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National Taiwan Ocean University  7.1 Some Preliminaries

 7.2 Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying
通訊與導航工程學系  7.3 Phase-Shift Keying
 7.4 Frequency-Shift Keying
通訊原理
 7.5 Summary of Three Binary Signaling Schemes
Fundamental Communications Theory
 7.6 Noncoherent Digital Modulation Schemes
Fall 2017  7.7 M-ary Digital Modulation Schemes
吳家琪 助理教授  7.8 Mapping of Digitally Modulated Waveforms onto
Constellations of Signal Points
Lecture 10. Digital Band-Pass Modulation Techniques  7.9 Theme Example
 7.10 Summary and Discussion

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 Three basic modulation schemes: 7.1 Some Preliminaries

1. Amplitude-shift keying, (ASK)  Given a binary source that emits symbols 0 and 1, the
2. Phase-shift keying, (PSK) modulation process involves switching or keying the
amplitude, phase, or frequency of a sinusoidal carrier
3. Frequency-shift keying. (FSK) wave between a pair of possible values in accordance
with symbols 0 and 1.
c(t) = Accos(2fct + c)
 Given three parameters of the carrier c(t), we may
identify three distinct forms of binary modulation:
1. Binary amplitude shift-keying (BASK),
2. Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK),
3. Binary frequency-shift keying (BFSK),
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National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University Band-Pass Assumption
 An important conclusion can draw from the close s(t) = b(t)c(t)
relationship between analog and digital modulation 2
techniques is that despite their basic difference, BASK, s (t )  b(t ) cos(2f c t )
Tb
BPSK, and BFSK share a common feature: all three of
them are examples of a band-pass process.  The transmitted signal energy per bit as
Tb 2 Tb
In the digital communications literature, the usual Eb   | s (t ) |2 dt   | b(t ) |2 cos 2 ( 2f c t )dt
 0 Tb 0
practice is to assume that the carrier c(t) has unit energy 1
measured over one symbol (bit) duration. cos 2 ( 2f ct )  [1  cos(4f ct )]
2
2 1 T 1 T
 Eb  T 0 | b(t ) | dt  T 0 | b(t ) | cos(4f ct )dt
2 b 2 b
Ac 
Tb b b
T
where Tb is the bit duration. since  | b(t ) | cos(4f ct )dt  0
2 b

0
2 1
c(t )  cos(2f ct  c ) Tb
Tb  Eb 
Tb 
0
| b(t ) |2 dt

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National Taiwan Ocean University Generation and Detection of ASK Signals
National Taiwan Ocean University

7.2 Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying  The BASK signal is readily generated by using a
 A binary data stream b(t) which is of the ON-OFF product modulator with two inputs.
signaling variety.  The ON-OFF signal of b(t), is the modulating signal.
 The sinusoidal carrier wave c(t )  2 cos(2f t )
 E , for binary symbol 1 c
b(t )   b Tb
 0, for binary symbol 0

 2 Eb
 cos(2f ct ), for symbol 1
s (t )   Tb
 0, for symbol 0

Eb
Eav 
2 Figure 7.1 The three basic forms of signaling binary information. (a) Binary
data stream. (b) Amplitude-shift keying. (c) Phase-shift keying. (d) Frequency-
shit keying with continuous phase.
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 A property of BASK that is immediately apparent from
Fig. 7.1(b), which depicts the BASK waveform
corresponding to the incoming binary data stream of
Fig. 7.1(a), is the nonconstancy of the envelope of the
modulated wave.
Computer Experiment I: Spectral Analysis of BASK
 Consider a binary data stream that consists of a square
wave, the amplitude of which alternates between the
constant levels √Eb and zero every Tb seconds.
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Figure 7.2 Power spectra of BASK signal produced by square wave as the
modulating signal for varying modulation frequency: (a) fc＝4 Hz and Tb＝1 s;
(b) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝1 s.
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 The simulation parameters used in the computer
experiments are as follows:
 Number of data bits (1s and 0s) = 100
 Sampling frequency, fs = 100 Hz
 Number of data points (samples) = 100 × fs = 10,000
data points
 Block size of the FFT, N = 4069
 Results of the computation are plotted in Figs. 7.2 and
7.3., where we show two power spectral plots: one
shaded, resulting from the computation, and the other,
will-defined curve, obtained from theory.
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Figure 7.3 Power spectra of BASK signal produced by square wave as the
modulating signal for varying modulation frequency: (a) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝1 s;
(b) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝½ s.
 7.3 Phase-Shift Keying
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Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK) Generation and Coherent Detection of BPSK Signals
 In the simplest form of phase-shift keying known as  Generation: A product modulator consisting of two
binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), the pair of signals components (see Fig. 7.4(a)):
s1(t) and s2(t) used to represent symbols 1 and 0,  (i) Non-return-to-zero level encoder,
respectively, are defined by  (ii) Product modulator.
 2 Eb
 cos(2f ct ), for symbol1 corresponding to i  1
 Tb
si (t )  
 2 Eb cos(2f t   )   2Eb cos(2f t ), for symbol 0 corresponding to i  2
 Tb c
Tb
c

 A pair of sinusoidal wave, s1(t) and s2(t), which differ

only in a relative phase-shift of π radians as defined Figure 7.4 (a) BPSK modulator. (b) Coherent detector for BPSK;
above, are referred to as antipodal signals. for the sampler, integer i＝0, ±1, ±2, …

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 Detection: The BPSK signal x(t) at the channel output Computer Experiment II: Spectral Analysis of BPSK
is applied to a receiver that consists of four sections:  The results of the experiment on BPSK are plotted in
 (i) Product modulator, figs. 7.5 and 7.6.
 (ii) Low-pass filter,
 (iii) Sampler,
 (iv) Decision-making device.
 The BPSK receiver described in Fig. 7.4 is said to be
coherent in the sense that the sinusoidal reference
signal applied to the product modulator in the
demodulator is synchronous in phase with the carrier
wave used in the modulator.
Figure 7.5 Power spectra of BASK signal produced by square wave as the
modulating signal for varying modulation frequency: (a) fc＝4 Hz and Tb＝1 s;
(b) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝1 s.
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 Comparing these two figures with Figs. 7.2 and 7.3 for
BASK make two important observations:

1. BASK, and BPSK signals occupy the same transmission

bandwidth－namely, 2/Tb－.
2. The BASK spectrum includes a carrier component,
whereas this component is absent from the BPSK
spectrum.

Figure 7.6 Power spectra of BASK signal produced by square wave as the
modulating signal for varying modulation frequency: (a) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝1 s;
(b) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝½ s.

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 An important goal of digital communication is the  Note that the symbol duration is twice the bit duration, as
efficient utilization of channel bandwidth. This goal is shown by T = 2Tb
attained by a bandwidth-conserving modulation scheme 2E   2E  
known as quadriphase-shift keying. si (t )  cos(2i  1)  cos(2fct )  sin(2i  1)  sin(2f ct )
T  4 T  4
 In quadriphase-shift keying (QPSK), as with BPSK,  Some important observations:
information carried by the transmitted signal is
1. The QPSK signal consists of the sum of two BPSK signals.
contained in the phase of a sinusoidal carrier.
2. One BPSK signal, represented by the first term
 2E  
 cos 2f c t  ( 2i  1) , 0  t  T √2E/T cos[(2i－1) π/4] cos[(2πfct)]
s (t )   T  4
 0, elsewhere defines the product of modulating a binary wave by the
sinusoidal carrier √2/T cos(2πfct), also recognize that
 where i = 1, 2, 3, 4; E is the transmitted signal energy
    E / 2 for i  1,4
per symbol and T is the symbol duration. E cos(2i  1)   
 4   E / 2 for i  2,3
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3. The other BPSK signal, represented by the second term
2E  
 sin(2i 1)  sin(2f ct )
T  4
defines the product of modulating a different binary
wave by the sinusoidal carrier √2/T sin(2πfct),
    E / 2 for i  1,2
 E sin(2i  1)   
 4   E / 2 for i  3,4
5. The two sinusoidal carrier waves identified under points
2 and 3 are in phase quadrature with respect to each
other.
6. For each possible value of the index i, Eqs. (7.16) and
(7.17) identity the corresponding dibit, as outlined in
Table 7.1.

4. The two binary waves defined in Eqs. (7.16) and (7.17)

share a common value for the symbol duration－
namely, T.

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Generation and Coherent Detection of QPSK Signals  The extent of amplitude fluctuations exhibited by
(i) Generation QPSK signals may be reduced by using a variant of
 To generate the QPSK signal, the incoming binary data quadriphase-shift keying known as the offset
stream is first converted into polar form by a non- quadriphase-shift keying (OQPSK).
return-to-zero level encoder, the encoder output is  Amplitude fluctuations in OQPSK due to filtering have
denoted by b(t).
a smaller amplitude than in OQPSK.
 The two BPSK signals are subtracted to produce the
desired QPSK signals, as depicted in Fig. 7.7(a).
(ii) Detection
 The QPSK receiver consists of an in-phase (I)-channel
and quadrature (Q)-channel with a common input, as
depicted in Fig. 7.7(b).

Figure 7.7 Block diagrams of (a) QPSK transmitter

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Figure 7.7 Block diagrams of (b) coherent QPSK receiver; for the two
synchronous samplers, integer i＝0, ±1, ±2, …
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Computer Experiment III: QPSK and OQPSK Spectra
(i) QPSK Spectra Parts (a) and (b) of Fig. 7.9 display the
power spectra of QPSK for the following parameters:
Carrier frequency, fc=8 Hz
Bit duration, Tb= 1 s for part (a) of the figure
½ s for part (b) of the figure
(ii) OQPSK Spectra Parts (a) and (b) of Fig. 7.10 display
the corresponding power spectra of OQPSK for the same
parameters used for QPSK.
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Example 7.1 Phase transitions
Figure 7.8 Graphical comparison of phase transitions in QPSK and OQPSK.
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 The important conclusion, drawn from comparing the
two parts of Fig. 7.9 for QPSK with those of Fig. 7.10
for OQPSK, is summarized as follows: although these
two digital methods of modulation naturally yield
different waveforms, the power spectra of QPSK and
OQPSK are identical for the same set of system
parameters.
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Figure 7.9 Power spectra of BASK signal produced by square wave as the Figure 7.10 Power spectra of OQPSK signal produced by square wave as the
modulating signal for fixed carrier frequency and varying bit duration: (a) fc＝8 Hz modulating signal for fixed carrier frequency and varying bit duration: (a) fc＝8
and Tb＝1 s; (b) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝½ s. Hz and Tb＝1 s; (b) fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝½ s.

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Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK)  This modulated signal is a continuous-phase signal in

 In the simplest form of frequency-shift keying known the sense that phase continuity is always maintained,
as binary frequency-shift keying (BFSK), symbols 0 including the inter-bit switching times.
and 1 are distinguished from each other by Computer Experiment IV: Sunde’s BFSK
transmitting one of two sinusoidal waves that differ in  Sunde’s BFSK
frequency by a fixed amount.  When the frequencies f1and f2 are chosen in such a way
 A typical pair of sinusoidal waves : that they differ from each other by an amount equal to
the reciprocal of the bit duration Tb
 2 Eb
 cos(2f1t ), for symbol1 corresponding to i  1 (i) Waveform
 Tb
si (t )  
 2 Eb cos(2f t ), for symbol 0 corresponding to i  2  Figure 7.11 plots the waveform of Sunde’s BFSK
 Tb 2
produced by the input binary sequence 0011011001 for
a bit duration Tb = 1 s.
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(ii) Spectrum
 Figure 7.12 shows two superimposed spectral plots of
Sunde’s BFSK for a square-wave input for positive
frequencies: bit duration, Tb = 1 s, and carrier frequency,
fc = 8Hz

Figure 7.12 Power spectra of

BPSK signal produced by square
Figure 7.11 (a) Binary sequence and its non-return-to-zero level-encoded wave as the modulating signal
waveform. (b) Sunde’s BFSK signal. for the following parameters: fc =
8 Hz and Tb = 1s.

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Continuous-Phase Frequency-Shift Keying Example 7.2

Relationship Between
 The modulated wave maintains phase continuity at all OQPSK and MSK
transition points, even though at those points in time the Waveforms
incoming binary data stream switches back and forth
 Sunde’s BFSK, the overall excursion δf in the
transmitted frequency from symbol 0 to symbol 1, is
equal to the bit rate of the incoming data stream.
Minimum-Shift Keying
 The special form of CPFSK
 Uses a different value for the frequency excursion δf,
with the result that this new modulated wave offers Figure 7.13 OQPSK signal components; (a) Modulating signal for in-phase
superior spectral properties to Sunde’s BFSK. component. (b) Modulated waveform of in-phase component. (c) Modulating
signal for quadrature component. (d) Modulated waveform of quadrature
component. (e) Waveform of OQPSK signal obtained by subtracing (d) from (b).
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Formulation of Minimum-Shift Keying

 (i) sI(t) = √Eb cos(θ(t)) is the in-phase (I) component
associated with the carrier √2/Tb cos(2πfct).
 (ii) sQ(t) = √Eb sin(θ(t)) is the quadrature (Q) component
associated with the 90° phase-shifted carrier.
sI (t )  a1 (t ) cos(2f 0t )
sQ (t )  a2 (t ) sin(2f 0t )
 The a1(t) and a2(t) are two binary waves that are
extracted from the incoming binary data stream through
demultiplexing and offsetting, in a manner similar to
Figure 7.14 MSK signal components: (a) Modulating signal for in-phase component.
(b) Modulated waveform of in-phase (c) Modulating signal for quadrature component OQPSK  s (t )   a (t ) 
(d) Modulated quadrature component. (e) Waveform of MSK signal obtained by  (t )   tan 1  Q    tan 1  2 tan(2f 0t )
subtracting (d) from (b).  sI (t )   a1 (t ) 

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 Two possible scenarios: Computer Experiment V: MSK Spectrum

1. a2(t) = a1(t)  Figure 7.15 shows two power spectral plots of the
MSK signal, one computational and the other
 (t )   tan 1 tan(2f 0t )  2f 0t theoretical. Comparing this figure with that of QPSK
in Fig. 7.9(a) and that of Sunde’s BFSK in Fig. 7.12
2. a2(t) =－a1(t)
for the same set of parameters.
 (t )   tan 1  tan(2f 0t )  2f 0t  (i) MSK versus QPSK: The main lobe of MSK
occupies a frequency band whose width is 1.5/Tb = 1.5
Hz, centered on the carrier frequency fc = 8 Hz.
 (ii) MSK versus Sunde’s BFSK: The transmission
bandwidth of MSK is one half that of Sunde’s BFSK.
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Figure 7.15 Power spectrum of MSK produced by square wave as the
modulating signal for the following parameters: fc＝8 Hz and Tb＝1 s.
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7.5 Summary of Three Binary Signaling Schemes
 Table 7.2 presents a summary of the three binary
modulation schemes: BASK, BPSK, BFSK.
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Figure 7.16 Illustrative confirmation that for MSK produced by a square
modulating wave, the carrier frequency fc＝8 Hz is high enough to produce
insignificant spectral overlap for bit duration and Tb＝1 s.
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7.6 Noncoherent Digital Modulation Schemes
Noncoherent Detection of BASK Signal
 The receiver consists of a band-pass filter, followed
by an envelope detector, then a sampler, and finally
a decision-making device, as depicted in Fig. 7.17.
 The band-pass filter is designed to have a mid-band
frequency equal to the carrier frequency fc and a
bandwidth equal to the transmission bandwidth of
the BASK signal.
Figure 7.17 Noncoherent BASK receiver
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Noncoherent Detection of BFSK Signals

 The receiver consists of two paths, one dealing with
frequency f1 (i.e., symbol 1) and the other dealing with
frequency f2 (i.e., symbol 0):
 Path 1 uses a band-pass filter of mid-band frequency f1.
 Path 2 uses a band-pass filter of mid-band frequency f2.
 The outputs of the two paths, v1 and v2, are applied to a
comparator, where decisions on the composition of the
BFSK signal are repeated every Tb seconds.
Figure 7.18 Noncoherent BASK receiver; the two samplers operate synchronously,
with i＝0, ±1, ±2, …

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Differential Phase-Shift Keying (i) Generation: The differential encoding process at the
 A “pseudo PSK” technique known as differential transmitter input starts with an arbitrary first bit,
phase-shift keying (DPSK), which, does permit the use serving merely as reference.
of noncoherent detection.  Let {dk} denote the differentially encoded sequence
 DPSK eliminates the need for a coherent reference with this added reference bit.
signal at the receiver by combining two basic  The block diagram of the DPSK transmitter is shown in
operations at the transmitter: Fig. 7.19(a).
 Differential encoding. (ii) Detection: The incoming pulse is multiplied by the
 Phase-shift keying. preceding pulse, which serves the purpose of a locally
generated reference signal.
 The DPSK signal is detectable, given knowledge of the
reference bit, which, is inserted t the very beginning of
the incoming binary data stream.
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Example 7.3 From Binary Data Stream to DPSK

Signal and Back

Figure 7.19 Block diagrams for (a) DPSK transmitter and (b) DPSK receiver;
for the sampler, integer i＝0, ±1, ±2, …

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7.7 M-ary Digital Modulation Schemes M-ary Phase-Shift Keying

 M-ary modulation schemes are preferred over binary  In M-ary PSK, the available phase of 2π radians is
modulation schemes for transmitting digital data over apportioned equally and in a discrete way among the
band-pass channels when the requirement is to M transmitted signals, as shown by the phase-
conserve bandwidth at the expense of both increased modulated signal
power and increased system complexity.
2E 2
si (t )  cos(2f c t  i), i  0,1,..., M  1, 0  t  T
T M

 2  2   2  2 
si (t )   E cos( i)  cos(2f ct )   E sin( i)  sin(2f ct )
 M  T   M  T 
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 The discrete coefficients E cos( 2M i)and  E sin( 2M i) are

respectively referred to as the in-phase and quadrature
components of the M-ary PSK signal si(t).
1/ 2
 2
2   2  
2

 E cos( i )   E sin( i )   E , for all i

 M   M  
Signal-Space Diagram
 Orthonormal functions:
2
1 (t )  cos(2f ct ), 0t T
T
2
2 (t )  sin(2f ct ), 0t T Figure 7.20 Signal-space diagram of 8-PSK.
T

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 Figure 7.20 leads us to make 3 important observations: M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
1. M-ary PSK is described in geometric terms by a  2 E0   2E0 
constellation of M signal points distributed uniformly si (t )   ai cos(2f c t )   bi sin(2f ct )
 T   T 
on a circle of radius √E.
2. Each signal point in the figure corresponds to the signal  This new modulation scheme is called M-ary
si(t) of Eq. (7.35) for a particular value of the index i. quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
3. The squared length from the origin to each signal point  M-ary QAM is a hybrid form of M-ary modulation, in
is equal to the signal energy E. the sense that it combines amplitude-shift keying and
phase-shift keying.
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Signal-Space Diagram
 Figure 7.21 portrays the signal-space representation of
M-ary QAM for M = 16, with each signal point being
defined by a pair of level parameters ai and bi, where i
= 1, 2, 3, 4.
M-ary Frequency-Shift Keying
2E   i = 0, 1, …, M–1.
si (t )  cos (n  i)t ) ,
T T  0tT
T  E for i  j
 0
si (t ) s j (t )dt  
 0 for i  j
1
i (t )  si (t ), i = 0, 1, …, M–1.
E Figure 7.21 Signal-space diagram of Gray-encoded M-ary QAM for M＝16.
0tT

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

7.8 Mapping of Digitally Modulated Waveforms Onto

Constellations of Signal Points
 Fig. 7.23 on BPSK shows the way in which the two
waveforms s1(t) and s2(t), respectively representing
binary symbols 1 and 0, are mapped onto the
transmitted signal points s1 and s2.

Figure 7.22 Signal constellation for M-ary FSK for M＝3. Figure 7.23 Mapping of BPSK signal onto
a one-dimensional signal-space diagram.
 國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 The signal space representation of BPSK is simple, 2. Similarly, we may show that the signal
involving a single basis function:
2 Eb
2 s2 (t )   cos(2f ct ) for symbol 0
1 (t )  cos(2f ct ) Tb
Tb
 Two steps: s2   Eb
1. Correlating the signal
 These two results are indeed what is portrayed in Fig.
2 Eb 7.23.
s1 (t )  cos(2f ct ) for symbol1
Tb
Tb Tb 2
s1   1 (t ) s1 (t )dt   Eb cos 2 ( 2f c t )dt
0 0 Tb
s1  Eb

國立台灣海洋大學 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University

 BFSK signal-space diagram of Fig. 7.24 two

dimensional, as it involves the pair of basis functions
2
1 (t )  cos(2f1t )
Tb
2
2 (t )  cos(2f 2t )
Tb
 The separation between the transmitted signal points
for BPSK is √2 times that for BFKS.
 The received signal point lies inside a “cloud” centered
on the transmitted signal point.
Figure 7.24 Mapping of BFSK onto two-dimensional signal-space diagram