36 Feature

WORLD PUMPS September 2011

Compressors

Selection of gas
compressors: part 2
In this multipart series, Eduardo Larralde and Rafael Ocampo aim
to provide a comprehensive survey of the current state of the art
concerning gas compressors. Following the elucidation of the
basic concepts and theory in the opening article, the series
continues with the classification of different compressor types.

B
efore attempting to select a
compressor for an industrial
application it is a vital requirement
to recall the basics concerning the
classification, physical structure and
technical features of these machines.
Regarding compressor types, the
compressors currently applied in
industry can be classified according to
the synoptic chart presented in Box 2.1.
Considering design and construc-
tion characteristics, the most
commonly used reciprocating and
centrifugal types of compressors
can be further classified according
to the following subdivisions.
Reciprocating compressors
According to the number of
compression stages:
• Single stage
• Duplex/triplex (two/three cylinders
working in parallel), and so on
According to the capacity:
• Small capacity (up to approximately
600 m3/h)
• Medium capacity (between 600 m3/h
and 1,800 m3/h)
• Large capacity (more than 1,800 m3/h)
According to the discharge pressure:
• Low (up to 1 MPa)
• Medium (between 1 MPa and 8 MPa)
• High (8 MPa to 100 MPa)
• Very high (more than 100 MPa)
(hypercompressors)
According to the arrangement
of the cylinders:
• Horizontal, vertical, V arrangement,
W  arrangement, L arrangement,
M  arrangement (boxer type)
According to the chemical composition
of the gas being handled:
• Air, freon, nitrogen, ammonia,
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.
Centrifugal compressors
According to the number of casings:
• One, two, three casings, etc.
According to the number of
impellers on one rotor:
• One, two, three impellers, etc.
According to the design of the casing:
• Horizontally split
• Vertically split (barrel, pipeline and
overhung)

• Multiple stages Box 2.1. Synoptic chart showing the main compressor types
According to the action of the cylinders:
Piston
Reciprocating
• Simple acting (gas is compressed by Diaphragm
only one side of the piston) Screw
Positive
• Double acting (gas is compressed by Lobe
displacement
both sides of the piston) Compressors Rotary Sliding vane

According to the number of cylin- Liquid ring

ders working in parallel: Scroll
Centrifugal
• Simplex (only one cylinder) Rotodynamic
Axial

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38 Feature
WORLD PUMPS September 2011

According to the flow direction:

• In-line

• In-line with side streams

• In-line with intercooling

• Double flow

• Back to back with or without intercooling

According to the type of drive:

• Steam turbine

• Gas turbine

• Electric motor

• Combustion engine

• Expansion turbine

According to the coupling to the drive:

Figure 2.1. Piston compressor with horizontal cylinder arrangement.
• Direct coupling

• With speed reducers
• With speed multipliers
• Integrally geared
• Integrated motor compressor
Other different ways of classifying compres-
sors can be used but because they are very
specific they are not mentioned in this article.
Operating principles
Reciprocating compressors
This type of machine achieves the compres-
sion of the gas by reducing the volume of
the space where the gas is confined. Figure
2.1 presents a sectional view of a piston
compressor with a horizontal arrangement.
Successive steps take place as the piston
moves inside the cylinder, namely intake,
compression and discharge of the gas. This
ideal cycle occurs as shown in Figure 2.2,
assuming that there is no gas pressure drop
through the suction and discharge valves, that
intake and discharge are constant pressure
processes, and that no gas is left inside the
cylinder at the end of the discharge step.
Figure 2.3 shows a p-V diagram corresponding
to a compressor with clearance. Note that
the main difference from Figure 2.2 is that
some gas is left inside the cylinder at the end
of the discharge step and this gas expands
during the beginning of the intake stroke,
preventing the ingress of new gas from the
system until the pressure inside the cylinder
becomes slightly lower than the pressure in
the suction pipe. The space where the gas
is retained is referred to as the clearance.
Its existence is unavoidable because of the
need for a certain gap between the piston
head and the cylinder and also because of
the space required to place the valves.
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor
(ηv) depends on the ratio (c) between
the clearance volume (vc) and the piston
displacement (vd), on the ratio of pres-
sures (p2/p1) and on the polytropic
exponent (n), as can be seen in the
following equation determined from the
conventional diagram with clearance:
ηv = 1 + c – c(p2/p1)1/n (2.1)
Usually the value for the clearance ratio (c)
varies between 0.06 and 0.14 depending
on the compressor size. In large multistage
machines it can be as low as 0.025.
When the compressibility factor (Z)
is not constant during the compres-
sion process, the following correction to
Equation 2.1 should be introduced:
ηv = 1 + c – (Z1/Z2)·c(p2/p1)1/n (2.2)
As stated earlier in Part 1 of this series1,
the volumetric efficiency is defined as the
ratio of the actual compressor capacity
(Q) and its displaced volume (vd):
ηv = Q/vd (1.22)

p2 p2 p2
p2
Pressure, p

Pressure, p
Pressure, p

Pressure, p

p1 p1 p1 p1

Volume, Vc Vc Vd Vd
Volume, V V
Volume,
Volume, V V
Figure 2.2. p-V diagram for an ideal compressor. Figure 2.3. p-V diagram with clearance.

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p2 > ppd2 > pd

p2 = ppd2 = pd Working
Working condition
condition
40 Feature
Figure 2.4. Screw compressor (image courtesy of Boge
Compressors).
For a given compressor, as the clearance
increases both the volumetric efficiency
and the capacity decrease. This feature
can be used to control the gas flow
rate for a piston compressor.
The real value for volumetric efficiency,
which varies between 65% and 90%, can
be obtained through testing. Clearance size,
the magnitude of gas leaks through pack- p
ings, valves and piston rings, as well as the
2 why variable volume ratio machines are
heating of the gas inside the cylinder are
all factors influencing the value of the real
volumetric efficiency. That is why Equa-
tion 2.2 is modified to include empirical
data that better express the real volumetric
performance of piston compressors2:
p1
1/n
ηv = 0.97 + c – (Z1/Z2)·c(p2/p1) – GL (2.3)
where GL is 0.02–0.06 for lubricated
compressors, and 0.07–0.10 for non-​
lubricated compressors.
However, volumetric efficiency is not a reliable
indicator by which to evaluate the quality of a
compressor. Instead, the power consumption
for the desired capacity should be assessed.
Rotary compressors
This type of machine applies the same
operating principle as reciprocating
compressors but in rotary compressors the
decrease in volume is achieved through the
gradual reduction of the space between
the rotor and the casing obtained while
the rotor rotates inside the casing.
Nowadays screw compressors (Figure 2.4)
stand out among positive displacement
rotary-type machines. Figure 2.5 shows a
typical p-V diagram for a screw compressor
working under different conditions. Compres-
sion is achieved by the intermeshing of
a male and a female rotor. As the rotors
turn, the location of the intermeshing of
the rotor lobes moves from the suction
port to the discharge port; correspondingly,
the gas in the rotor pockets – contained
by the intermeshing – is compressed and
expelled. Oil-free rotary screw compres-
sors rely on tightly controlled rotor-to-rotor
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WORLD PUMPS September 2011
and rotor-to-casing clearances to prevent Rotation of the impeller creates a depres-
internal recirculation of the compressed sion at its inlet side (Figure 2.6), allowing the
gas from discharge to suction. Timing gears continuous inflow of gas from the suction
synchronize rotation of the male and female pipe to the impeller vanes. Inside the impeller,
rotors, preventing metal-to-metal contact centrifugal force pushes the gas from the
and eliminating the need for oil injection. inlet side to the periphery, increasing the gas
velocity and density between the impeller
Screw compressors allow liquid injection –
vanes. The gas then moves to the casing
normally oil – which enables operation at
or diaphragm, both of which have the
slow speeds and fulfils three functions:
form of a diffuser, where the high velocity
• Reducing and even eliminating inter-lobe of the gas is transformed into pressure. In
space tolerances. multistage machines, the gas emerging from
the first-stage diffuser is fed to the second-
• Refrigerating gas during compression.
stage impeller by the guiding vanes, which
• Lubricating the rotors, thus avoiding the are also located on the diffuser (Figure 2.7).
need to use timing gears. Finally, the compressed gas reaches the
volute and then the discharge pipe. In those
Oil injection can flush gas streams
compressors with interstage cooling, the gas
contaminated with different substances
goes through heat exchangers after each
such as polymers. When screw compres-
compression stage or group of stages.
sors operate under off-design conditions
(Figure 2.5), efficiency drops, especially Interstage cooling is the most commonly
if they have a fixed volume ratio. That is used method of cooling because it yields
p2
the closest process to the isothermal and
preferred because of their self-adjusting it is therefore the most economic from the
ability for peak off-design efficiency. energy standpoint. There is another cooling
Pressure, p
Pressure, p
method, which consists of circulating cooling
p2 pwater through channels bored into the
2
Centrifugals (turbocompressors) diaphragms, but this solution makes the
casing design and manufacture more difficult.
Pressure, p
Pressure, p
In centrifugal compressors, the compression
p1
is achieved by firstly increasing the kinetic The effective quantity of energy supplied
energy of the gas by using the principle by the driver to compress the gas is actu-
of centrifugal force and thenVconverting
Volume, Vc than that required for
ally greater Vdisentropic
p1the kinetic energy to pressure energy. pcompression
1 because of theVolume,
additional
V
Volume, V Vc Vd
Volume, V
p2 > pd
p2 = p d Working condition
p2 < p d
p2 > pd On-design
p2 = p d Working condition
Pressure, p
Over compression
p2 < p d
On-design
Under compression
Pressure, p
Over compression
pUnder
d
= design pressure
compression
p1
pd = design pressure
p1
Volume, V
Volume, V
Figure 2.5. p-V diagram for a screw compressor.
Figure 2.6. Gas movement in a centrifugal compressor impeller.
42 Feature
energy used to overcome the friction of
the gas against the impeller channels,
diffuser channels and the casing, and also
the fluid friction of the impeller immersed
in the compressed gas. All the extra
energy supplied is converted into heat.
Axial compressors
In this type of rotodynamic machine,
the pressure increase is obtained by the
combined effect of the increase in the gas
velocity and the simultaneous increase of
area occurring during the passage of the
gas through the blades as the rotor rotates.
The gas enters the compressor (Figure 2.8)
in a direction parallel to the compressor
shaft. After reaching the rotor blades the
gas rotates with them and also moves
axially from one blade row to the next.
There are fixed blade rows in the casing in
between the rotor blade rows. The functions of
the fixed blades are to remove the turbulence
of the gas caused by the movement of the
mobile blades and to direct the gas flow to
the next row of mobile blades. Normally, the
blades on the first stator row are adjustable
by external devices for better performance
control and for broader operational flexibility.
Main features
There follows a summary of the main features,
advantages and disadvantages for each type
of compressor. These points need to be taken
into account during the selection of the
appropriate compressor for a given service.
Piston compressors
• Low speed (nowadays ‘high speed’
reciprocating compressors are also available,
ranging from 22 kW to 6,700 kW direct-
coupled to prime movers operating at
720 rpm to 1,800 rpm).
• High discharge pressure.
• Best for high pressure increase in one stage
or at low capacity.
• Wide pressure range.
• Very small change in capacity for gas
pressure variations when running at a fixed
speed.
• Suitable for portable use.
• Larger footprint than centrifugal or rotary
compressors.
• High vibrations and pulsating gas flow.
• Cylinder cooling and lubrication are required.
Non-lubricated compressors require the use
of self-lubricating materials.
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• Sensitive to low gas densities.
• High maintenance requirements. Prone to
service failures.
Diaphragm compressors
• Usually the working speed is lower than
580 rpm.
• Suitable for applications where leaks or
product contamination are not allowed.
• Smaller capacities than piston compressors.
• High pressure rates.
• Low efficiency.
• Diaphragm set as a whole should be
carefully designed in order to attain an
acceptable lifespan.
Screw compressors
• High operating speed (lower than centrifu-
gals but higher than reciprocating
compressors).
• Wide range of operating speed.
• Pressure ratio up to 20 depending on type
and size. Overall pressure ratios of more
than 25 are possible with multistage
compressor frames.
• Efficiency between 60% and 70%.
• Lower efficiency for operation at off-design
conditions particularly on fixed internal
volume machines.
• Oil-free gas discharged.
• Some sensitivity to low gas densities.
• Presence of liquid and non-abrasive dirt in
the gas being handled is allowed.
• High gas discharge temperature.
Lobe compressors
• Medium capacities.
Figure 2.7. Multistage centrifugal compressor (image
courtesy of Elliot Group, Jeannette, PA, USA).
WORLD PUMPS September 2011
• Normal compression rates not higher than
2.2. Dry high-pressure machines can reach
values up to 4.5.
• Smooth and oil-free gas delivery.
• Almost constant capacity for a given speed
regardless of the gas pressure and
temperature.
• Pressure self-adjustment without power loss.
• Can handle any gas.
• Presence of liquid in the gas being handled
is allowed.
• Can operate with efficiency at any pressure
in the design range.
• Small losses.
Sliding vane compressors
• Medium capacities. Compression rate not
higher than 2.7.
• High rotating speed.
• Smooth flow.
• Valves are not required.
• Small footprint.
• Usually water cooling is required.
• Positive lubrication required.
Liquid ring compressors
• Medium pressure and capacity machines.
• Especially well suited to handling explosive
or highly corrosive gases.
• Smooth discharge flow.
• Cold and clean discharged gas.
• No friction parts and no lubrication required.
• Large power demand.
• Low efficiency. Maximum value around 48%.
• Water (or another liquid) supply required.
• Good construction materials required.
Figure 2.8. Axial compressor (image courtesy of Nuovo
Pignone Spa – © All rights reserved).

WORLD PUMPS September 2011
Scroll compressors
• Low pressures and capacities.
• No valves needed. A dynamic discharge
valve is used in some applications.
• Small torque fluctuation.
• Very low noise and vibration.
• Higher volumetric efficiency than piston
compressors.
• Small-sized scroll compressors are more
efficient.
Centrifugal compressors
• High operating speed.
• Low starting torque required, as with rotary
compressors.
• High capacity. Low limit between
1,000 m3/h and 3,000 m3/h.
• Operate satisfactorily over a wide range of
capacity and pressure.
• Discharge pressure very limited for a single
impeller. Almost all applications require
several compression stages.
• Low, medium and high discharge
pressures (35 MPa and over), although
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smaller discharge pressures than piston
compressors.
• Smooth discharge flow.
• Oil-free gas discharged.
• High efficiency even when handling dirty
gases. Liquid injection allowed.
• Low level of vibrations, allowing light and
cheap foundations.
• High operating reliability.
• Low maintenance cost.
• Behaviour extremely sensitive to inlet gas
pressure, temperature and molecular weight.
• Substantial change in capacity for pressure
variations.
• Unstable operation (surging) at limited flows.
Axial compressors
• Low pressure ratio (up to 10) and very
large flow (100,000 m3/h to 900,000 m3/h
inlet capacity).
• Limited compression rate mainly because of
the difficulty of installing interstage cooling.
• Characteristics very similar to centrifugal
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Feature 43
capacities greater than 100,000 m3/h
and discharge pressure not greater than
1.0 MPa. Smaller footprint and weight.
• Not suitable for portable applications (as
with centrifugals).
The values given above for each type
of compressor correspond to standard
designs. For specific applications,
parameters outside those limits can
be  found.
Part 3 of this series will explain the
physical structure of piston compressors. n
References
[1] E. Larralde and R. Ocampo, ‘Selection
of gas compressors: part 1’, World Pumps,
No. 536, pp. 24–28, (May 2011).
[2] Compressed Air and Gas Institute,
Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, Third
Edition, New York, NY, USA, (1961).
Contact
Eduardo Larralde
Email: larralde@quimica.minbas.cu
Rafael Ocampo
Email: rocampod@gmail.com
MDS produced by Touchwave
MEDIA
andrew@touchwavemedia.co.uk
+44 7785 290034
www.motordrivensystems.com
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