Safety Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/safety
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Ship bunkering, a safety critical operation in marine engineering, can cause drastic environmental damage at
Maritime safety sea. Though bunkering presents high safety procedures, minor accidents also can pose potential harm for marine
Human reliability environment and human life. Indeed, it is well-known that numerous bunker accidents can be attributed to
Bunkering operation different types of human error. Therefore, control of human factor during bunkering operation plays critical role
Chemical tanker ship
to enhance safety aboard and prevent environmental pollution at sea. This study presents a comprehensive
Decision-making
human error prediction during bunkering operation demonstrated with a case study at chemical tanker platform.
To achieve this purpose, a Shipboard Operation Human Reliability Analysis (SOHRA) method, which has been
developed as a marine-specific approach to quantify human error, is employed. In the view of outcomes, human
error reduction measures are recommended. In conclusion, the paper is expected to give practical contribution to
the systematically prediction of human error for designated tasks, enhancement of safety control level in op-
erational aspect and protection of the marine environment.
1. Introduction errors related to grounding and collision accidents at sea (Akyuz, 2017).
Furthermore, a couple of scientific research papers have been con-
Human factor is one of paramount topics in maritime industry since ducted through human error and system failure in maritime and off-
it may directly influence the operational performance. The majority of shore industries (Hou et al., 2017; Abbassi et al., 2015; Akyuz and
failures are attributed to the human factors which may cause serious Celik, 2015; Lavasani et al., 2015; Noroozi et al., 2014; Deacon et al.,
consequences such as environment pollution. The findings show that 2013; Abascal et al., 2010). The papers contributed guidelines to adopt
most of maritime accidents are due to human errors (Akyuz, 2017; various human error assessment techniques such as HEART (Human
Corovic and Djurovic, 2013; Akyuz, 2015a). In order to minimize Error Assessment and Reduction Technique), SLIM (Success Likelihood
maritime accidents, it is essential to focus on the types of human errors Index Method) and THERP (Technique of Human Error Rate Prediction)
(Abujaafar, 2012; Akyuz, 2016). The maritime authorities have been in the application of numerous procedures on maritime and offshore
adopting a set of rules and regulations to minimize human error and industries in order to reduce human error and improve operational
enhance safety awareness such as SOLAS, STCW, ISM Code (Akyuz safety. Akyuz and Celik (2014) proposed a hybrid tool to analyse
et al., 2016; Karahalios, 2014; Chauvin, 2013; Karahalios, 2011). On human error during maritime events. Another study was performed to
the other hand, maritime safety practitioners are also seeking creative systematically estimate human error probability towards the gas in-
solutions to reduce human error. However, human error prediction is erting process in crude oil tanker ships (Akyuz, 2015b).
quite onerous task in maritime transportation due to the uncertainty Although a set of researches on human error prediction have been
and inadequacy of quantitative human error data (Akyuz and Celik, carried out in the past decade, those dedicated to critical shipboard
2018). To overcome these limitations, some scientific researches have operations in maritime transportation have remained very limited. The
been undertaken in the past decades. For instance, Macrae (2009) assessment of human error probability is a critical task to enhance
conducted an extensive study to identify potential human error in the safety. Bunkering, for example, is one of the critical shipboard opera-
event of two major types of marine accident: grounding and collision. A tions under the ISM Code (SOLAS, 1974) since adverse consequences
similar study has been performed in recent time to quantify human can pose potential harm to marine environment and human life.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: emreakyuz@hotmail.com.tr, eakyuz@itu.edu.tr (E. Akyuz).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.08.002
Received 17 October 2017; Received in revised form 25 June 2018; Accepted 3 August 2018
0925-7535/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Akyuz et al. Safety Science 110 (2018) 102–109
engine and deck crew rating. All events are properly recorded to log
books. The sampling of cargo is carefully carried out throughout the
The SOHRA provides a consistent approach to quantify human
operation. Cargo intake quantity is calculated at the end of transfer.
error. It is quite applicable tool to calculate HEP in the critical ship-
In the literature, most of studies concerning the bunkering opera-
board operations such as cargo loading, discharging, berthing, un-
tions have focused on management strategies such optimal costs, ports,
berthing, bunkering, ballasting, gas inerting, tank cleaning, hold
ship routes or contracts to minimize fuel-related costs (Zhen et al.,
cleaning, etc (Akyuz et al, 2018). The method is comprised of two
2016; Pedrielli et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2014) rather than focusing on
fundamental parameters: generic task type (GTT) and m-EPC respec-
operational aspect to enhance safety control level on-board ships. To
tively (Akyuz et al., 2016). The GTT allows user to select appropriate
remedy the gap, this paper aims at conducting a systematic human
task in perfect condition. The GTT is associated with generic error
error prediction and assessment during bunkering operation in che-
probability (GEP) which is provided in Table 2 (Williams, 1988).
mical tanker ship. The SOHRA (Shipboard Operation Human Reliability
The second parameter is the m-EPC which influences ship crew
Analysis), a marine-specific human error prediction technique, is
adopted to assess human error for designated tasks in bunkering op-
eration. The human error probabilities are evaluated and necessary Table 2
human error control measures are recommended to improve perfor- GTT and GEP values.
mance of ship crew. Within this context, the paper is organised as fol- Generic task type (GTT) Generic error probability
lows. Section 1 gives motivation and brief literature reviewing about (GEP)
human error prediction and bunkering operation in the maritime in- (5th–95th percentile
dustry. Section 2 explains theoretical background of method. Section 3 Bounds)
demonstrates model application through bunkering operation at che- A Totally unfamiliar; performed at speed with no 0.55
mical tanker ships. Section 4 gives conclusion, contribution and future real idea of likely consequences (0.35–0.97)
researches. A list of symbols and abbreviations, meantime, is provided B Shift or restore system to a new or original state 0.26
in Table 1 for easy perusal of readers. on a single attempt without supervision or (0.14–0.42)
procedures
C Complex task requiring high level of 0.16
2. Methodology comprehension and skill (0.12–0.28)
D Fairly simple task performed rapidly or given 0.09
2.1. Theoretical background of SOHRA scant attention (0.06–0.13)
E Routine, highly practiced, rapid task involving 0.02
relatively low level of skill (0.07–0.045)
Shipboard Operation Human Reliability Analysis (SOHRA) was de- F Restore or shift a system to original or new state 0.003
veloped to quantify human error and predict human reliability in cri- following procedures with some checking (0.0008–0.007)
tical shipboard operations (Celik et al., 2014; Akyuz et al., 2016). The G Completely familiar, well-designed, highly 0.0004
method introduces m- EPC (marine specific error producing condition) practiced, routine task occurring several times (0.00008 – 0.009)
per day, performed to highest possible standards
values which was validated by analysing a hundred of real-marine ac-
by highly motivated, highly trained, and
cident cases (Akyuz et al., 2016). The SOHRA is based on tailoring the experienced personnel, with time to correct
basic principle of human error assessment and reduction technique potential error, but without the benefit of
(HEART) (Williams, 1988; Akyuz et al., 2018). The method has a si- significant job aid.
milar structure with HEART. It presents consistency of usage during H Respond correctly to system command even 0.00002
when there is an augment or automated (0.000006–0.0009)
assessed proportion of affect (APOA) calculation which is the key aspect supervisory system providing accurate
of human error weighting in m-EPC calculation. Also, the SOHRA interpretation of system state
adopts the m-EPCs to define the performance shaping factors (PSF) of
M Miscellaneous task for which no description can 0.03
human beings for specific tasks in the maritime industry (Kirwan and be found (0.008–0.11)
Gibson, 2008; Kirwan, 1987).
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E. Akyuz et al. Safety Science 110 (2018) 102–109
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E. Akyuz et al. Safety Science 110 (2018) 102–109
Task analysis
Scenario definition
GTT selection
m-EPC selection
Composing a pair-wise
comparison matrix APOA calculation HEP reduction measures
HEP prediction
Calculating criteria weights
No CR Yes
acceptable
?
Do operation
Table 4 3. Application
HTA of bunkering operation.
Bunkering operation
In this section, prediction of human error probabilities during
bunkering operation on-board chemical tanker ships is demonstrated.
1. Prior to bunkering The use of expert judgements is one of the techniques in most of human
1.1 Keep safety meeting reliability analysis (HRA) since there is a scarcity of numerical data on
1.2 Take sounding and record bunker quantities
1.3 Check if crew on deck use PPE
human error for maritime transportation (Modarres, 2006). To de-
1.4 Make sure that all deck scupper are plugged monstrate the model, a real-shipboard bunkering operation was se-
1.5 Check if overflow tanks are empty lected. In this context, master of a chemical tanker ship cooperatively
1.6 Make sure that smoking notice is positioned provided opinions. The ship is an oil/chemical tanker and cargo car-
1.7 Hoist necessary warning sign
rying capacity is about 10,745 dwt. The master has wide experience
1.8 Make sure that other bunker manifold valves are shut-off and blanked
1.9 Check if all equipments in SOPEP are in position about bunkering operation. A comprehensive survey forms was sent to
1.10 Make sure that bunker barge is safely secured to the ship master of ship and asked to select the most appropriate GTT and m-EPC
1.11 Make sure that proper communication is established with bunker barge for each sub-task being completed.
1.12 Agree on bunkering procedure with bunker barge
1.13 Verify pumping rate
1.14 Connect flexible hose to the ship’s manifold 3.1. A real-shipboard environment definition and task analysis
2. During bunkering
2.1 Open manifold valve and start bunkering A real-shipboard bunkering operation was performed at Ceuta an-
2.2 Make sure that pumping rate is kept low at the beginning chorage. The chemical tanker ship arrived early morning at Ceuta an-
2.3 Monitor bunkering process continuously
chorage area to intake about 845 mt IFO180 CST. The weather was
2.4 Take sounding regularly
2.5 Check temperature of bunker
partly cloudy and sea state was calm at the time of operation. According
2.6 Take sampling to the deck log book, the wind speed was about 10–12 knots per hour as
2.7 Check trim and draft of ship frequently per Beaufort scale. There were small waves with breaking crests. The
2.8 Close manifold valve ship’s crew took rest enough prior to bunkering operation. Chief en-
3. After bunkering gineer, chief officer, third engineer, bosun, pumper and able seamen
3.1 Take sounding of all the tanks bunkered (A/B) participated bunkering operation. A bunker barge came along-
3.2 Calculate final bunker intake quantity
side to chemical tanker and bunkering commenced around morning
3.3 Sign bunker receipt
3.4 Disconnect flexible hose from ship’s manifold time. The bunkering operation took about 9 h. After confirmed the
3.5 Cast off bunker barge moorings from the ship amount of bunker intake, flexible hose was disconnected and bunker
barge left. The bunkering operation in accordance with HTA is provided
in Table 4 (BIMCO, 2016). The master of ship selected relevant GTT and
Step 7. HEP reduction measures: The aim of this step is to take m-EPC/s for each sub-tasks during bunkering. Since a real-shipboard
control measures for minimizing human error. The experts evaluate bunkering operation was handled, the master of ship (expert) simulta-
impacts of HEP over the critical shipboard operation. The control neously performed assessment by considering instant shipboard en-
measures are recommended for the highest HEP values. vironment condition and crew performance. The operating
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E. Akyuz et al. Safety Science 110 (2018) 102–109
Table 5 Table 6
Selected GTT and m-EPC/s. m-EPCs prioritization weights and CR values.
Sub-task GTT Selected EPC/s Sub-task m-EPC m-EPC weight (APOA) CR
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E. Akyuz et al. Safety Science 110 (2018) 102–109
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E. Akyuz et al. Safety Science 110 (2018) 102–109
Table 8
Human error reduction measures.
Sub-task HEP HEP reduction strategies
2.2 8.36E−01 Agreement should be made with bunker barge for low pumping rate and line pressure at start, at maximum flow and at the end.
A sequence should be prepared for pumping rate, including initial, maximum and topping off rate.
A regular inspection should be carried out and minimum one watch-keeper should be on duty.
1.13 5.94E−01 Agreement should be made for pumping rate.
Regular inspection should be made for monitoring pumping rates and gauges to ensure that line pressures are not too high.
1.8 2.36E−01 An acknowledge report to duty engineer should be given by crew after finishing relevant task.
A visual notice should be positioned at appropriate place to remind task.
Responsible ship crew should be aware that the equipment is not completely reliable.
2.3 2.21E−01 Monitoring of the operation should be carried out as per ship's SMS.
Minimum one watch-keeper should be effectively duty during the entire operation.
A regular inspection should be carried out by chief engineer that the control measures are effectively in place.
Watch handovers should be kept minimum to save the time.
1.4 2.13E−01 A practical training should be provided for ship crew who are not familiar scuppers.
Chief officer should re-check whether deck scuppers are all in position or not.
Scuppers are well maintained fit for deck.
1.14 1.14E−01 A comprehensive inspection should be performed by duty engineer for flexible hose.
Duty engineer should carefully inspect the hose and ensure the gasket is fitted bolts.
Responsible ship crew should be aware that the equipment is not completely reliable.
3.4 1.14E−01 A comprehensive inspection should be performed by duty engineer for flexible hose.
Duty engineer should support pumper and A/B in the process of disconnection.
Responsible ship crew should be aware that the equipment is not completely reliable.
most of bunker barges have substandard equipments such as gasket or the maritime operations. The method can also be used to focus on
bolts. This may cause a leakage in the vicinity of the connection/dis- evaluating human error during critical operations in offshore and ocean
connection to the manifold on the installation. engineering since the m-EPC reflects general characteristics of seafarers
employed in the maritime, ocean and offshore environment. The further
work will include fuzzy logic approach to tackle with ambiguity and
3.6. Human error reduction measures
vagueness during APAO calculation.
In order to enhance safety level and reduce the probability of human
Acknowledgment
error occurrence in bunkering operation, the human error control
measures are recommended for the sub-tasks with high HEP values.
The author wishes to thank the reviewers and editor in charge for
Table 8 depicts some control measures human error during bunkering
their very constructive feedback.
operation at chemical tanker ships.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
4. Conclusion
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
Environmental sensitiveness is one of the most important concerns online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.08.002.
of sustainable maritime industry since a wide range of critical marine
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