal is slated to
solve the under-representation of ethno-linguistic tribes outside metropolitan areas
in Philippine politics, thus empowering both the people of the provinces and the
people belonging to indigenous classifications

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