aGaBD

ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

7 RUE ANCELLE 92 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE FRANCE

.. .
Hybrid Navigation Systems

N O R T H A T L A N T I C TREATY O R G A N I Z A T I O N - -

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION IS LIMITED

FOR ADDITIONAL COPIES SEE BACK COVER
 1

A G A R D Conference Proceedings No. 54

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

ADVISORY G R O U P F O R AEROSPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

(ORGANISATION DU TRAITE D E L’ ATLANTIQUE N O R D )

H Y B R I D N A V I G A T I O N SYSTEMS

Papers presented at the Guidance and Control Panel 9th Meeting held at Delft, Netherlands,
22-26 September 1969
r
.

The material i n t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n has been produced

d i r e c t l y from copy supplied by each author.

Published January 1970

527.6: 621.396.93:629.7.051

P r i n t e d by Technical E d i t i n g and Reproduction L t d

Harfonl House, 7-9 C h a r l o t t e S t , London, W. 1
 CHAIRMAN, G U I D A N C E AND C O N T R O L P A N E L

Professor Walter Wrigley

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 0 2 1 3 9 USA -

D E P U T Y CHAIRMAN, G U I D A N C E AND C O N T R O L P A N E L

Mr H: G. R. Robinson
Head, Avionics Department
Royal Aircraft ,Establishment
Farnborough, Hampshire, England

CHAIRMAN, G U I D A N C E AND C O N T R O L P A N E L
(as of 2 2 September 1 9 6 9 )

Mr H. G. R. Robinson
Head, Avionics Department
Royal A i r c r a f t Establishment
Farnborough, Hampshire, England

D E P U T Y CHAIRMAN, G U I D A N C E AND C O N T R O L P A N E L
(as of 2 2 September 1 9 6 9 )

Professor, C. T. Leondes
Department of Engineering
University of C a l i f o r n i a
Los Angeles, C a l i f o r n i a 9 0 0 2 4

C H A I R M A N OF P R O G R A M C O M M I T T E E

Mr W. J. Rhine
NASA, Electronics Research Center
Cambridge, Massachusetts 0 2 1 3 9 , USA

HOST N A T I O N COORDINATOR

Mr A. H. Geudeker
Nederlandse Delegatie B i j de AGARD
c/o S t i c h t i n g Nationaal Lucht-en
Ruimt evaart labor at or ium
Kluyverweg 1
D e l f t , Netherlands

EXECUTIVE, G U I D A N C E AND C O N T R O L P A N E L

Major C.D.Mount, USAF

AGARD

iii
 FOREWORD

The evolution o f guidance and c o n t r o l systems over t h e p a s t decade has included

t h e development o f r a t h e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d hybrid systems. This has included such
hybrid systems as stellar monitored i n e r t i a l systems, LORAN i n e r t i a l systems, Doppler
i n e r t i a l LORAN or DILS systems, various combinations o f s a t e l l i t e monitored i n e r t i a l
systems, and numerous o t h e r combinations.

The f u t u r e w i l l undoubtedly bring many f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t advanced developments

i n hybrid guidance and c o n t r o l systems. Nevertheless t h e Guidance and Control Panel
o f NATO-AGARD was well aware of t h e appropriateness o f a review of 'the s t a t u s o f t h e
f i e l d at t h i s time and so t h e s e conference proceedings which evolved from a meeting
at t h e Delft University o f Technology, Delft, Netherlands, September 2 2 - 2 6 , 1969. are
devoted t o t h e general subject of c u r r e n t technology i n hybrid guidance and c o n t r o l
systems.

The s u b j e c t w a s t r e a t e d a t t h e meeting i n f i v e broad c a t e g o r i e s with f u l l s e s s i o n s

devoted t o each category. These s e s s i o n s included s e s s i o n s on Systems Applications
o f Hybrid Navigation Techniques, A i r T r a f f i c Control and Landing Systems Applications,
t h e I n t e r a c t i o n of Airborne and Ground Elements, A i r c r a f t Experience and Applications,
and Analytical and Theoretical Considerations o f Hybrid Techniques. The n e t r e s u l t i s
a r a t h e r thorough treatment o f t h e s u b j e c t , and t h e s e Conference Proceedings should
t h e r e f o r e prove t o be q u i t e valuable t o p r a c t i c i n g guidance and c o n t r o l engineers.

A g r e a t d e a l o f c r e d i t f o r t h e t e c h n i c a l success o f t h i s conference must go t o t h e

program committee of which M r W. J.Rhine was Chairman. A l l members o f t h e Guidance and
Control Panel made valuable c o n t r i b u t i o n s and t h e i r help is g r e a t l y appreciated.
Major C.D.Mount was outstanding i n h i s performance i n handling h i s f i r s t conference
i n h i s new capacity as t h e Executive, Guidance and Control Panel. Finally, g r a t i t u d e
is a l s o expressed t o t h e Netherlands Government f o r o f f e r i n g t o serve as t h e host
country f o r t h i s Symposium. The f a c i l i t i e s were e x c e l l e n t and contributed s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y t o t h e success of t h e Symposium. Mr A.H.Geudeker was outstanding i n h i s r o l e
as host nation coordinator.

C. T. Leondes
Editor
Guidance and Control Panel
A G M

iv
 CONTENTS

SESSION I. SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS OF HYBRID NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES

Reference

HYBRID GUIDANCE AND NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

by Dr G.R.Marner 1

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM OPERATED IN CONJUNCTION WITH

A USER INERTIAL SYSTEM
by Dr B.P.Leonard 2

GLOBAL NAVIGATION/TRAFFIC SURVEILLANCE/COMMUNICATION SATELLITE SYSTEM FOR

MILITARY AND CIVIL VEHICLES
by M. W. Mitchell

THE TMA ROLE OF HYBRID SYSTEM RADIO SENSORS

by F. S . Stringer

SESSION 11. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AND SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS

THE USE OF FILTERING TECHNIQUES AND/OR MIXED NAVIGATION SYSTEMS IN COMBINATION

WITH BAROMETRIC ALTIMETRY TO GENERATE GLIDE SLOPES FOR PRECISION APPROACH
by M. G. Pearson

THE USE OF INERTIAL INFORMATION TO IMPROVE AUTOMATIC ILS APPROACH PERFORMANCE

by N. H.-Hughes

IMPROVEMENT OF THE ACCURACY OF AUTOMATIC LANDING SYSTEMS BY USE OF KALMAN-FILTERING

TECHNIQUES AND INCORPORATION OF INERTIAL DATA
by W.Schmidt

COLLISION AVOIDANCE AND THE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL ENVIRONMENT

b y A.Browde

SESSION 111. THE INTERACTION OF AIRBORNE AND GROUND ELEMENTS

INTEGRATED HYBRID-INERTIAL AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

by R.C.Stow and B.Danik 9

MODERN AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SENSORS FOR HYBRID SYSTEMS

by W.R.Fried 10

LORAN SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY

by R. E. Weaver, Jr 11

SYSTEME DE NAVIGATION A INERTIE HYBRIDE OPTIMISE

par P.Faurre 12

TACTICAL LORAN
by L. D.Higginbotham 13

SESSION IV. AIRCRAFT EXPERIENCE AND APPLICATIONS

THE C-.5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM - AN APPLICATION OF DIGITAL SYNERGISTIC STOCHASTIC

HYBRID NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY
by Dr B.J.Miller 14

THE HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEM FOR THE NIMROD MARITIME PATROL AIRCRAFT
by R.P.G.Collinson 1s

J
 Reference

THE U S E O F HYBRID T E C H N I Q U E S I N COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

by S . B. P o r i t z k y 16

INTEGRATED A V I O N I C SYSTEM D E S I G N FOR H E L I C O P T E R S A N D VTOL

by L A.Kaufman 17

S E S S I O N V. ANALYTICAL A N D T H E O R E T I C A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S O F HYBRID T E C H N I Q U E S

INTEGRATED NAVIGATION BY L E A S T SQUARE ADJUSTMENT

by P r o f . D r - I n g . K . R a m s a y e r 18

A S I M P L E KALMAN F I L T E R FOR VOR/DME

b y M. A . V. M a t t h e w s 19

OPTIMAL CORRECTION O F S T O C H A S T I C ERRORS O F I N E R T I A L SYSTEMS

by R . S w i c k 20

D E S I G N O F LOW S E N S I T I V I T Y KALMAN F I L T E R S FOR HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

by P r o f . C . E . H u t c h i n s o n 21

vi
 1

HYBRID SYSTEMS FOR GUIDANCE AND NAVIGATION

G. R.Marner

D i r e c t o r o f Research,
C o l l i n s Radio Company,
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
1
 1- 1

HYBRID SYSTEMS FOR GUIDANCE AND NAVIGATION

G. R. Marner
D i r e c t o r o f Research
Col 1ins Radio Company
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
SUMMARY

Developments i n sensors, computers, data transmission techniques and systems theory have g r e a t l y
accelerated t h e t r e n d tpward h y b r i d guidance and n a v i g a t i o n systems. Operational needs f o r new types o f
data, f o r accuracy and r e l i a b i l i t y , and f o r multi-mode operation t o complete missions d e s p i t e f a i l u r e o r
l a c k o f i n p u t data have motivated t h i s trend. General comments concerning the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f redun-
dant, complementary and s y n e r g i s t i c systems are made, and a l i s t o f important h y b r i d system examples i s
given. Operational needs f o r some f u t u r e h y b r i d systems are o u t l i n e d . These i n c l u d e areas o f a i r c r a f t
landing, n a v i g a t i o n and t r a f f i c c o n t r o l , marine n a v i g a t i o n and t r a f f i c c o n t r o l and space navigation.
SOMMAI RE

L ' G v o l u t i o n des techniques, en matiere de detecteurs sensibles, de c a l c u l a t e u r s , de transmission de

donnCes e t de thCorie des systsmes, a f o r d l a tendance en d i r e c t i o n des s y s t h e s hybrides de guidage
e t de navigation. L ' u t i l i s a t i o n des systemes hybrides e s t motivbe par l e s besoins opbrationnels requbrant
1'achPvement de t o u t e mission, q u e l l e s que s o i e n t l e s dbfectuositbs ou pertes d ' i n f o m a t i o n s . Pour
r6pondre 3 ce c r i t s r e , de nouvelles formes de donnCes e t des modes m u l t i p l e s de fonctionnement sont
ngcessaires, a i n s i qu'une amClioration de l a p r k c i s i o n e t de l a f i a b i l i t 6 . Sont egalement t r a i t & l e s
p r i n c i p e s redondants, ccinplbmentaires e t "synergetique" appliqu6s aux systemes hybrides majeurs donnCs
en exemple, de meme que l ' a p p l i c a t i o n f u t u r e 3 l a navigation e t au c o n t r o l e a6rien, maritime e t s p a t i a l ,
de nouveaux s y s t h e s hybrides.

Introduction

The use o f h y b r i d guidance and navigation systems has been growing r a p i d l y i n recent years. This
growth has been due t o both technological c a p a b i l i t i e s and operational requirements, On t h e technological
s i d e we have seen the development o f many p r e c i s e and r e l i a b l e components and sensors such as gyros, acceler-
ometers, readout devices, time and frequency standards, r a d i o receivers capable o f time, frequency o r phase
comparisons, etc. S o l i d s t a t e and, r e c e n t l y , m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c techniques have permi t t e d use o f more complex
e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t s w i t h g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y and smaller s i z e . Techniques f o r data trans-
missions, processing and combination have developed r a p i d l y and now g i v e the system designer g r e a t f l e x i -
b i l i t y f o r system combination. Development o f d i g i t a l techniques has been very important i n t h i s connection.

Development o f system analysis theory has progressed as equipment technology has developed. Most r e c e n t
developments i n d i g i t a l data transmission and processing have opened so many p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r system i n t e -
g r a t i o n t h a t one has the f e e l i n g t h a t system synthesis c a p a b i l i t y expansion would y i e l d considerable b e n e f i t .

Operational needs i n the past 30 years have encouraged, and t o a considerable extent, sponsoreCl. system
and h y b r i d system developments. Some o f the p r i n c i p a l needs came from the f o l l o w i n g areas: WW I 1 marine
and a i r operations, m i s s i l e guidance and navigation, nuclear submarine operation, ICBM launch guidance, c i v i l
a i r c r a f t operation, supersonic m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t , h e l i c o p t e r development, space operations, and supersonic
c i v i 1 a i r c r a f t . Future needs w i 11 continue t o encourage h y b r i d systems.

The analysis techniques and data combination methods c u r r e n t l y employed make i t p o s s i b l e t o consider com-
p l e x combinations o f sensors as a u n i f i e d system, r a t h e r than a h y b r i d system. There i s , however, some bene-
f i t i n system synthesis t o consider a combination o f sensors which i n d i v i d u a l l y make measurements o f guidance
and n a v i g a t i o n q u a n t i t i e s as a h y b r i d system. We include combinations o f i d e n t i c a l systems, and i n sane
instances, systems i n which the combination process i s c a r r i e d o u t by man. If we i n c l u d e the human element
i n the d e f i n i t i o n , then h y b r i d systems have ancient o r i g i n .

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Hybrid Systems
There a r e several motivations f o r the development and use o f h y b r i d systems. While t h e r e are various
ways t o c l a s s i f y systems, c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and discussion w i t h reference t o the operational m o t i v a t i o n i s con-
venient. I t may a l s o be h e l p f u l t o the design o f new systems.
One important f u n c t i o n o f h y b r i d systems i s t o a t t a i n output q u a n t i t i e s which are n o t a v a i l a b l e from
i n d i v i d u a l sensors. A system which synthesizes new q u a n t i t i e s from a combination o f measurable q u a n t i t i e s
i s c a l l e d a s y n e r g i s t i c system. I f t h e operator i s included as p a r t o f the system, s y n e r g i s t i c systems are
probably t h e o l d e s t h y b r i d systems. For example, t h e magnetic compass, a method f o r measuring the vessel's
speed through t h e water, and a method f o r determining time i n t e r v a l s permits determination o f l a t i t u d e and
l o n g i t u d e changes. Likewise, o p t i c a l measurement o f a l t i t u d e angles o f c e l e s t i a l objects combined w i t h GMT
gives l a t i t u d e and longitude.

The c e l e s t i a l p o s i t i o n determinations have been q u i t e accurate since p r e c i s e timepieces became a v a i l a b l e .

However, c e l e s t i a l data a v a i l a b i l i t y i s l i m i t e d by l i g h t i n g and weather conditions, so continuous outputs are
n o t obtained. The dead reckoning process, however, i s i n p r i n c i p l e capable o f producing continuous data.
I t s shortcomings are t h a t i t measures only d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o s i t i o n , and t h a t the e r r o r sources (compass
heading, water current, speed measurement) cause increasing e r r o r as the time i n t e r v a l increases.
1- 2

Combination o f these two systems t o form a h y b r i d system r e s u l t s i n g r e a t l y improved p o s i t i o n data. This

i l l u s t r a t e s another type o f h y b r i d system i n which two systems which measure e s s e n t i a l l y the same q u a n t i t i e s
b u t w i t h d i f f e r e n t data r a t e s , and e r r o r spectra are combined t o determine t h e same q u a n t i t i e s w i t h improved
data a v a i l a b i l i t y and improved e r r o r spectrum. We may c a l l such arrangements complementary systems. This
rudimentary example a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t system formation can be compounded: we have combined two synergis-
t i c systems t o form a complementary system.

Complementary systems have varying c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s depending upon the e r r o r spectra and data a v a i l a b i l i t y
o f t h e subsystems involved, and the combination method. I n most systems the designer attempts t o f i n d sub-
systems which are f r e e from c m o n e r r o r sources and which i n d i v i d u a l l y have u s e f u l data c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

I n many instances s i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f i t s i n accuracy and r e l i a b i l i t y can be obtained through combination

o f i d e n t i c a l systems. While these may n o t c o n s t i t u t e h y b r i d systems i n the s t r i c t e s t sense o f t h e word, d i s -
cussion o f such redundant systems i n t h i s context i s convenient and f r u i t f u l . Again a t the l e v e l o f manual
combination, many common examples o f combined i d e n t i c a l o r s i m i l a r systems e x i s t . The dual a i r c r a f t f l i g h t
and engine instrument combinations are f a m i l i a r examples. The u t i l i t y o f such dual combinations i s widely
recognized. To o b t a i n the f u l l p o t e n t i a l o f such combinations i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o minimize common modes o f
e r r o r and f a i l u r e , and t o provide means o f d e t e c t i n g f a i l u r e s i n the i n d i v i d u a l systems.
This d e s c r i p t i o n o f combined systems -- redundant, complementary, and s y n e r g i s t i c -- probably c o n s t i t u t e
a complete, b u t n o t mutually exclusive, c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Recent advances i n system o r g a n i z a t i o n techniques
and monitoring techniques have p e r m i t t e d the development o f systems which change system c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n r e -
sponse t o d i f f e r e n t data a v a i l a b i l i t y , t o subsystem f a i l u r e s and t o changes i n desired operation. One i s
tempted t o l i s t such adaptable multi-mode systems as " f a i l operational" systems because o f t h e i r remarkable
a b i l i t y t o complete missions successfully despite f a i l u r e s and changing conditions.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Hybrid Systems

Hybrid systems take so many forms t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o discuss general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . We c e r t a i n l y

cannot attempt t o o u t l i n e the general development o f c o n t r o l theory which has now grown t o a very s o p h i s t i -
cated s t a t e . However, we w i l l make some comments of p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o h y b r i d systems, and l i s t
some examples, p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u s t r a t i n g h y b r i d systems developed i n the United States.

A convenient and h i s t o r i c a l l y important s t a r t i n g p o i n t would be complementary systems. The a u t o p i l o t

l o c a l i z e r mode o f 1941, t h e gyro s t a b a l i z e d magnetic compasses o f 1942 and t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t o r s o f the l a t e
40's are good examples o f complementary systems (See Table 1 ) . Speaking s p e c i f i c a l l y o f t h e g y r o - s t a b i l -
i z e d magnetic compass and r e f e r r i n g t o Figure 1, we consider a f l u c t u a t i n g magnetic heading p l u s noise as
t h e output o f System I. The compass i s s e n s i t i v e t o a i r c r a f t motions, f i n e s t r u c t u r e i n the magnetic f i e l d ,
f l u c t u a t i n g magnetic f i e l d s caused by e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s i n the a i r c r a f t , e t c . I f an average over time and

Figure 1 . Complementary Hybrid System'.

l o c a t i o n could be determined, however, a reasonably accurate magnetic heading could be determined. We there-
f o r e pass t h e compass output through a low pass f i l t e r w i t h t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n Ksn/(s+Km). This reduces t h e
noise b u t introduces a l a g i n the heading data. The d i r e c t i o n a l gyro output responds c o r r e c t l y t o maneuvers
and has very l i t t l e h i g h frequency noise. I t does have a slow d r i f t and no a b i l i t y t o seek magnetic north.
We accordingly pass t h i s output through a high pass f i l t e r w i t h t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s/(s+Km). The Km constant
i s chosen as a compromise between the low frequency gyro e r r o r s and the h i g h frequency compass e r r o r s .
This choice o f f i l t e r constants, w i t h weighting constants K1 = K2 = 1/2, makes the o v e r a l l composite trans-
f e r f u n c t i o n f o r the heading, the physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c which both systems are measuring, be u n i t y . That
i s , the output w i l l f o l l o w any time heading changes w i t h f i d e l i t y and w i t h o u t any time lag. I n p r a c t i c e
t h e compass has a systematic e r r o r during turns which can be corrected by disconnecting i t f o r t u r n r a t e s
 1-3

i n excess o f a chosen threshold o r by i n t r o d u c i n g a compensation from v e r t i c a l o r d i r e c t i o n a l gyro data

since the f u n c t i o n a l nature of the e r r o r i s known. One may choose t o shape the composite t r a n s f e r func-
t i o n , t o g i v e unequal weighting i n the combination process ( e s p e c i a l l y i f a f a i l u r e o r undesirable condi-
t i o n develops on one channel), and more than two i n p u t s may be u t i l i z e d . The f i l t e r i n g , weighting, and
combination process may be c a r r i e d o u t i n a computer. The general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , however, o f combining
d i f f e r e n t types o f measurement of t h e same parameter,assessing t h e s p e c t r a l p r e c i s i o n and data a v a i l a b i l i t y ,
and combini ng according t o t h e desired output c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are the features o f complementary systems.
Many systems have been designed w i t h these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as they f u r n i s h important operational advantages.
Improved s p e c t r a l f i d e l i t y and p r e c i s i o n (improved p r e c i s i o n w i t h o u t averaging delay), reduced v u l n e r a b i l -
i t y t o comnon modes o f e r r o r and f a i l u r e , v e r s a t i l i t y i n switching modes o f operation as d i f f e r e n t sets
o f data are a v a i l a b l e and/or as d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s are desired, and the n a t u r a l Combination o f various
data i n a more convenient form are t y p i c a l o f modern, complex, multi-mode complementary systems. Recent
models o f f l i g h t d i r e c t o r s are e x c e l l e n t examples o f t h i s class o f system. We should expect continual
growth o f complexity and scope o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f such systems.

A second class o f systems are t h e redundant systems. These are s i m i l a r t o the complementary systems
except t h a t t h e e r r o r spectrum o f each channel i s the same. I t i s t h e r e f o r e impossible t o e l i m i n a t e por-
t i o n s o f t h e noise spectrum by using d i f f e r e n t f i l t e r i n g i n each channel. There are some e r r o r r e d u c t i o n
b e n e f i t s , however. I n many systems t h e equivalent i n p u t noise i s l a r g e l y due t o processes i n t e r n a l t o
the system. I n t h i s circumstance, as w e l l as i n cases i n v o l v i n g q u i t e independent sensors, t h e r e i s a
g a i n due t o t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between the t r u e q u a n t i t i e s and the l a c k o f c o r r e l a t i o n between the two noises.
Figure 2 shows a s i m p l i f i e d diagram o f a redundant system.

Figure 2. Redundant System

Subsystems I and I 1 are taken t o be s i m i l a r . Radar a l t i m e t e r s f o r a i r c r a f t landing systems would be a good

example. The weighting o f each channel would normally be equal, and t h e outputs are both subtracted and
added. The s u b t r a c t i o n i s valuable f o r f a i l u r e d e t e c t i o n as discussed l a t e r . The ns e r r o r i n t h e combined
output i s
1+P 112
"canbi ned = "(7)
where i s the rms e r r o r i n each subsystem output and i s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between the i n p u t
noises o f t h e two subsystems. With completely c o r r e l a t e d noise ( p = l ) there i s no improvement i n accuracy;
w i t h independent i n p u t s (p=O) t h e r e i s a noise r e d u c t i o n t o 70% o f the s i n g l e system value. The system de-
signer, as always, seeks designs which minimize c m o n e r r o r modes and c m o n f a i l u r e modes.

The chief advantages o f redundant systems l i e i n improvements i n dependability. Through a combination

o f monitoring and comparison i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r the user t o make a much more accurate asses.sment o f t h e
c o n d i t i o n o f h i s equipment and the p r o b a b i l i t y f o r successful completion o f a mission can be s u b s t a n t i a l l y
increased. Figure 3 shows a s i m p l i f i e d diagram o f a dual monitored system appropriate f o r dependability
discussion.

Modern monitoring systems normally c o n s i s t o f several i n d i v i d u a l monitors which t e s t a v a i l a b l e s i g n i -

f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s . Some o f these t e s t s may a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e comparisons w i t h t h e corresponding q u a n t i t y
i n the other subsystems. The monitoring c i r c u i t r y and mechanisms may be r a t h e r complex, so t h a t i t s f a i l -
u r e r a t e cannot be ignored. The monitor can never t e s t a l l p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e modes. I n most modern systems
an attempt i s made t o i d e n t i f y t h e s i g n i f i c a n t f a i l u r e modes and the p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e i r occurrance. By
summing t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f those t h a t a r e monitored and those t h a t are not, an estimate can be made o f
the p r o b a b i l i t y o f d e t e c t i n g a f a i l u r e i f one does occur. I n the " s o f t " f a i l u r e modes t h e r e i s u s u a l l y a
threshold o f some type t o be s e t which involves a t r a d e o f f between the number o f f a l s e f a i l u r e alarms and the
number o f missed alarms. Very l i t t l e can be s a i d about t h i s t r a d e o f f i n a general way as the character o f
t h e t r a d e o f f i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . O f course, as the monitor i s s e t t o miss very
few r e a l f a i l u r e s i t i n e v i t a b l y gives more f a l s e alarms. I n operations i n which s a f e t y ( o r some mission
o b j e c t i v e r e q u i r i n g the system) i s given g r e a t p r i o r i t y i t i s customary t o accept a s u b s t a n t i a l unnecessary
equipment removal r a t e i n order t o have a h i g h degree o f confidence i n the equipment. Unnecessary removal
1-4

- I1

Figure 3. Dual Monitored System

accounts f o r about h a l f o f the removals i n a i r l i n e operations. Whether these removal r a t e s are e s s e n t i a l

i n h i g h l y monitored dual systems would be a worthwhile subject f o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

The combination o f -two i d e n t i c a l systems w i t h output comparison b u t w i t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l monitoring i s

adequate i n many circumstances. System c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which tend t o make t h i s approach p r a c t i c a l are:
( 1 ) High r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l systems; (2) Normal output f l u c t u a t i o n s small compared w i t h t h e
operational accuracy requirement so e f f e c t i v e comparison can be made w i t h o u t h i g h f a l s e alarm r a t e ; (3)
Output c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which cause the output t o reveal the most prevalent f a i l u r e modes; and (4) P o s s i b i l -
i t y o f a l t e r n a t e operation procedures. I n t h i s connection i t should be noted t h a t t h e operator o f most
systems acts as a monitor f o r many f a i l u r e modes, by i n t e r p r e t i n g the nature o f the output i n ways t h a t
would be i m p r a c t i c a l t o automate. I n combining systems i t i s q u i t e important t o preserve t h i s character-
i s t i c , o r t o replace i t adequately.
I n general, however, the dual monitored and compared system has s u p e r i o r operat i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
both i n conveying t o the user a more precise knowledge o f i t s operating c o n d i t i o n and i n increasing t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s f u l l y completing a mission. The whole subject o f monitoring i s very complex and
cannot be taken up i n d e t a i l here. We w i l l make only a few observations. F i r s t , we have the problem o f
informing the user o f the operational condition. Second, t h e r e i s the m a t t e r o f r e l i a b i l i t y , o r proba-
b i l i t y o f mission success. With regard t o the f i r s t , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note the f o l l o w i n g s i t u a t i o n :
suppose the monitoring performed by each monitor and comparator were complete and p e r f e c t , t h a t monitor
f a i l u r e always caused an alarm ( i d e n t i c a l w i t h system f a i l u r e alarm) , and t h a t comparator f a i l u r e s were
n e g l i g i b l e . Then a dual monitored system could be i n any one o f 16 possible operating conditions: a l l
u n i t s operable, a l l u n i t s operable except monitor 1 , ...
, a l l u n i t s inoperable. The monitors and t h e com-
p a r a t o r can only i n d i c a t e 8 d i f f e r e n t conditions, so they are obviously unable t o g i v e a f u l l d e s c r i p t i o n
o f the system. However, the ambiguities are grouped i n such a way t h a t the c o r r e c t operational decisions
are made. Deviations from t h i s i d e a l s i t u a t i o n are associated w i t h incomplete and imperfect monitoring,
l a c k o f alarm when a monitor f a i l s , and f a u l t y output due t o f a u l t y i n p u t t h a t cannot be assessed by the
monitoring system (comon mode e r r o r s ) .

Turning now t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f loss o f f u n c t i o n during a mission, we d e f i n e the f a i l u r e r a t e o f

each i n d i v i d u a l system A , o f each monitor Am, and o f the comparator x . We a l s o assume t h a t comparator
f a i l u r e w i l l r e s u l t i n erroneous f a i l u r e i n d i c a t i o n and t h a t monitor f a i l u r e s f a i l t o g i v e alarms. Then
the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n w i l l be l o s t during a mission o f length t i s

-it
s i n g l e monitored system: 1 - e = ~ t (3)
dual unmonitored system
cornparat o r : (4)

dual monitored system w t h

comparator:
 1-5

For numerical comparison, assume x = 0 . 2 4 ~ 1 0 - ~per hour, x = 0 . 1 5 ~ 1 0 - p~e r hour, x C = 0 . 0 5 ~ 1 0 - per ~ hour,
and t = 1.75 hours. Then i n 10,000 f l i g h t s we would expec? 4.4, 9.6, and 0.9 losses o f f u n c t i o n f o r t h e
t h r e e configurations. Thus, we would e f f e c t an order o f magnitude r e d u c t i o n i n mission f a i l u r e s w i t h t h e
assumed dual monitored system.

With t h e increased use o f m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t r y we can expect t o see continued development o f moni-

t o r i n g techniques and g r e a t e r use o f dual monitored systems.

For missions o f c r i t i c a l nature o r o f long duration, where a l t e r n a t e systems a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e (e.g. ,

category I11 a i r c r a f t landing systems , nuclear submarine n a v i g a t i o n ) , extensions o f these techniques i n t o
t r i p l e and dual-dual systems have been made. These increase t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r monitoring and c a l i -
b r a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l f u n c t i o n s w h i l e operating, and f u r t h e r increase t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f o r mission success.
Widespread use of such systems depends upon c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n trend, and the development
o f automatic t e s t techniques t o h o l d maintenance costs t o defensible l e v e l s . Trends i n those d i r e c t i o n s
are very encouraging, and we can look forward t o a new e r a o f dependability i n guidance and navigation.

We turn now t o the t h i r d major class o f h y b r i d systems --

t h e s y n e r g i s t i c systems. I n these systems
we o b t a i n an output which i s n o t measured d i r e c t l y by e i t h e r subsystem. The word comes from a Greek word
meaning t o work together. I t i s used i n medical p r a c t i c e t o describe a s i t u a t i o n i n which two d i f f e r e n t
courses o f treatment r e i n f o r c e each other. The extension t o h y b r i d systems i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .

An important example i s t h e airborne doppler system which measures speed over t h e ground, and combines
t h i s w i t h time and heading t o compute east and n o r t h distance traveled. Another example i s an area navi-
g a t i o n system which uses angular data from t h e VOR, range from DME and a l t i t u d e from t h e a l t i m e t e r t o com-
pute a 3-dimensional f i x .

I n t h e i r most rudimentary form, s y n e r g i s t i c systems do n o t have any special means f o r reducing e r r o r s

o r increasing r e l i a b i l i t y as t h e redundant and complementary systems do. T h e i r b e n e f i c i a l f e a t u r e i s the
a b i l i t y t o provide a needed output which i s n o t a v a i l a b l e d i r e c t l y from any sensor. I n some systems re-
dundacy i s introduced by using m u l t i p l e o r a l t e r n a t e subsystems t o i n s u r e t h a t the needed measured para-
meters w i l l be a v a i l a b l e . I t i s p o s s i b l e -- indeed, desirable, t o make compound h y b r i d systems which a r e
redundant, complementary and s y n e r g i s t i c . Such systems can be designed f o r g r e a t p r e c i s i o n , r e l i a b i l i t y ,
and u t i l i t y , and o f f e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r reducing common mode f a i l u r e s and e r r o r s .

Rapid improvements i n data transmission and computer techniques have made i t p o s s i b l e t o form systems
w i t h m u l t i p l e inputs, m u l t i p l e outputs, and considerable a b i l i t y f o r data smoothing w i t h o u t i n t r o d u c i n g
lags, f o r performing i n t e r n a l c a l i b r a t i o n s and adjustments, and f o r complex processing t o accomplish de-
s i r e d combinations. Such systems t y p i c a l l y e x h i b i t a l l o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s we have been describing.
Figure 4 i s a generalized block diagram o f such a system. Here the s i g n a l l i n e s may represent more than
one q u a n t i t y , and t h e r e could be more than two subsystems. I t i s f r e q u e n t l y convenient t o perform trans-
formations represented by the blocks M1 and M2 so t h a t t h e data coming from subsystems I and I 1 represent
the same parameters, even though derived from d i f f e r e n t sensors, The d i f f e r e n c e s should be small and repre-
s e n t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n measurement e r r o r i n the two subsystems and the e f f e c t o f any e r r o r s i n any assumed
parameters i n t h e transformations. Any noiseless component o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e should be a slowly varying
q u a n t i t y , and smoothing processes w i l l n o t cause appreciable l a g i n the main data f l o w . I n the h y b r i d sys-
tem design enough systems and enough outputs should be chosen t o permit t h e data f i l t e r t o make a unique
s o l u t i o n f o r slow adjustment o f parameters t h a t are subject t o d r i f t , o r a r e b a s i c a l l y unknown and r e q u i r e
determination. The output o f t h e data f i l t e r i s shown as making adjustments i n the subsystems ( t h e block
M i and M2 could be included) and a l s o sending data t o K1 and K2. These represent both g a i n adjustments
and e r r o r s u b t r a c t i o n processes, and t h e f i n a l output data may n o t be combined. There may be f i n a l t r a n s -
formations i n t o o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s so t h a t the two system outputs may n o t have p a i r s o f s i m i l a r q u a n t i t i e s .

I f the data f i l t e r can be supplied w i t h a mathematical model o f t h e dynamics o f the system and a model
o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e measurement e r r o r s and the s t a t e o f the system i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e f i l t e r
t o perform an optimal e s t i m a t i o n process which minimizes e r r o r s i n t h e l e a s t squares sense and redetermines
parameters used i n the model o f the system. For a l i n e a r system such a f i l t e r i s c a l l e d a Kalman f i l t e r (1,
2). Nonlinear systems, may o f t e n be l i n e a r i z e d by i n t r o d u c i n g a model o f t h e nominal desired performance
and forming t h e system as a l i n e a r approximation u t i l i z i n g the small d i f f e r e n c e s between nominal and actua .
This i s e x p e c i a l l y useful i n space n a v i g a t i o n ( 3 ) .

This method o f system organization has many d e s i r a b l e features besides the accuracy b e n e f i t of t h e opt
mal estimate process. The data f i l t e r i n g i s normally implemented w i t h an i t e r a t i v e , sampled procedure
which involves data r a t e s slower than the main s i g n a l flow, and the mathematical models can be changed i n
the computer t o implement various modes i n v o l v e d i n s t a r t up, use o f a l t e r n a t e subsystem i n p u t s , degraded
subsystem performance, stoppage o f data i n one subsystem, e t c . I f one subsystem i s an i n e r t i a l system,
c o r r e c t i o n s can be made i n both the 84 minute and 24 hour loops on an i n t e r m i t t a n t basis w i t h o u t e x c i t i n g
osci 11a t i ons.
Future Hybrid Sys tems

I n t h e past t h e r e have been reasons f o r avoiding h y b r i d combination o f systems, and the combination
o f t e n was l e f t t o t h e operators. The canplexity, w i t h attendant cost and maintenance requirements, o f t h e
automation involved was one d e t e r r e n t , and the r e l i a b i l i t y r e q u i r e d o f t h e common elements were two
important f a c t o r s . With considerable gains i n both o f these areas we can expect t o see more use made o f
h y b r i d systems. Table 1 l i s t s some examples o f automatic h y b r i d systems developed i n the United States.
A considerable time span e x i s t s from conception t o completion, and i t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n equiva-
l e n t dates f o r each system. No c l a i m o f completeness i s made, and i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t many equivalent
 t
- 1 - Ml * Kl I c

DATA
-
FILTER.

- - I1 M2 ' ' K2
I
c

t
Figure 4. Generalized Hybrid System.

systems were developed i n o t h e r countries, i n some cases e a r l i e r . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h e growing

complexity and t h e i n c r e a s i n g use of redundancy and optimal e s t i m a t i o n techniques i n recent years.
Experience w i t h these systems has been so faverable t h a t these trends can be expected t o continue.

One o f the areas w i t h i n t e n s e h y b r i d system a c t i v i t y i s a i r c r a f t landing systems. Landing accidents

s t i l l a r e t h e major s a f e t y hazard i n c i v i l a v i a t i o n , and they a r e q u i t e important i n m i l i t a r y a v i a t i o n .
V a r i a t i o n i n a i r p o r t acceptance r a t e s w i t h v a r i a b l e weather conditions i s a serious problem i n a i r t r a f f i c
c o n t r o l . Diversion t o a l t e r n a t e a i r p o r t s i s c o s t l y t o a i r c r a f t operators and passengers. Reserve f u e l
requirements i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f d i v e r s i o n i s a c o n t i n u a l operational cost. Rough landing i n l a r g e a i r -
c r a f t causes s u b s t a n t i a l maintenance cost. The increase i n a i r c r a f t w i t h d i f f e r e n t g l i d e s l o p e charac-
t e r i s t i c s and t h e need f o r operation w i t h c l o s e r runway spacing and curved paths on f i n a l approach a l l
r e q u i r e a d i f f e r e n t type o f reference signal. A s u b s t a n t i a l number o f accidents occur close i n , b u t
before a c q u i r i n g g l i d e s l o p e s i g n a l . I n view o f a l l these problems i t seems evident t h a t i n t e n s i v e
development e f f o r t w i l l be needed during the next decade. Landing requirements a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d
f o r h y b r i d systems. M u l t i p l e redundant sources o f data, processed i n a complementary fashion i n m u l t i p l e
channels w i t h extensive output comparisons are t y p i c a l o f new f l i g h t c o n t r o l systems. Radar a l t i m e t e r
i n p u t s are used i n t h e f l a r e phase. Extensive c a p a b i l i t y f o r system r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n case o f f a i l u r e s
and careful monitoring t o d e t e c t f a i l u r e s are a l s o being developed. These new systems w i l l b r i n g a new
degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y and p r e c i s i o n w i t h t h e present ILS and permit landings under Category I11 conditions.
As new r a d i o guidance systems provide f l e x i b l e and p r e c i s e g l i d e slopes, the f l i g h t c o n t r o l systems o f
the f u t u r e should p r o v i d e a l l the desired features. I t may be necessary t o add some type o f independent
t e r r a i n avoidance and runway s u r v e i l l a n c e system. This depends upon the r a d i o guidance system u t i l i z e d
i n the f u t u r e .

The area o f a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l , both m i l i t a r y and c i v i l , i s another f i e l d r e q u i r i n g h y b r i d systems.

I n t h e United States t h e o v e r a l l a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l system cannot r e a l l y be considered a system from t h e
c o n t r o l theory viewpoint. Some aspects o f i t s operation can be modeled as systems, some i n v o l v i n g i n t e r -
actions w i t h p i l o t s and c o n t r o l l e r s . The most urgent need i s , o f course, t o increase a i r p o r t capacity i n
major t r a n s p o r t a t i o n hubs. The landing system improvements c i t e d above w i l l be q u i t e h e l p f u l , e s p e c i a l l y
i f accompanied w i t h compatible c o n s t r u c t i o n o f runways and taxiways. Further e f f o r t s a r e needed t o
upgrade the c o n t r o l system by t i g h t e r connection o f surveillance, navigation, p i l o t and c o n t r o l l e r .
Besides t h e upgrading o f s u r v e i l l a n c e and navigation, i t seems e s s e n t i a l t o improve t h e comnunication
between t h e p i l o t and c o n t r o l l e r , as w e l l as between c o n t r o l l e r s . An i n t e g r a t e d message switching and
processing network i n c o r p o r a t i n g a p o l l e d air-ground-air d i g i t a l data transmission l i n k appears appropriate.
Such a l i n k could t r a n s m i t i d e n t i t y , p o s i t i o n , a l t i t u d e , ETA f o r the next checkpoint, and perhaps o t h e r
parameters, and permit s h o r t p i l o t messages. The u p l i n k could t r a n s m i t i n f o r m a t i o n such as weather data
and c o n t r o l l e r i n s t r u c t i o n s . I t would seem most p r a c t i c a l t o s t a r t by m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a i r b o r n e VHF
transceivers and t h e remote ground UHF s t a t i o n s i n such a way t h a t could be extended t o s a t e l l i t e use
l a t e r i f t h a t became f e a s i b l e .
I t should be p o s s i b l e by t i g h t e n i n g the comnunication, p o s i t i o n r e p o r t i n g , s u r v e i l l a n c e , and data
processing loops t o form f u n c t i o n a l subsystems w i t h a b i l i t y t o handle more t r a f f i c s a f e l y . With t h i s
f u n c t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y i t should be p o s s i b l e t o develop and implement a more canprehensive s t r a t e g y o f
a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l (4).

A i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n i s i n need o f upgrading f o r several a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n t h e domestic a i r t r a f f i c

c o n t r o l environment an area n a v i g a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y u t i l i z i n g VOR/DME and a i r data, as w e l l as i n e r t i a l
n a v i g a t i o n i n some instances, would appear t o be q u i t e u s e f u l . More airways f o r enroute use could be
reduced. Studies have shown (5) t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t improvements i n accuracy and c o n t r o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
can be obtained by optimal combination o f a i r data w i t h VOR/DME, and even g r e a t e r improvements are
a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n combined w i t h t h e r a d i o data (6).
 I-7

One of the major steps f o r increasing capacity l i e s i n achieving g r e a t e r r e g u l a r i t y i n a r r i v a l

spacing a t t h e landing d e c i s i o n p o i n t . Without having a f u l l y developed theory as a basis i t s t i l l
seems p o s s i b l e t o foresee some useful aspects. The runway capacity increases as the r e g u l a r i t y of.
a r r i v a l increases. The p o i n t o f diminishing r e t u r n i n r e g u l a r i t y depends upon a i r c r a f t mix and runway

time w i t h a standard d e v i a t i o n o f about 3 -

design. I t would u s u a l l y be b e n e f i c i a l i f a i r c r a f t could a r r i v e a t a decision p o i n t a t the assigned
5 seconds. Since t h e c o s t o f assigning and c o n t r o l l i n g
a i r c r a f t throughout the airspace t o t h i s p r e c i s i o n would be p r o h i b i t i v e , i t seems e s s e n t i a l t o seek
means f o r improving t h e r e g u l a r i z i n g f u n c t i o n as a i r c r a f t near t h e a i r p o r t . I f a widespread s t r a t e g i c
scheduling of a i r c r a f t ( i n c l u d i n g the e f f e c t o f any u n c o n t r o l l e d f l i g h t which would be permitted) could
prevent severe peaks i n a r r i v a l r a t e s and p a r t i a l l y r e g u l a r i z e t h e t r a f f i c , i t might be f e a s i b l e t o
b u i l d an e f f e c t i v e r e g u l a r i z i n g procedure around area n a v i g a t i o n systems. Discrete, predefined routes,
w i t h s h o r t c u t and stretched a l t e r n a t e s , and a small amount of speed c o n t r o l could be used w i t h an area
n a v i g a t i o n system capable o f canputing ETA'S and d e r i v i n g s t e e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a small s e t o f pre-
defined three-dimensional routes. The r o u t e - s t r u c t u r e should i n c l u d e t r a n s i t i o n s t o o t h e r runways since
shi.fts i n runway use cause severe delays a t congested a i r p o r t s .

There are, o f course, o t h e r n a v i g a t i o n a l needs which should be met. The special needs o f V/STOL
and h e l i c o p t e r s i n c i v i l operation may p o s s i b l y f i t i n t o the area n a v i g a t i o n comnents above, b u t t h e r e
may be a problem o f adequate geographical coverage due t o the lower a l t i t u d e operation. A t t h e o t h e r
geographical extreme t h e r e s t i l l e x i s t s a need f o r improved a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n over ocean areas. Here
i t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t which approaches w i l l be favored i n the f u t u r e . I t i s evident t h a t
i n e r t i a l systems w i l l be used by many a i r c r a f t , and t h a t the t o t a l system w i l l be a h y b r i d system.
There are p o i n t s made i n f a v o r o f m u l t i p l e i n e r t i a l systems, o r i n e r t i a l i n combination w i t h Loran C y
Omega, o r s a t e l l i t e systems. Preference w i l l depend upon economic f a c t o r s , t h e e x t e n t t o which r a d i o
a i d coverage i s extended, and t h e value placed on s u r v e i l l a n c e and communication.

There i s considerable need f o r improvement i n t a c t i c a l m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t navigation. Dependence

upon i n e r t i a l techniques w i l l continue t o expand. The p r e c i s i o n o f the p o s i t i o n , a t t i t u d e , and v e l o c i t y
data d e s i r e d r e q u i r e s augmenting data from one o r more o t h e r sources. Doppler and Loran have been t h e
most used systems. We await t h e r e s u l t s o f the 6216 development program t o see i f t h a t system w i l l
provide p r a c t i c a l augmentation.

We should make b r i e f mention o f marine requirements. Strandings and c o l l i s i o n s s t i l l cause heavy

losses i n both c i v i l and naval operations. It would seem t h a t s h i p operators should devote more
a t t e n t i o n and resources t o navigational equipment, t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f t r a f f i c c o n t r o l should
be used i n congested areas, and t h a t automatic means o f c o l l i s i o n hazard e v a l u a t i o n should be attached
t o marine radars. A l l o f these areas could b e n e f i t from h y b r i d systems.

We have seen s i g n i f i c a n t demonstrations o f space n a v i g a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y i n the p a s t year. The use

o f several sensors i n various combinations i n the d i f f e r e n t mission phases i s e s s e n t i a l . I t i s i n t e r -
e s t i n g t o note t h a t we are l e a r n i n g t o use man more e f f e c t i v e l y i n space n a v i g a t i o n w h i l e we are l e a r n i n g
t o automate more e x t e n s i v e l y i n a i r c r a f t navigation.

I have attempted t o i l l u s t r a t e h y b r i d system approaches w i t h examples o f common i n t e r e s t t o both

c i v i l and m i l i t a r y operations. There are, o f course, many other, more s p e c i a l i z e d requirements t o o
d e t a i l e d t o t r e a t here. We can look forward t o an extensive sampling o f present progress i n the papers
t o follow.

References

I (1) R. E. Kalman, A New Approach t o L i n e a r F i l t e r i n g and P r e d i c t i o n Problems. J . Basic Engr.

35-45. 1960.
(2) H. W. Sorenson, Kalman F i l t e r i n g Techniques. I n Leondes, C. T. ed. Advances i n Control Systems
gJ:

I -
3: 219-292. Academic Press, New York. 1966.
(3) S. F. Schmidt, A p p l i c a t i o n o f State-space Methods t o Navigation Problems. I n Leondes, C. T. ed.
Advances i n Control S stems 3: 293-340. Academic Press. 1966.
'-Torno Ttk an
3 - Gene R. Marner, Separation Hazard C r i t e r i a . C o l l i n s Radio ReDort. Dec. 1968.
(5) Norbert B. Hemesath, The Optimum Complementation o f VOR/DME w i t h A i r Data, J o i n t Automatic
Control Conference, Princeton, August 1969.
(6) D. H. Meyer, N. B. Hemesath and H. M. Schweighofer, Complementing VOR/DME w i t h INS--an improved
n a v i g a t i o n system, National Business A i r c r a f t Meeting, Wichita, March 1969.
Acknowledgements

Acknowledgement i s given f o r assistance from, and s t i m u l a t i n g discussion with, colleagues E. 0. Frye,

N. B. Hemesath, J . M. H o l t and R. L. Sebeny. Thanks are a l s o due many f r i e n d s who r e p l i e d t o a system
questionnaire.
1-8

aJu Q U U
W E
.C m

U
Y

ti
l-4
x x x x x x x x
2
W
z
>
In

P
c,
VI
x x x x x x x x

I
2
E
0
.I-
c,
m
m x
.I- x
>
m
z
U
c
m

.-m
c
i
0)
aJ
c,
-
U
-
bl
.r
LL
n
€5
m
I
.r
VI
0
.
Yr
I m
E:.-
.r .
"YU
In
m E E
U S 0 0
.r .r .r
L &l c , c ,
W E .r .r
a J 0 VI VI
c, .r n
0 n
0
mc,
r-
m
I " .r
L U I V I c,
aJ t- Urn0 L
aJ
.-N aJ
.r 0
L
2 S
t-

m
U 0o
LL
U c13
5-r-
6"U I.-
Y

0- I n m m
r- e r U Jr- U .r
o n h, U
.r 0 K O Lt-
Uc, mL E O L a m
aJ c *r
23 4 1
=a
O
>c,>
a r
+IC,

0
zl .r
U
m
VVI VU
.r .r
I E
VI
U
.r
U
c -I
2
L
VI c , - n aJ
E aJ n
E - I n
t-
e

t-
0
U
r
O
c,
3 - 4aJI
L
st;
Y
\

z
L
VI 0
I ul +r
r- 0 L m
m 0 m
U c, .C

0 V
J a J U L
W
1 - 0
W O aJ .r
Or c, n
t- m S
CI h c,
S
5 % 0 m N Z
r-
LL
L
h
CI
L
aJ
N
.r
7
Y
$
% I
5
n

m m
5:
QI
t-
 1- 9

I
-0
U L
al 4
I
al L
7
0
4 %
.r
v)
x
v) U U*
.r U al 0)
2
z al c, c,
c, v) v)
cn v) 0) al
0
0 al
I- 03 I- c
c,m
U
E r L
V U 1
1 c alU
0 aJ v)v
I m 34: uu

x x x x x x x x x x x x

x x x x x x x x x x x

x w x x x

I I I I I
o w .r .r Oal .r
-U v) v) -U v)
aJ1 0 0 aJ1 0
wc, n n wc, n
ms
cc, cn
.I-
-c,
0 4 E cn
E Ec, cn
04: E
* - LaJE
.r .r .r
L
.I-
c,-
.I-
L
.z0 3 ca, 0 .r c
aJE
(,U.r
0 *z3
0
alE
U 0

-
*r fr c,.r
n v mc, n v
-
v)c, v)o
7 c
m 4 m 4
.r .r .r L c .r
c, c, c, 4 m c,
L L L U .r L
aJ 0) 0) 4 c, al
c E r
Y L E
c( c( CI
aJ c(

- - 7 c
c(
L . L L 4 L
al 0) aJ .r al
7
n n n
c,
L
c -E
n n n 4 n m
W L nL
0 0 0 E> 0 0 0
n 0 n -U I- -I n-I

-
C
v)
V
.r
B 0
I
c,
F
3
c,
W
S
0
c,
-E
3:
2
L
aJ
- U
2s
v)
2
L
0)
E
0
c,
c,
n mal n
=? 4 0
ZI v) Z E v)
.r
-I

>
4
z
I
n N
m
Z
CO
E 7
I
N
I
v)
n
0
-C O +5 ?!
E
2
0
z
c(
Inv)
m
1 v%)
t -I
Y
O

m m 0 m CO CO
In In ID ID ID ID
m m m m m
7 7
7 7 7
?!
1- 10

I I
i 7 I

- m 7
m
W h
v) a m
I n a
n
'm 'm
Y .z 5
c,
8 m
.r
VI h c,
L
I2 W
S
aJ cn
E Y VI

s
c,
3 .E .r

a
c,
l
L
n m
n
VI
VI
U
E
m
J
L
n
I
n
-
m
>
a - m m W
E
U
X
E
L
e

L
m
r
a
2
5E
mc,
E
Y

x x x x x x x

x x x x x

I-

3z x % x x x x x
a
0
W
x

0, m QI
W W W'
m
7
m m
 1711

c
.C
 2
'
I

CHARACTERISTICS O F A SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM

OPERATED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A USER INERTIAL SYSTEM

B P. Leonard* and J B Woodford**

* Systems Engineering Operations, Aerospace CorporAtion,

E l Segundo, California

** Advanced Orbital Systems Directorate,System Planning Division,

Aerospace Corporation, E l Segundo, California
 2

i
 2- 1

CHARACTERISTICS O F A SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM

OPERATED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A USER INERTIAL SYSTEM

B. P. Leonard*, J. B. Woodfordt
The Aerospace Corporation

1. Introduction

Navigation s y s t e m s , because of t h e i r relatively high cost, are preferably designed to s e r v e a broad

class of u s e r s . A set of s y s t e m p r o p e r t i e s which will satisfy the requirements of virtually all u s e r s of
navigation s y s t e m s a r e given below:

Wide A r e a o r Global Coverage

Continuous Availability
Three-dimension Position and Velocity Fixes
Real Time Measurements
Accuracy to a Few Tens of Feet i n Position
Accuracy t o a Fraction of a Foot P e r Second i n Velocity
Usable on Rapidly Maneuvering Vehicles
No Radiation f r o m U s e r - - No System Saturation
Equipment Adaptable to Many C l a s s e s of U s e r s
Totally Self -Contained

No s y s t e m p o s s e s s e s all of these features. However, a hybrid s y s t e m composed of a high precision

satellite-based navigation aid coupled with a n inertial navigator can provide a viable approximation to
them. This paper will first d e s c r i b e such a satellite-based navigation aid and will indicate the attainable
performance of this s y s t e m when coupled with a n inertial platform.

2. Satellite -Based Navigation Aid

Many possible satellite-based navigation s y s t e m s have been defined. This section d e s c r i b e s a

specific s y s t e m concept which p o s s e s s e s all but the last feature listed above, and a l s o is available with
p r e s e n t technology. The s y s t e m u s e s what is t e r m e d pseudo range and r a n g e - r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t s which
are defined as one-way range and r a n g e - r a t e measurements made by the u s e of a non-synchronized u s e r
clock. The u s e r is passive while making a navigational fix. Simultaneous m e a s u r e m e n t s are made on
four satellites in o r d e r t o obtain a 3-dimensional fix. Twenty-four hour satellite periods a r e used in
o r d e r t o maintain deployment flexibility. By the u s e of these orbits, wide a r e a c o v e r a g e can initially be
established which can be extended to global coverage.
A conceptual d i a g r a m of the s y s t e m approach as deployed f o r regional coverage is shown in Fig. 1.
Four satellites are placed i n 24 hour orbits, t h r e e of which a r e elliptical inclined orbits, so phased that

//-COMMAND 8 TRACKING

Fig. . l . Navigation System Configuration

* ViceP r e s i d e n t and General Manager, Systems Engineering Operations, Aerospace Corporation,

El Segundo, Calif.
'Associate Group Director, Advanced Orbital Systems Directorate, System Planning Division,
Aerospace Corporation, E l Segundo, Calif.
 2 -2

EARTH-FIXED COORDINATES
\y.....,...
.......
.......
.......
.......

INERTIAL COORDINATES

Fig. 2 . Orbital Deployment--Two Views

Fig. 3 . Pseudo-Ranging t o Four Satellites

they appear f r o m the e a r t h to follow a common c i r c u l a r path. The fourth satellite i n n e a r synchronous-
equatorial orbit appears t o be in the center of the configuration. The four s a t e l l i t e s appear as a rotating
"Y" in the sky. Such a constellation of satellites provides a n e a r optimum geometry f o r navigation.
Figure 2 shows two views.of the orbital deployment. The left hand drawing shows the appearance of the
constellation t o a n observer rotating with the e a r t h . The right hand figure shows the s a m e situation i n
i n e r t i a l coordinates.
Since the satellite positions f o r m the reference f r o m which navigation is performed, i t is e s s e n t i a l
that t h e i r positions be accurately determined in geodetic coordinates. Figure 1 indicates the method by
which satellite positions a r e determined. A m a s t e r tracking station containing a tracking antenna sequen-
tially acquires the four s a t e l l i t e s and, f o r a period of s e v e r a l minutes, m e a s u r e s range and range-rate
using the 2-way path f r o m the m a s t e r station t o t h e s a t e l l i t e s . F r o m these data and a model of t h e - e a r t h ' s
gravitational potential, the satellite ephemerides a r e determined.
Figure 3 i l l u s t r a t e s the p r o c e s s by which the u s e r obtains a position and velocity fix. An a r b i t r a r y
s e t of coordinates, X, Y, and Z , are introduced i n which the s a t e l l i t e positions are assumed t o be known
and i n which the u s e r wishes t o obtain his position and velocity. Each satellite t r a n s m i t s a signal to the
u s e r . These signals contain identifiable range codes modulated upon the c a r r i e r , typically by biphase
modulation. The signals a l s o contain the equivalent of satellite ephemerides a s a low data r a t e , additipnal
modulation. The signals a r e e i t h e r at different c a r r i e r frequencies or a r e modulated by orthogonal codes
i n o r d e r that the signals may be distinguished by t h e u s e r . Figure 4 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e method by which a
position fix is determined f r o m these signals. A typical signal f r o m one satellite is shown together with
the s a m e signal as generated by the u s e r ' s unsynchronized clock. This clock typically would be a high
quality quartz c r y s t a l oscillator of the type commonly incorporated in high-grade field equipment. By i
 2-3

SIGNAL FROM
I 11 1 L I L 1 111 I
--TINE
ONE SATELLITE

SIGNAL FROM
USER CLOCK
tT-i -
a
PSEUDO-RANGE Tj*C= J(X-Xj)' t (Y-Yj)'+ (Z-Zj)* - 6 . C

C IS SPEED OF LIGHT
'IiERE A IS LAG OF USER CLOCK
SINCE Xj,Yj,Zj:S ARE KNOWN, 4 Tjk ALLOW SOLUTION FOR
USER POSITION ( X ,Y, Z AND A

Fig. 4. Position Determination

WHERE THE DOT INDICATES TIME DIFFERENTIATION

0 SINCE X,Y,Z, Xj,yi,Zj, Xj,j,ij,ARE KNOWN,4 i's ALLOW SOLUTION

FOR USER VELOCITY ( X , i , Z ) AND A (USER CLOCK FREOUENCY BIAS )

Fig. 5. Velocity Determination

means of a correlation detector, the time shift between a satellite signal and the u s e r clock i s determined.

4R
This time shift ("T" in Fig. 4) i s the difference between the time of t r a v e l of light f r o m e satellite to the
u s e r and the lag of the u s e r clock. Four T.'s a s measured f r o m the four satellites toget e r with the posi-
tions of the four satellites can be expressed a s a s e t of four non-linear algebraic equations in four unknowns
( t h r e e components of u s e r position and the clock bias). Since the signals f r o m the four satellites a're syn-
chronized a s one of the ground station functions, the u s e r clock bias i s the same in each of these equations.
If the geometry of the u s e r relative t o the satellites i s appropriate, these equations can be solved for the
u s e r position and the clock bias. In particular, the satellite geometry shown in Fig. 2 i n s u r e s the exis-
tence of this solution.
If, at the s a m e time as the pseudo ranges a r e measured, the r a t e of change is measured by normal
Doppler extraction techniques, four equations with u s e r velocity a s unknown may be written and solved f o r
the u s e r velocity in t h r e e dimensions. This p r o c e s s i s summarized in Fig. 5. The computation of u s e r
position and velocity is normally made in a modest digital computer of the s o r t used in an integrated
avionics system. If l e s s than full accuracy i s required, many simplifications a r e possible which result
1
in m o r e modest u s e r equipment.
The d e s i r e d accuracy of a few tens of feet in position and a fraction of a foot-per-second in velocity
r e q u i r e s a more careful s y s t e m calibration than has s o far been implied. Figure 6 i l l u s t r a t e s a means
by which this can be accomplished. The s a m e navigation signal which i s received by the u s e r is received
at the m a s t e r station and a t two o r m o r e calibration stations. Although Fig. 6 shows the reception of the
signal f r o m a single satellite, in actuality the signals a r e received at each station f r o m a l l four satellites.
Pseudo range measurements 'at each station a r e made and the r e s u l t s of these measurements a r e returned
using a data link through the center satellite to the m a s t e r station. At the m a s t e r station, the implied
position of each station is computed in the s a m e manner a s a u s e r would compute his position. These a r e
compared with the surveyed position of each station and corrections a r e made in the assumed satellite
positions and satellite clock b i a s e s in o r d e r t o eliminate the difference between apparent and surveyed
station locations. This p r o c e s s , in addition, removes residual e r r o r s due t o ionospheric propagation
anomalies. The s y s t e m calibration procedure i s summarized in Fig. 7.
Figure 8 shows the coverage f r o m a single constellation a s described. The a r e a of continuous v i s -
ibility of four satellites allows continuous 3 -dimensional navigation. The a r e a in which t h r e e satellites
a r e continuously visible provides navigation all of the time providing u s e r altitude i s independently known,
and provides continuous 3-dimensional navigation during portions of the day when four satellites a r e vis -
ible. Figure 9 shows global s y s t e m coverage when t h r e e constellations of five satellites each a r e
deployed. In each constellation, four satellites a r e placed in the inclined elliptic orbit and the additional
satellite i s in near synchronous-equatorial orbit.
The e r r o r performance' of this s y s t e m has been analyzed considering the e r r o r sources listed in
Fig. 10. It has been determined that, within the a r e a of coverage, the desired accuracy a s given in the
1
introduction can be achieved using present technology.
1 2-4

Fig. 6. System Calibration

0 ORBITS DETERMINED FROM MASTER STATION \

RANGE MEASUREMENTS

oSATfLLITE CLOCK BIAS DETERMINED AT MASTER

STATION BY COMPARING NAVIGATION SIGNAL
WITH MEASURED RANGE

0ORBlT AND CLOCK PARAMETERS ADJUSTED TO

GIVE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN REAL AND
APPARENT LOCATION OF MASTER AND
CALIBRATION STATIONS

Fig. 7. System Calibration Summary

Fig. 8. Continuous Coverage' Contours and Satellite Ground T r a c e

f o r a Four-Satellite Constellation
 2-5

WVERAGE FOR i = 30&, 8 = a30

MINIMUM ELEVATION M G L E 3 5d89

0
14 TO 7 I3-DIMENSIONS THREE C O N S W T I O N S OF FIVE SATELLITES EACH

iNTERYITrENl COVERAGE

Fig. 9. Coverage for Fifteen Deployed Satellites

SATELLITE TRACKING ERRORS 3. Hybrid Systems

STATION LOCATION As has been mentioned, a satellite naviga-
RANGE MEASUREMENT tion system possesses many desirable features,
0 EARTHMOML but is not completely self-contained. Reliance
on external signal sources makes the system
SATELLITE CLOCK DRiFT vulnerable to loss of satellite signals through
AUXILIARY STATION CLOCK DRIFT ground station or satellite failure, interference,
or other causes. On the other hand an inertial
RANGE MEASUREMENT ERRORS system i s totally self-contained but has irreduo-
ible drift characteristics which become signific-
MULTIPATH ant over a few tens of minutes to a few hours of
IONOSPHERIC UNCERTAINTIES operation depending upon user requirements. A
TROPOSPHERIC UNCERTAINTIES hybrid system in which an inertial system is
updated by means of a satellite-based radio navi-
RECEIVER NOISE
gation system possesses a number of features
RECEIVER PRECISION which neither system bas alone. In particular,
the high accuracy and freedom from drift of the
GEOMETRIC DILUTION OF PRECISION satellite-based system are retained and the
inertial system provides the means for continued
Fig. 10. Error Sources Considered navigation if the satellite signals should be lost.
Owing to the precision with which an inertial
system can be aligned by making use of the satel-
lite system, the inertial navigation accuracy, even with the loss of the satellite signal, exceeds that of
the inertial platform alone. Figure 11 shows a simplified block diagram of such a hybrid system. The
position and velocity outputs of the two systems are applied to a Kalman filter. In the example illustrated.
a 21 -element state vector is used. The state vector consists of the optimum entimate of the e r r o r s of
the 21 parameters. The initial e r r o r s are then subtracted from the inertially derived position and veloc-
ity to obtain a beet preeent estimate of position and velocity. In addition, the estimates of the other
errors can be used to align and calibrate the inertial system and to make fine corrections to the satellite
navigation receiver clock.
4. Performance of the Hybrid System

A covariant matrix error analysis of the hybrid system has been performed.* The errors utilimed
in this analysis are listed in Fig. 12. These values arm considered representative of attainableperfor-
mance, but should not be considered to be the performance of any specific system.
Figure 13 shows the hybrid wvigation syetem e r r o r s for 400 seconds. Also shown i s the inertial
system performance from 200 to 400 seconds assuming the satellite system is not in use during that
period. It can be seen that the position accuracies rapidly approach the level of a few tens of feet. Over
the 400-second period the velocity accuracies approach the order of 0.1 foot-per-second. The undul-
ations in the carrier result from the sequential filter update process used in the analysis. With the loss

* The authors acknowledge the contribution of Dr. L. L. Hagerman, Aerospace Corporation, who
performed the error analyeis.
2-6

STATE VECTOR
----------!
! PLATFORY ERRORS
0 INERTIAL SYSTEM fl5 PARAMETERS) I

3 POSITIONS
3 VELOCITIES
3 TILTS 1 1 Ii
3 GYRO DRIFTS
3 ACCELEROMETER BIASES VELOCITY FILTER

0 SATELLITE SYSTEM (6 PARAMETERS)

4 RANGE BIASES I

CLOCK TIME
CLOCK FREQUENCY

Fig. 11. Kalman Filter Used With Hybrid System

INERTIAL SYSTEM SATELLllE S m E M of the satellite system, the inertial system errorB
INITIAL ERRORS 0 MEASUREMEW UNCERTAINTIESgrow rapidly. More will be said about this cane
later.
noRn m m ow 141n RANGE 5Fl
Figure 14 shows the inertial system alignment
VERT POSITION lWFl RANGE RITE 0.2 FPS e r r o r s utilising the satellite system. Shown also
HORlZ V U O C m 1.4 FPS are the errors assuming loss of the satellite system
VERT VELOCIW IO F K
0 CLOCK ERROR
at 200 seconds. W i t h the satellite system. the
TILT 2. errors approach the order of 0 . 0 0 1 radians over
U
l
" 3. AflF 10-0
the 400-second period. Also, it can be seen that
Y E R T ~ . O ! A s lo$ losing the satellite system after having made the
initial improvement in alignment causes a relatively
slow propagation of the errors. This implies that
DISNRYNCES the inertial system accuracies will be better, even
KCELEROYETERS 10 ARC SEC with loss of the satellite system. than they would
61RoS 0.01 ' / M R have been without the benefit of the satellite system
initially. Figure 15 demonstrates thi. effect. It
Fig. 12. Errors Used i n Analysis can be seen that, for each parameter, the perform-
ance with initial alignment by the satellite system
lies between that following a sophisticated initial
alignment and an assumed perfect alignment. Also, with the exception of horiaontal position. the satellite
system aligned performance closely approaches that of perfect alignment.

summary
In summary. a hybrid satellitelinertial navigation system can provide virtually all of the desirable
features for a navigation system. Used together. they provide great precision. If necessary. either can
be used separately, providing redundancy. Finally, the inertial system provides greater performance if
initialized by the satellite system rather than by conventional methods.
 2-7

I
I
eo c II
I
I
I

1
I
I
I
60 '7 I
I
/
HORIZONTAL
POSITION ERROR
FT,CEP
ALTITUDE
ERROR
40 -
. /

FT, IC

. o z0

3.6 A

3.0 -
HORIZONTAL 2.4 '-
VERTICAL
VELOCITY ERROR VELOCITY ERROR
FPS, CEP 1.8 -- FPS, I c

1.2 -.
0
,

-0 100
TIME FCONDS
so0 400

- HYBRID PERFORMANCE
-
0 400 SEC
---- HYBRID PERFORMASE
0-200 SEC
INERTIALOWLY zoo-400 sa
Fig. 1 3 . Hybrid Navigation Errors

AZIMUTH
ALIGNMENT
ERROR
RADIANS, lo
0.06

0.04

n
1
VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT
ERROR 0.02

TIME- SECONDS TIME-SECONDS

-
----- HYBRID PERFORMINCE 0-400 SEC
nienio PERFORMANCE 0-200 SEC
INERTIAL ONLY 200-400 SEC

Fig. 14. Alignment Errors

2.-8

16 r A
30 ii
I I

251

i'
HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
VELOCITY VELOCITY
ERROR- ERROR-
FPS-CEP FPS. I E

"0 I 2 3 4 5
TIME-HOURS
----
- PERFECT ALIGNMENT '
NAV SAT ALIGNMENT mn QO SEC
-.-.- OPTICALGROUND ALIGNMENT
20 SLC TILT
0 SEC UlYUTW

Fig. 15. Errors--Inertial System Only

 3

A G L O B A L N A V I G A T I O N / T R A F F I C SURVEILLANCE/COMMUNICATION
S A T E L L I T E S Y S T E M FOR M I L I T A R Y A N D C I V I L V E H I C L E S

Michael W.Mitchel1

RCA, Defense Electronic Products,

Plans and Systems Development
3

'I
 3-1

A GLOBAL NAVIGATION/TRAFFIC SURVEILLANCE/COMMUNICATION

SATELLITE SYSTEM FOR MILITARY AND CIVIL VEHICLES
Michael W. Mitchell
RCA, Defense Electronic Products,
Plans and Systems Development

summary
The Speed, Position and Track (SPOT) system simultaneously provides precise position
and velocity determinations of vehicles on or near the surface of the earth and data
communications between these vehicles and remotely located ground stations. By employing
specially formatted RF signals, the same RF channels provide passive (self) navigation
services to users in line of sight of the satellites, and traffic surveillance and
data transfer between cooperative users and ground control centers.
The system is composed of (1) ground control stations where the RF signals are
generated and transmitted to satellites, and return signals are processed for traffic
surveillance, data transfer and synchronization purposes: (2) a network of synchronous
(24-hour orbits) satellites which relay RF signals from the ground stations to a field
of users and back: and ( 3 ) the user instrumentation where the navigation and data signals
are processed for a position fix, and/or transponded back through the satellites to the
ground control station for traffic surveillance purposes.
Analyses and tradeoffs of system error sources and equipment requirements indicated
that the RF band between 1000 and 3000 MHz offered a good choice for carrier frequencies.
At L-band, position fix accuracies of 500 feet can be achieved over tfansoceanic distances,
and improvements of an order of magnitude are possible within relative distances of a
few hundred miles.
For analog voice communications steerable phased array antennas on the satellites
provide relatively low power requirements for the satellite to aircraft links while
maintaining full earth coverage.
Introduction
Projections of air and marine traffic over ocean areas and between continents
during the next decade have caused many groups concerned with the safety and control
of international vehicular traffic to re-examine the adequacy of existing navigation
and traffic control systems (1). The consensus has been that there is a requirement
for:
1. Reducing aircraft separation standards in transoceanic travel to accommodate
increased traffic, particularly in the preferred routes between North
America and Europe during peak periods.
2. Providing surveillance of aircraft at ground based traffic control centers
on a continuous availability basis.
3. Providing improved air to ground communications to assure reliable, direct
pilot-to-controller information transfer, especially over ocean areas where
present HF communications are inadequate.
Space systems appear to offer very promising, cost effective solutions to the
above problems and can be implemented well within the time frame of interest. Their
principal advantage is the extremely large coverage area within line-of-sight of
satellites, particularly at synchronous altitude. The selection of RF carrier
frequencies for transmitting or relaying signals from these platforms to vehicles on
or near the surface of the earth is not restricted to those frequencies associated
with ground based RF systems which use ground waves to achieve extended range coverage.
Instead, higher frequencies can be utilized to minimize the effects of atmospheric,
ionospheric and multipath attenuation and distortion. These higher frequencies
are instrumental in providing the reliable, 24 hour/day services demanded of future
systems.
The SPOT satellite system concept described in this paper is the result of an
extensive study (2) to provide the essential services of a global navigation/traffic
control system while meeting criteria of high reliability, long life, RF spectrum
conservation, simple automatic operation, and growth potential at a cost which would
be attractive to a multitude of prospective users,
System Concept
SPOT is a satellite-ranging technique which utilizes a CW carrier modulated with
side tones. Phase angles of the side tones are compared with a referenke to determine
range between the satellites and user. The system elements are ground control stations,
a space segment composed of satellites in 24-hour orbits, and the user equipments.
3-2

Precise position and velocity measurements of mobile vehicles are achieved in both
a surveillance (independent determination by a ground traffic control center) and
user-navigation mode. Also, two way digital data communications for short reports and
advisories are obtained from the same channels by phase shift keying (PSK) the tones.
For wide band digital data or analog voice communications, additional relay equipment
can be placed in the same satellites.
RF Selection
Analysis and tradeoffs of environmental and design parameters associated with
ionospheric refraction, atmospherics, extraterrestial and manmade noise, space loss
(antenna aperture size), and the state-of-the-art of RF equipment led to the selection
of carrier frequencies between 1 to 3 GHz for the functions of navigation and surveillance
(3). The aeronautical radio-navigation band between 1540 MHz and 1660 MHz (L-band)
presents a good choice for this service. Position fix accuracies (1 nmi) are realizable
for most navigation/traffic control requirements without the need for ionospheric
calibrations or special correction tables, and much better precisions are achievable
with appropriately designed equipment and operations. Equipment size and weight is
small (an important feature for aircraft), and power requirements at the satellite and
user are modest for the narrow band signals used in the navigation/surveillance/data
functions. Also, considerable room for growth is available at L-band for increased
demands beyond the next decade.
For the analog voice channels, however, RF power requirements are relatively high
at L-band compared to VHF (130 MHz). the important links under consideration here are
those between satellites and aircraft. It became evident early in this study that simplicity
in user equipment design and operation is very important to the encouragement of broad
user participation. For aircraft, it is preferrable to use omnidirectional or hemi-
spherical beam antennas to avoid the need for satellite tracking or beam switching in
midjourney. Also, small antenna sizes keep installation costs down and lend themselves
to better multipath rejection. The apparent question was how to synthesize the various
elements in the system to achieve these goals at L-band. A solution was offered by
incorporating phased array antennas with automatic steering capabilities on the satellites.
The design features of this subsystem are discussed later in the section dealing with
voice communication.
The net result of the above tradeoffs led to the selection of an L-band satellite
system for all functions of navigation and traffic control.
Measurement Technique
The principle involved in navigating by phase angle measurements is demonstrated
in Figure 1. The ground control center (GCC) continuously transmits an RF carrier
modulated by a tone of lower frequency to Satellite A. There, the signal is frequency
translated and repeated to a field of users on or near the earth's surface. At any
instant of time, points in the user field having the same line-of-sight range from the
satellite will experience the same phase of the tone.
The phase angle can be measured by comparison with an oscillator at the user
location (passive navigation mode) which is in time-synchronization with the GCC's oscilla-
tor, or by having the user transpond the signal back to the GCC (surveillance mode)
where the return signal can be compared with the generated signal. By connecting the
points of equal phase in the user field, a surface of a sphere is generated with the
satellite at the center. The intersection of this sphere with the surface of the earth
or a geocentric sphere of know altitude, will result in a circular line of position (LOP).
By including a second satellite ( b ) in the system, a second LOP can be generated and the
intersection of the two LOP'S will result in the location of two points, It is assumed
that sufficient data will be available to the GCC or navigator to determine which point
represents the user. For instance, if both satellites are in synchronous equatorial
orbits, one point would be in the Northern Hemisphere and the other in the Southern
Hemisphere. A third satellite would provide unambiguous position location, including
altitude for aircraft. A third satellite can be used also to provide a timing reference,
allowing for a hyperbolic fix mode. This is described in a subsequent paragraph.
Ambiguities resulting from the repetition of phase angle measurements every tone
cycle need to be resolved also. This can be done by adding tones of lower frequency
until the equivalent range of the lowest tone (wavelength) is sufficiently long for
non-ambiguous position fixes. Figure 2 illustrates the relationship of tone frequency
to lane widths and range precision, the latter based on resolving phase angles to 5 0 . Note
that the traffic surveillance mode lane widths and range precisions are one-half as
long as the passive navigation mode. This is due to the doubling of range for the RF
signal in the surveillance mode. From Figure 2 a high tone of 8 kHz provides a range
precision of .517 km ( . 2 8 nmi), sufficient to meet a requirement of 1 nmi (1.85 km)
position fix accuracy in the user's navigational (horizontal) plane. This tone has
a lane width of.20.4 nmi (37.7 km), thus requiring the lower tone to have a range
precision within this limit to assure that the correct high tone lane is identified
during the position determination process. Practical equipment considerations, however,
limit the high-to-low tone ratio to approximately 16, indicating a low tone of 500 Hz. This
tone provides a non-ambiguous lane width of at least 326 nrni (603 km) and can be resolved
well within the fine tone requirements. As a growth feature additional tones can be
added, such as a 64 kHz tone to provide 0.1 nrni (.185 km) position fix accuracies, by
the GCC without requiring any modifications to the satellite and user equipments,
expect for the special user who wants to take advantage of the higher precision.
 3-3

Traffic Surveillance Mode

A schematic of the traffic surveillance mode appears in Figure 3 . By obtaining
altitude data from on-board instrumentation, only two satellites are required.
Synchronous satellites separated by 5 0 0 to 60° of arc provide good navigation geometrics.
The operational sequence of this mode is as follows:
1. The GCC transmits a CW signal at L-band to satellite A. This carrier is
modulated with two tones: for example, a high tone of 8 kHz and a low tone
at 500 Hz. In addition, binary phase shift keying is employed on the low
tone to serve as a digital data channel. The data channel also functions as
a command link by instructing each use'r when to return the NAV/TC signal.
The GCC data processing and control equipment, in accordance with a pre-determined
role call schedule, selects a particular user for a surveillance check by trans-
mitting his unique address code.
2. Satellite A , after frequency shifting, relays the RF signal to the field
where it is continuously available to every user.
3. When a particular user receives his address code via the data channel,
his transmitter is turned on automatically for a brief period (1-2 seconds)
and he transponds the received signal, adding his address code, altitude and
other routine status data back to satellites A and B.
4. Both satellites then relay their respective return signals to the GCC after
frequency shifting.
5. The GCC compares the phases of the returned tones to the reference tones
to obtain the range data which identifies the user's position. The satellite
empherides are assumed to be known by the GCC.
Passive Navigation Mode
The system operation for the passive mode is depicted in Figure 4 . This resembles
the forward link of the surveillance mode with the exception that now the GCC transmits
signals continuously to satellite B as well as A. After frequency translation, satellite
B relays its signal to the user field. Satellite A operates exactly as before because
it is still performing a surveillance function as well as providing a navigation signal
to passive users. The user receivers are continuously locked onto the signals from
both satellites. When making a position fix, the RF carriers are demodulated and the
tones are extracted to be compared with a local reference oscillator in synchronism
with the GCC tone generator. The data link provides updated information on the satellite
ephemerides to complete the data inputs required by the user to compute his position.
The typical method of operation is visualized as follows. Prior to departure from
a terminal or a known geodetic reference, the user calibrates or sets his phase meters
at zero. During his trip the zero crossings of phase are automatically recorded, thus
providing lane identity at all times. For a precision position fix, the phase angles
are read to the required accuracy. The user reference oscillator drift or instabilities
will introduce errors. However, off-the-shelf, temperature-controlled crystal oscillators
are reported to yield frequency stabilities on the order of 5 x 10-11 for periods up to
24 hours ( 4 ) . For 1 nmi accuracy, an aircraft would not require recalibration of such
an oscillator while in route. For marine users who may be on the high seas for periods
of many days or weeks, however, a daily recalibration of the phase meter or local reference
oscillator could be accomplished through use of the surveillance mode, particularly
during those daily periods when air traffic densities are low..
Hyperbolic Navigation Mode
The need for a long-term stable precision reference oscillator for the passive
navigator can be eliminated by the introduction of a third satellite. In this mode,
the GCC transmits navigation signals in synchronism to three satellites so that the tones
emanating from each satellite are in phase or have a known phase difference relationship.
The navigator compares the received signals from pairs of satellites and obtains measure-
ments of phase angle differences. These correspond to range differences between each
pair of satellites, defining a hyperbolic LOP on the earth's surface or a geocentric
sphere at known altitude. The intersection of two LOP'S from two pairs of satellites
( 3 satellites provide the necessary pairs) and an on-board altimeter will provide a user
with a position fix. As before, the satellite ephermerides must be known to the user.
The satellite constellations which offer good geometries for hyperbolic navigation
coincide with ranging systems which provide full global coverage. The preferrable geometries
are those where the satellite locations from equilateral triangles. Such is the case
for a space system composed of three orthogonal synchronous orbits: one equatorial and
two polar with five or six satellites equally spaced in each orbit. Hyperbolic as well
as circular navigation can be achieved in any part of the globe without exceeding a
geometric dilution of precision (GOP) factor of three. Other constellations have been
devised for local regions, such as four to five satellites in inclined synchronous
orbits, but most of these schemes have exceedingly high GDOP's whenever the user is located
in the outer regions of the coverage area.
I 3-4

Link Analysis
A sample link analysis of the L-band position determination and narrow band data
links appears in Figure 5. All the figures are based upon earth coverage antennas
at synchronous altitude for the satellites and hemispherical beam antennas looking
upwards for the users. All link gains were reduced by approximately 6 dB in this
analysis to allow for the user on the fringe of the half-power envelopes of the
antennas.
The GCC to satellite links are served by 37 dB ground antennas, keeping RF power
requirements at the satellite at low levels. For the satellite to user links, 2 0 watts
of RF power are needed to obtain desirable levels of signal to noise for the data link
and navigation tones.
The four blocks at the top of the figure represent the forward path link. For a
passive navigation function, the link terminates with the user receiver. For the
surveillance mode, the link continues through the return path as depicted by the blocks
in the bottom portion of the figure.
Overall System Configuration
A complete world wide ranging navigation system requires 15 to 18 synchronous
satellites. Three mutually orthogonal orbits provide the best overall arrangement for
low GDOP's and redundant coverage. A more modest deployment of only six equatorial
synchronous satellites is depicted in Figure 6 . This configuration provides global
coverage with the exception of polar regions above 7 0 0 to 7 5 0 of latitude. Precise
position location is attainable throughout the coverage area with the exception of a
narrow band (+ 100 latitude) around the equator where GDOP's become large, approaching
infinity at the equator. However, longitude determinations are still feasible in this
region.
The constellation in Figure 6 can logically be the result of evolutionary growth
in which an interim system can be a pair of satellites serving the Atlantic Ocean or
the central part of the Pacific Ocean. All the satellites can have similar designs
so that launching new spacecraft would add to the coverage and service without interrupting
existing operations. The basic elements of this system are shown in Figure 7. The
blocks describe the design characteristics of the communication equipment at each
terminal.
Each spacecraft is designed to relay six FM voice channels for mobile users
and the navigation/surveillance/data signals. The spacecraft are three-axis stabilized
and have solar cell power generation equipment. The overall weight of each spacecraft
is estimated to be 7 6 0 pounds and two can be inserted into orbit with one Atlas-
Centaur-Burner I1 launch vehicle. Nominal operational life is estimated to be 3 to
5 years. The RF powers shown in the figure include intermodulation losses.
The user equipments are composed of various sets depending upon the services
desired. The traffic surveillance receiver-transmitter set are estimated to weigh
approximately 13 pounds and require 4 8 watts of DC bus power. The passive navigation
set of two receivers, a reference oscillator, indicators and a computer weigh
approximately 4 6 pounds and require 142 watts of DC bus power. The maritime user can
probably dispense with the electronic computer and use charts and other manual aids
for determining position. The voice receiver and transmitter set was estimated to
weigh about 45 pounds and require 260 watts of bus power when the transmitter is in
use. The aviation user L-band antenna assembly will fit in an opening about 8 inches
in diameter and weighs only a few pounds.
The Ground Control Center requirements for the nominal functions of transmitting,
receiving and processing data are very modest and do not constitute any critical part
of the system in terms of design, operation or cost. The real challenge in the ground
complex is reflected in the techniques and methods needed to make use of the massive amount
of data the system is capabile of generating.
-
User Instrumentation
Figure 8 shows a simplified block diagram of the basic user equipments associated
with the navigation-surveillance function. The antenna is circularly polarized with
a hemispherical beam looking upward. Some beam shaping is required to limit the effects
of multipath reflection. The diplexer allows for simultaneous receive and transmit
functions with the same antenna. The receiver consists of low-noise, high-gain, solid-
state circuitry. Carrier reference extraction is performed in a phase-lock loop to
negate doppler effects. Coherent multiplication of the composite signal after carrier
extraction provides the tones demodulation. Tone filter bandwidths of about 10 Hz
insure a high signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the receiver. Additional
circuitry is provided for decoding and processing interrogations, local oscillator
frequency generation, and encoding signals to be transmitted. The tones and return data
are modulated on the return carrier and transmitted in a burst of one to two seconds
to both satellites.
For passive navigation another set of IF receiver circuitry is required to obtain
range data from other satellites.
 3-5

Based on a preliminary design study, L-band user equipment costs in production

lots of a thousand or more projected to 1975-1980 were estimated to be as follows:
Transmitter $ 1200
Receiver 3200
Precision Clock 1000
Diplexer 250
Antenna Assembly 500
Installation costs were not included in the above figures since they depend upon
vehicle characteristics. However, the equipment is relatively small and should not
entail any high assembly costs, even for aircraft.
Spacecraft Navigation/Surveillance Instrumentation
Figure 9 shows a simplified diagram of the satellite relay equipment. A low-noise
hard-limiting receiver is employed with frequency sidestepping to insure that errors
due to the carrier injection chain are essentially cancelled. The diplexer provides
for isolation of the receiver and transmit signals. The 19 dB gain, L-band antenna
provides for full earth coverage and a small additional margin for satellite attitude
errors. The transmitter RF power requirements are 20 watts for the forward path to the
users and only 10 watts for the backward path to the GCC. Highly reliable long life
operation in space has been experienced by similar circuitry.
Ground Control Center (GCC) Equipment
A simplified diagram of the GCC instrumentation is shown in Figure 10. The satellite
links are served by 37-dB-gain antennas with beamwidths of 2 . 7 O . RF transmitter power
requirements are on the order of 5 watts. A common frequency standard is utilized to
generate the tones and carrier frequencies. For the surveillance mode, this standard
need only meet high precision requirements for the duration of a typical position fix
of 1 or 2 seconds. However, for the passive navigation mode, it is desirable to use
an atomic frequency standard.
The digital data channel (low-tone PSK) in its simplest form, contains a
synchronization signal, a coded address for each user in the network, and a short
instruction or status message. For this preliminary configuration, 200 bits of data
were allowed for the forward message at a bit rate of 100 bits per second. The return
message from the user also utilizes 200 bits. This allows for approximately 1800
position fixes per hour using a simple sequential interrogation scheme with a single
channel. The GCC receiver for the returned signals from the user employs a phase-lock-
loop and demodulator similar to that of the user. To acquire the return bursts, the
GCC receiver must perform a search-and-track operation every interrogation period since
each user has a unique doppler frequency offset. This shift can be as high as -5 KHz for
a 1600 MHz carrier and a Mach 3 aircraft. However, this potential uncertainty can be
reduced to less than 100 Hz by user instrumentation design or prior knowledge of user
traffic patterns, as would be the case during normal operation. After acquistion
and demodulation the phase angles of the extracted tones are compared with the reference
tones to provide inputs to the range computer. The decoded data link provides the
identification and altitude data necessary for a position determination.
Although Figure 10 shows identical transmit and receive circuits serving each
satellite link the surveillance mode is served by one transmitter with its unique data
stream, and the other transmitter provides the data stream for the passive user.
Velocity Determination
The relative velocity between a mobile vehicle and satellites is obtained by measuring
the doppler frequency offsets of the navigation signals from each satellite. These
dopplers correspond to range rates. By knowing the satellite orbit parameters with
respect to the geoid, it is possible to compute the velocity of the user by taking the
vector difference.
A functional block diagram of doppler extraction is depicted in Figure 11. The
carrier voltage control oscillator (VCO), comprised of the carrier nominal (stationary)
frequency (fo) and the doppler off-set frequency (fd), is mixed with the fixed frequency
from the velocity reference oscillator (VRO). A f is a bias frequency to give sign
as well as magnitude to the doppler measurement. After filtering, the difference
between the VCO and VRO frequencies is preserved. If A f is greater than fd, the
resultant frequency is positive and the 'sign of the doppler, whether toward or away
from a satellite, will be retained through the process of frequency fold-over. The
doppler is finally extracted from the counter output. The counter performs an
integration function and provides doppler signal-to-noise ratios which are directly
proportional to the time interval of measurment. A one second interval is sufficient
to provide an RMS velocity error of 1.0% of the total.
3-6

In the surveillance mode, user velocity can be determined by the same process
at the GCC. The doppler in this case would be double that found at the user receiver.
Satellite Tracking
A major contribution to position fix errors is the uncertainty associated with
the location of the satellites. One method of achieving a great deal of precision
in satellite tracking is to use a trilateration network of ground stations at
known locations and measure range to each satellite. An attractive feature of the
SPOT system is that these ground stations can be low-cost user transponders operating
in the surveillance mode. The GCC would interrogate the ground stations in the same
manner as a user. The resultant range measurements would determine the position of
the satellites. For greater precision the trilateration stations,can be enchanced
with 10-&-gain antennas without complicating the simplicity of their operation.
Voice Communications
The satellite position surveillance and data links are capable of providing most,
if not all, of the routine information required by a traffic control center or pilot.
One forward and one backward channel is sufficient to convey position, identification,
and 200 bits of digital data between two or three hundred aircraft and a traffic
control center every several minutes. This could eliminate the need for routine voice
messages and relegate the voice function to non-routine and emergency messages. At
this point in time it is difficult to assess the number of voice channels needed
for the mid 1970's and beyond. Some recent studies report a need for 5 to 10 voice
channels per ocean (5) ( 2 ) area. The spacecraft design selected for the system described
in this paper has six analog voice channels per satellite divided between aircraft
users and marine or other less demanding mobile users.
At L-band, a transmitter power problem exists for the voice links between the
satellites and users if the antenna designs associated with the navigation and data
signals are used. The desire to keep the aviation user antennas simple and small led
to the incorporation of a phased array antenna at the satellite which provided the
desired spacecraft antenna gain in conjunction with a self-steering feature that
allowed the antenna beam to be pointed at any user on the earth within view of the
satellite. The link power budget in Table I shows that the 30 dB antenna selected
requires 17 watts of FtF power per voice channel based on a 6 dB receiver noise figure
and medium quality voice characteristics. For the voice modulation scheme, FM was
selected as a preferrable choice over AM and PPM (Pulse-Position Modulation) on the
basis that it provided the best combination of noise suppression, good quality,
moderate power, and good operation with phase lock loop receivers and satellite hard
limiting repeaters.
For the maritime and stationary user, it was assumed that a 10 dB antenna gain
would not inconvenience operations and the net savings in satellite power requirements
was sufficiently important to warrant this tradeoff. Thus the spacecraft RF trans-
mitter power for this link was reduced to 2 watts per channel.
Retrodirective (Phase Conjugating) Array
The array referred to above operates as a highly directional antenna which forms
a transmit and/or receive beam in the direction of an incoming pilot signal.
The array is comprised of individual elements or antennules, each with coverage
equivalent to the overall steering requirements (earth coverage 2 90 in the present
case). The narrow beam corresponding to the combined antennule outputs is formed
and steered electronically using separate transponders at each antennule. The
pilot signal transmitted by the user provides a reference for phase conjugation at
each antennule so that the beam is directed back towards the user. This technique
also allows the formation of multiple beams for several simultaneous users by the
addition of suitable circuitry at the transponders.
The overall gain is approximately equal to the individual antennule gain (19 dB)
multiplied by the number of antennules. A failure of one antennule does not
destroy the array performance, but simply reduces the overall gain proportionally.
Also, the array performance is not dependent upon the maintenance of precise array
geometry.
The pilot tone acquisition network is provided in one antennule only, the required
signal strength for pilot acquisition being roughly equivalent to the voice FtF power
(approximately 20 watts for the aviation user and 2 watts €or the marine user). The
transponder at each antennule in the spacecraft array requires a separate signal
processor for each voice channel. For a six channel system the intermodulation loss
may reach 2 dB, raising the per channel transmitter power demand from 17 watts to
26 watts of RF power for the aviation links and from 1.7 watts to 3 watts for the marine
links.
For this application, each antennule has a sub-array of 16 dipoles and would
measure about 2 feet by 2 feet. The overall spacecraft antenna array requires 16
antennules for a gain of 30 dB. The total array measures approximately 8 feet by
8 feet by two or three inches in thickness. It can be conveniently stored in a
 3-7,

launch fairing measuring 10 feet in diameter.

Position Error Summary
The accuracy of a radio navigation system is a function of (1) equipment
parameters amenable to some control by the designer, such as transmitter powers, RF
carrier and tone frequencies, bandwidth, oscillator stabilities and receiver noise;
( 2 ) relatively non-controllable factors such as RF refraction, absorption, Faraday
rotation, multipath, noise sources from atmospheric, cosmic and man-made interference,
data input errors on satellite position, geodetic anomalies and user altitude: and
( 3 ) the lmitations of geometry associated with satellite deployment and the trans-
lation of line-of-sight range measurements to coordinates in the user's navigation
plane, known as GDOP (geometric dilution of precision).
The results of a system analysis of range errors to determine the overall
potential of the SPOT system is shown in Table 11. The sensitivity of errors to
elevation angle led to the presentation of data as a function of elevation angle.
Two ionospheric models are depicted because of the difficulty in interpreting spatial
and time variations of ion densities from existing data. The assumption of a normal
distribution for the ionosphere is considered to be conservative.
The table shows that an L-band system can provide range measurement accuracies
on the order of 100 to 130 feet (30 to 40 meters) even at low elevation angles, provided
the ionosphere is as predictable as the model indicates.
For relative distances within a few hundred miles, the satellite error contribution
to the measurement of range reduces by one to two orders of magnitude. Also, some
reduction in the uncertainty in predicting ionospheric densities is anticipated.
Under these circumstances, range measurement accuracies of 4 0 to 50 feet (15 meters)
may be feasible.
Figure 12 shows the product of range errors and GDOP coefficients for a typical
pair of stationary satellites separated by 600 in longitude. The lower user latitudes
are affected by relatively high GDOP's, while the sharp increases at the fringes
of longitude coverage are influenced by the effects of low elevation angles for the
RF links. For the bulk of the coverage area, accuracies of 160 feet ( 5 0 meters)
or better are indicated.
System Costs
The largest part of the development and implementation costs is involved with the
space segment. Within the spacecraft, the most demanding function on the basis of
weight and cost is the voice communication subsystem. For example, an earlier space-
craft design (2) which incorporated only the functions.of navigation, surveillance
and data transfer weighed only 350 pounds in contrast to 760 pounds for the spacecraft
model described in this paper. Comparative cost estimates were almost three times
greater for the voice-relay system. Further study is required to determine the
optimum arrangement or division between the voice and position determination/data
channels.

Conclusions
The system configuration described in this paper offers an evolutionary approach
for implementing a global navigation/traffic control operation for the 1975 to 1980
period. The surveillance features can serve search and rescue operations and provide
collision avoidance information to a traffic control center. The combined position
determination and data features eliminate the necessity for much of the current
requirements for voice communication, thus allowing voice channels to serve a more
cost effective function such as instructions and non-routine advisories. Expansion
of the system globally can be accomplished by adding synchronous equatorial satellites
at proper intervals, so that with six satellites nearly the entire earth can be served.
Passive navigation is available to an unlimited number of users and the precision of
the system can be increased by adding higher tones to the modulated carriers at the
Ground Control Center without obsoleting existing user equipments. Only the specialized
user requiring these higher precisions needs to incorporate equipment modifications.
The SPOT system can be implemented with current technologies and equipments and
employs designs which have demonstrated long life. The only exception is the phased
array for the satellite voice relay function which has not been demonstrated in space.
However, there is nothing inherent in this technology which indicates any high degree
of risk in its implementation. In principal, a phased array has the advantage of
graceful degradation since any antennule failure degrades the system in a proportional
way.
User equipment costs, in manufactured lots of 1,000 o r more, are expected to be
very attractive compared with present competitive ground-based navigation systems.
In addition, with prospects of improvement as new solid-state components and circuits
evolve for L-band equipment, it can be anticipated that the user interested in one or
 3-0

two miles of accuracy will be able to purchase a navigation set for $5000. This
price level should encourage participation by many classes of users, and help to
justify the implementation of a satellite navigation/surveillance system.
Acknowledgements
The material reported in this paper was largely the results of studies for
NASA under contracts listed in references 2 and 3. The opinions expressed, however,
are strictly those of the author.
The author is grateful to Messrs. L. Keane, and E. Steele of NASA-ERC and
E. Ehrlich of NASA-Headquarters for their critiques in the studies undertaken for
NASA. Also, the author wishes to thank his colleagues J. Barnla, J. Breckman,
S. Durrani, C. Heldwein, J. Kiesling, M. Levinson, H. Rose, A. Smith, B. Stockwell,
R. Tangradi, J. Zerfas and others who contributed to these studies.

I References
1. Interagency Group on Int'l Aviation, IGIA 77/1.29F Document, dated
September 4 , 1968, DOT, FAS, Washington, D. C.
2. Final Report, Navigation/Traffic Control Satellite Mission Study,
dated December 1968, by RCA, M. W. Mitchell, et all NASA Contract
NAS 12-596
3. Final Report, Phase Difference Satellite Navigation Study,
dated December 1967, by RCA, J. Barnla and J. Breckman, et all
NASA Contract NAS 12-509

I 4.
5.
Hewlett Packard Application Note 52, Nov. 1965
Final Report, Systems Engineering Study of Aeronautical Satellite Services
dated December, 1967, by Philco Ford Corp., COMSAT Corp. Report No. TR-DA-i585
 3-9

SATELLITE A SATELLITE B .

TO USER FIELD
TO USER FIELD

GROUND CONTROL CENTER

LANE/

SAT B
LINES OF CONSTANT PHASE
(LOP'S) (LOP'S)

Figure 1 Phase Angle Navigation

10.0

1.o

E
n
.lo

1 I I I I 111
\
1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 I I Ill
.Ol
.lo 1.o 10.0 100
TONE FREQUENCY (kHz)

Figure 2 Tone Ranging

I 3- 10

SATELLITE A SATELLITE B

Figure 3. Traffic Surveillance

KNOWJ
’=-/--
7 PRESENT POSITION
PHASE A FROM D
PHASE B FROM D

POINT
OF
DEPARTURE

Figure 4 Passive Navigation

 3-11

1 ;
I S
I
I

t I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

-
N

"I

a
w PI"
>,
w 355 P
:a: \
m mm
U U P
m 0 0 Y
2
v)
m m~ N

d
z
a
(3
3-12
 3-13

0 100 bps D A T A LINK

0100 bps D A T A L I N K

0 19 d B ANTENNA IPOSlTlON LOCATION)

0 26 W ( V O I C E ) T O AIRCRAFT
0 3 W RF (VOICE) T O SHIPPING
0 20 W R F (POSITION LOCATION) T O USER
0 10 W R F (POSITION LOCATION) T O GCC

Figure 7 Total System Configuration

Ant.

O.C.C.

Transmitter
- Modulator

4 I
I-1 --
I
-- I --
Ref. sync.
O h a t or Phase Conparatom
Navigation
*Cm?uter I I
I
I
PASSIVE NAVICATIQ

--
COWONZNTS

--
Data

--
Figure 8 User Equipment Block Diagram
3- 14

II-
PLELEB

t
A Lo1
IF
INJEIX
WMIXER e-
2

FORWARD PkTH TONE AND DATA CHANNEL

Io2
CnRRIW
OFFSET
*

Figure 9 Satellite Instrumentation Block Diagram

Roll C a l l &

Sat B

Figure 10 Ground Control Center Block Diagram

.
 3-15

Freq. 1
I

VELOC I T Y
CARR IER
vco + BUFFER II) MIXER 1 BUFFER +- REFERENCE
OSCILLATOR

4 1
2
N
- IO dB LOU-PASS
FILTER

" fdmex - 24 kH2

-
+

nf - fdmax 6 kHz

I I res = I bn/hr = 2.5 Ht/sec

SCHM ITV
TRIGGER

TO COMPUTER

F i g u r e 11 F u n c t i o n a l Block Diagram of V e l o c i t y E x t r a c t i o n
3-16

k
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
 3-17

Table I

S a t e l l i t e t o User Voice Link Power Budget

Frequency (nominally) 1560 MHZ

Path l o s s 188.9 dB
Scan edge l o s s 3.0 dB U s e r normally a t beam c e n t e r
Polarization l o s s 0.3 dB 5 dB u s e r e l l i p t i c i t y
Relay degradation 0.4 dB N o i s e i n down l i n k
Multipath fading 0.5 dB "Shaped" antenna
A i r c r a f t cable l o s s , etc.* 1.0 dB
Total l o s s e s 194.1 dB
u s e r gain 0.0 dB
Spacecraft g a i n 30.0 dB
Total l i n k gain -164.1 dB
user r e c e i v e r noise l e v e l -158.2 dBW 6 dB noise f i g u r e r e c e i v e r
and 9.5 k"z modulation
bandwidth

Desired S / N r a t i o a t user** 6.5 dB

Hence r a d i a t e d paver 12.4 dBW

17 watts

+Preamplifier a t antenna
*+In 9.5 lcHz bandwidth

Table I1

Summary of Range E r r o r Variances and RMS Values

Total I
Normal

-
--
( m)

9.2
(ft)

103.2
8.6 95.1
7.3 80.6
15 17 - 4 5.3 58.5
45 7.3 2.2 24.9
90 4.4 1.3 14.9
-
 4 I

THE 'IMA ROLE OF HYBRID-SYSTEM RADIO SENSORS

F.S.Stringer, B.Sc., F. I n s t . Nav.

Royal A i r c r a f t E s t a b 1i shrnent ,
Farnborough, Hants.

B r i t i s h Crown Copyright, reproduced w i t h t h e penni'ssion o f t h e C o n t r o l l e r , Her B r i t a n n i c Majesty's

S t a t i o n e r y Office
4

SUMMARY

The point-source a i d s as p r e s e n t l y used d e f i n e r i g i d airways s t r u c t u r e s .

To meet t h e i n c r e a s i n g t r a f f i c d e n s i t i e s over c o n t i n e n t s such as Europe and
North America, e x t e r n a l l y r e f e r e q c e d a r e a coverage systems such as lkcca, Omega
o r Loran are l i k e l y t o provide a b e t t e r common frame o f r e f e r e n c e than p o i n t
source a i d s because o f t h e f l e x i b i l i t y i n a c c u r a t e r o u t i n g offered. This
f l e x i b i l i t y w i l l match t h a t o f t h e DR components. The combined hybrid must
a l s o have s u f f i c i e n t accuracy t o meet t h e r e l a t i v e l y s t r i n g e n t t r a f f i c
requirements o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l areas. I n time t h e whole o f Europe and North
America may need t o be considered as t e r m i n a l a r e a s f o r t h e purpose o f naviga-
t i o n . The u l t i m a t e accuracy t o aim f o r w i l l be t h a t necessary t o ensure t h a t
a n a i r c r a f t can j o i n t h e approach guidance system unaided by ground radar. If
high r e l i a b i l i t y and s u f f i c i e n t accuracy i s provided by t h e a i r b o r n e system,
then t h e ground r a d a r r o l e can be reduced t o one o f monitoring, with consequent
a l l e v i a t i o n of high tiorkload upon t h e ground r a d a r operators.

The same s t r i n g e n t r e l i a b i l i t y and accuracy requirements should be demanded

over a r e a s where n a v i e a t i o n r a t h e r than t r a f f i c s e p a r a t i o n is t h e prime r e q u i r e -
ment. Spch a r e a s include those c u r r e n t l y and poorly served by e x i s t i n g ground
based a i d s where let-down nnd climb-out procedures, p a r t i c u l a r l y over mountainous
r e g i o n s , pose a p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous environment.

There is t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e t o examine t h e p r o v i s i o n o f an area

coverage l a t t i c e r a d i o s e n s o r which w i l l g i v e good+coverage ( p r e f e r a b l y world
wide) a t a l l a l t i t u d e s , with a n accuracy of about -2.. m i l e (2.S.D.) by day
and by n i g h t , i n all conventional and VTOL t y p e s of a i r c r a f t . This s e n s o r should
be coupled with t h e DR components by a n a p p r o p r i a t e technique such as K a l m a n
f i l t e r i n g o r a modified form o f it.
 4- 1

Air T r a f f i c Control requirements d i c t a t e t h e use o f a i d 6 t o a i r c r a f t navigation p m t i c u l u l j . over

h i g h l y developed a r e a s of t h e world. The degree o f c o n t r o l h a s i n c r e a s e d during t h e p a s t twenty y e a r s
as t h e t r a f f i c d e n s i t y h a s pown. aevelopment h a s been concentrated s o f a r upon t h e s h o r t and medium
rnriee r a d i o a i d s because over long t r u n k r o u t e s t h e r e h a s been insuf'flcient t r a f f i c t o warrant r i g i d
c o n t r o l and h i t h e r t o , s u i t a b l e equipment h a s not been a v a i l a b l e t o permit a reduction i n t h e e x i s t i n g
s e p a r a t i o n standards. S a f e t y h a s t h e r e f o r e been achieved by wide separation.

The f o r e c a s t i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c d e n s i t y i n t h e mid 1970's r e q u i r e s inproved navigation which w i l l

permit a r e d u c t i o n i n both long a n d s h o r t range s e p a r a t i o n standards. "here a r e l i k e l y t o be continued
a t t e m p t s t o improve nnvication s a f e t y over mountains and s p u - s e l y populated a r e a s and t o provide
improved f l e x i b i l i t y of r o u t i n g and s t a n d a r d o f track-keepine e s p e c i a l l y over Terminal k e a s . New i d e a s
and techniques a r e c u r r e n t l y being o f f e r e d by d e s i g n e r s and manufacturers, some before long term
performance t e s t i n g and with t h e p r o v i s i o n o f l i t t l e r e l i a b i l i t y o r c o s t i n g information. O p e r a t i o n d
planning o r g a n i s a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e airlifies, are presented with a confusing p i c t u r e of t h e p r e s e n t
s t a t e of t h e art, and i t is not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h o s e l e c t i o n o f a r a t i o n a l and c o s t e f f e c t i v e system is
d i f f i c u l t . "here i s a natural reluctctrce by o p e r a t o r s t o i n t r o d u c e new and c o s t l y equipment, and it
would be reasonable f o r them t o demand t h a t any new systems should provide an opportunity f o r t h e
removal o f a s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t y of obsolescent equipments from the a i r c r a f t .

I
P a s t experience shows that a c o n s i d e r a b l e time e l a p s e s between t h e approval of an o p e r a t i o n a l
requirement and t h e i n - s e r v i c e d a t e of t h e equipment. The o p e r a t o r s should t h e r e f o r e be made aware o f
t h e state o f t h e art at t h e e a r l i e s t opportunity.

Due t o t h e m u l t i p l e t e c h n i c a l and even i n t e r n a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems involved i n t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new equipment - i n t o s e r v i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y problems o f c o s t and r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n , real
p r o g r e s s t e n d s t o be slow. I n f a c t t h e implementation o f e l e c t r o n i c technology i n c i v i l a v i a t i o n
appears t o have t r a i l e d behind t h e aerodynamic and engine progress. A s an example, s e r i o u s dangers
such as c o l l i s i o n with high ground have s t i l l n o t been eliminated. A t t e n t i o n is being d i r e c t e d i n some
c o u n t r i e s toward a i r c r a r t c o l l i s i o n avoidance and t h e f u t u r e r e d u c t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n s t a n d a r d s over
long d i s t a n c e s . These problems must be solved i n t i m e , b u t t h e r e is need f o r examination o f t h e
immediate d i f f i c u l t i e s first. It is probable t h a t some o f t h e d e v i c e s p o s t u l a t e d f o r use on long range
r o u t e s , although not y e t f u l l y developed, may be capable o f e a r l i e r though l i m i t e d implementation f o r
t h e s o l u t i o n o f some o f t h e problems a s s o c i a t e d with medium and s h o r t range operation. The p r o v i s i o n
o f a more r e l i a b l e navigation system with a p p r o p r i a t e accuracy could reduce t h e hazards caused by
failure on t h e part of t h e p i l o t t o follow t h e f l i g h t plan, p a r t i c u l a r l y when n o t under c l o s e primary
o r secondary s u r v e i l l a n c e radar c o n t r o l .

T h i s p a p e r , b r i e f l y surveys t h e s t a t u s of a i r c r a f t navigation a i d s today p a r t i c u l a r l y where they

a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e Continental Terminal Area. The fundamental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a f f e c t i n g t h e i r
choice as p a r t o f a hybrid system a r e then discussed on t h e assumption t h a t a d i g i t a l computer o r
processor w i l l be used and a l t e r n a t i v e l y t h a t i t w i l l n o t be used.

I Areas o f p r o f i t a b l e f u t u r e r e s e a r c h a r e then considered and some mention is made o f t h e c u r r e n t

programme a t t h e Royal A i r c r a f t Establiehment.

The concept o f t h e hybrid navigation system h a s been introduced p r i m a r i l y t o provide improved

r e l i a b i l i t y i n t h e adherence by p i l o t s t o a f l i g h t p l a n compared with t h a t t o be expected from a s i n g l e
n a v i g a t i o n a i d o r c o l l e c t i o n o f a i d f i used i n d i v i d u a l l y . The s e l e c t i o n o f hybrid s e n s o r s must be made
j u d i c i o u s l y t o ensure t h a t a m a x i m u m o f redundancy is achieved and. t h a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e system s t a b i l i t y
i s a v a i l a b l e f o r b o t h a i r c r a f t c o n t r o l and long term p o s i t i o n fixing. I f t h e hybrid comprises a m u l t i p l e
dead reckoning i n s t a l l a t i o n , then as t h e n.IA is approached, s e p a r a t e r e f e r e n c e must be made t o some
frame o f r e f e r e n c e common t o a l l a i r c r a f t i n t h e t r a f f i c complex t o allow an update o r g r o s s e r r o r check
o f t h e a i r b o r n e system. Current r e g u l a t i o n s d i c t a t e n a v i g a t i o n i n t h e EL'. and its surroundings by
r e f e r e n c e t o s h o r t range r a d i o navigation a i d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y VOR, which is a point-source a i d , each
beacon providing one l i n e o f p o s i t i o n o f r e l a t i v e l y low o r d e r o f p r e c i s i o n .

The point-source a i d s d e f i n e r i g i d airways s t r u c t u r e s . To meet t h e i n c r e a s i n g t r a f f i c d e n s i t i e s

over c o n t i n e n t s such as &rope and North America, e x t e r n a l l y r e f e r e n c e d a r e a coverage systenis such as
Decca, Omega o r Loran are lilcely t o provide a b e t t e r common frame of r e f e r e n c e than t h e p o i n t source
a i d s because o f t h e f l e x i b i l i t y i n r o u t i n g offered. "his f l e x i b i l i t y w i l l match t h a t o f t h e ER
components. The combined hybrid must a l s o have s u f f i c i e n t accuracy t o meet t h e r e l a t i v e l y s t r i n g e n t
t r a f f i c requirements o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l areas. I n time t h e whole o f Lurope and North America may need
t o be considered as t e r m i n a l a r e a s f o r t h e purpose o f navigation. The system accuracy r e q u i r e d w i l l be
t h a t necessary t o ensure t h a t a n a i r c r a f t can j o i n t h e approach guidance system unaided by ground radar.
If high r e l i a b i l i t y and s u f f i c i e n t accuracy i s provided by t h e a i r b o r n e system, then t h e ground r a d a r
r o l e can be reduced t o one o f monitoring, with consequent a l l e v i a t i o n of high workload upon t h e ground
r a d a r operators.

I d e a l l y t h e same s t r i n g e n t r e l i a b i l i t y and accuracy requirements should be demanded over areas

where navigation r a t h e r t h a n t r a f f i c s e p a r a t i o n is t h e prime r e q u i r e m n t . Such a r e a s i n c l u d e those
c u r r e n t l y but poorly served by e x i s t i n g ground based a i d s where let-down and climb-out procedures,
p a r t i c u l a r l y over mountainous r e g i o n s , pose a p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous environment.

2. SHORT AND MEDIUM RANGE AIDS To NAVIGATION 'JDDAY

2.1 Most s h o r t o r medium range c i v i l ' t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t navigation a t t h e p r e s e n t time depends upon

e i t h e r ground radar i n f o r k t i o n o r r a d i o a i d s which employ beacons p o s i t i o n e d along t h e airways and in
t h e t e r m i n a l areas. It is i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o g i v e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of such systems h e r e b u t it is
i worth considering t h e r o l e of r a d i o a i d s at t h e p r e s e n t time. VOR, t h e Visual h i Xange "F system,
4-2

is n standard I.C.A.O. approved eqiiipincnt more widely deployed tliari any othcir nit1 to ri:wi(ption. It is
+ o
R point-source system, limited to line-of-sicht cove$a6pe, with a total system accuracy of -7 (3.5 .,.a.),
o r ill o t l i o r words 99.9%; of readinCS will be within -7 of the mapetic bearing of the ground transmitter
from an airborne receiver. The extensive use of VU12 throughout the technologically advanced regions of
the world, particularly at airports, makes it an ideal aid to general aviation since it is omni-
directional. Unfortunately the omnidirectional properties of VOR are not utilised efficiently since
it is usually used as an airway beacon. In addition siting difficulties sometimes cause 'Scalloping',
that is spatially oscillatory behaviour which results in operational restrictions in all-round cover.
VOH frequency allocations are a constant difficulty but the system is protected by I.C.A.O. until 1975.
Technical improvements have been developed to increase the accuracy and reduce scalloping and other
problems, but such techniques increase the cost of ground installations and some of them increase the
real estate problems. Point source systems can be arranged to provide area coverace information to the
pilot with the aid of an offset computer. Such arrangements usually require the use of a second VOX
o r Distance Measuring Equipment (DIE). Although the conversion of distance-bearing co-ordinates into
Cartesian or any other grid can be arranged, the angular bearing error of the point source system is
fundamental and remains irrespective of subsequent processing.
2.2 BIE is usually co-located with the VOR, and although convenient, its effectiveness could be
questioned. DME is an L Band (loo0 Nc/s) active, pulsed electronic aid requiring+a transmitter
receiver in the air as well as on the ground. It is accurate by many standards (-&I S.D.). This
equipment is a l s o restricted to line of sight ranges, but in addition the traffic capacity is limited.

2.3 The radio compass (ADF) with coverage area of up to a few hundred,miles from the ground based
transmitter continues to serve most of the world's airlines over sparsely populated areas. It requires
relatively lese sophisticated non-directional beacon equipment (NDB) on the ground although the aircraft
installation is substantial on some aircraft and is frequently duplicated to provide position data by
two simultaneously measured bearings. The limitations of NDB and ADF have been known for many years,
and although instrumentation has been improved considerably, fundamental problems caused.bypropaga-
tional effects at MF, dominate the performance characteristics. Large bearing errors can result anywhere
from thunderstorms, high atmospheric noise .conditionsand precipitation static, and at long ranges at
night from ionospheric reflections. I.C.A.O. has no mandate to declare systems obsolete, and kDF
continues to flourish.
VI@ voice communication plays a considerable role in aircraft navigation at line-of-sight
distances. It is used to pass primary and secondary radar fixes to the pilot. The IFF transponder in
the aircraft provides altitude information to the ground via the SSR with the aid of a barometric
sensor. Unless there is a return communication link to the pilot, SSR provides no continuous service
in the air. Fixes can be transmitted on request however, and the advent of a radio link would
increase the data rate.

2.5 Decca or variants of this system such as Harco and Dectra are hyperbolic area-coverage continuous-
wave low-frequency aids operating in the 70-100 kHz frequency band. A high order of position fixing
accuracy (200-300yd) can be achieved at the centre of the 200-m nm IIarco coverage area, but the
accuracy is reduced at night at the edges of cover. Generally the data is interpreted with the aid of
a flight log pictorial display. With the later versions of the system a navigation computer provides
additional facilities, such as sensor mixing and autopilot control. Huch literature has been produced
describing the relative merits of Decca compared with VOR and l%lZ and the arguments will not be
repeated here.
Loran k and Loran C are available to navigators particularly over the North Atlantic and parts of
the Yacific. Lorzn is a pulsed time-difference hyperbolic-lattice aid. The Loran A operates in the
radio frequency band 1-2 PlHz and provides an unambiguous position fix although the signals suffer from
ionospheric effects particularly at night. Skilled operation is needed to ensure correct interpretation
of data. Loran C operating at a radio frequency of 110 kHz provides a highly accurate position fix
derived from two hyperbolic lines of position. Operation can be automatic o r semi-automatic. A cycle
matching technique permits the measurement of time-difference between the ground wave radiated from any
pair of transmitters in alvance of the sky-wave contaminated signals. A military variant, Loran D, for
short range operation apgears to be still under development.
Omega is a continuous-wave very low frequency (VLF) system operating in the frequency band
10.2-13.6 kHz. It provides a hyperbolic lattice of position lines, at all altitudes, derived from the
phase differences of sipals radiated from pairs of transmitters. "he present deployment of four
stations, which have operational status, provides coverage over about one qumter of the world's
surface. iiventual provision of eight stations should meet marine and aviation requirements world-wide.
The position-fixing accuracy is in the order of 1 nm S.D. if propagational corrections are applied to
the signals to reduce the effects of ionospheric diurnal variations. A further improvement in accuracy
can be achieved by local corrections applied to airborne receivers and obtained as a result of ground
monitoring of the signals. This technique has acquired the title 'Differential or Corrected Omega'.
Omega is inherently ambiguous; the basic lattice derived from the 10.2 kHz signals is repeated every
8 nm along the'base line and the lattice gradually expands as the distance from the base line increases.
Partial resolution of the ambiguities can be attempted by the radiation of signals of 13.6 kHz and
11.33 ldiz to provide beat frequencies of 3.4 kHz and 1.133 kHz respectively. These would give
equivalent lane widths of 24 and 72 nm to permit a sequential process of position fixing in steps.
Lhrrent system experiments have revealed a variation in the relative positions of the phase lines
derived from the beats at night as compared with the basic 10.2 kHz pattern. The variations are
spatial and their mapnitu8e is the subject of current investigations.

Xesolution of ambiguities has been attempted with some euccess by comparisons of incremental
Omep readings compared with incremental dead reckoning information measured over similar increments of
time. The technique continues to be studied.
 4- 3

It io possible that point-source beacons such a6 Volt, NDB or ILS could provide ambiguity
resolution over say Europe or North America and current research is examining the feasibility of such a
technique.

3. ALTEXNATIVE AND ALLIED TECHNIQUES

All of the navigation aids mentioned so far are externally referenced from some point outside the
aircraft. The advent of inertial navigation, Doppler radar and improved heading references has
introduced the possibility of complete flexibility of routing into the navigation of transport aircraft.

The coverage area is unlimited. Total reliance on these self-contained aids is not advisable
however because the probable fixin(S error increases with time, the accuracy is dependent on the initial
fixing reference, and gross errors caused by malfunction or mishandling are possible. Duplication, or
preferably triplication, of such aids would alleviate some of these disadvantages. Advanced aircraft
to be produced in the neap future will almost certainly require a vertical reference derived from a
stable platform, to Give them the necessary facilities for autopilot and instrumental control. It is
therefore most likely that many transport aircraft will contain high-quality self-contained aids to
navigation, which take advantage of the provision of the stable platform. Air Traffic Control will
extend to aircraft of all sizes however, and it is unlikely that we shall see high-quality dead-
reckoning instruments in the smaller aircraft, even though they occupy the same air space as the larger
types.

3.2 The time-dependent qualities of self-contained aids demand redundant information to ensure relia-
bility. This information can be provided either from other self-contained devices which retain the
fundamental disadvantages already described, or by some externally-referenced system. Current tech-
niques employ ground radar with SYR over large terminal areas. Short-range radio aids such as VOR,
M E , Decca or AilF are also used for this purpose. At the present time ATC Regulations demand
dependence upon the ground-based aids for navigation within the air lanes. There seems no technical
reason however, why the self-contained aids should not be used for primary navigation, with the radio
aid used for redundant checking only. This would give R considerable improvement in flexibility and
routing. A major practical and operational problem however, is the lack of uniformity of equipment
in the aircreft.

4. DESIGN FEATURES AFFECPING SENSOR SELECTION

All aids to navigation have characteristic advantages and disadvantages. The disadvantages are
probably most apparent in the attempt to meet the long range requirement but care is still required in
selection of sensors for the IMA role.

Continuous wave aids have inherent ambiguity characteristics. The resolution of ambiguities is
affected by the ionospheric reflections of the radiated signals particularly at night. Multiple-
frequency transmissions are used to provide coarse lattice patterns derived from the beat frequencies
to assist in ambiguity resolution but thio technique has been shown to introduce further propagational
problems in certain circumstances; in fact the proposed solution sometimes aggravates rather than solves
the problem.
The beat-frequency method of resolution has been employed by the Decca and the Omega systems.
The effects of second-mode VW propagation at night however upon the beat frequencies derived for
resolution purposes from the various carriers have demonstrated a possible reduction in the reliability
of resolution in 6ome circumstances compared with the performance thought possible initially.

An alternative is to employ the self-contained aids such as air data, a highly stable oscillator
or Doppler radar to assist in the determination of the correct lane count after an interruption of
service. ‘be dead reckoning technique has shown considerable promise when applied to Omega used in
conjunction with a digital computer and an inertial navigator or Doppler radar.
Diurnal propagation effects upon low and very low frequency aids introduce systematic fixine
errors which are most evident at the fringes of cover of the low frequency Decca system and at all
distances from the very low frequency.Gmega transmitters. Diurnal effects upon Omega are uniform and
predictable and can be removed by the application of standard correctione. Fixed systematic errors are
also experienced at LF and VLF at pound level in certain geophysical conditions; these are again
removed by survey and calibration.
Kandom errors due to noise, the effects of precipitation static, such as those imposed by rate-
aiding techniques and selection of servo response times are experienced with the continuous:wave
devices. These are countered however by their fundamental system advantages. These include:

(a) k e a coverage at all altitudes.

(b) A high order of accuracy if required.

(c) Good coverage area per transmitter.

(d) Passive operation with consequent unlimited traffic capacity.

(e) Multiple position-line fixing.

The pulsed types of hyperbolic aid such as Loran A and C provide a limited number of position lines,
they have limited coverage area and they sometimes suffer from lock-on delays. The receiver circuits
tend to be complex in the fully automatic variety with consequent risk of reduced reliability. These
4- 4

aids however have the important advantages of unambiguous fixing,with a high order of accuracy where the
lattice geometry is rcnsonably good, but they have poor overland performnnce and are thus not attractive
as aids to Continental navigation.

, Current developments of the well known point-source systems such ns VOR, ADF and DME, are
intended to Give an improved performance. Some of the fundamental weaknesses of m c h Systems have been
mentioned already but a more comprehensive list would include:

limited range due to the necessary employment of high frequencies,

terrain scalloping,

geometrical non-linearity due to the conversion errors from point source to area navigation,

high pilot workload and frequency channel allocation problems,

the limited traffic capacity of the DME: component.

The primary advantages of the point-source systems are the relative economy of aircraft installation and
their wide deployment in some parts of the world.

Satellite systems are possible sensors for future aircraft navigation. There is no concerted
plan at present for the development of a single system for civil use so far as the author is aware.
Such systems are likely to be expensive and some findmental problems of propagation aerial design
and data handling are still in the early research stage. Since their potential effectiveness and
technical feasibility in the civil transport role has yet to be established, universal adoption in the
near future is unlikely. It would seeh prudent therefore to defer decisions upon the adoption of a
satellite system until the viability of ground based systems have been examined thoroughly and
practically.

It may be argued that the fixing data could be supplied to a pilot from ground radar for coupling
with the airborne data. Factors which resist this tendency are being recognised as:

(a) An extreme problem of identification especially at low altitude.

(b) A non-continuous service which could leave the pilot without vital information at a critical
time due to other priorities.

(c) A continued increase in workload of ground operators.

(d) A service available to some areas but not others.

(e) Increased communication requirements over those available today.

All the radio fixing aids considered rely on signals originating from fixed ground stations and
- -
as a result suffer with the possible exception of Omega from having limited range and decreasing
position accuracy with distance from the transmitter. Thus aircraft relying on them are restricted
t o operations in certain parts of the world. However, within the coverage area, their accuracy is
known and consistent (if a certain 'random noise' content is allowed for). On the other hand, the dead
reckoning o r self-contained aids give world wide cover and are not dependent on ground stations. Their
chief disadvantage is that they rely on memory, and compute the new position by extrapolation from the
previous known position using a knowledge of the aircraft speed and direction. Thus on any given flight,
the position errors tend to increase with time. In addition the accuracy is dependent on the initial
fixing reference, and undetected errors due to malfunction o r mishandling are possible.
These considerations lead naturally to the concept of mixed o r 'Hybrid' systems containing sensors
from both groups of navigation aids.

5. THE HYBRID SYSTm

There is a strong incentive to select a navigation systen for the continental DtA comprising an
area coverage lattice radio sensor, a DR component and an appropriate aigital computer or sensor
processor. Such a hybrid would couple the components with Kalman filtering or a modified form of it.
To some extent, the limitations of both types of navigation systems can be mitigated by duplica-
tion o r triplication of the systems. A f ~ t h e rim2rovement can be obtained by a combination of two aids
of the same type but different capabilities such as a long range with a short range radio fixing aid,
o r a Doppler radar with an inertial navigator. But it is clear that the best solution is to carry
systems of both types so th?.t the fixing aid can be used to update the d.r. aid and the d.r. aid used
to give a continuous output of position between fixes. Additionally the long term stability of the
fixing sensor is complementary to the short term stability of the d.r. sensor.
Systems of this type are in service at the present time, for example aircraft flying basically
on Doppler use Loran o r Decca for fixing. IIowever this is not strictly a hybrid system as the two
navigation aids remain completely separate and the outputs are ohly compared through the human navi-
gator.
In practice all aircraft have effectively a combination of dead reckoning and fixing even if the
former is on airspeed indicator and. the latter is a map. It is not always recognised that these
requireicents riust be satisfied for satisfactory navisation to take place. The best control and navi-
gation is achieved by the combination of a good short term stability system for aircraft control,
 4- 5

coupled with a fixing component havine good lonl: term stability. ' h e r e arc fJdVOCntI?S of total control
by dead reckoning techniques, and advocates of autopilot control by radio systems. The latter method
causes problems such as flight path deviation due to propagational anomalies no matter how small, and
totally dead reckonin6 techniques can produce time dependent errors in navigation.

In the hybrid systems which are evolving at the present time, the outputs of the navigation aids
'are compared continuously and automatically in a computer which by means of optimal mixing o r
filtering produces navieation information which is better than either aid could produce separately.
The progress towards a fully integrated navigation system has been accelerated by the arrival of the
airworthy general purpoue computer of adequate capacity.

6. THE ARM COVERAGE FIXING SENSOR

On the basis of the design features already described it would appear that the radio sensor should
meet the following ideal specification.

- preferably world wide.

I (a) Area coverage

(b) A n accuracy suitable for joining any of the expected guidance systems to be used for airfield
approach (say :$
n mile S.D.)

(c) Coverage at all altitudes.

(d) Unambiguous fixes.

(e) Non susceptibility to propagational anomalies.

(f) Compatibility with the DR aids.

(g) Redundancy of radio fix data.

(h) Dependence upon an existing o r developing ground complex.
Other requirements will no doubt come to mind but the above are sufficient to permit a selection
of aids most likely to provide the service. It is not likely that one aid will meet all of the
specified points, in fact that is why a hybrid is thought necessary. It is worth considering not only
single sensors but hybrids which together can achieve most if not all of the fixing requirements.
A 1975 time scale is considered essential if such an improved system is to make a timely impact.
Since an agreed satellite navigation system is unlikely to be available in time the only options as
sensors are Decca, Loran or Omega in corrected o r differential form. Subject to the successful
completion of differential studies, Omega offers considerable promise because of its potential world
coverage. For hyperbolic systems generally it is considered that certain,lines of development would
lead to greatly improved 'IMA capabilities. These include

(a) A reduction in the complexity of the existing aids to give them sensor qualities with lane
identification provided if necessary by incremental dead reckoning procedures.

(b) An alternative ability to resolve lane ambiguities by reference to point source aids.
There is widescale deployment of these aids and although the bearing accuracy of data presented
is low it is sufficient to indicate the correct Omega lane o r Decca zone.

(c) The successful design of electromechanical o r digital servo systems to ensure sufficiently
rapid response for terminal operation.

(d) Verification that differential methods will remove absolute errors associated with certain
geophysical environments at radio frequencies below 200 kHz.

(e) Whether internally generated aircraft noise can be limited in its effect to ensure continuous
service from the radio sensors.

(f) That the data link demanded by the corrected o r the differential techniques is likely to be
available in the time scale.
If the data link is not provided in time, then the prospects for Decca improve compared with Omega
since the former has better "MA accuracy in its basic form. The advantage of world coverage would be
lost however.

Ekperiments at RAE continue to include an examination of the error characteristics of corrected

and differential Omega between fixed and ground monitors and between airborne y d ground receivers.
There is an indication from this work and current studies in the USA that the -2-3 nm S.D. differential
error distribution experienced so far could be reduced by improved instrumental design, and a reduction
of the electrical noise environment.
The author is not aware of any study of a simple Decca sensor with DH mixing but an examination
of its feasibility would seem a worthwhile exercise.

Recent research at RAE has included the examination of a distance measuring facility in terms of
4-6

circular co-ordinates generated with a ground transmitter as the origin. The stability of many tram-
mitt'ers radiatinc in the low frequency band is extremely high since the carrier is controlled by an
atomic source. If a signal at the carrier frequency o r some sub-multiple of it is generated in the
aircraft from a highly stable crystal oscillator of available quality, then the distance-gone in terms
of vavelengths traversed can be determined by a beat technique. The distance will be measured from any
selected point which could be the airfield of departure. The drift between the sources can be kept to
an acceptable limit over a period of about one hour which is a reasonable duration in the I M A environ-
ment. Experiments at RAE'have included measurements against Decca navigator transmitters and the BBC
Droitwich transmitter. Results have been encouraging although some engineering problem have had to be
overcome. Recent experiments in an Auster aircraft have remlted in some single M P errors of some
50-100 yards after one hour of flight.

An attractive extension of this technique would be the application to VHF carriers of amplitude
or phase modulation at several frequencies of say IkHz* I00 kHz and I O kHz. The lane widths available
would be about 0.15, 15 and 15 n miles. A standard modification in the form of a kit would permit an
extension of the existing ground transmitter facilities without the need of alteration to the existing
frequency allocations. The technique will be examined with VOH and ILS transmitters in mind. The
addition of such a facility to any VHF transmitters would be of considerable value for the completion
of let down procedures and for the estimate of wind from a knowledge of ground speed. It is recognised
that this is basically a dead reckoning device but it could be of great value as a hybrid sensor,
particularly to the smaller aircraft.
One of the most troublesome hindrances to the application of more advanced systems of navigation
is the phasing of the new equipment or operational procedure into existing facilities. This problem
emphasises the value of evolutionary advances. A large capital investment has already been committed
to the existing aids to navigation and communication. It is sensible to consider how best these s i m l s
can be adapted to the total aircraft navigation system backed up by ground radar monitoring. If the
lines of position derived from point sources such as VOR, ILS, NDB, Decca and broadcast transmitters are
coupled via microminiature sensors into the navigation system through the airborne computer, programmed
to seek this information along the route, then the data can be used to reference, update or gross error
check the DR components of the airborne system. If hyperbolic lattice sensors are available then the
point source lines of position can resolve ambiguities. If the ground and airborne stable oscillator
beat frequency arrangement proves operationally viable then continuity of data could be carried over
from one ground reference to another.

The redeployment of ground facilities is a major impediment to the introduction of improved radio
facilities to back up the DR sensors. A little consideration will reveal the exciting potential of a
hybrid used imaginatively. Current experiments at RAE are examining all practical aspects of such navi-
gation systems with both large and small aircraft in mind.
The advanced concepts considered will be very much less effective if a data link for automatic
digital communications is not available soon. Differential, Corrected Omega and three dimensional
position broadcasts for ATC redundant monitoring and identification are some of the data link needs
created by the navigation of aircraft in the dense traffic environment.
The pilot must be able to monitor the data he receives and have available a common display for
flight direction and information of the aircraft position. It is suggested however that he must also
have the following:

(a) An assurance that redundant techniques ensure that radio sensor ambiguities are positively
resolved even if only at specified points along a route.

(b) A reversionary display of the radio sensor data for emergency use.

(c) Improved control of radio sensors to reduce cockpit clutter and to reduce workload.

7. CONCLUSIONS

The considerations that have been included in this paper firstly assume that a hybrid navigation
system will be needed for the safe navigation of aircraft over the terminal areas and their immediate
surroundings to several hundred miles from the major airports. Such a hybrid would ideally contain a
large percentage of equipment used for long range navigation. The M A s may well cover the whole of some
continents such as Europe or North America. The navigational ability of the aircraft fitted with such
a hybrid should give complete flexibility, reliability and an enhanced degree of accuracy sufficient to
allow the pilot to join the landing guidance system.
The self-contained sensors will provide good control of autopilots for the periods of flight within
the "MA environment. Accurate external position reference must be continuously available however to
ensure that the guidance system can be joined without radar assistance and this reference must be common
to all traffic.
It is believed that by 1975 a navigation system of this sort will be needed. Of the radio sensors
considered it is believed that only Decca, Omega and the point-source aids will be available in the time
scale. It is believed however that more information could be extracted from all of the existing VLF,
LF, MF and VHF transmissions to the overall benefit of the navigation system. The hybrid could therefore
be coupled to sensors providing only limited data to back up that obtained from another redundant radio
aid.
It is essential that the workload of both pilot and pound raciar operator be reduced but it should
be recognised that emergency reversionary modes must not demand a level of performance outside the pilots'
ability in the circumstances which demand their use. The development of the radio sensors should
therefore be coupled with the introduction of a digital data radio link, integrated cockpit controls
and displays, and the display of simple raw radio position data for emergency purposes.
 5 I

\
THE USE OF FILTERING TECHNIQUES AND/OR MIXED N A V I G A T I O N
SYSTEMS IN COMBINATION WITH BAROMETRIC ALTIMETRY TO
GENERATE GLIDE SLOPES FOR PRECISION APPROACH

M. G. Pearson

The Decca Navigator Company L t d . ,

England
5
 5- I

..................................
THE U S E O F FILTERING TECHNIQUES AN !A !!

M. G . PEARSON

-_-------__-
INTRODUCTION

The p a p e r d e s c r i b e s a n a i r b o r n e n a v i g a t i o n s y s t e m , b a s e d o n t h e O m n i t r a c d ' i g i t a l
computer, w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e s a t e c h n i q u e f o r t h e p r o v i s i o n o f p r o f i l e guidance.

The s y s t e m c o m b i n e s a means f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a c c u r a t e p o s i t i o n f i x i n g i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l
plane, w i t h a v e r t i c a l g u i d a n c e f a c i l i t y u t i l i s i n g b a r o m e t r i c input and t h e r e s u l t a n t d a t a
i s l i n k e d w i t h t h e a i r c r a f t f l i g h t system. The r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n
handling data from a v a r i e t y o f s t a t i o n referenced and/or self-contained n a v i g a t i o n sensors
a r e considered,as a r e t h e t e c h n i q u e s employed i n t h e d a t a f i l t e r i n g and m i x i n g processes.
F i l t e r i n g i n t h i s context implies d i g i t a l signal processing o r t h e application o f
s t a t i s t i c a l techniques t o t h e n a v i g a t i o n sensors u t i l i s e d . The b a s i s f o r b o t h t h e f i l t e r i n g
and t h e m i x i n g processes i s t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a p r e d i c t i o n v e c t o r , produced f r o m
p r e v i o u s l y computed wind v e c t o r s and t r u e a i r s p e e d f o r a s i n g l e s e n s o r system, o r computed
b y a D o p p l e r / I n e r t i a l m i x when t h i s i s u s e d i n c o n j u n c t S o n w i t h a r a d i o p o s i t i o n f i x i n g
s e n s o r s u c h a s Decca, L o r a n , V O R / D M E .

P r o f i l e guidance i s o b t a i n e d b y comparison between t h e a c h i e v e d g l i d e path, (computed

f r o m t h e ground speed v e c t o r d e r i v e d f r o m t h e n a v i g a t i o n sensors, and t h e r a t e o f ascent o r
descent f r o m s u c c e s s i v e d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r ) and t h e r e q u i r e d g l i d e
path.

The p a p e r o u t l i n e s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n s e n s o r s , computers
and d i s p l a y s and d e s c r i b e s t h e g u i d a n c e t e c h n i q u e s employed.

An e x a m p l e o f t h e s y s t e m c o n c e r n e d h a s b e e n a p p l i e d i n p r a c t i c e t o a i r c r a f t h a v i n g STOL
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o p e r a t i n g i n a h i g h d e n s i t y t e r m i n a l area environment. An i n d i c a t i o n i s
g i v e n o f t h e performance obtained under o p e r a t i o n a l conditions, d u r i n g extensive f l i g h t
evaluation.

----------------
PROFILE GUIDANCE

The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h e p r o f i l e g u i d a n c e i s t o e n a b l e t h e p i l o t t o d e f i n e b o t h
s t r a i g h t and c u r v e d approach p a t h s . T h e r e a r e t w o s i m p l e models t h a t can b e g e n e r a t e d i n
t h e computer. The f i r s t o n e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a p l a n e i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e s u r f a c e o f
t h e e a r t h a t t h e g l i d e slope angle. An I L S beam i s a n e x a m p l e o f t h i s t y p e o f g e o m e t r y .
I t has t h e o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e t h a t i t w o u l d be e x a c t l y l i k e a c o n v e n t i o n a l I L S t o i n t e r p r e t ,
b u t i t h a s t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e o f r e q u i r i n g a g r e a t many p o i n t s t o d e f i n e a c u r v e d g l i d e s l o p e .

An a l t e r n a t i v e way, i s t o c o n s i d e r t h e g l i d e s l o p e as b e i n g t h e g e n e r a t o r o f a c o n e
whose a p e x i s t h e d e s t i n a t i o n p o i n t . A f l y up i n d i c a t i o n i s given i f t h e a i r c r a f t i s out-
s i d e t h e cone, a n d t h e c o n e i s c o n c a v e up ( a s i s a l w a y s t h e c a s e o n t h e a p p r o a c h ) , a n d a
f l y down i n d i c a t i o n i s g i v e n i ' f t h e a i r c r a f t i s i n s i d e t h e cone. I t i s now p o s s i b l e t o
f l y a c u r v e d d e s c e n t p a t h by u s i n g t h e p i c t o r i a l d i s p l a y and t h e v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t
i n d i c a t o r , o r F l i g h t Director, p r o v i d i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l displacement i n d i c a t o r i s ignored.
F o r s t r a i g h t i n approaches (i.e. ones t h a t a r e n o t c u r v e d ) t h e F l i g h t D i r e c t o r o r I L S meter
may b e u s e d n o r m a l l y . T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 1. F o r o b v i o u s reasons t h i s has
b e e n d e s i g n a t e d as t h e M a r t i n G l a s s p r i n c i p l e .

I f t h e a i r c r a f t were t o be f l y i n g a s t r a i g h t i n approach, t h e n t h e r e w o u l d be a s m a l l
v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t e r r o r r e g i s t e r e d w h e n e v e r t h e r e was some l a t e r a l e r r o r . In this
r e s p e c t t h e m e t e r i n d i c a t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f a n o r m a l IbS. T h i s , however,
w o u l d o n l y be p e r c e p t i b l e a t l a r g e a n g l e s o f descent, above about 18 , w i t h t h e s c a l i n g and
s e n s i t i v i t i e s t h a t o b t a i n s on t h e meter. I n p r a c t i c e t h i s was f o u n d t o c o n s t i t u t e n o
a d d i t i o n a l hazard, s u c h as i n d u c i n g i n s t a b i l i t y due t o o v e r c o r r e c t i n g , and i n f a c t d i d n o t
worry t h e p i l o t s a t a l l .

T h e s e l a r g e a n g l e s o f a p p r o a c h a r e a c h i e v a b l e w i t h an STOL a i r c r a f t , i n d e e d h i g h e r ones
are, but t h e q u e s t i o n i s l i k e l y t o b e academic on c o n v e n t i o n a l a i r c r a f t .

D u r i n g t h e e n - r o u t e phase, t h e p r o f i l e g u i d a n c e f a c i l i t y can be u s e d i n e x a c t l y t h e
same way a s i n t h e a p p r o a c h p h a s e , a n d was s o u s e d i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l i n e a r
c l i m b and d e s c e n t p a t h s as d e f i n e d a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e b e s t ones f o r f u e l consumption,
t i m e t o r e a c h f l i g h t l e v e l a n d s o on. T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2.

The p r o g r a m m e i n t h e c o m p u t e r i s s o w r i t t e n t h a t t h e o u t p u t s e n s i t i v i t i e s f o r t h e a c r o s s
t r a c k d i s t a n c e i s one n a u t i c a l m i l e p e r d o t i n t h e e n - r o u t e c a s e a n d 118 n a u t i c a l m i l e
p e r d o t i n t h e a p p r o a c h case. *
The v e r t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y i s 100 ft. f u l l scale i n both
cases. To a c h i e v e t h e s e . s e n s i t i v i t i e s w i t h V O R / D M E i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o c e s s t h e r a d i o
i n f o r m a t i o n through a d i g i t a l f i l t e r t o g i v e a variance r a t i o (i.e. r a t i o o f the variance
 5-2

o f t h e o u t w s i g n a l o t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e inDu s i g n a l ) o f a t l e a s t 0.0025. The r e s p o n s e

o f t h e f i l t e r s h o u l d o b v i o u s l y b e as f a s t a s p o s s i b l e .

....................
FILTERING AND M I X I N G

The b a s i s o f t h e f i l t e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s i s t o f o r m a p r e d i c t i o n v e c t o r f r o m t h e raw d a t a .
This v e c t o r i s a p p l i e d t o t h e l a s t f i l t e r e d p o s i t i o n and a box o f g i v e n s i z e i s a p p l i e d
r o u n d t h e new p o s i t i o n s o d e r i v e d . I f t h e n e x t raw r a d i o p o s i t i o n f a l l s o u t s i d e t h i s box,
t h e n t h e n.ew f i l t e r e d p o s i t i o n i s t a k e n as t h e e d g e o f t h e b o x n e a r e s t t o t h e r a d i o p o s i t i o n
and t h e v e c t o r f r o m t h e r a d i o p o s i t i o n t o t h e f i l t e r e d p o s i t i o n i s t h e f i l t e r f u n c t i o n .

Thus:
Raw P o s i t i o n + F i l t e r F u n c t i o n = F i l t e r e d P o s i t i o n
I f t h e raw r a d i o p o s i t i o n f a l l s w i t h i n t h e box, t h e n t h e f i l t e r f u n c t i o n i.s z e r o a n d
t h e raw a n d f i l t e r e d p o s i t i o n s a r e i d e n t i c a l . P r o v i d i n g ramp a n d s t e p e r r o r s a r e c o r r e c t e d
q u i c k l y enough, t h i s p r o c e s s w i l l a l w a y s e n s u r e t h a t t h e b o x i s p o s i t i o n e d i n s u c h a way
t h a t t h e sum o f t h e s q u a r e o f t h e f i l t e r f u n c t i o n i s a minimum, h e n c e t h e p r o c e s s w i l l
a l w a y s d e t e c t t h e mean o f t h e o b s e r v e d r a d i o i n p u t s .

The p r e d i c t i o n v e c t o r i t s e l f i s f o r m e d f r o m t h e raw i n f o r m a t i o n b y p r o c e s s e s w h i c h
r e d u c e t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e i n p u t s i g n a l b y a f a c t o r o f 0.0025. i.e.

This i s achieved by t h e use o f a s s i s t e d recurrence r e l a t i o n s .

The r e s p o n s e o f t h e p r o c e s s t o a u n i t s t e p , i s s u c h t h a t o u t p u t i s w i t h i n 90% o f t h e
s t e p a f t e r 5 0 seconds. The r e s p o n s e t o a u n i t ramp i s s u c h t h a t t h e o u t p u t i s w i t h i n 1 0 %
o f t h e a c t u a l ramp v a l u e a f t e r 5 0 s e c o n d s . Thus. t h e p r o c e s s u s e d o n t h e p u r e n a v i g a t i o n
i n p u t , w o u l d c a l c u l a t e a c o r r e c t t r a c k v e c t o r , a n d h e n c e a p o s i t i o n w h i l s t t h e a i r c r a f t was
f l y i n g i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , b u t c o u l d be i n e r r o r f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e a f t e r a turn.
The a c t u a l t i m e d u r a t i o n o f t h e e r r o r w o u l d d e p e n d o n t h e amount o f t h e h e a d i n g c h a n g e a n d
t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e b o x t o make up f o r some o f t h i s e r r o r w h i l s t t h e p r e d i c t i o n v e c t o r i s
s e t t l i n g down.

Ift h e v a r i a n c e r a t i o i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e response t i m e s reduce, though n o t proportion-

ately, f o r instance,

if

t h e n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s p o n s e t i m e s r e d u c e t o 28 s e c o n d s .

The v a r i a n c e r a t i o . h o w e v e r . h a s b e e n s e t s o as t o g i v e a p g s i t i o n f i x o f 0.35 N M 2
Sigma a t 5 0 m i l e s f r o m a VOR t h a t has a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 4 .
By way o f c o m p a r i s o n , a
v a r i a n c e r a t i o o f 0.0025 c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g a? R C p a s s i v e n e t w o r k w i t h a t i m e
c o n s t a n t o f 200 seconds. I t s r e s p o n s e t o u n i t s t e p , i n t h e same t e r m s a s above, i s 4 6 0
s e c o n d s . a n d i t n e v e r a t t a i n s t h e ramp.

E x a c t l y t h e same p r o c e s s e s a r e u s e d i n m i x i n g VOR/DME a n d D o p p l e r o r V O R / D M E a n d A i r
Data. I n t h i s c a s e t h e p r e d i c t i o n v e c t o r i s t h e sum o f t h e a i r d a t a o r i n e r t i a l l y d e r i v e d
p o s i t i o n i n c r e m e n t a n d t h e wind v e c t o r . The w i n d v e c t o r i s d e r i v e d b y a p p l y i n g t h e s e
f i l t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e VOR/DME i n c r e m e n t and t h e D o p p l e r o r a i r
data increment. C o m b i n e d i n t h i s way, t h e r e a r e n o p o s i t i o n d e l a y s d u e t o t u r n s o r
m a n o e u v r e s , a n d t h e ‘ b o x s i z e c a n now b e r e d u c e d s i n c e i t n e e d o n l y accommodate s h o r t
d u r a t i o n (i.e. l e s s t h a n 5 0 s e c s . ) w i n d changes, t h e l o n g t e r m o n e s b e i n g a u t o m a t i c a l l y
d e t e c t e d by t h e f i l t e r i n g process. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t a l s o y i e l d s t h e wind v e c t o r t h a t i s
u s e d t o compute b o t h g r o u n d speed and t r a c k e r r o r f o r t h e a u t o - p i l o t s t e e r i n g s i g n a l . It
i s t h i s l a t t e r process, as d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s
p a r a g r a p h t h a t was u s e d d u r i n g t h e e v a l u a t i o n .

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f f i l t e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o r a d i o i n f o r m a t i o n i s now v i r t u a l l y a
necessity rather than a luxury. If a i r w a y s s t r u c t u r e s i n v o l v i n g p a r a l l e d t r a c k f l y i n g a r e
g o i n g t o b e l a i d down o n t h e b a s i s o f f i l t e r e d VOR/DME s i g n a l s . t h e t i m e d e p e n d e n t e f f e c t s
o f t h e f i l t e r must b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t when c a l c u l a t i n g s e p a r a t i o n s . The f i l t e r i t s e l f
m i g h t r e d u c e t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e r a d i o s i g n a l t o a l e v e l w h i c h makes i t p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e
a r o u t e s t r u c t u r e . but n o t a l l o f t h i s a d v a n t a g e can be used. The t i m e d e p e n d e n t e f f e c t s
o f t h e f i l t e r i t s e l f , ( a n d w i t h some t e c h n i q u e s t h e s e e f f e c t s c a n b e c y c l i c ) i n t r o d u c e a n
u n c e r t a i n t y , a l b e i t s m a l l , w h i c h i s a k i n t o a b o u n d e d d r i f t e r r o r o n an i n c r e m e n t a l s y s t e m .
T h e s e e f f e c t s a r e r a t h e r more c o n t r o l l a b l e t h a n t h o s e t h a t o b t a i n w i t h t h e p u r e i n c r e m e n t a l
systems, but n e v e r t h e l e s s m i g h t need t o be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

The a c h i e v e d g l i d e s l o p e i s c o m p u t e d f r o m t h e g r o u n d s p e e d v e c t o r d e r i v e d e i t h e r f r o m
f i l t e r e d R a d i o i n f o r m a t i o n and r a t e o f a s c e n t o r d e s c e n t d e r i - v e d f r o m s u c c e s s i v e
differences o f t h e barometric altimeter. Thus a l t i m e t e r e r r o r s a f f e c t t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e
displayed information. The m a i n s o u r c e s o f a l t i m e t e r a b s o l u t e e r r o r a r e d u e t o :
 5-3

M i s s e t t i n g t h e QFE
Non s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r e
Calibration
S t a t i c pressure error.
The m a i n s o u r c e s o f e r r o r i n t h e r a t e o f c h a n g e o f t h e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r a r e :
S t a t i c pressure e r r o r (position e r r o r ) i f the
a i r c r a f t changes a t t i t u d e o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n
d u r i n g descent.
H y s t e r e s i s i n t h e capsule.
O f t h e s e , t h e t w o most s e r i o u s a r e d u e t o p o s i t i v e e r r o r a n d c a l i b r a t i o n . The RMS v a l u e s
o f t h e random e r r o r s i s 7 0 f t . T h i s t a k e s a c c o u n t o f e r r o r s i n t h e Q F E when i t i s as,sumed
t o have been s e t c o r r e c t l y , but does n o t i n c l u d e a c t u a l m i s s e t t i n g . ( s e e Ref. l a n d 2).
I n v i e w o f t h i s , i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o u s e b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t r y i n an a p p r o a c h g u i d a n c e
s y s t e m down t o 2 0 0 f t . T h i s means t h a t s u c h a f a c i l i t y m i g h t p r o v e t o b e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e
b e n e f i t i n m a i n t a i n i n g r e g u l a r i t y a t d e s t i n a t i o n s w i t h no ILS i n s t a l l a t i o n

An i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e way a l t i m e t e r e r r o r s v a r y i s shown i n f i g u r e 11. These c u r v e s

show t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n an I D C e n c o d i n g a l t i m e t e r , g i v i n g b a r o m e t r i c a t i t u d e , a n d t h e
a c t u a l a i r c r a f t a l t i t u d e as g i v e n b y a T e r m i n a l A r e a I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n R a d a r F a c i t i t y ( T A I R ) .
The a c c u r a c y o f t h e TAIR f a c i l i t y was *
1.6 m i l e s p e r n a u t i c a l m i l e , w h i c h f o r t h i s
e x p e r i m e n t amounted t o * 3 ft.

--------------
IMPLEMENTATION

A s y s t e m i e c o r p o r a t i n g a t 1 t h e s e f e a t u r e s was f l i g h t t e s t e d a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d o n a
Breguet 941 (M Donnett - D o u g l a s 188). T e s t and d e m o n s t r a t i o n programmes were c a r r i e d
o u t by E a s t e r n A i r l i n e s and American A i r l i n e s .

..................................
B R I E F DESCRIPTION O F THE EQUIPMENT

Two c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t D e c c a O m n i t r a c s y s t e m s w e r e i n s t a l l e d o n t h e MDC-188. Each

system consisted o f t h e following:
( a ) O m n i t r a c T y p e 2A D i g i t a l C o m p u t e r
( b ) P i c t o r i a l D i s p l a y Type 9 6 6
( c ) C o n t r o l Box T y p e 914A ( F i g u r e 3 )
( d ) C o n t r o l Box T y p e 917A ( F i g u r e 4 )
(e) D i g i t a l Display U n i t (Figure 5)
( f ) VOR-DME d i g i t i z e r T y p e 9 7 5
A d d i t i o n a l l y , a H A R C O MK-16 R e c e i v e r a n d a Decca ADL-21 L o r a n C / A R e c e i v e r w e r e i n s t a l l e d .
The O m n i t r a c c o m p u t e r was p r o g r a m m e d t o c o n v e r t i n t o X a n d Y c o - o r d i n a t e s , the outputs o f
t h e f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c sensors:
VOR-DME -VOR r e c e i v e r b e a r i n g and d i s t a n c e o u t p u t s a l o n g w i t h f l a g w a r n i n g s
were s u p p l i e d t o t h e d i g i t i z e r which c o n v e r t e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o d i g i t a l
f o r m and f e d i t t o t h e computer. Geographic i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o n i n e
VORTAC p o s i t i o n s u e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m e a c h c h a r t s e c t i o n . These u e r e numbered
arbitrarily. A s w i t c h o n t h e 914A c o n t r o l l e r i n f o r m e d t h e c o m p u t e r t o w h i c h
o f t h e n i n e s t a t i o n s t h e b e a r i n g and d i s t a n c e were r e l a t e d and t h e computer
then calculated a i r c r a f t position.

H y p e r b o l i c Systems
(1) HARCO - T h i s i s a medium r a n g e d h y p e r b o l i c n a v i g a t i o n a i d c o v e r i n g t h e
New Y o r k a r e a . A chart section o f the p i c t o r i a l display supplies information
t o t h e computer p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e HARCO c h a i n t o be used, i n c l u d i n g s t a t i o n
p o s i t i o n and frequency. The c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l s t h e M A R K 1 6 H A R C O r e c e i v e r a n d
provides automatic frequency selection. The h y p e r b o l i c c o - o r d i n a t e s a r e
c o n v e r t e d i n t o X and Y co-ordinates.

(2) Loran C - U n l i k e t h e HARCO r e c e i v e r w h i c h i s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e computer, t h e

A D L - ~ L~o r a n r e c e i v e r i s o p e r a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . Once t u n e d , i t s o u t p u t c a n b e
f e d t o t h e computer w h e r e i n i t i s c o n v e r t e d i n t o X and Y c o - o r d i n a t e s .

Dead R e c k o n i n g (Memory Mode)

A t r u e a i r s p e e d f a c t o r a n d compass h e a d i n g a r e u s e d t o f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s a i r p l o t .
The p o s i t i o n s g i v e n b y t h e s e l e c t e d s e n s o r a n d t h e a i r p l o t , a r e u t i l i z e d t o d e r i v e a wind
factor. I f t h e s e n s o r s i g n a l i s l o s t , t h e computer c o n t i n u e s i t s n o r m a l o u t p u t s u s i n g
a i r s p e e d , compass h e a d i n g a n d t h e w i n d v e c t o r . I n calculating time t o a point, these
f a c t o r s a r e used. The s y s t e m b l o c k d i a g r a m i s s h o u n i n f i g u r e 6, a n d i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y .

The c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e was a s t a n d a r d o m n i t r a c n a v i g a t i o n s y s t e m programme, b u t i t

i n c l u d e d a m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n o f a u t o - p i l o t and F l i g h t D i r e c t o r c o m p u t a t i o n s . For the
p u r p o s e o f t h e t r i a l , t h e A R I N C d e f i n e d s h e e r i n g s i g n a l was a p p l i e d t o t h e AUX N A V I n p u t
t o t h e a u t o p i l o t a n d command p o r t i o n o f t h e F l i g h t D i r e c t o r . This signal applied a t these
i n p u t s e s s e n t i a l l y r e q u i r e s t h e absence o f h i g h f r e q u e n c y n o i s e components.

The A u t o p i l o t S t e e r i n g S i g n a l
T h i s was a n A.C. p h a s e r e v e r s i n g a n a l o g u e o f r o l l command. The f u l l s c a l e d e f l e c t i o n
was 7.5 v o l t s a t 3 0 0 m i l l i v o t s p e r d e g r e e . The s c a l i n g was a d j u s t a b l e .
5-4

The c o m p u t e d s i g n a l i s as f o l l o w s : -

= 0.298186 S -0.0033778 V
where i s bank o u t p u t i n r a d i a n s
S i s cross-track distance i n nautical miles
V i s a i r c r a f t g'round speed i n k n o t s
i s t r a c k e r r o r i n radians.
The c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e l i m i t s t h e v a l u e o f t o a maximum, a n d a l s o e n s u r e s t h a t t h e
maxi mum, ' i s n o t exceeded. The c a l c u l a t i o n i s s o a r r a n g e d , t h a t a t l a r g e d i s t a n c e s
f r o m t r a c k i.e. distances such t h a t

t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l approach t r a c k a t a p r e s e t angle
(usual l y approach ,= 4 5 ' )
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g wind,
S i n c e t h e e x p r e s s i o n uses g r o u n d speed and t r a c k e r r o r , t h e r e i s a l s o p r o v , i s i o n i n t h e
computer programme f o r w i n d c o m p u t a t i o n . T r a c k c h a n g i n g was a u t o m a t i c . The a n t i c i p a t i o n
r e q u i r e d i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r optimum t r a c k a c q u i s i t i o n . A t t h i s anticipation point, the
c o m p u t e r b a n k s t h e a i r c r a f t s o as t o a c q u i r e t h e new t r a c k , t h u s t h e a c t u a l w a y p o i n t t h a t
d e f i n e s t h e end o f t h e c u r r e n t t r a c k and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n e x t i s n o t o v e r f l o w n . TO
do s o w o u l d l e a d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r s h o o t i n h i g h s p e e d a i r c r a f t . The a n ' t i c i p a t i b n p o i n t
i s c o m p u t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t g r o u n d speed, t h e t i m e c o n s t a n t o f t h e a i l e r o n
LOOP,
t i mit
---------
ma x
a n d t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e o l d a n d new l e g . T h i s o u t p u t can a l s o c o n n e c t d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e
command p o s i t i o n o f a f l i g h t d i r e c t o r o r a z e r o r e a d e r .

I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d a c c u r a c y and s e n s i t i v i t i e s f o r t h e d i s p l a y s and t o
e l i m i n a t e t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y n o i s e components t h a t a r e n o r m a l l y p r e s e n t i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
o f t h e c r o s s - t r a c k d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e r a d i o i n f o r m a t i o n , b o t h F i L t e r i n g and M i x i n g t e c h n i q u e s
w e r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e programme. The m i x e d s y s t e m c o n s i s t e d o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f D o p p l e r a n d
VOR/DME. The E a s t e r n A i r l i n e s E v a l u a t i o n d i d n o t u s e t h i s f a c i l i t y , b u t t h e same A i r c r a f t
was s u b s e q u e n t l y o p e r a t e d b y A m e r i c a n A i r l i n e s a n d i t was i n c l u d e d i n t h a t e v a l u a t i o n .

Figures 7 t o 15 i l l u s t r a t e d the f l i g h t t e s t results. F i g s . 7 a n d 8 show t h e c o m p a r i s o n

b e t w e e n t h e O m n i t r a c c o m p u t e r s a n d t h e TAIR datum. They a l s o show t h e p i l o t s a b i l i t y t o
m a i n t a i n p r e d e f i n e d t r a c k u s i n g s o l e y t h e command p o r t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t o r . In
f i g u r e 7 , t h e way p o i n t s d e f i n i n g t h e c o r n e r s o f t h e p r e d e t e r m i n e d t r a c k , w e r e d e l i b e r a t e l y
o v e r f l o w n , t h e r e s u l t a n t i n s t a b i l i t y i n m a i n t a i n i n g t r a c k i s c l e a r l y shown. F i g u r e 8 shows
t h e improvement i n t r a c k k e e p i n g r e s u l t i n g f r o m f a m i l i a r i s a t i o n , and changing heading a t
t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n p o i n t d e t e r m i n e d by t h e computer. I n n e i t h e r c a s e was t h e a u t o p i l o t u s e d .
F i g s . 9 a n d 10 show t h e same t h i n g i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e . A t 0.4 n a u t i c a l miles f r o m t h e
TAIR s i t e , t h e a i r c r a f t b r o k e o f f t h e a p p r o a c h . F i g u r e 1 1 shows p u r e a l t i m e t e r e r r o r s
w i t h a c o r r e c t s e t t i n g o f t h e QFE. F i g s . 1 2 a n d 13 a r e t a b u l a t i o n s o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d
v e r t i c a l deviations. F i g s . 1 4 a n d 1 5 show t h e e r r o r s a b o v e a n d b e l o w t h e g l i d e s l o p e .
These e r r o r s i n c l u d e a l t i m e t e r e r r o r s , c o m p u t a t i o n e r r o r s , s y s t e m d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n e r r o r s ,
and d i s p l a y e r r o r s . I n a l l t h e s e c a s e s , t h e a c t u a l a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n was m e a s u r e d b y t h e
TAIR f a c i l i t y . F i g . 1 4 shows t h e e f f e c t o f c o m b i n i n g B a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t r y w i t h a V O R / D M E
a n d A i r D a t a M i x , w h i l e f i g u r e 1 5 shows t h e i m p r o v e m e n t t h a t c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g
Doppler i n place o f Airspeed f o r t h e Mix. A v e r y much g r e a t e r i m p r o v e m e n t c o u l d b e
o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g an i n e r t i a l h e a d i n g r e f e r e n c e i n . t h e Mix.

The a d v e n t o f c o m p u t e r a s s i s t e d n a v i g a t i o n s y s t e m s w i t h p r e c i s e k n o w l e d g e o f a i r c r a f t
p o s i t i o n i n r a n g e a n d a z i m u t h r e l a t i v e t o a n y s e l e c t e d p o i n t o p e n s new p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n
d e f i n i n g t h e g l i d e slope obtained.

The same c o m p u t e r t h a t g i v e s t h e f a c i l i t y f o r a c c u r a t e n a v i g a t i o n can a l s o be u s e d t o

r e f i n e t h e p r e s s u r e h e i g h t i n f o r m a t i o n a n d s o r e m o v e most o f t h e e r r o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o n -
vent i o n a l pressure altimetry. I

Computer programming s h o u l d be a b l e t o take care o f t h e s t a t i c pressure e r r o r s provided

a n g l e o f a t t a c k and a i r c r a f t c o n f i g u r a t i o n were f e d i n . Some o f t h e h y s t e r e s i s e r r o r c o u l d
a l s o b e r e m o v e d i f t h e c o m p u t e r h a d memory f o r t h e t i m e t h e a i r c r a f t had been a t v a r i o u s
h e i g h t s a n d t h e r a t e o f change. However, e r r o r s due t o t h i s cause a r e s m a l l .

A check o f t h e p r e s s u r e h e i g h t by a s i n g l e r a d i o a l t i m e t e r r e a d i n g a t a p l a c e w i t h a
known s p o t h e i g h t w i t h i n t w o m i n u t e s o f t o u c h d o w n c o u l d t a k e o u t some o f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n
e r r o r , t h e g r o u n d p r e s s u r e s e t t i n g e r r o r and t h e c a p s u l e e r r o r . ' I t would a l s o reduce
e r r o r s due t o f a u l t y g r o u n d p r e s s u r e i n f o r m a t i o n . By i n c o r p o r a t i n g r o u t i n e s i n t h e
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e t o p e r f o r m t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e f i n a l R.M.S. e r r o r v a l u e might be as
l o w as 1 0 f t . - c e r t a i n l y 3 0 f t . w o u l d seem o b t a i n a b l e w i t h o n l y t h e u s e o f a n g l e a t t a c k
 5-5

information. c o u p l e d u i t h a s p o t check by r a d i o a l t i m e t r y .

N a v i g a t i o n a l a c c u r a c y i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n a c o u l d be a c h i e v e d by m i x i n g i n e r t i a l l y
derived v e l o c i t i e s u i t h radio information. Thus i t appears p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e g l i d e
s l o p e i n f o r m a t i o n b o t h f o r human and a u t o p i l o t s . o f b e t t e r a c c u r a c y and i n t e g r i t y t h a n
t h a t g i v e n by any of t h e c u r r e n t I.L.S. systems. Furthermore. such i n f o r m a t i o n u o u l d be
In b e t t e r form f o r a c c u r a t e c o n t r o l of t h e f l i g h t path.

--_____-________
ACKNOULEOGEMENTS

I w o u l d l i k e t o r e c o r d my a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e h e l p g i v e n me by M r . A.E. C o r n f o r d , a
I M a s t e r N a v i g a t o r on t h e s t a f f o f Decca, who uas r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l t r a i n i n g
o f t h e c r e u s and t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t r i a l s r e s u l t s , and w i t h o u t whose c o n t l n u e d e n e r g y
and enthusiasm, t h e t r i a l s u o u l d n o t have been as i n f o r m a t i v e n o r as s u c c e s s f u l as t h e y
uere.

1. Analysis o f Pressure A l t i m e t e r e r r o r s d u r i n g
approaches by s h o r t - h a u l j e t a i r c r a f t
by D.J.M. W i l l i a m s and L.I.C. Davies
B.O.T. O.R. N o t e NO. 252 -
November 1968.

2. Use o f Ground Atnwsphere P r e s s u r e as 8 H e i g h t

r e f e r e n c e f o r p r e c i s i o n a p p r o a c h and l a n d i n g
OeCCa Tech. N o t e - H.P. Ruffel-smith

3. E.A.L. STOL p r o j e c t R e p o r t by A.E. Cornford

4. P r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t on t h e Use o f o m n i t r a c i n a
D C - 9 A i r c r a f t o p e r a t e d by E.A.L.
O r . H.P. Ruffel-Smith

5. American A i r l i n e s STOL E v a l u a t i o n .
Fig.2 T r i p g u l d a n c e and c o n t r o l
 5-1

PUSH VO?.pdE CHECK and D.R. MODE

BUTlONS SWIlCH BUTTON
\ .
I I SENSOR
SELECTOR

Flg.3 Control box t y p e 914P

PANEL RED
LIGHT WARNING

LIGHT RHEOSTAT SELECTOR

Flg.4 C o n t r o l box t y p e 91lA

 Fig.5 Digital display unit

CONTROL DIGITAL
UNIT DISPLAY

3MNIlR4C
COMFUlER
I
SYSTEM I
BAR 1
LORAN "c" I
I
I

SYSTEM

COMPASS HEADING

T X FACTOR
I Fig.6 hnnitrac sensor d a t a f l o w diagram
 5-9

Fig.7 25 A p r i i 1969. Run I.. Omnitrac g u i d a n c e

5-10

Fig.8 14 May 1969. Run I. O m n i t r a c guidance

 5-1 I

j Flgs.9 and 10 RI8.Oakbrook. Omnitrac VOR/OOP made. Run 4. I3 May 1969.

Fig.11 IDC Altimeter errors
 I
DEVIATION NA?VRC - ATLANTIC CITY VOBTAC
PBST
VOB/tUE MODE VOkl/DOP YUDE
No. 03 SAKPLES P N o . OF SllltpLES I ~
P
~ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~
-
~ ~

0 120 190 47.00 171 67.57

121 - 240 1 76 18.60 76 26.25

241 - 360 68 14.40 28 8.75

361 - 480 30 7.43 13 4.38

-
481 - 600 8 1.98 7 2.38

601 ' - 720 16 I S.76 2 0.07

721 - 840 15 S.76

841 - 960 6 1.26

1.73

1. APPBOACBILS TO m s k A Y S 18 - 22 AND 3 i .
Fig.12 Omnitrac system

=TICAL DEVIATION OF OWITRAC GLIDE SLOPK PBOM WU DATUM

A

I NAFEC - ATLANTIC CITY VOBTAC

t V@B/D/ouE YODE VOB/WP MODE 1

~_______
No. OF SAUPLES I $ e. or SiwPLes
I
-
~

0 26 114 30.60
~
168 I
52.10

28 - SO 107 28.80 77 24.15

I 51 - 76 68 I 16.90 38 12.45

-
~~

76

101

126
-
-<
100

126
48

24

18
12 .Bo

6.40

4.80
20

B
2.72 I

Y1B

1. APPROACES TO EUNlAYS 13 -
22 AND 31.
F i g . 13 Omnitrac system
_____

5-1 4

Fig.14 TAIR distance t o touchdown - N.M.'S

Fig.15 TAIR distance t o touchdown - N.M.'9

 6

!&e Use of Inertial Information to Improve Automtic

Us Approach Performance
B. E. Hughes &A.
Blind Landing Experimental Unit
Royal Alrcraft Establishment, Bedford
Paper to be presented to the ninth meeting of the
AGARD Guidance and Contml Panel, 22-26 September, 1969
 summary
In t h i s paper, the ldnds of noise and interference which can occur on the ILS l o c a l i z e r signal reoeived
in an aircraft approach- to land axe reviewed. The problems of designing an approaoh coupler which is
insensitive to l o c a l i z e r noise and interference are described. C r i t e r i a f o r an acceptable design of coupler
axe defined and i t is shown t h a t these c r i t e r i a can be met if information from a hi& quality inertial navi-
gation system is used t o complement the ILS l o c a l i z e r deviation signal. Results are shown of f l i g h t evalua-
tion of an ILS-inertial system with and without interference on the l o c a l i z e r s i g d . . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
improviq the system design through the use of optimum filtering teohniques are b r i e f l y discussed.
 6-1

1. INTRODUCTION

The internationally accepted radio aid f o r defining the desired track to an instnunent m w s y is the
ILS localizer. The course l i n e of t h i s V" radio aid can be distorted or bent by reflections f r o m fixed
and objects on o r around the s i t e and within the transmitter radiation pattern. To enable satis-
faotory automatic landings t o be performed on the ILS localizer with .& ' e present generation of autopilot
approach coyplers, i t i s necessary f o r the localizer bends to be small, and stringent bend amplitude require-
ments are l a i d down by ICAO f o r the Category 11 and 111 l o c d i z e r s intended f o r low v i s i b i l i t y and 'blind'
landing. Problems are arising however, because of the d i f f i c u l Q of adjusting and mslntaining localizer
bends to within these requirements on real c i v i l a i r f i e l d s i t e s where each new building which i s erected
adds a contribution to the bend structure of the beam. A typical actual bend structure i s shown in Figure 1.
Furthemore, a localizer beam, even if i t i s acceptable on the day it i s calibrated, can suffer inter-
mittent severe degradation from reflections from moving cbjecta, such as a i r c r a f t txxqdng in f r o n t of or
-off over the localizer, and from external radio interference. Examples of interference received in
a landing a i r c r a f t caused by aircraft taking-off axe shown i n Figwe 2. Such interferences can cause the
autopilot to generate a i r c r a f t lateral displacements of 100 f e e t (30 metres) from the centre l i n e and also
produce large bank angles and tracking velocities.

The interferences from moving objects can be eliminated by careful Air Traffic Control, particular*
with regard to spacing between incoming and taking-off aircraft. It i s not y e t known how serious the OCCUP
rence of spurious radio interference w i l l be i n a r e a l environment, but i f i t i s significant it should be
detectable by ILS monitoring. Therefore i t i s generally accepted that the ILS localizer can be used f o r bad
v i s i b i l i t y landings i n Category I I I A , subject to a r e s t r i c t e d availability and movement rate.

There is, however, a strong desire to make automatic landing the normal means of operating the a i r c r a f t ,
and the present and projected clear weather movement rates make it impossible to guarantee the required land-
ing/take-off sepaxation to reduce interference to acceptable proportions without introducing unacceptable
delays. It i s also desirable t h a t the automatic s y s t e m should be operable, a t least i n clear weather, on
sites which do not meet the bend amplitude requirements of ICAO Category I1 o r 111.
The key to enabling automatic landing systems to be used more regularly and widely l i e s either i n making
them tolerate more noise on the radio guidance si& o r replacing the ILS localizer with a new guidance a i d
which i s l e s s vulnerable to interference. Discussions are already taking place on replacements f o r ILS but
i t w i l l be some years before any replacement can be widely available and i t i s therefore worth considering
w h a t can be done to improve automatic landing performance on the localizer. This i s particularly relevant
since r e l i a b l e I n e r t i a l Navigation Systems (INS) are now being f i t t e d to a i r l i n e long range aircraft and the
existence of these systems provides an independent means of measuring the a i r c r a f t ' s 'velocity and position
with different e r r o r characteristics to the ILS. There i s therefore the possibility o f combining information
from these sensors i n such a way t h a t b e t t e r performance can be obtained. To put t h i s problem i n perspective,
we w i l l f i r s t discuss the limitations of existing autopilot couplers in the presence of noisy guidance.

2. THE RESPONSE OF PRESENT-DAY AUTOPILOTS TO GUIDANCE NOISE

I n order to obtain stable l a t e r a l f l i g h t path control of an a i r c r a f t i t i s necessasy to provide a bank

angle command which contains terms proportional to both displacement and rate of change of displacement of
the a i r c r a f t from the centre line. The first generation of approach couplers generated a bank command pro-
portional to ILS localizer deviation plus heading, the heading t e r m giving the velocity informaticn required
f o r s t a b i l i t y . This control l a w avoided any peaks i n the response of the bank command to localizer noise,
but, unfortunately, i n a crosswind or lateral wind shear and turbulence, the headin@; term i s no l c w r equal
t o crosstrack velocity and performance becomes unacceptable. To overcome this problem, more recent approach
couplers obtained the velocity t e r m by differentiating the localizer displacement signal (the ' beam rate'
system). Inevitably t h i s makes the approach coupler more sensitive to high frequency localizer noise and
even when the signal has been smoothed as far as possible within the requirements f o r closed-loop s t a b i l i t y ,
the bank command is very sensitive to noise in the frequency range around 1 radian per second (0.16&) as
shown i n Figure 3 . The roll r a t e command l i m i t ma^ be saturated by low levels of noise at frequencies above
about 1 radian per second (0.16Hz).
Alternative approaches to the problem have been developed in the so-called 'Integral Bank' or 'Lagged
Roll' couplers i n which the cross-track velocity i s approximated by integrating the r o l l angle cutput of a
v e r t i c a l gyro. In the absence of sideslip or gyro errors, f o r s m a l l bank angles this would be an accurate
i n e r t i d measureinent of crosstrack velocity. However, problems with offsets and d r i f t s on conventional
v e r t i c a l gyros used s o far means that pure integration cannot be carried out and i t is only possible t o
obtain the velocity information at high frequencies, and then only approximately. Because the hi& frequency
velooity information i s derived from the vertical gyro, the amount of velocity information required from the
ILS localizer can be reduced, but as shown in Figure 3, the improvements obtained i n comparison with the beam
r a t e system are slight.

3. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF AN INERTIAI, APPROACH COUPLER

It w a s apparent from a study of the characteristics of all existing automatic landing localizer couplers
t h a t w h i l e some of them might be able to tolerate high frequency beam bends s l i g h t l y outside the Category II/
I11 amplitude specification, ncne would be able to survive interferences of the type i l l u s t r a t e d i n R'igure 2
which contain large amounts of energy around 1 radian per second (0.16Hz) and below. The purpose cf the study
described here w a s to see if by using information f r o m a navigational quality i n e r t i a l p l a t f o r m i t would be
possible t o obtain sufficient noise f i l t e r i n g i n the approach coupler t o enable severe interferences to be
sunrived. It wm considered that a useful improvement i n noise rejection would only be obtained i f the trans-
f e r function from bank command to localizer deviation could be designed to approximate t o a 1% with a time
constant of at l e a s t 10 seconds.
6-2

The above considerations e s s e n t i a l l y define the required frequency response to the l o c a l i z e r input,
but f o r the system to be useful i t muet have an acceptable transient response t o i n i t i a l e r r o r s as well.
Whether the i n e r t i a l navigator has been updated by radio aids such as VOR/BE or not, it i s l i k e l y t o have
b u i l t up displacement and velocity errors which a r e large in comparison with the required touchdown accu-
racy of the overall landing s y s t e m , s o the approach coupler must be able t o accept laxge initial i n e r t i a l
system errors. It w a s assumed f o r t h i s study t h a t the i n i t i a l capture of the l o c a l i z e r would be made with
a conventional capture control law before switching to the ILS-inertial f i n a l approach coupler. Since
capture may not be complete at the point where the change i s made to ILS-inertial control, because of cross-
wind or ATC requiring capture a t s h o r t range, i t is necessary f o r the ILS-inertial coupler t o be able t o
accept a large i n i t i a l l o c a l i z e r deviation.

To be useful in the a i r l i n e environment, it i s necessary t h a t the duration of the f i n a l approach should

be reasonably short. A design aim of 2 minutes o r l e s s was s e t f o r this study, corresponding t o an approach
s t a r t i n g at a distance of about 5 nautical miles f r o m threshold. Experience w i t h A l l Weather Landing Systems
suggests t h a t f o r acceptance by the p i l o t s , the system should be e s s e n t i a l l y s e t t l e d on the l o c a l i z e r beam
centre l i n e before the a i r c r a f t reaches a height of 500 f e e t , implying a s e t t l i n g time f o r initial e r r o r s
in the region of 80 seconds. If the system transient response i s to s e t t l e i n 80 seconds i t i s apparent
that the closed-loop response should not contain tima constants g r e a t e r than about 40 seconds.

It i s e s s e n t i a l that the overall touchdown performance including the e f f e c t s of beam noise, turbulence,
wind shear, gain tolerances etc. should be up t o the s t r i n g e n t standards f o r automatic landing, t h a t i s a
standard deviation of b e t t e r than 14 f e e t lateral displacement and 2ft/sec lateral velocity at touchdown.
It is considered t h a t a design aim f o r an automatic landing system should be to minimize the number of selec-
tions the p i l o t has to make before the system w i l l work properly. It i s therefore f e l t t h a t i t i s undesir-
able t h a t the p i l o t should have t o s e l e c t o r dial up information about the p a r t i c u l a r site and runway a t
which he i s landing. This i s regarded as true f o r any simple ILS-inertial system which might be added t o
present a i r c r a f t . In the long t e r m , with s i g n i f i c a n t digital d a t a storage on board the aircraft i t may well
be possible t o relax this condition. The overall design requirements f o r the ILS-inertial system are sum-
marized i n Figure 4.

For the purposes of these studies, the quality of INS information available w a s assumed to correspond
to a platform tilt of 1 mad o r an acceleration e r r o r of lO-3g, about an order worse than current ARINC 561
INS. The reason f o r t h i s w a s t h a t a platform of the lower quality w a s r e a d i l y available f o r the f l i g h t
experiments. However, the r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed by using the lower q u a l i t y platform were carefully watched
during the study and the advantages of using a better platforn w i l l be discussed l a t e r .

4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ILS INERTIAL SYSTEM

A t the time the airborne i n s t a l l a t i o n w a s planned, analogue hardware w a s more f l e x i b l e and r e l i a b l e

than d i g i t a l . For t h i s reason and because BLEU already had the required expertise i t was decided that the
initial studies of an ILS-inertial system would be based on analogue techniques. It w a s also considered
t h a t i f a simple analogue system were feasible, there w a s more chance of such a system being implemented
in the range of aircraft currently being equipped with ARINC 561 INS. The possible advantages of more
sophisticated digital o p t M l y f i l t e r e d s y s t e m w i l l be discussed l a t e r . The form of system chosen w a s
one i n which ILS l o c a l i z e r deviation and i n e r t i a l crosstrack acceleration were f e d i n t o a complementery
f i l t e r (Figure 5). The outputs of the f i l t e r were crosstrack deviation and rate. The bank command w a s
formed by summing the complementary filter displacement and r a t e signals with the i n t e g r a l of l o c a l i z e r
deviation.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e r r o r pattern f o r the i n e r t i d platform used f o r these studies w a s a Schuler oscil-

l a t i o n (84 minute period) of about 10-3, amplitude with a drift of about 70-3g per hour. For the duration
of an approach, however, the platform can be assumed to have a fixed acceleration error. The platform
velocity e r r o r w i l l therefore be a ramp. I n order to avoid the complementary f i l t e r velocity output a l s o
containing a ramp, which would produce steady s t a t e o f f s e t s of the aircraft-autopilot system f r o m the beam
centre l i n e , i t w a s necessary to DC block the platform signals and, to meet the s e t t l i n g time requirement,
the DC block time constant w a s s e t to 30 seconds. The need f o r the DC block on the platform signd compli-
cates the design of the f i l t e r and to avoid generating l i g h t l y damped very low frequency modes of o s c i l l a t i o n
which would seriously degrade the system transient response, i t i s necessary t o shape the l o c a l i z e r deviation
signal a t low frequencies to compensate f o r the absence o f low frequency i n e r t i a l infornation.

The ILS l o c a l i z e r deviation signal i s a measurement of the angle o f o f f s e t of the a i r c r a f t from the
centre l i n e , with the l o c a l i z e r transmitter as an origin. The information f r o m the INS i s a measurement in
l i n e a r Cartesian axes. To avoid poor low frequency damping i t was found necessary to convert both deviation
measurements into the same axis system and f o r t h i s study i t w a s decided t o make a continuous correction t o
l o c a l i z e r deviation as a function of range from the transmitter t o convert l o c a l i z e r deviation i n t o f e e t .

The transfer function f r o m l o c a l i z e r input t o bank command f o r the ILS-inertial system i s shown i n
Figure 6 with the t r a n s f e r functions of the present generation couplers repeated f o r comparison. It can be
seen t h a t the achieved curve corresponds closely t o the desired c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and represents an improvement
of between 10 and 100 times i n noise rejection i n the frequency range above 1 r.adian per second (0.16h).

5. THE PERFORLlANCE OF THE SYSTEU

To enable the performance of the developed system to be measured i t w a s implenented with the Versatile
Autopilot system i n BLEU Comet I I I B W 915 (Figure 7). The Versatile Autopilot (Figure 8) consists of
interface equipment capable of convsrting the d i f f e r i n g types of out2ut from all sensors i n the a i r c r a f t
i n t o 210 Volts DC floating, and a 50 amplifier analogue computer which can process signals from the i n t e r -
face and drive standard autopilot servos attached to rudder, ailerons and elevatos.
 6-3

The analogue computer w a s programmed to form the fixed gain ILS-inertial complementary filter and bank
command control equation and delivered an amplitude and rate limited bank command output to the servo system.
It a l s o performed the resol- operation necessary to convert N-S and E-W acceleration f r o m the platform
i n t o crosstrack acceleration and performed the Dc blocked integration to give crosstrack velocity.

The computer w a s also progrenmed with an analogue model of the servo s y s t e m and drframe dynamics.
Switchhg w a s included t o enable the control equation p a r t of the computer to drive e i t h e r the d w servo
and aeroplane, f o r ground test, o r the real servo and aeroplane in f l i g h t .

figure 9 shows a ground test standard run i n which the system transient response t o an o f f s e t f r o m the
l o c a l i z e r i s examined. For comparison a f l i g h t run i s also shown and i t can be seen t h a t a @od dynamic
match i s obtained. It should be noticed that the s e t t l i n g time requirement of 80 seconde has been met.

The ' n o r a d ' performance of the system on a Cat I11 beam without interference i n a wide r w of wind
conditions i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i w e 10. In t h i s f i g u r e actual f l i g h t paths recorded by the Bedford
Enetheodolites axe superimposed. It can be seen t h a t the performance i s consistent and repeatable. The
s t a t i s t i c s of performance are summarized i n Table I.

The behaviour of the system under conditions of noisy guidance w a s examined both w i t h random noise
superimposed on the l o c a l i z e r signal to represent severe beam bends and with r e a l interference generated by
a takh+poff a i r c r a f t . The random noise w a s pre-recorded on magnetic tape from a noise generator and
replayed in f l i g h t . The noise replsyed w a s summed with the ILS l o c a l i z e r receiver output i n the aircraft.
The noise spectrum w a s obtained by passing random white noise through two 0.5 second l q s . This provides
peak noise power contribution i n the band 1-2 radians per second (0.16-0.32Hz) where l o c a l i z e r couplers
have been particularly sensitive i n the past.

Airborne records of the behaviour of the i n e r t i a l and the beam r a t e systems i n the presence of t h i s
type of noise are shown i n Figure 11. The l e v e l of noise i n the I L S A e r t i a l run is 12 microamps rms -
28 f e e t rms a t threshold, and f o r the beam rate run 7 microamps rms - 164 f e e t rms. The very considerable
reduction i n bank angle and control activity obtained with t h e i n e r t i a l s y s t e m , i n s p i t e of the increased
noise level, i s striking. I h e t h e o d o l i t e f l i g h t paths f o r the two runs axe given i n Figure 12. It i s
apparent t h a t considerably g r e a t e r bend amplitudes than those presently tolerable can be accepted by the
i n e r t i a l system.

Interference f r o m a i r c r a f t taking-off can have two basic forms as w a s shown on Figure 2. Both forns
cause serious trouble w i t h conventional couplers. The first type, appearing as a large amplitude frequency
swept sine wave with only a moderate very low frequency component occurs when the landing aircraft i s on
the approach above about 200 f e e t and therefore i n a region of f a i r l y hi& l o c a l i z e r simal strength. As
the landing a i r c r a f t decends i t encounters lower and lower d i r e c t signal strength and strong i n d i r e c t
i n t e r f e r i n g signals may swamp the receiver. This generates the second type of interference which appears
as a hardover deviation w i t h a slow o s c i l l a t o r y start.
The behaviour of the i n e r t i a l system i n the presence of the o s c i l l a t o r y type of interference i s shown
i n f i g u r e 13 and i t can be seen that i t s e f f e c t i s very d i g h t .

Even the i n e r t i a l system in i t s purely l i n e a r form does not provide s u f f i c i e n t interference r e j e c t i o n

to ignore the hardover type of interference. I n simple terms, we axe asking the system to f i n d and hold
the long t e r m l o c a l i z e r centre l i n e to an accuracy of a few f e e t , but a t the same time to be prepared to
ignore an interference of 350 f e e t amplitude lmting f o r 5-10 seconds. During the course of the s t u d y
however, a non-linear adaptation of the l i n e a r f i l t e r e d s y s t e m w a s devised and with this modification the
performance i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 14 waa obtained. Table I1 summarizes the performance obtained in 18
actual interference runs with the f i n a l s y s t e m i n which interferences w e r e timed to o c c u at heights between
100 and 400 f e e t .

The overall noise rejection characteristics seem very promising and it c e r t a i n l y appears that very real
improvements in performance can be obtained. However, before any system can be seriously offered to the
a i r l i n e s , i t m u s t be proved t h a t i t w i l l work on a wide range of actual ILS beams. The important f a c t o r
w i t h the i n e r t i a l system w e have considered i s the need to convert ILS deviation i n t o f e e t , with the atten-
dant requirement of knowing both range from l o c a l i z e r and the l o c a l i z e r angular s e n s i t i v i t y . Tolerance
studies on the system have shown t h a t errors i n the s e n s i t i v i t y correction greater than plus o r minus 2%
cause significant degradation of the system response to initial l o c a l i z e r deviation errors. For the purposes
d *e experiments, range f r o m l o c a l i z e r w a s estimated by measrrring a i r c r a f t height on the glidepath, from
a barometric altimeter, and calculating range f r o m g l i d e path origin through knowledge of glide path angle.
The distance from l o c a l i z e r to g l i d e path origin w a s added to give an estimate of range from localizer.
Angular s e n s i t i v i t y of an ICAO Cat I1 o r I11 l o c a l i z e r i s primarily a function of runway length, since
the localizers are adjusted t o provide a given displacement s e n s i t i v i t y in microamps per foot at m s y
threshold. A t long range the displacement s e n s i t i v i t y in microamps per f o o t of such localizers w i l l tend
t o be proportional to the runway length of the s i t e i n question. It i s apparent t h a t site to s i t e variation
i n l o c a l i z e r beam angular s e n s i t i v i t y alone, corresponding t o runway lengths between 6000 and 12000 f e e t ,
w i l l cause errors in s e n s i t i v i t y correction much greater t h a n those tolerable by the system we have studied.
'Jhen uncertainties i n range measurement axe added, whether from i n e r t i a l , barometric o r redio sources, i t
i s apparent t h a t the system i s unacceptable.
Detailed analysis of the system was undertaken to see whether the s e n s i t i v i t y to gain V a r i a t i O M could
be reduced and i t w a s found t h a t f o r the type of fixed time constant complementary f i l t e r system studied,
e i t h e r the platform signal M: block time constant would have t o be increased very significantly, with the
attendant penalty on system s e t t l i n g time, o r the ILS f i l t e r i n g time constants would have to be reduced,
which i s equally unacceptable. However, i f the i n e r t i a l acceleration information were available to an
6-4

accuracy of 10-4g r a t h e r than i t would be possible t o dispense with the DC block e n t i r e l y and the
system would probably then become s u f f i c i e n t l y t o l e r a n t of ILS s e n s i t i v i t y variation to become a p r a c t i c a l
proposition. Current INS to ARINC 561 standard appear t o be achieving accuracies of the order of lO-4g i n
senrice. Although an acceleration output i s n o t available from the AElINC 561 system, the velocity signcil
which i s available in the guise of track -le e r r o r i s believed t o have been used successfully by other
workers f o r ILS-inertial mixing.

6. DISCUSSION

The design of the ILS-inertial system we have described w a s r e s t r i c t e d t o consideration of a fixed

t i m e constant analogue complementay f i l t e r scheme. The design was f u r t h e r constrained by the need to
use the low accuracy i n e r t i a l platform vhich w a s available f o r f l i g h t t e s t .

W i t h a fixed time constant filter, even i f an extremely accurate i n e r t i a l sensor i s available, the
amount of l i n e a r f i l t e r i n g which can be achieved i s r e s t r i c t e d by the s e t t l i n g time requirement f o r the
system. Indeed i n the worsening Air Traffic Control environment f o r c l e a r weather operation there are
strong pressures to reduce the length of the approach r a t h e r than increase i t and t h i s tends t o discourage
the design of approach coyplers which take a long time t o s e t t l e down on the approach. Even when the ILS
f i l t e r time constants a r e increased t o the point where the s e t t l i n g time becomes a l i m i t i n g factor, i t i s
doubtful whether the purely l i n e a r time invariant f i l t e r i n g i s adequate t o cope with the hardover type of
ILS interference which appears i n the region of low signal strength a t the end of the approach, and sone
kind of non-lineax o r time varying f i l t e r i n g has t o be adopted. With long ILS f i l t e r t i n e constants a
f u r t h e r problem mq,r a r i s e . As the ILS f i l t e r i n g i s increased, the datum of the approach coupler i s set
by ILS information which i s obtained f u r t h e r and f u r t h e r back up the approach from touchdown. I n other
words, f o r defining dis2lacenent at touchdown we are using ILS information obtained well before touchdown.
The present ILS beam specifications are t i g h t e s t i n the runway threshold region and allow the beam t o
degrade at longer range. If we encountered a beam with very low frequency bends o r long term curvature a t
long range, as i s permitted by the specification, then a heavily f i l t e r e d ILS-inertial system could provide
poorer touchdown accuracy than a more conventional coupler i n conditions of zero interference. Although
such beems are l e g a l l y possible, i n p r a c t i s e the bends tend t o reduce with increasing range and in flying
the experimental BLmT ILS-inertisl system on a number of UK beams there w a s no evidence of long term beam
curvature being a problem. However, the UK beans do not seem to be the worst i n the world.

Recently, powerful techniques have been developed f o r optimum filtering, of which perhaps the Kalman
filter i s the b e s t known. ‘The implementation of a Kalman f i l t e r e d ILS-inertial system i s almost c e r t d n
t o require an on-board digital computer and while an analogue ILS-inertial system might be implemented in
the near future in a i r c r a f t now entering production, ;it w i l l be some years y e t before a digital system can
be implemented in a civil a i r c r a f t . However, ELFX and other organizations are currently examining
t h e o r e t i c a l l y the possible advantages of Kalman f i l t e r i n g f o r the ILS problem. Since i t appears t h a t very
considerable improvements over the performance of conventional couplers can be obtained with r e l a t i v e l y
inexpensive analogue f i l t e r s , when high accuracy i n e r t i a l information i s available, i t i s suggested t h a t
the more sophisticated filter- techniques should be directed towards the p o s s i b i l i t y of obtaining a similar
improvement i n performance with cruder sensors. A t present, only the transoceanic a i r c r a f t axe l i k e l y t o
be equipped with full I n e r t i a l Navigation Systems and there i s a strong demand f o r improvements in approach
perfornance i n a i r c r a f t operating domestic routes f o r which I n e r t i a l Navigators are not j u s t i f i e d .

Regarbless of the type of f i l t e r i n g scheme employed i t i s vital t h a t the performance design constraints
discussed i n the paper should be carefully considered. P a r t i c u l a r emphasis i s placed on the s e t t l i w time
requirement and the a b i l i t y t o operate on a wide range of sites, preferably without s p e c i a l adjustment.
However, no amount of performance improvement i s useful i f i t cannot be matched by adequate r e l i a b i l i t y and
a v a i l a b i l i t y . There i s serious concern among autopilot designers and a i r c r a f t operators as t o whether an
INS cen be adequately monitored t o achieve the r e l i a b i l i t y required f o r automatic landing and operators are
n a t u r a l l y concerned t h a t i t should not be necessary f o r , say, three INS to be a dispatch i t e m f o r the a i r
craft. Clearly a g r e a t deal of work remains t o be done to establish an acceptable overall monitoring
philosophy f o r a complex autopilot system integrated with i n e r t i a l navigators.

7. CONCLUSIONS

It has been shown t h a t very great improvements i n the tolerance of ILS approach couplers t o l o c a l i z e r
noise can be obtained by combining information from a good q u a l i t y i n e r t i a l platform with the ILS l o c a l i z e r
deviation signal. Results of full-scale f l i g h t experiments have been shown which confirm the t h e o r e t i c a l
predictions. It i s concluded t h a t i t i s possible to design an analogue approach coupler which i s usable
i n the a i r l i n e environment and which i s p r a c t i c a l l y immune to the e f f e c t s of ILS bends and interference
provided t h a t r e l i a b l e i n e r t i a l information i s available to the accuracy provided by the present AFUNC 561
haxdware. It i s recommended t h a t studies continue i n t o more sophisticated f i l t e r i n g techniques with the
a b of achieving the same kind of performance with l e s s c o s t l y and sophisticated sensors.
 6-5

MICROAMPS FROM BEAM CENTRE

CAT II L I M I T

5 -

0-

-5
I
- -

-I 0 I I I I I I I 1

I 2 3 4 5 6 7
RANGE FROM THRESHOLD X 1000 FT.

-1 1
0 SECS.-i

FIG= 2 'sypioal LooaUzer Interferences from an Aircraft Taking-off

6-6

GAIN
DEGREES PER MICROAMP
1.0
LAGGED ROLL I BEAM RATE

0.1
AGGED ROLL 2

0.01 cI HEADING STABILISE:D

0.001
0.01
I I
0.I
,
1.0
FREQUENCY
I
10.0 RAD/SEC.

FIGuRe 3 Lateral Coupler Transfer Functions

I O SEC. L A G FROM LOCALIZER TO BANK COMMAND.

ABILITY TO ACCEPT LARGE I N I T I A L LOCALIZER AND INS DEVIATION.

APPROACH DURATION N O T MORE THAN 2MINS.

S E T T L I N G T I M E N O T MORE THAN 8 0 S E C S .

NO DEGRADATION O F PERFORMANCE O N GOOD BEAMS.

FIGURE 4 Desired Features for an ILS-InertLal Approach Coupler

 RANGE FROM
TRANSMITTER

MULTIPLIER INTEGRATOR
LOCALIZER
DEVIATION DISPLACEMENT

I
I I
I PHASE I
I ADVANCE I RATEII
I COMMAND
I
I -
'
I
DISPLACEMENT
I
I
ACCELERATION COMPLEMENTARY FILTER

-Flcm 5 ILS-Inertial Coupler Block Diagram

GAIN
DEGREES PER M ICROAMP
I.(
\ / BEAM RATE

0
ROLL 2

0.0 INERTIAL' \ HEAD I NG STAB ILI 2 ED

0.00 I I FREQUENCY
0.01 0.I 1.0 10.0 RADISEC
FIGm 6 bteral Coupler Transfer hmotions
 -
I
FIcvJm a Vereatlle Aubpilot Equipment In Comet
 6-9

+I50 r
LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS ot I
-150 L
+25
BANK
COMMAND
DEGREES
0
-25
+5
E-
CROSSTRACK
ACCEL
FTISEC?
0
-5
+I50
E I SIMULATED

LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS
I I
-I50O b
+25
BANK
COMMAND
DEGREES
-25O E -
CROSSTRACK
ACCEL.2
FT/SEC.
-5
REAL

FIGURE 9 Comparison between Simulated and Real Approaoh Performance

200
DISPLACEMENT
FT.
I00

-100
1
-5

,200

FI
m 10 ILS-Inertial Systems. Elighht Paths of Normal Performance Approaches
6-10

- 150
-10
BANK
ANGLE

+IS0
LOC.
PA

FIGURE 11 Comparison of Noise Sensitivity of Beam Rate and I n e r t i a l Systems. F l i g h t Records.

1200

BEAM RATE SYSTEM

7pA RMS NOISE

I 1 1

X 1000 FT.

INERTIAL SYSTEM
W v Loo
-50
DISPLACEMENT FT
1

FIGORE 12 Comparison of Noise Sensitivity. Kine F l i g h t Path Recordings.

 6-11

+I50
LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS
.E
-150
-10
Y

BANK
ANGLE
DEGREES E.-
+ 25
-

BANK
COMMAND -
DEGREES -25
OE I
1-1 MIN.-I
ROLL RATE -25
I I
+IO
I
AILERON
ANGLE
DEGREES -lo
TOUCHDOWN

FIGURE 13 Performance of ILS-Inertial System in Interference from a Taking-off Aircraft

LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS
"t
- 150
BANK -10
ANGLE
DEGREES +IO

BANK + 25
COMMAND A
DEGREES
-25 I
1-1 MIN.-I
I
ROLL RATE -25 r I II
COMMAND
DEGREES/SEC. +25 "t *
I

AILERON +IO
ANGLE
DEGREES
f
TOUCHDOWN

FIGURE 14 Performance of ILS-Inertial Systems i n Interference fmm a Taking-off Aircraft

6-12

TABU3 1

ILS-Inertial System Normal Performance 36 €&ns

TRACKING
DISPLACEMENT
VELOCITY
FT. S.D.
FT/SEC. S.D.
I
5 0 0 FEET
14-3 1.0
HEIGHT

2 0 0 FEET
9.4 I*o
HEIGHT

TOUCHDOWN 6.1 1.0

- 2

ILS-Inertial System Performance in Interference from Taking-off Aircraft. 18 Runs.

TRACKING
DISPLACEMENT
VELOCITY
FT S.D.
FT/SEC. S.O.

5 0 0 FEET
15.0 1-9
HEIGHT

2 0 0 FEET
14.25 1.3
HEIGHT

TOUCHDOWN 1 8.9 1.2

 7

IMPROVEMENT OF T H E ACCURACY OF AUTOMATIC LANDING SYSTEMS

BY U S E O F KALMAN-FILTERING-TECHNIQUES AND INCORPORATION
OF INERTIAL DATA

W. Schmidt and D r Kanarachos

Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke Gmbb

Bremen, West Germany
7

SUMMARY

This paper deals with the investigation of the terminal approach and landing of a jet fighter
with an automatic landing system. It is assumed that only the longitudinal motion must be
considered. At first an optimization of the autopilot is carried out by solving the deterministic
control problem using dynamic programming. The optimal feed back gains are obtained by minimizing
a quadratic performance criterion.

The accuracy of the landing is essentially influenced by effects of aerodynamic, I L S and radar
altimeter disturbances. As the I L S respectively the radar altimeter noise-is the dominant factor
reducing the accuracy of landing emphasis is put to the filter problem of estimating the state
variables. Hereby two methods are employed

a) The incorporation of IMU-Data

b) The introduction of Kalman-Filters

their results being discussed in this paper.

 1. DEFINITION OF THE PPOBLEM

In this paper we are only concerned with the final approach and flare-out phases of landing
(see fig. 1 ) .
At some distance from the touchdown point and lined up with the runway, the aircraft enters the
field of action of the ground-controlled beam of the instrument landing system (I.L.S.). The
aircraft is furnished with standard ILS equipment, including an accessory device which couples
the ILS signals to the autopilot and automatically causes the aircraft to be guided down the
proper glide slope.
At an altitude of approximately 37 m the flare-out phase of the landing begins. During this
phase, the ILS is no longer effective for guiding the aircraft. The main information to keep the
aircraft along the desired flare path comes from a radar altimeter.

It is assumed that the aircraft has an auto-throttle system and that only the longitudinal
motion must be considered as a first approximation for our investigations.

There are several factors that influence the performance of the aircraft during the landing,
the most important of which are:

1 ) The atmospheric turbulence which is assumed to be represented by the power spectral densities
of the gust component Wg along the z-axis and its gradient WgX along the axis (see fig. 2).
2) The beam noise E, which is superimposed to the glide path.and which is described by its
power spectral density (see fig. 2 ) .
3) The radar altimeter noise
4 ) The ground profil errors.,These arrors are due to the fact that the desired path is defined
in a coordinate system Oxyz the X-axis of which doe6 not coincide with the ground profile.
For this reason we are not able to determine exactly the Z-coordinate of the aircraft's
position through radar altimeter measurements.

To describe the two last mentioned errors by means of one quantity (e), the following equation
of the formfilter has been used in the present study (n = white noise):
7.27 k' + 8.63 d + 5.30 e = n . X/850 (1)

Now, it is known that inertial data measurements cannot be used for precise trajectory
determination, the reason being errors due for example to gyro drifts, DC offset etc. (see fig.3).
These errors have a very low frequency (see fig. 41, s o that the inertial data measurements are
generally characterised through a wide noise-free bandwidth.

2. NUMERICAL DATA

The calculations were carried out for a jet fighter with the following data:

Dimensions:
Span b = 10.2 m

Wing aera F = 32.5 m2

Mean aerodynamic chord C = 3.68 m

Weight, wing loading, moments of inertia:

Weight G = 7800 kp

Wing loading G/F = 240 k p / m 2

2
Moments of inertia I = 4750 kpms
Y
I = Ixy = Izx = o
XY
Mass parameter )r = 106.4

Moment-of-inertia
parameter i = 49.9
Y
Aerodynamic parameters:
I
Drag coefficient Cwo = 0.0804
Drift coefficient = 0.53
cLo
7-2

Derivatives:
= 0.865 = 3.55 C = 0.34
CDa
= 1.13 'mi = 2.0
CD L = o %i
C = O.!t39 C = 1.80 C = 4.0
Dq * Lq mq
= 0.77 .
m' 6
The aerodynamic parameters are valid for an aircraft velocity of U, = 85 m/s.

3. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
The equations of motion are defined in a body-fixed coordinate system Ox A, only small
displacements from an equilibrium flight condition will be considered, tge equations are
linearized. They can therefore be divided into two groups, the symmetrical and the asymmetrical
group. This paper deals only with the symmetrical equations, which describe the longitudinal
motion. As the velocity is assumed to be constant, the equations of motion can be reduced to a
system of two equations with two unknown quantities u a n d 3 :
c.(1/2 CLi + p 1 . i + U0' (CLa + CD0)'Ly+ C'(1/2 CLq - p).J - CL0 U
. * tgA-$

= - I/2.c/uo:cL& .ig + (CL# + cDo)'Wg + C/2.CLq'WgX

= - 1/2.c/uo*cm; 'ig + ,c 'Wg + C/2.Cmq'Wgx - U0'Cmd

3.1 FINAL APPROACH

The displacement Zo of the aircraft center of gravity relative to the position of equilibrium
is obtained from

-
dZO = U0'( U -0)
dt

Using the relation

ZO
A = - (4)
Uo(To - t)
where U,To denotes the distance of the aircraft from the I L S transmitter at the beginning of the
final approach (t = 0); by eliminating Zo, we get the following equation for the angle of
deviation from the glide slope

This relation is used to eliminate & i n the two second-order equations of motion. We finally
get a system of 4 equations of the first order describing the final approach phase:
= a 11L + a12 2 + aI38 + aI4Q + bllig + b12Wg + b13Wsx

3.2 FLARE OUT

Using the relation
 7-3

the angle of attack is eliminated in the equations of motion. The flare-out phase is described
by the following four differential eqations of the first order:
6= a l l Q + aI2$+ d
13H + b 11 g + b 12Wg + b 13W gx + Clod
$=e
i = a
31
Q + a $+a
32 33
H + b i
31 g
+ b W + b W
32 g 33 gx (8)

4. IMPROVEMENT OF THE LANDINGS ACCURACY BY OPTIMIZING THE AUTOPILOT

Before speaking of the necessity to introduce a hybrid system during the landing, one must be
sure that the performance of a conventional landing system cannot be further improved, for
example through a sophisticated optimization of the autopilot. For this reason, the functional
equation approach of dynamic programming has been employed to calculate the optimal controls.
Furthermore, landings have been simulated to determine the performance of the aircraft during
the final approach and flare-out phases.
4.1 FINAL APPROACH

For the sake of simplicity we consider a quadratic error criterion of the form

T
1 ( a o 1 2 + 6 2, dt = Min. (9)
0

.
with a constant weighting factor for the aircraft displacement 9 The employment of the dynamic
programming method to minimize this criterion results in the calculation of the optimal gain
coefficients for the autopilot. However, as the state variables cannot be exactly determined, it
is obvious that in the equation of the autopilot, the state variables must be replaced through
the measured ones.
Figures 5 and 6 give a picture of the performance of the aircraft during the final approach as a
function of the weighting factor aO. From 'fig. .S it is obvious that the r.m.6.-value of 53 due
to both gusts and ILS dieturbances cannot be considerably reduced by a high gain in the feedback
loop. On the other hand, if the gain in the feedback loop is low, the aircraft becomes sensitive
to gusts, this causing the r.m.6.-value of 1 to increase. We further observe that the absence
of ILS disturbances the accuracy of the landing can be considerably increased. The performance
of the aircraft for a high gain in the loop can be well understood from the following simulation
results of the final approach plotted in fig. 8. One can see that the aircraft is so strongly
bound to the glide slope that it flies almost exactly on the ILS error signals, if one disregards
the phase shift, this pointing out that a higher gain in the loop cannot decrease t,he aircraft's
angular displacement from the glide slope.

Thus one can state that the improvement of the accuracy of final approach can only be achieved
by filtering the ILS errors out of the measurements.

4.2 FLARE-OUT

The error criterion is a quadratic one, with a constant weighting factor of the aircraft's heigh
deviation from .the desired path:

T
J ( b o A h2 + 6
2
dt = Min. (10)
0 .

The state vector measurements are not free from noise. The radar altimeter error e is described
.through the formfilter-equation of second order, the white noise n at the right side of the
equation being multiplied with the factor X/850, this causing the radar altimeter error to become
smaller with decreasing distance from the touch down point.

Varying bo and carrying out simulations of the flare-out we obtain the results shown In Fig. 9
and IO. We observe that the r.m.6.-value of the heightdeviation decreases with increasing bo
(which corresponds to the gain in the control loop). We further state, that at the absence
of the radar altimeter error, the accuracy of the flare-out can be considerably imp,roved.
The performance of the aircraft for a high gain in the loop can be understood from the simulation
results shown in fig. 11. We observe that the aircraft is so strongly bound to the radar
altimeter signal that it flies almost exactly on the radar altimeter error itself. For this
reason a higher gain in the control loop cannot reduce the height deviation from the desired path.
7-4

5. FILTERING BY REDUNDANCY OF INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM INERTIAL DATA MEASUREMENTS

Commenting the results of the optimization, one can state that the main factors not allowing
the improvement of the accuracy of the landing are the ILS aGd radar altimeter errors, this
pointing out the necessity of the introduction of filters in the control loop.

Seeking for a suitable filtering technique to reduce the noise of the measurement data we
remember, that the inertial data measurements are contaminated with a noise of a lower frequency
as compared with the noise of the ILS and radar altimeter signals. One can therefore expect that
the design of position P and velocity V filters, as they are shown in fig. 13, will have
satisfactory results.

The method employed in designing the position P and velocity V filters, was based on the
minimization of the r.m.6.-values of the resulting noises E IDM+~.Fig, 14 shows that by
selecting a suitable time constant T the r.m.6.-values of tADM+P and E noise can be reduced.
e resulting

Fig. I5 shows the simulation results of the final approach with a position and a velocity.filter
in the control loop. Similar results are obtained for the flare-out case. Fig. 16 shows the time
dependency of the aircraft'sheightdeviation from the desired path. Hereby stands ( a ) for the
state values, (b) for the inertial measurements, (c) for the radar altimeter measurements, and
(d) for the estimates from the inertial filter. We observe that the performance of the velocity
filters is satisfactory, but that the position filters fail to give good estimates of the state
values.

To get an idea of the improvement of the accuracy of the landing using the inertial filters,
simulation results of the final approach and flare-out are plotted, showing the performance
of an aircraft with (w) and without ( 0 ) position and velocity filters in the control loop
(see fig. 17 and 18).

Calculating now the r.m.s.-values of all the elements of the state vectors for several time
intervals of the random function of the gusts and ILS and radar altimeter disturbances and
plotting them, we get fig. 19 and 20.

We observe at first that the r.m.s.-values of the rates of the aircraft'sheightdeviation and
angular displacements from the desired path, the pitch angle, the pitch angle velocity, the angle
of attack and the elevator deflection are considerably decreased, compared with the corresponding
values without the filter. For the final approach case we further observe that the r.m.6.-values
of the angular displacement are decreased too, when using the filter in the control loop. They
are approximately 60 p.c. of the corresponding values without the inertial filter. This is not
negligible as we can decrease the r.m.6.-value maximally up to 30 p.c. (This is the case in
which the beam noise is assumed to be zero).

For the flare-out case, on the contrary, we cannot observe an improvement of the r.m.6.-values
of the height deviation from the desired path. This is due to the fact that the radar altimeter
errors decrease with decreasing distance of the aircraft from the touch down point, thus being
approximately between 0 and 2 0 cm during the last 4 seconds of the flare-out phase. It is
therefore natural that the inertial filter is not able to abolish these small disturbances in
the radar altimeter measurements, as the accuracy of this filter cannot be improved so far.
Commenting the results one can state that the combination of the ILS and radar altimeter
measurements with the inertial data measurements can to a certain ammount improve the accuracy
of the landing. If a further improvement is possible or not, this will be the next question
we will have to answer.
6. INTRODUCTION OF KALMAN FILTERING TECHNIQUES DURING LANDING

As the Kalman technique has proved to be a powerful tool in many cases, it is only natural to try
to apply the theory to the special case of the landing. Of course, many problems - for example
the real-time mechanization of the filter, the adequate sampling rate etc. - must be solved
before the so-called "Kalman filters" can be implemented on a real time basis. However, it is
interesting from the theoretical point of view to apply this filtering technique, although the
problems which arise from the practical application are not completely solved.

For our special investigations, it is assumed that the Kalman Filters are "perfect" in the sense
that the dynamic system can be exactly described by the linearized equations of motion, that
the gusts and the ILS errors can also be exactly described by the applied shaping filters, and
that there are no problems with respect to the real-time mechanization of the filters.

The following two special cases of the final approach have been considerud:
(a) State vector y

Measurement vector z
 7-5

(b) State vector

Measurement vector zm

where w is the z-component of the aircraft's velocity variation.

In both cases, the Kalman algorithm has been employed to calculate the estimate y of the state
vector y. These estimates were inserted in the control loop as input to the autopilot.

The case (a) represents the idealized final approach of an aircraft which is equipped only with
an ILS receiver.

The results of the performed simulations are shown in fig. 21. They are at the same time compared
with simulation results of the case without Kalman filter in the control loop. They are not
encouraging in the sense of improving the accuracy of the final approach, as for low a -values
(ao corresponds as we know to the gain in the loop) the incorporation of the Kalman fiyter in the
loop increases the r.m.8.-values of the aircraft's angular displacements. For high a values on
the contrary the r.m.6.-values of the angular displacement are slightly better than ?he
corresponding values without the Kalman filter.

However we can expect, that the comfort will be generally improved, as the r.m.6.-values of the
rate of angular displacement, pitch angle, and its rate are smaller than the corresponding
values without the Kalman filter.

Fig. 22 shows how the filter is working: We can observe that the estimates of the rate of angular
displacement are much better than the estimates of the angular displacement itself.
The unsatisfactory performance of the Kalman filter is for our opinion due to two reasons:

a) The measurement information is not sufficient

b) The frequencies of gusts (that is to say of the forcing function)
and of the beam noise E are similar.

To demonstrate these statements we construct a case (b), in which the z-component of the
aircrafts velocity can be determined almost exactly, and in which only ILS-disturbances are
present. For this case we apply now the Kalman filtering technique.
The results of the performed simulation, with the Kalman filter in the control loop are plotted
in fig. 23.
One can see that the filtering is very succesfull, as the estimates from the Kalman filter
correspond almost exactly to the state values of the angular displacement.

Furthermore, in fig. 24 simulation results are plotted showing the performance of the final
approach with and without a Kalman filter in the control loop. The improvement o f the accuracy
is satisfactory, this pointing out, that the effectiveness of the Kalman filter technique,
depends considerably on the redundancy of the measurements available.
7. CONCLUSION
Concluding our presentation we summerise briefly the results.

a) A certain improvement of the accuracy of landing can be attained by a high gain in.the
feedback loop, the effect being the reduction of the gust sensitivity at the expense of the
sensitivity of the aircraft to ILS-respectively radar altimeter errors.
b) The incorporation of IMU-Data and filter techniques improves considerably the comfort of the
landing but is not very much.effective in reducing the angular displacement of the aircraft
from the glide slope.
c) The Kalman-filter technique is a powerful1 tool for automatic landing, the real time
mechanization being one of the problems that must be solved.

Remark: The paper corresponds to the first part of a study on automatic landing systems.
The examples chosen to illustrate the problem are not final results, and were chosen
from the point of view of simplicity.
7-6

R e f e r e n c e s

1. Tat A. Analysl f flight-test data on evaluation of ILS,

Airborne Instr. Lab. Report 3213

2. Clementson, G. An investigation of the power spectral density of atmospheric

turbulence, MIT Instr. Lab. Report 6445-T-31

3. Summers, R. A statistical description of large scale atmospheric turbulence,

MIT Instr. Lab. Report T-55

4. Hyden, A.
Sundstrom, M. Calculation of symmetric response of a jet fighter to atmospheric
turbulence and instrument landing system disturbances during approach
for landing, KTH AERO TN 50

5. Sundstrom, M. A special method for determining the power spectral densities of the
solutions of linear differential equations with stochastic right member
and coefficients consisting of polynomials in the independet variable,
KTH AERO TN 49

6. Tou, J. Modern Control Theory, Mc. Graw-Hill, New York

7. TOU, J. Optimum design of digital control systems, Academic Press, New York

8; Schultz, P.R. Analytical design techniques for an optimal control problem,

Modern Control Systems Theory, Mc. Graw Hill

9. Ellert, F.J.
Merriam, C.W. Synthesis of feedback controls using optimization theory, IEE Transactions
on Automatic Control

IO. Bendat, J. Principles and applications of random noise theory,

John Willey & Sons, New York

11. Sorenson, H.W. Kalman filtering techniques, Advances in Control Systems,

Vol. 3 , Academic Press, New York

12. Bona, B. Applications of observers and optimum filters to inertial systems,

IFAC Symposium, 7./8. Oktober 1968, Dusseldorf

13. Mac. Kinnon, D. Automatic landing system optimization using inertial navigation data
and modern control theory, Paper presented at the AGARD Meeting on May
20-23, 1969, Cambridge, Mass.
14. Broxmeyer, C
Mac. Kinnon, D.
Madden, P. Applications of inertial navigation and modern control theory to the
all-weather landing problem, MIT Instr. Lab. Report R-613

15. Kanarachos, A. Untersuchungen automatischer Landesysteme, Interner VFW Bericht,

Schmidt, W Teil 11, 1969
 7-7

n
U
E
X
-0
0
0
W

-0
0
0
In

?i?
0
<
a
0 ILI
0
e 3

p
0
0
n

P
0
0
N

0
0
-
0

P
7-8

O0
Y
0
x
U
al
U
al

:: 0
f

/ - 0

o P- In
In
N
0‘ U1
N
0
N -
0

-0 0 0 0 0 0 0

.
0
0
0
0
0
0
. .
0
0
0
.
0
0

0
C> 0 0

s
$
-
Q
c)

f
C
L
0
r2
2
al

.-x
c
U
-0al
al
f
L
0
x
5
U
al
Q
U
al
E

N
.
In

-
0

-
U-,

0 0
I

- 0
.-y
)
(

c
. . . .
D W

c
O

c
I Q

o
N O
. . . .
0 0 0 1 3 - .-L
0)

I 1 I I I I I
[JaS/”’] A
 7-9

Y
0

L
Q)

f
L
0
x
C

al
f
.-m3
f

~ m w w m N -0 01 -
o
N
o
CI
c
w
~
V)
o o
I I I I
6
.-m
. . . .
0
0

0
0
0

0
3
3

3
0

0
O
.

o
O
.

o
t
C

c
l
,
.

~
0
.
0

o
4
.-
om
LL I I I I I Y
7-10

1.

0.

-0.

-I.

-I.

-2.
Fig.11: Simulation results of flare-out comparing the time dependency of A h for
bo = 0.0005 (a) and bo = 10 (b) with the time dependency of the radar
altimeter errors (c)

-
bo = 0.0005 (a)and bo = 10 (b) with thetime dependency of the wind gusts (c)
 7-11

Fig.13: Optimal position P (5) and optimal velocity V (s) filters for a hybrid

system using ILS- and inertial data measurements

20
l a, b, c, d, e: r.m.s of
a, b, c, d, e: r.m.s of
EILS
p + E~DM
-f : r.m.s of ~IDM
g, h, i, k : r.m.s of v + ~IDM

15

I O

o_
5 I O
__f_
20 T

Fig.14: Simulation results showing the dependency of the r.m.s. of p + EIDM

and v + ~IDM
from the time constant T o f the P- and V-filters
7-12

U
O

s
.-
.-
+

ii
a,
I
t

I-
o)
a
o)
f

-0
L -
0

2
. . . . . n e cl c
. . . e. . e. . . . . -.
<? c c t c c c .
.x
( \ I - - O O
.
o
.
o -
.
-
e
L
.
Y
E
y : - c~ rr) e ~n c IC m m o
.-
0)

lL
I I I I I I ' I I I I I I I I - -
4 I I

'CI
6

9)
f
Lc
0

0
f

~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 ?
 7-13

v-
0

CO
c

.s - 0 o - - N N 0 - - N
.-cn
v I I I I I I I I I LL

L
0

m
To" 00 ' 0 1 -
o
N
c
rc)
o
Kf
o
0
o
Ul
o
-0
WN
0
- --
0 m 010
o
0
-
m
-
0 m 0 In

s. 0

0
0
0
........0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
& O
0
N

....
0
0
0
0
(1
0
0
0
0
. . . . . . .
0
0
0
0
0
0
~
0
0
0
0
0
0
~
0
0
m m

I I ' I I I I .ic' 0 0 <> 0

0 4
7-14

+*
*t*lt
<<
E €
- ?-!
0 0 + +++
Y L C
0 0 * ***
- ;;
.I-
0 00

+*
* **
+ ++e
* *w
0 000
Q * + ,+ +++
* * **
cc? c
+ ++ +
* * * 0
cy

B
0 CO 0
.-m
Y

+ *+
* ** k3
0 0 0 0

++
~~

+
* + C d
0 m
+ + +
* ** $
00 0 0
++ +
* * * 3
0 0 0 0

+ U +
* * * 1:
Q
0 0 a3
4- w +
** * c
0 0 0 9
U

8
 7-15

0.0015

0.0010

0.0005

0.

0.

0.

'0 50 100 150 200 250 a

0

Fig.21: Simulation results of the final approach showing the performance of aircraft landing

with (w) and without (0) a Kalman filter in the control loop (case a)
7-16

-0.004

-0.005

Fig.22: Simulation results of final approach showing the performance of landing using
a Kalman filter in the control loop (case a)
 7-17

:state volues
0 : ILS measurement data
:estimates from Kolman filter

-0.00025
-0.00050
-0.00075
-0.00 I 00
-0.001 25
-0.00150
-0.00 I r5
Fig.23: Simulation results of final approach showing the effectiveness of Kalmon filter using
strongly idealized inertial data meosurements (case b)

Fig.24: Simulation results of fino1 approach showing the performance of landing with (w) and
without (0) a Kalman filter in the control loop (case b)
 8

COLLISION AVOIDANCE AND THE A I R TRAFFIC CONTROL ENVIRONMENT

by

Anatole Browde

Director CnI Program. Assistant General Manager

McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company - Eastern Division
I 8
 8-1

COLLISION AVOIDANCE AND THE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL ENVIRONMENT

Anatole Browde, Director CNI Program
Assistant General Manager
McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company - Eastern Division

Abstract

This paper discusses the operation of the Collision Avoidance System, currently under test by the Air Trans-
port Association. The system is designed to provide air-to-air information exchange between aircraft, and
provide safe separation under all weather conditions, even in dense terminal area traffic. The technology
used is a time ordered, either ground or other aircraft resynchronized system, in which range, range rate
and altitude is used to develop threat parameters.

Also discussed will be the behavior of this type of a system in the post-1975 air traffic control environ-
ment, as derived by simulation. Growth options arising from the Collision Avoidance System include a sys-
tem of precisely identifying and locating aircraft as an air traffic control tool. Postulated growth
additions can provide air-to-air station keeping, trilateration techniques to enable precise location of
the aircraft for ground control, and also precise navigation by the pilot with respect to the ground, with-
out either voice communication or the requirement of encoding aircraft position on digital air-to-ground
data links. This technique can also be used for terminal area approach and can be extended to Category I
landings.

Inherent in the Collision Avoidance System is the ability to exchange up to 150 bits of b'inary data every
three seconds.

1. Introduction

On 8 January 1960, two F-101B's collided approximately 60 miles from Lambert-St. Louis Airport under radar
control. Both planes were lost, and two crew members were killed. This incident sparked the McDonnell
Douglas investigation of collision avoidance, which gave birth to the time resynchronization technology
called EROS.

EROS is an acronym that stands for "Eliminate Range Zero System", for if range zero is eliminated, no
collision can occur.

The McDonnell Douglas investigation followed the now traditional path of a detailed investigation of non-
cooperative systems, such as IR devices, conspicuity enhancers and active radars. In an intensive two year
study, it was determined that none of these provided the protection deemed necessary for a system that had
to handle aircraft over a wide velocity spectrum and in all attitude maneuvering flight.

In 1962, active redirection of the collision avoidance effort took place, and resulted in the generation of
the McDonnell Douglas patented EROS resync technology. (Reference 1).

In 1963 this technology was first demonstrated to the FAA. During 1965 the EROS I system, installed on
every aircraft tested by McDonnell Douglas, became operational. On 28 July 1968, we logged our 10,000th
EROS flight.

More recently, the examination of this technology has led to a realization, that the same signal structure
that provides collision avoidance warning, can also be used as a powerful tool to aid air traffic control.
By the addition of relatively simple circuitry to the basic collision avoidance electronics, functions of
station keeping and DME can be obtained. Since the system is time ordered, it materially enhances the
ability to handle dense air traffic in the presently saturating environment.

2. Technology

The EROS time resynchronization technology, as configured for the Airline Transport Association collision
avoidance specification is shown in Figure 1. It provides for time ordered reporting of 2000 members every
three seconds, most of which are aircraft, but some of which can be ground stations or satellites. It
enables resynchronization of these members, so that everyone in the community has the correct time to an
accuracy of better than 100 nanoseconds. By these means, parameters of range, range rate, and position in
space can be obtained very accurately. Altitude information is derived from the aircraft altitude sensing
system and encoded in the same message. The signal is also capable of being modulated to provide a reliable
data transmission channel of up to 150 bits capacity per member, every three second period.

TIME RESYNCHRONIZATION TECHNOLOGY

TIME ORDERED REPORTING OF 2000 MEMBERS IN B SECONDS

ACCURATE DERIVATION OF RANGE, RANGE RATE, POSITION

AND ALTITUDE INFORMATION

0 RESYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS OF MEMBERS TO

WITHIN 0.1 SEC

0 DATA TRANSMISSION OF UP TO 150 BITS

Figure 1
8-2

The itearated system Drovides Dositive iden ification of each member in the air and on the ground without
I

voice communications, flight following on the ground and high speed digital communications.

In our meaning of 'i time ordered system, as shown in Figure 2 , every member of the group, be it aircraft
or ground station, is assigned a slot. This slot is a positive identifier, and a particular member, and
no other, will transmit the message shown in that slot. During all other slots, a member's equipment will
listen for transmissions from the others in the group. He could receive potentially several hundred such
transmissions in a dense traffic situation. All information exchange occurs within the frequency band
-
assigned to the collision avoidance function, 1600 1615 MHz, and is switched sequentially and automatically
through that band in 5 MHz increments.

TIME ORDERED REPORTING

TRANSMITTED PULSE
f -MEMBER NO. 3

I SLOT SLOT SLOT SLOT SLOT

l 1
I*
2 3

ONE EPOCH
n-1 n

EACH MEMBER IS ASSIGNED ONE TIME SLOT

EACH MEMBER TRANSMITS AT THE BEGINNING OF HIS TIME SLOT

EACH MEMBER LISTENS FOR OTHER MEMBERS IN THE GROUP DURING OTHER TIME SLOTS

A COMMON FREQUENCY IS USE0 FOR ALL MEMBERS RECEPTION AND TRANSMISSION

Figure 2

A s shown in Figure 3 , for a typical aircraft, the interval from the beginning of the slot to reception of
the message is a direct measure of propagation delay, and accordingly is proportioned to that aircraft's
range with respect to the unit transmitting.

INFORMATION CONTENT FOR NAVIGATION

AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE

Fa--i INFORMATION RELATIVE TO MEMBER 3

IS OBTAINED ONLY IN SLOT 3

tp IS PROPORTIONAL TO RANGE TO MEMBER 3

A f p IS PROPORTIONAL TO RANGE RATE OF

SLOT 3 TRANSMISSION (n) WITH RESPECT TO 3

ta IS PROPORTIONAL TO ALTITUDE OF
MEMBER 3

ALTITUDE RATE CAN BE OBTAINED IF

DESIRED

SLOT 3 RECEIVED BY
ANOTHER MEMBER (nl
Figure 3

By analysis of the modulation contained within the pulse envelope, in effect by an examination of the
doppler spectrum contained therein, the relative velocity of these members with respect to each other can
be obtained. In addition, a pulse is positioned with respect to the leading edge of the range pulse, so
that the pulse interval between them, is proportional to altitude of one member with respect to another.
By proper mathematical manipulation, the altitude rate of one member with respect to another can also be
obtained.
 8-3

As shown in Figure 4 , for the typical ATA message structure, up to 150 bits of digital data, bi-phase
modulated, can be packed into the range pulse. This information can be used, as specified by ATA in the
CAS, for transmitting the time status and quality of a given member's synchronization. Additionally,
information as may be desired, can be encoded in the message, such as aircraft tail number, status of
major aircraft systems, time over a given check-point or time of lift-off and landing.

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION USING

THE CAS FORMAT

b
- 200 SEC 1-
I

I I/
LPREAMBLE
7n
LMESSAGE
I
ALTITUDE
[NO MODULATION) PULSE

UP TO 150 BITS OF DATA CAN

BE ENCODED IN THE CAS
RANGE PULSE BY BIPHASE MODULATION

TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION IS INHERENT FOR EQUIPPED GROUND

STATIONS AND AIRCRAFT.
Figure 4

3. Collision Avoidance

The ATA Collision Avoidance System depends on the use of vertical maneuvers to achieve safe separation of
aircraft. This type of maneuver is preferred over a lateral maneuver, because aircraft maneuver response
is faster in the vertical plane, and because it facilitates conduct of a given encounter in a closed loop
fashion; i.e., altitude data is always available in an aircraft, lateral position data is not.

The criteria used in achieving separation are contained in ATA specification ANTC 117 (Reference 2), and
are shown in Figure 5. Penetration of the TAU 3 zone provides only advisory commands; i.e., an indication
that an intruding aircraft is above or below. No action need be taken by the pilot. TAU 2 presents him
with his first command; i.e., an arrow up or down, or a hold altitude bar, while TAU 1 reinforces that
command audibly and by light flashes.

More schematically, the co-altitude bands for the ATA systems specification are shown in Figure 6. They
are defined as 5 700 feet about own aircraft's altitude.

This number was chosen to provide a safe 150 feet static port to static port separation under adverse
tolerance build-up of altimeter errors, missed transmissions and antenna shadowing.

Any aircraft that intrudes in the co-altitude band will receive a collision warning, provided other threat
criteria are positive. Additionally, an aircraft that is above or below the co-altitude threat band, but
within 2500 feet of that band, receives an advisory warning that there is an aircraft above or below, again
provided the other threat criteria are met. The alarm and threat bands are adjusted to account for climbing
and diving flight.
Having once determined that an aircraft is within the co-altitude band, the received signal is examined to
detepmine whether the geometry and velocity vector conditions are such, that a continuation of the existing
flight conditions will produce a collision.

The quantities examined are shown in Figure 7 . They are range between aircraft, as determined by the one-
way range measurement, and the relative velocity of one aircraft with respect to another, analyzing the
doppler modulation of the received pulse. The quantity of range divided by range rate, called TAU, is a
direct measure of the time, in seconds, to a predicted collision.

I An aircraft generates a TAU locus of time to collision. Whenever another aircraft enters this so-called
, TAU alarm circle, a collision warning is given to both aircraft reciprocally. While several TAU criteria
exist in the ATA specification, applied under different circumstances of maneuvering flight, a typical
value might be 30 seconds. Whenever two aircraft are within 30 seconds of a predicted collision, they
will receive avoidance signals.

It is possible that two aircraft are in a potentially hazardous position with respect to each other, while
having extremely long times to collision. This would take place where the aircraft are slow moving; or are
in relatively parallel flight, so that the computed time of collision is very long. If these aircraft drift
into a situation where the range between them becomes relatively small, then again a collision hazard exists
and an alarm is sounded. Typically, the range alarm circle is 1/2 mile in radius. Any aircraft penetrating
this circle will cause reciprocal alarms.
4. Air Traffic Control Interaction

The logic shown in Figure 5 was evaluated by McDonnell Douglas in a comprehensive program of computer
I
simulation (Reference 3 ) . This program included the introduction of variables of RF communication prob-
abilities, data exchange phasing between aircraft, signal to noise ratio, altimetry errors, pilot reaction
8-4

600

500

400
Ili
T A U ZONE 1

300

200
P
-
0
a
x
.a

100

-100

-200
1 2 3 4 5

R (NM) R - R,
T A U =-
k
RMIN IS A RANGE ALARM
Figure 5

time, maneuver acceleration and aircraft response. Each parameter was given a typical distribution. Two
aircraft were then placed on a collision course, and were "flown" on the computer, the pilot of at least
one aircraft obeying the resultant collision avoidance commands. The output of the simulation was lateral
and vertical separation at the closest point. A summary plot of the closest encounters is shown in Figure 8,
showing that for over 12,000 runs, safe separation existed under all conditions.

Additional analysis of the action of the collision avoidance system used actual traffic data derived from
Atlanta terminal area traffic tapes and processed by the FAA NAFEC facility at Atlantic City, New Jersey
(Reference 4 ) . Shown in Figure 9, these revealed that, only 10.76% of the time any kind of signal was
given to the pilot, and most of the time, where no maneuver was required, these signals were of an advisory
nature, leaving 1.19% of the time, where an aircraft would indeed have to maneuver.

This then led to the obvious question of whether the TAU 3 criteria, in which 8.28% of all warnings occurred
could be eliminated entirely. Again we turned to computer simulation to see whether safe separation would
still exist, using the same technique used in deriving the plots of Figure 8. The results are shown in
Figure 10, and clearly demonstrated that the TAU 3 band could be eliminated, as could the TAU 2 "R min"
criterion. One other simple change would materially reduce warning time in the terminal area, that is a
change in the altitude warning band from 700 feet to 500 feet. The resultant warning zone occupancies are
shown in Figure 11. Only 0.42% of the time did an aircraft need to maneuver.

The ultimate system then might employ a "gear shift", switching the normal en-route logic, with its wider
altitude band and perhaps longer warning times, to a terminal area logic, optimized for slower speed,
denser traffic.
 EROS WARNING AND ALERT ALTITUDE BANDS

CO-ALTITUDE

EROS TAU AND RANGE PROTECTION AREAS

CIRCLE
/ \ I A A \

\ /
PATH OF
RELATIVE TO

RANGE
TAU =
RANGE R A T E

Figure 7
i 8-6

AIRCRAFT SEPARATION AT MINIMUM RANGE

VERTICAL
(FTI

200 HOR IZ ONTA L

(FT)
0

2O0t 0 B 5K 0 A
-- 4
A A ~ A

+ 3250 '

a
P
I-
a
e
U
+150'
0
W
v)
= 10.76%
A
U 0
I?
zw -150'
>

-250'

TAU 1 TAU 2 TAU 3

+ RMINS~ + RMlNS2 + 'MlNS3

"INCLUDES A / C ABOVE/BELOW -WHERE MANEUVER IS NOT REQUlR EO.

AIRCRAFT SEPARATION AT MINIMUM RANGE

VERTICAL
(FT)

0 A HORIZONTAL
0 (FT)
O4t : I
1
1
I
, A I,
1
I
I
I
I
1
1
I
1

A 5K

I h a

mL
t
AIRCRAFT SEPARATION AT MNIMUM RANGE Figure 10
 8-7

ELIMINATION OF TAU a ZONE

2 LEAVES TOTAL OF 125%
U
U
z
Y
-500’
>

*INCLUDES A/C ABOVElBELOW -WHERE MANEUVER IS NOT REQUIRED. Figure 11

AB traffic increases and availability of air space becomes further restricted. the question naturally arises
as to whether a ground based collision avoidance system might not be more conservative of air space. Holt
and Harner of Collins Radio (Reference 5) have presented a method of calculating this, and we have applied
their method to compare airborne CAS (with a single line logic) against a postulated 1985 terminal radar
system at a range of 30 nm, and against a possible trilateration scheme. The parameters of these systems
are ahown in Figure 12. The results of this comparison are given in Figure 13, and show, that in spite of
the comparison of an existing, 1969 hardware CAS with postulated 1980 era systems. the CAS is more con-
aervative of air space for all realistic terminal area closing velocities. This is evidenced by the half
width of the alarm region for the CAS being less, than even the trilateration scheme. even when a one second
data interval is assumed for the ground based system, at maximum aircraft closing rates of less than 500
knots. The ground based CAS, of course, a l s o depends on separate data links for warning and provides no
back-up, or fail safe device in the cockpit.

TERMINAL
RADAR TRILATERATION
c
10 NM

BEARING OR X ERROR (h) 0.26° 0.01 NM

RANGEOR V E R R O R I M 0.1 NM 0.01 NM
POSITION ERROR (LA 0.11 NM 0.U4 NM
RELATIVE RANGE ERROR (hl 025 NM 0.02 NM
DATA INTERVAL (SEC) 4 1
PILOT REACTION (SEC) I a
A/C REACTION (SEC1 1 1
ROLLOUT (SEC) 2 2
COMPUTATION (SEC) 2 2
COMMUNICATION (SEC) 0 0
ALLOWANCES FOR 3 ERROR (SEC) 0 0
TOTAL DELAY (SEC) 12 9
MANEUVER TIME (SEC) . U I9
TOTAL ESCAPE TIME (SEC) ai 28
Figure 12
5. Grovth Options

The introduction of collision avoidance into airline inventory. which we predict to start in 1971, provides
additional benefits for the air traffic control and navigation environment, using timelfrequency techniques.
The power of these growth options can be realized only with the introduction of multiple ground stations
for resynchronizing minimally equipped general aviation aircraft. We will not be able to fully exploit the
advances of this technology. unless we can reduce the $50,000 cost of a sophisticated airline equipment to
a $3000 to $5000 figure that a general aviation aircraft can afford. We at McDonnell Douglas are under a
first phase contract to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration‘s Electronic Research Center, to
devise such a low cost system. and are confident of success. Such a unit would not only provide the normal
collision avoidance function, but also include beacon and DNE functions for use against a timelfrequency
ground station. Some 200 ground stations are required in the U.S. to implement appreciable service for
general aviation, whereas three stations suffice for the airliner.
8 -8

ALARM REGION HALF WIDTHS

1/26, PER A/C, HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION FROM LINEAR FLIGHT
6

P PROPOSED WITH TERMINAL

5 5 RADAR AT a0 NM
=
E
U
YI PRESENT CASISINGLE
w LINE LOGIC1
4
A
4
PROPOSED TRILATERATION
OX,9 = 600 FT
::a
E
P
i=
L Z
A
U
I

0' I 1 I I 1 I
0 200 4w mo WO iooo 1200
TERMINAL AREA SPEEO LIMIT (KNOTS1
Figure 13

5.1 Flight Following

In St. Louis, where all aircraft operated by McDonnell are EBOS equipped. we are able to provide
flight following functions, having nothing but the CAS in the aircraft.

The EROS ground station used in St. Louis is illustrated in FIgure 14. It shows what a typical air
traffic control console, using timelfrequency technology could be like. On the face of the cathode
ray tube, targets are s h o w as discrete points. The ever present, often three miles wide, beacon
slash has been replaced hy a point target. Aircraft identification is by slot number and digitally
displayed with a digital readout of altitude. In our case, a manual flight plan notation is added,
corresponding to the flight strip currently used by a controller. Obviouely, that information can
also be digitally displayed.

GROUND STATION ANTENNA

f LIGHT
P L A N 1 ALTITUDE,RANGE7

,[
GROUND STATION CONSOLE

-
IOENTIFICATION rBoGEV
IOENTIFICATION

FOR A TYPICAL EROS GROUND STATION

A CONTROLLER WILL HAVE AVAILABLE
RANGE AND BEARING FROM THE STATION OF ANY AIRCRAFT WITHIN COVERAGE
0 ALTITUDE OF THE AIRCRAFT
0 lDENTlFlCATlON OF THE AIRCRAFT
XV COORDINATES
0 DIGITAL FLIGHT PLAN INFORMATION
Figure 14
 8-9

An added feature of the display is that the range to the ground station of any aircraft in the air
can be displayed by simply dialing in an aircraft's identification. If desired in the ATC environ-
ment. range to a given ground station can be continually displayed digitally next to the altitude
display.

Correlation of aircraft on the oscilloscope ia performed as follows: if a controller wishes to h o w

where, in XY coordinates, a given aircraft is, he will press the identification button next to the
digital readout of that aircraft. This will cause the scope target to bloom. Conversely, if a
controller wishes to determine at what altitude or what identification a certain target on the cathode
ray tube is. he will place a light pencil over that target and the identification light on the con-
sole will light up.

XY location in the St. Louis area depends on measuring bearing of an aircraft by conventional
direction finding techniques. With our antenna design, an accuracy of 2' - 3' in bearing can be
obtained.

The contrast of the St. Louis flight following operations with our flight following display and
information uaed by a controller in an en-route center or tower is startling. Most of OUT operatiana
can be conducted without voice conrmunication. The digital readout does not Clutter up the face of
the oscilloscope tube, and the controller has positive, unambiguous information regarding each flight
in altitude end position at his fingertips. Since this system does not use radar, neither ground
clutter nor weather returns tend to confuse the displayed ATC picture.

For the collision avoidance system being specified by the ATA. McDannell Dodglas has hard data,
testifying to the success of the system under operational conditions, compiled in an operating radius
of approximately 140 nautical miles around SE. Louis. Over 14.000 flights have been made using EROS,
and in fact, no test aircraft leaves the McDonnell Douglas ramp, without having an EROS installation.
It is a safety of flight item.

5.2 Station Kneping

The obvioua extension of the ground-to-air DME function and aircraft location capability is to the
air-to-air caae. shown in Figure 15. Two aircraft can maintain a specified separation by measuring
range and bearing with respect to each other, using the CAS signal. Since relative range. velocity
and altitude are preaent in each CAS transmission, an aircraft can be aesigDed to follow and station
keep on a so-called "leader" aircraft, and have displayed relative range. bearing and altitude with
respect to it. Thus, traffic can be ordered by a controller by assigning a stream at any point in
his sector. Safe separation of one aircraft with respect to another can be assured, by both aircraft
having readouts of range from the CAS system. So-called "elephant trunking", a continuous stream of
positively controlled and spaced traffic, can be established for trans-oceanic flight. The informa-
tion in each cockpit is clear and unambiguous, and is obtained without voice colmrmnieation.

r
SEARING
60 40 20 0 20 40 6
nlrul FOR A TYPICAL AIRCRAFT
AALTITUDE

A PILOT WILL HAVE AVAlLABLk

RANGE TO A GROUNOSTATlON
RANGE AND RELATIVE VELOCITY
WITH RESPECTTO ANOTHER AIRCRAFT
BEARING TO ANOTHER AIRCRAFT
TIME TO INTERCEPT

Figure 15
6-10

5.3 Trilateration
The application of McDonnell Douglas resynf technology to military systems has produced a most accurate
way of locating an aircraft with respect to a cnnplex of ground stations and simultaneous verification
of this information on the ground for controller usage.

The scheme is illustrated in Figure 16. and depends on the range measurement by use of the CAS signal.
of one aircraft with respect to each of three ground stations, or the three ground stations with
respect to an aircraft. A simple trigonometric solution, in which the range of the aireraft and the
kn- location of the ground etatione is used to arrive at a position in space, is called trilatera-
tion, and has bean succesefully demonstrated hy McDonnell Douglas in U.S. Navy applications.

TRILATERATION (RHO/RHO)

s
-
IN THE.AIR LOCATION OF AIRCRAFT BY RANGE MEASUREMENTTO EACH
OF THREE KNOWN GROUND STATIONS.

-
ON THE GROUND LOCATION OF AIRCRAFT INOEPENOENTLY - BY MEASUR-
ING RANGE FROM EACH STATION TO AIRCRAFT.
Figure 16

It should be noted that aircraft position is obtained in the cockpit without any voice communications
from the ground, and independently the aircraft position is available on the ground, without requiring
digital encoding of cockpit measured parameters or a separate data link.

Ite application for the Northeast corridor, where currently traffic control problems are overwhelming,
is shown in Figure 17. The configuration of ground statio= required is predicated to an enroute
traffic situation above 10,000 feet altitude. Flight stations will cover the whole Northeast corridor
over a swath 150 miles wide. Anyvhere within this corridor aircraft will be able to accurately posi-
tion itself on an assigned flight path, and conversely, the ground controller will know where that air-
craft is, again using only the CAS signal. The display of this information can be on a rolling map,
the flight director or B digital readout, depending on airline preference. The signal structure is
compatible with displays currently operating with VORIDME inputs. The postulated ground station is
extremely simple. Required only are a receiver. a transmitter and resynchronization logic. Canputa-
tion in the cockpit is done by the addition of simple digital logic to the CAS electronics. and on
the ground by connecting a complex of three stations to a central computer.
5.4 Terminel Area Operations

The trilateration principle can be applied to the terminal area as well, and provide positive coverage
to touchdown in a manner similar to that obtained in the anroute case. The typical geometry of a
triad covering a terminal area is shown in Figure 18. Location of the triad itself is a function of
the local geometry, typical base legs ranging from 1-10 nautical miles. It is conceivable, for
instance, that a single triad could cover both Kennedy and LaGuardia airports in New York.
In the terminal azea, the accuracy varies with range from the triad. Since it is important to be able
to approach an airport from all angles. we have plotted accuracies in a circle about a postulated
runway, terminated at the base of the triad.
 8-11

TIME FREQUENCY NAVIGATION & COMMUNICATION

NORTHEAST CORRIDOR ABOVE 10,000 FT.

y ;7 ;p; 610
NAUTICAL MILES Figure 17

EVALUATION OF POSITION ACCURACY

IN TERMINAL AREA
121;

X O R Y ERROR (FT)
STANDARD DEVIATION
\
I \
THREE GROUND STATIONS \
EACH AT A RANGE OF
\

\
\
\
\
, \ \4
\
\
\ 6o
\
1
\
I
+110
i
4175
6 NA.MI. 10 NA.MI.
Figure 18
8-12

Errors are less than 17 feet at a range of 10 nautical miles, and improve to a figure of 0-75 feet
one nautical mile from touch-down. This provides Category I localizer capability,-again using the
simple CAS single format. Curved approach paths as well as straight can be accommodated.

6. Conclusion

The impact on the air traffic control system of the time resynchronization technology is shown in Figure 19.
En-route separation can be maintained by station keeping functions. Flight following is possible on the
ground without voice communication, and traffic may be ordered for a given runway threshold, far in advance
of the arrival of an aircraft at that threshold. This enables the inter-weaving of departures and slow
traffic; and materially reduces the work load and the communication requirements placed on a controller.
The system is also highly conservative of our already crowded RF spectrum.

THE IMPACT ON TRAFFIC CONTROL

- A ARRIVAL SEQUENCING BY TIME
OVER RUNWAY THRESHOLD

I STATION I
I-KEEPING 4
IN RANGE
PROVISION OF
ALTERNATE PATHS
BY AIRCRAFT
LANDING SPEED

GROUND STATION COMMUNICATIONS ARE MATERIALLY REDUCED

AUTOMATIC FLIGHT FOLLOWING OCCURS WITHOUT VOICE COMMUNICATIONS
Figure 19

McDonnell Douglas has been a leader in the development of time/frequency technology during this decade.
The collision avoidance system, on which the ATA specification is based, has been operational in St. Louis
since 1965.

Equipment for the ATA Test and Evaluation Program has been delivered, and is now in flight test. Our
military position location and communication system recently completed flight at Pt. Mugu.

Only with the time frequency system can we make substantial in-roads on the problem of traffic congestion
and delays that plague today’s airline environment, yet avoid the further saturation of the 1980s.

References

1. McDonnell Douglas Report G875: “Time Frequency Technology for Air Traffic Control, Navigation
and Collision Avoidance, 20 February 1969

2. Air Transport Association ANTC Report No. 117, Revision 7, 30 August 1968

3. McDonnell Douglas Report G907: “Evaluation of ATA ANTC Report No. 117, Collision Avoidance Threat
Logic and Escape Maneuvers“, 9 May 1969

4. Robert M. Buck, “CASIATC Terminal Compatibility”, Federal Aviation Administration, 2 May 1969

5. John Holt and Gene Marner, “Separation Hazard Criteria“, Collins Radio Company, 5 December 1968
 9

INTEGRATED HYBRID-INERTIAL
AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

B.Danik and R.C.Stow

Singer-General Precision, Inc.,

Wayne, N.J.
 9-1

INTEGRATED HYBRID-INERTIAL
AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

by
B. Danik and R. C. Stow
Singer-General Precision, Inc.
Wayne, N. J.
Presented at the AGARD Guidance
and Control Symposium
23 September 1969
Delft, Netherlands

s UMMARY

Multi-sensor hybrid inertial navigation systems are discussed from a design and
performance point of view. Candidate systems are configured from Doppler, Omega, Loran,
stellar, navigation satellite, and inertial sensor subsystems. In each case the self-
contained inertial platform is augmented with one or more of the sensor aids. In order,
to maximize the useful information content from noisy sensor outputs optimum quasi-
linear statistical filtering is applied to the system mechanization. The assumed sensor
error budgets reflect a spectrum of hardware.
In-flight alignment and calibration of various hybrid-inertial sensor combinations
is demonstrated by digital simulation with emphasis on flight trajectory correlations
to total navigation system performance. Doppler and inertial sensor error estimation is
presented as an example of in-flight calibration techniques. Assessments made in this
paper reflect some of the experience factors gained from hardware as well as software
mechanization development.
INTRODUCTION
The systems engineer, faced with the problem of configuring the navigation sys-
tems for various types of aircraft, must select a technically and economically sound
configuration from a broad field of alternatives. The rapid (almost simultaneous) de-
velopment of a number of new sensor technologies has compounded his problem because of
the complex nature of the trade-off studies which must be made. An examination of the
alternatives disclose that any system which is based on only one type of sensor is not
likely to meet the total requirement of many of the high-performance missions. It is
further apparent that if two sensors are to be selected, the most effective combination
will consist of one sensor representative of self-contained systems (inertial) and one
representative of externally-referenced systems (e.g., a hyperbolic radio aid). The
error models characteristic of these two broad categories of sensors are complementary,
since the operational advantages of one subsystem can be exploited to avoid the limita-
tion of the other.
With the advent of high speed airborne computers, one of the prime design objec-
tives is to optimally retrieve the information content from the various sensors in the
presence of random noise and other errors. The design and production techniques of the
inertial, radar, stellar and hyperbolic sensors have advanced rapidly in recent years,
and in many instances have reached a plateau from which further improvements in accuracy
at this time would indicate severe strain in the overall trade-off including cost, reli-
ability and weight.
Also, sufficient insight has been gained in the recent past to allow certain
assessments of the extent to which the optimization of software can moderate the require-
ments €or the increasingly stringent hardware accuracies. In retrospect, the system
synthesis for the more successful active projects has resulted from bringing together
the expertise in hardware and the analytical insight addressed to the solution of real
problems, most of the time under the impact of actual time schedules. Under these con-
ditions, the luxuries of assumptions not supported by facts or by past performance data
have been mostly avoided. The various sensor error budgets considered in this paper
probably represent a fair cross-section of equipment actually built in the past, although
no attempt is made to emphasize some of the latest available sensor performance data such
as the gyros in a 0.01 deg per hour (day-to-day) class. The exceptions are some of the
sensor types for which no data have been made available at all, in which case a degree
of optimism was considered harmless for the purpose of illustration.
Many of the more detailed navigation technology aspects, relating to both the
conventional and optimal configurations, which would serve as a background for this
paper are discussed in Reference 1. Perhaps the most important single fundamental as-
pect affecting the alignment and navigation accuracy is the dynamic characteristics of
the basic conventional gyrocompass loop (although, for in-flight alignment, external
position fixes and acceleration matching can provide alternate alignment techniques),
shown in Figure 1. Although an explicit gyrocompass loop is not used in optimum fil-
tering, the physical fundamentals remain the same and have a direct bearing upon the
performance of the Kalman filter in the presence of modeled and unmodeled errors.
9-2

This paper addresses itself to navigation with in-flight alignment, since multiple
sensors can be most useful in-air rather than before take-off. The subject of optimum
alignment on the ground and aboard ship deserves separate treatment.
A major problem in the application of statistical digital filtering techniques
is the large number of computations required. In order to feasibly limit the computer
memory and time loading requirements the mechanized system modeling must of necessity
neglect explicit representation of some secondary system error sources. A systematic
approach to the performance evaluation of navigation system designs in the presence of
these unmodeled error sources is one of the primary objectives of this paper.
The accuracy estimate display capability and its application as a potential aid
to enroute mission decisions is discussed, noting that this information is not available
from conventional non-statistical navigation system designs.
HYBRID MODES
The design of hybrid inertial configurations and the modes of operation takes
into account the advantages and disadvantages of the individual sensor subsystems. An
inertial platform represents the best available short term velocity change indicator,
particularly during periods of high acceleration maneuvers. Augmenting this subsystem
with combinations of other sensors allows bounding of the long term navigation errors
characteristic of inertial systems.
These configurations were simulated over a one hour flight trajectory. To dem-
onstrate dynamic correlations to total navigation performance, the flight profile con-
tains the following maneuvers. From take-off at 300 latitude and 30° longitude the air-
craft accelerates along a 45O azimuth to a speed of approximately 500 knots and an alti-
tude of 2 8 , 0 0 0 ft. Level flight is maintained until a dive maneuver is initiated at
30 minutes from take-off, pulling out into level flight and remaining at approximately
1,000 ft. During the remaining portion of flight two horizontal maneuvers are performed,
at approximately 39 minutes and 50 minutes. Average ground velocity throughout the
flight is 600 knots.
In each case, the system operation begins at take-off with assumed prior coarse
initial platform ground alignment. The in-flight mode sequencing, showing when the
various sensors are used, is given in Table 1. In the Doppler-inertial flight, the
system is switched to pure inertial navigation for 15 minutes

Hybrid System Mode Sequence in Minutes

Doppler-Inertial DI: 0"-20; I: 20-35;

DI: 35-52

Doppler-Inertial-Loran DI: 0-5; DIL: 5-7

DI: 7-15; DIL: 15-17; DI: 17-25;
DIL: 25-27; I: 27-50; DIL: 50-52
Loran-Inertial I LI: 0-20; I: 20-35; LI: 35-52
~~~~~

Doppler-Inertial-Omega I DI: 0-30; DI-Omega: 30-52

Doppler-Inertial-Stellar DI: 0-10; DI-Stellar: 10-30;

I: 30-52

Satellite-Inertial 0-52
Doppler available
* Immediately after take-off.

during which time the dive maneuver takes place. Doppler accuracy degrades during high
acceleration maneuvers and thus reliance on the self-contained inertial system may be
advantageous during this period. Also improved short term inertial navigation is pos-
sible since in-flight alignment is accomplished during the first portion of Doppler
aided flight. Velocity referenced to the inertial platform frame, after transformation
from the antenna coordinates, is the basic measurement provided by Doppler radar. Dop-
pler provides relatively good long term velocity information and thus when coupled with
an inertial platform results in a hybrid configuration with bounded velocity error
smaller than that obtainable from a moderately accurate inertial platform by itself.
 9-3

To evaluate the potential advantages of adding position information to the Dop-

pler-inertial system discussed above, Loran and Omega sensors were used. The resulting
two hybrid configurations were exercised over the same trajectory. In the Doppler-iner-
tial-Loran case the Loran time difference measurements were used only from 5 to 7,
15 to 17, and 25 to 27 minutes after take-off. The system was switched to pure inertial
navigation for 23 minutes. Augmenting a Doppler-inertial configuration with Omega yields
a system with a larger coverage capability than Loran but degraded position information.
To demonstrate the capabilities with only position aiding, a Loran-inertial con-
figuration was simulated with Loran assumed available from take-off to 20 minutes, and
then from 35 minutes to the end of flight.
Star elevation and bearing angle measurements characteristic of stellar sensors
offer direct calibration of platform attitude and gyro drift when combined with inertial
platform outputs. The optical tracker in this case is a device for determining the di-
rection of a luminous body relative to a coordinate frame represented by the inertial
platform. Adding Doppler radar information to this hybrid configuration aids in ac-
quiring the stellar field of view and in reducing the velocity errors. Flight operat\ion
was simulated with stellar measurements assumed available for a duration of 20 minutes.
A mode switch to pure inertial navigation was made at 30 minutes and continued to the
end of flight.
One of the most recent concepts is satellite aided navigation. The basic concept
is one in which a series of earth orbiting satellites transmit frequency or timing in-
formation equivalent to range differences and range rates from the transmitting satellite
to the terrestrial user receiver. With a knowledge of the satellite ephemerous data
(i.e., effectively position and velocity) determined by ground tracking stations, the
user may utilize the received signals in conjunction with the inertial outputs. Al-
'though the cost of satellite navigation systems are high compared with other systems
discussed in this paper, their application to a large variety of users as well as their
potential for global coverage may make them competitive. Other advantages may include
their operation as a combined navigation and communication system over a large region.
Various characteristics of this type of system depend upon the geometry of the orbiting
satellite configurations. A cluster of several near synchronous satellites was assumed
for simulation.
OPTIMUM FILTERING FOR HYBRID SYSTEMS
Although the hybrid configurations present a far greater potential for overall
navigation capability than schemes employing only one sensor, only a minor part of the
potential advantage of having two or more sensors aboard would be realized unless the
subsystems are optimally integrated. The optimum synthesis is based upon the applica-
tion of quasi-linear filtering theory. The original Kalman filtering theory provided
a technique for obtaining optimal estimates of the dynamic variables of a system when
the process is linear. However, many important applications, including that of aircraft
navigation, are non-linear processes:

yn = h(xn) + vn

where the dynamics of the state vector x are continuous but the observations (vector y)
are discrete; and U and vn are Gaussian white-noise random variables with a zero mean.
The first step in arriving at a quasi-linear solution is to linearize and dis-
cretize the entire process. In summary, as shown in Reference 1, the end result is a
quasi-linear approximation in which the estimation equation contains the same non-linear
functions as the process equations, and only the'gain and covariance computations make
use of the linearized equations.
This processing may be accomplished automatically in an airborne computer, placing
the least possible burden on the pilot in terms of weighting of the individual sensor
inputs.
In many cases, the quasi-linear solution is equivalent to a linear formulation
which involves a definition of the state vector in terms of the error quantities (e.g.,
velocity error) rather than the full variable. This is true when the platform misalign-
ments can be represented by small angle approximations, and when observations can be
redefined as linear functions of the error state vector. The quasi-linear formulation
was used in simulations discussed in this paper.
Application of the Kalman filtering requires statistical modeling of sensor errors.
The dynamic equation set for the system is generated from the differential equations Of
the pure-inertial Schuler-tuned subsystem which includes all cross-couplings. The state
vector includes the quantities of interest such as latitude, longitude, North and East
velocities, platform azimuth misalignment and verticality errors, and also, idealistically,
all error sources (other than white noise) to the extent of establishing a realistic
error model. Inclusionof all conceivable error sources in the Kalman filter model would
9-4

not only impose a formidable airborne computer situation, but would also require imprac-
tical and massive efforts in modeling all error statistics and eventual sensor design
specifications reflecting these criteria. Therefore, the dimension of the state vector
must be limited so that only the most important error sources are included. Consequently,
this finite dimensional state vector is based on an ideal rather than a real error model.
The equation format chosen for the estimated state vector of 12 elements is:

.
8,
= De + Te - We - Wn 0, + W, 8,

8,
= Dn + Tn - Wn - W, 8, + We eu

e, = D, + T, - w, + wn e, - we en

ve = A
, + (Wu + sinA ) Vn - (Wn + ) Vu + gen - Ans 8,
.
COS

= Vn/(Rn + h)
0

# = Ve/(Re + h) cosx

* 0
De = Dn = D, = 0

DB = Dv = '0

where
Wn = n COS^ + Ve/(Re + h)

We = -Vn/(Rn + h)

W, = W, tan X

The following nomenclatures and definitions are applicable:

(e, n, U) Locally vertical coordinate frame with n-axis pointing,
North, e-axis pointing East, and u-axis pointing up.
(XI Y, 2) Platform coordinates corresponding to accelerometer input
axis.

Aes
1
Actual accelerometer outputs ("sensed accelerations") .
De, Dnr Du Gyro biases.

DV Doppler scale factor (bias) error.

DB Doppler boresight error.
Platform torquing rates.
Effective gravity (including the centripetal force due to
earth's rotation).
h Altitude.
X Latitude.
Longitude.
North and East velocities.
Earth's rate.
Attitude errors in verticality and azimuth.
Earth's North and East radii.
Doppler-inertial
 9-5

LI Loran-inertial.
DIL Doppler-inertial-Loran.
s (w) Spectral density function.

Outputs from sensors other than the inertial subsystem are referred to as obser-
vations. Deletion of the accelerometer biases from the estimated state vector was
found justified by inability to calibrate them in-flight (except when extremely accurate
position aids are available) and because the resulting degradation in performance was
minor, with proper compensations discussed later.
SENSOR ERROR MODELS AND ERROR BUDGETS
Although all sensors examined in this paper have errors whose modeling would be
desirable (if feasible), only gyro and doppler biases are included in the estimated
state vector. In evaluating the performance of the 12-element filter the more impor-
tant unmodeled error sources were exercised in the simulation. These include gyro
torquer scale factor errors, mass unbalance, random gyro drift and warmup drift charac-
teristics, accelerometer bias and random error, accelerometer scale factor error, and
inertial component input axis misalignments. Table 2 shows the various error source
rms values used to represent the inertial platform.

North-Slaved Inertial Platform Standard Deviation

Error Source Values :Assumed for purpose of this paper on11
- Day-to-day gyro bias:
East 0.05 deg/hr
North 0.05 deg/hr
Azimuth 0.05 deg/hr
Gyro torquer scale factor error:
East, North, Azimuth 0.1% deg/hr
Gyro mass unbalance:
East 0.2 deg/hr/g
North 0.2 deg/hr/g
Azimuth 0.2 deg/hr/g

Random gyro drift:

East, North, Azimuth 0.01 deg/hr
(with a correlation
time of 30 min.

I Gyro warmup characteristics:

Drift due to incomplete warmup 0.1 deg/hr
for east, north, azimuth at turn on
Warmup time constant 2 min.

Accelerometer bias:
East 100 ug
North 100 ug

I UP 300 ug

I Accelerometer scale factor error:

I
East, North, Up 0.1%
 9-6

I ' North-Slaved Inertial Platform Standard Deviation

Error Source Values issumed for purpose of this paper only)

Random accelerometer noise:

East 10 ug
North 10 ug

"P 60 ug
(each with a
correlation time
of 5 min.)
Gyro and accelerometer input axis
misalignments:
N - Accel. to E - Accel. 1 arc min.
N - Gyro to N - Accel. about east 1 arc min.
E - Gyro to E - Accel. about up 1 arc min.
E - Gyro to E - Accel. about nortt 1 arc min.
Azimuth gyro to N - Accel. 1 arc min.

Table 2. Inertial Platform Error Sources

In many cases, data for inertial sensor error budgets appear to be more readily
available than data on the sensors which are often considered as potential aids, because
of work done in the inertial domain. Availability of realistic error data for modeling,
or at least for assessing the characteristic of unmodeled errors, is of crucial impor-
tance relative to the actual effectiveness of the aids.
Various hardware trade-offs exist relative to the types of coupling the star
tracker to the inertial platform. An integral-mounted stellar sensor utilizing the
stable element of the platform to provide tracking independent of vehicle body motions
and off-mounted tracker with separate gimbal isolation loops driven by the inertial sys-
tem are two basic designs often considered. Other areas affecting stellar-inertial sys-
tem performance center around single star and two tracking schemes. A single star
tracker was utilized for simulations in this paper. The pointing errors of the tracker
are assumed to be uncorrelated at the sampling intervals.
Satellite navigation data may possess both high and low frequency random errors.
Slowly varying bias type error sources may result from various satellite tracking net-
work uncertainties and signal propagation effects. Purely random high frequency timing
and frequency errors are also likely. Some of these signal propagation error character-
istics may be minimized by optimizing the transmitting frequencies. One major difference
between satellite navigation and Loran or Omega position navigation lies in the line of
sight operation of the satellite to user receivers, which may reduce the long-range dis-
tortion. However, no attempt is made to compare the performance of Loran and satellite
aids because the assumed satellite data accuracies are arbitrary. Table 3 specifies the
various observation sensor error budgets assumed in this paper.

k 1 1
Measurement Sensor Errors Standard Deviation
(Assumed for this paper only)

Doppler:
Velocity bias error 0.25% of ground speed
Random bias shift 0.1% of ground speed with
correlation time of
3 min.

Velocity noise 0.01 n knots2/rad/sec/knot

Note : a spectral density
noise rms*=
I
- J S(u)dU
tzr -00
cut-off frequency of 1 rad/sec
Boresight bias error 0.25 deg

I Random boresight error I 2 X rad I

 9-7

Measurement Sensor Errors Standard Deviation

(Assumed for this paper only)

Loran:
Time difference bias error 2 microseconds
(distortion with long correlation (1000 ft. on baseline)
distance)
Random time difference noise 0.5 microseconds
Omega:
Time difference bias error 5 microseconds
Random time difference error 6 microseconds
Stellar:
Elevation and bearing angle noise 10 arc sec.
Satellite:
Range difference bias error 500 ft.
Random range difference noise 100 ft.
Random range rate difference noise 0.5 ft/sec

Table 3 . Non-Inertial Sensor Error Budget

Standard Deviation
~~

Initial platform alignments:

North tilt 0.1 deg
East tilt 0.1 deg
Azimuth misalignment 2.0 deg

Initial velocity error:

North, East 2.0 ft/sec
Initial position error:
North 1800 ft
East 1600 ft

Table 4 . Assumed Initial Errors Before Take-Off

Latitude and longitude navigation is weakly coupled to the vertical velocity

channel. Thus vertical channel navigation is often decoupled and performed with com-
bined outputs of the vertical accelerometer and an altitude indicating sensor (i.e.,
barometric altimeter). A second order damping loop is often utilized to mix information
in this regard. Although doppler and satellite navigation sensors possess information
applicable to the vertical channel, this aspect is not treated in this paper. In the
results presented a suitable technique for vertical channel implementation is assumed.
In the Kalman filtering theory with discrete observations (which lends itself to
digital computer mechanization) the noise in observations is assumed to be purely random,
i.e., uncorrelated at the sampling intervals. If the actual noise in navigation aids
does not satisfy this assumption and if the autocorrelation functions are known, it can
be represented in the state vector through hypothetical shaping filters, with random
noise as one of the forcing functions acting upon the system dynamics. This represen-
tation, however, is undesirable because it increases the size of the state vector and
also because the computations are greatly simplified when there is no noise among the
forcing functions. If the modeling of random gyro and accelerometer errors is also
neglected (as in the filter evaluated in this paper), the forcing function then consists
only of the vehicle's acceleration vector.
9-8

In practice, the correlation time of Doppler noise (one second or less) is at

least an order of magnitude shorter than the typical Kalman iteration cycle and there-
fore, Doppler noise can be assumed uncorrelated at sampling intervals. Similarly, the
correlation time of random Loran noise, which depends on the bandwidth of the phase-lock
loop in the receiver, is in the order of only a few seconds and can be assumed uncorre-
lated if the Kalman cycle is several times longer. The same is not true, however, with
respect to Loran errors caused by long-range distortion of the ground wave. These
errors can have a long correlation time and are represented as constant in the simula-
tions shown in this paper, without being modeled in the filter. Similarly, Doppler
bias shift, if it occurs at unknown points in time, can not be easily modeled.
One of the distinctions between conventional and Kalman Doppler-inertial mechani-
zations is their sensitivity aspects to the high-frequency Doppler noise, which in the
latter case can be harmful but easily avoidable by properly processing the Doppler in-
puts. The conventional continuous loops effectively reject Doppler noise (using a suf-
ficiently low loop's bandwidth), whereas in the Kalman filter mechanization the discrete
sampling of Doppler inputs entails aliasing of the high frequency noise into a frequency
band equal to one half the sampling rate. For example, if the sampling rate is
ts = 15 seconds, the noise bandwidth, as seen by the Kalman filter, is wc = 2 4 /2ts or
0.2 radians per second. That is, the entire Doppler noise (usually assumed to have a
flat spectrum up to some cut-off frequency which is at least 1 radian per second in
order to provide a rapid transient Doppler response) is reflected into a bandwidth wc.
This can be avoided by simply reducing the Doppler bandwidth prior to sampling, down
to about wc. In the case of an unstabilized antenna, with a corresponding rapid response
tracker, the low-pass filtering can take place after the Doppler inputs are resolved in
the iner,tialplatform coordinates. Either a first-order filter or an aperture type
(averaging over the observation intervals) is adequate. Some degradation in Doppler's
transient response, due to this filtering, is readily acceptable, because the extra-
polated Kalman observations can be filtered similarly and the transient error canceled
out. Analogous image filters have been successfully used in conventional DI loops when
earlier Doppler radars had poor transient characteristics.
For a given noise bandwidth, the Kalman filter observation rate approximately
satisfies the assumption of uncorrelatedness if it is equal to or less than twice the
noise bandwidth. Under practical conditions, which may include rapid alignment require-
ments on the ground or aboard aircraft carries before take-off, the observation rate of
the external velocity reference must be sufficiently rapid in order to acquire adequate
information content (on the ground, the er,ror in the external reference is equal to the
motion caused by wind buffeting\and vibrations); hence the assumption of uncorrelatedness
may be incorrect to begin with. Violation of this assumption may or may not signifcantly
degrade the final alignment accuracy, depending upon the average noise power, its spectral
content, and certain covariance shaping techniques. It is apparent, however, that the
effect of noise can not be suppressed until an adequate number of samples is collected
over which the noise is indeed uncorrelated. For example, in gyrocompassing (optimal or
otherwise) the low-frequency noise content in the band from several times the Schuler
frequency up to about 50 times Schuler is the dominant factor affecting the speed of
alignment, and it should be realistically considered in the design and simulation of any
filter intended for practical use.'
NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
The simulation utilized in determining the system performance evaluates the finite-
dimensional statistical filter in the presence of real world error sources, using Monte
Carlo'evaluation techniques. Ensemble results are based on several flights and reflect
the contribution of both modeled and unmodeled error sources to the total system error.
Values of these error sources, as well as the initial condition errors, are determined
by random choice for each single run of an ensemble of flights based on the specified
standard deviations associated with each of the parameters. Ensemble performance values
are obtained by performing an rms calculation on the difference between the true state
vector and the estimated state vector as a function of time over the total number of
flights simulated.
In designing a filter for hybrid inertial navigation operation the important con-
sideration is which error sources should not be neglected in the state vector. Coupled
with this consideration is the extent of the relative degradation in system performance
when only those error sources deemed most significant are included in the estimated state
vector.
A straight-forward application of filtering theory using a finite state vector
approximation leads to phenomena known as divergence, and usually to outright unsatis-
factory results. Techniques used to avoid divergence have been accomplished by the
method of covariance shaping. Covariance shaping is a process which effectively places
a lower bound on the diagonal elements of the covariance matrix. The filter's covari-
ance matrix (used for computing the gains to weigh new sensor data), if not compensated
in this manner, reflects the uncertainty which the filter attributes t o its estimate of
the state considering only modeled error sources. By applying covariance shaping tech-
niques some of the unmodeled effects may be coarsely accounted for, thus hopefully allow-
ing the covariance matrix to conservatively indicate system accuracy as a function of
time. However, it should be stressed that only through simulation and engineering judg-
ment can these techniques be correctly designed and evaluated for particular system
configurations. To illustrate the characteristics of both the ensemble (i.e., actual)
system performance and the filter's estimate of that performance, both ensemble and
shaped covariance solutions of pertinent state parameters are presented for each system.
 9-9

With in-flight alignment, initial azimuth error is the prime source of position
error shortly after take-off. In optimal Doppler-inertial systems, this position error
is recovered after completion of alignment.
The accuracy of azimuth alignment in the Doppler-inertial mode is correlated with
the accuracy of the East gyro and Doppler errors. In-flight East gyro calibration with-
out position or stellar fixes requires a very large change in latitude and is extremely
sensitive to modeling errors. With the limited state size filter, self-calibration of
the East gyro is not achieved in Doppler-inertial operation. Calibration accuracy of
the North gyro depends on Doppler calibration. The Doppler scale factor and boresight
errors were effectively calibrated when the aircraft experienced a moderate turn during
the horizontal maneuvers at approximately 4 0 minutes after take-off. Had these maneuvers
been performed earlier more rapid calibration of these variables would have been possible,
as shown in Reference 1.
Addition of Loran to the above configuration allows a more rapid platform align-
ment. Calibration of the gyros would be more accurate if the Loran error budget had
smaller errors.
A Loran-inertial (LI) configuration, in general, is less effective than a Doppler-
inertial-Loran system unless Loran is very accurate. The covariance solution in this
simulation is a coarser representation of ensemble accuracies than the other configura-
tions shown in this paper. This is due to the unmodeled Loran bias errors, although
covariance shaping and larger apriori noise was stipulated in computing the gain matrix.
One obvious remedy would be to include the bias in the state vector and calibrate it out
of the system, if the long-range Loran distortion could be characterized by a constant
bias (which is not actually the case).
Satellite aided inertial navigation would yield excellent performance if actual
sensor errors were in the same class as assumed in the error budget. Improved azimuth
alignment due to the two maneuvers near the end of flight is based on effective accele-
ration matching. In addition, correlation of azimuth gyro drift calibration to these
maneuvers is also indicated. The two spikes in the curve at about 30 minutes indicate
the effect of azimuth gyro.mass unbalance on the total platform azimuth axis drift
during vertical acceleration experienced at dive initiation and pull-out.
The Doppler-inertial-stellar configuration provides probably the best platform
alignment and gyro calibration characteristics of any of the hybrid systems discussed.
Since cloud cover obstructs a stellar sensor's ability to detect a star, this sensor is
more reliably applicable at high altitudes. Thus at 10 minutes after take-off at
28,000 ft. altitude a mode switch is made to process stellar information. Note that
the covariance solution in this case very closely approximates the actual ensemble ob-
tainable.
To illustrate performance obtainable with a Doppler-inertial system augmented
with coarse position information a Doppler-inertial-Omega configuration was simulated.
Although this system design obviously does not function as accurately as its Loran
counterpart, it has merits for long flights.
In each of the cases discussed above the covariance solution was found to possess
varying degrees of predictability of ensemble performance. Utilizing techniques such
as covariance shaping this estimate of performance is able to coarsely reflect various
unmodeled error contributions. When this procedure is successful the covariance solu-
tion may be a useful tool to the pilot as an aid in making mode selection decisions.
Ensemble performance is what must be used in evaluating hybrid inertial accuracy during
system design. A 16 second sampling time was used in the Kalman filter.
SOFTWARE DESIGN
The design of softwarc for hybrid navigation systems with optimal filtering must
be based on correctly detailed dynamic models and a realistic assessment of sensor errors.
It must address itself to the requirements of reaction time, navigation accuracy and
airborne computer capacity in the context of a sensor error budget which, in the final
analysis, must be fulfilled in a production environment. Sensor error budgets for real
hardware are realizable mostly in terms of the maximum or rms errors rather than by im-
posing rigid control of the spectral error characteristics. The most common gyro speci-
fications, for instance, refer to the day-to-day bias shift and the maximum random drift.
The simplified statistical models which assume that the error sources are either constant
or purely random (i.e., zero autocorrelation at the sampling points), or are characterized
by some spectral density functions are only approximations, sometimes rather crude. Even
if the more detailed statistical models were fully valid the airborne computer capacity
requirements could exceed practical limits.
Digital simulation is the main tool used to evaluate the performance of a filter
based on a simplified error model in the presence of both the modeled and the unmodeled
error sources. The latter error sources are simulated, in addition to the modeled errors,
in the "real world" segment of the simulation program. In this manner, the error sources
can be introduced in the simulation as functions of time based on real hardware data col-
lected in laboratory tests or sometimes in a dynamic environment.
9- 10

If the filter is configured off-line, i.e., its outputs are not fed back into
the individual sensor subsystems, the overall system performance (except the airborne
computer) can be evaluated by processing on a scientific computer the taped flight test
outputs of the individual sensor subsystems and the true flight path data, before the
software is ever flown. Suitable adjustments can then be made in the software, if de-
sired, and the "flight test" repeated.on the scientific computer using the same taped
sensor outputs.
In view of the limited accuracy of the statistical error models the software de-
sign must be matched to the existing hardware, by various adjustments and empirical com-
pensation techniques, such as the covariance limiting, and validated by actual tests
using real sensor data before it can be considered completed.
SYSTEM AND HARDWARE TRADEOFFS
It is necessary to insure that the unmodeled sensor errors do not exceed certain
maximum or rms limits, since the software compensation techniques are effective only if
these errors are small. For the modeled errors, the error budget depends on the totality
and the quality of available sensors. For example, if the inertial system is aided only
by Doppler, the east gyro bias (which affects azimuth and position accuracy) can not be
calibrated in-flight except when the error models are very accurate and the flight is
over a wide range of latitude; the calibration of the azimuth gyro takes a long time but
is unnecessary for short flights. An approximate criterion for the error budget of the
unmodeled errors is that the corresponding navigation errors of each individual sensor
subsystem should be at least as small as the navigation errors of the integrated system.
It does not follow, however, that in the case when the modelable errors are small the
optimally integrated system offers no significant advantage over an independent use of
the various sensors or a more conventional sensor mixing techniques. One advantage of
optimal filtering is the time-varying trajectory-dependent relative weighting of the
noisy sensor inputs which may be available only occasionally, as the raw data, not
directly expressible in terms of velocity or position (e.g., the time differences or
stellar observations) and whose inherent information content can not be extracted
through simplified computations in a dynamic environment. This also includes the ability
to update the time-varying cross-correlation coefficients relating the various quanti-
ties of interest, so that the observations of one quantity (or of some function of the
state vector) leads to an optimum estimate of the total state vector (e.g., in-flight
alignment and estimation of velocity in a Loran-aided inertial system, or the recovery
of position error after completion of in-flight azimuth alignment in a Doppler-inertial
system). The speed of alignment is also improved by being essentially independent of
the magnitude of initial misalignment (as long as it is within @e valid range of the
model if small angle approximations are used; mechanizations valid for large angles are
also available).
The more important sensor errors that are usually not modeled statistically in
the filter are discussed in preceding sections. Some of these errors can be modeled
deterministically as, for example, the transient platform warmup drift in the case when
the system specifications require rapid alignment before take-off.
Since the available velocity aids have a relatively high noise content, the in-
stantaneous velocity accuracy is obtained from the inertial platform, with its low-
frequency errors bounded by Doppler (or other aids) or by accurately aligning the plat-
form and then flying in a pure inertialmode if the gyros and accelerometers are of high
quality. This is true in the conventional as well as in optimized system configurations,
except that in the latter case the gyros may be calibrated in-flight if properly model-
able aids are available. From the performance point of view, the hardware trade-offs
must consider the gyro drift characteristics and all other sensor errors. Sensors with
reduced accuracy may be acceptable only to the extent of the ability to model the errors.
Performance, weight, size, cost and reliability are the main factors which lead
to an overall trade-off matrix. If complexity of equipment' implies questionable reli-
ability (as it sometimes does) and if the less sophisticated mechanizations and equip-
ment do not meet the desired performance, the system planning should attempt to achieve
both the performance and the reliability by perhaps stressing the reliability improve-
ments of the present generation hardware, configured with optimized software mechaniza-
tions, while holding other factors (weight, size and major costs) relatively stable.
The somewhat extreme hypothetical positions (allowing spiraling complexity and cost of
new systems or strong advocacy of older, less sophisticated avionics) are both likely
to be untenable in the long run. One area which holds promise of a sizable weight re-
duction is the airborne computer, not only through the use of smaller components but
mainly by efficient structuring of the instructions repertoire, suited toward the type
of functional computations (e.g., matrix inversions for the Kalman filtering) which it
must perform. In general, however, the trend toward smaller weight and size should be
moderated by a realization that it often entails the same cycle of debugging and dis-
coveries of new reliability problems which is typical in a transient phase.
The choice of sensor aids in-flight is strongly influenced by reaction time re-
quirements because part of the time spent before take-off may be used in some cases to
align the inertial platform. The large amount of work done on the design of rapid
ground and carrier alignment is closely related to the subject of in-flight alignment
discussed in this paper, but could not be presented within the same format.
 9-11

REFERENCES

(1) B. Danik, " I n t e g r a t e d I n e r t i a l V e l o c i t y - A i d e d a n d P o s i t i o n - A i d e d A i r c r a f t i\

N a v i g a t i o n " , P r e s e n t e d a t 2 4 t h Annual Meeting of t h e I n s t i t u t e of N a v i g a t i o n ,

2 1 J u n e 1968.

(2) A. E. Bryson, Jr. and Yu-Chi Ho, O p t i m i z a t i o n , E s t i m a t i o n , and C o n t r o l ,

Waltham, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , B l a i s d e l l P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1968, C h a p t e r 1 2 .

(3) C. T . Leondes, Guidance and C o n t r o l of A e r o s p a c e V e h i c l e s , New York,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1 9 6 3 , C h a p t e r 4.
9-12

CV = error in external velocity

reference
1 00
N = Schuler m u l t i p l e
( f u n c t i o n of l o o p g a i n s )
= Schuler frequency

A= 43 DEG.

ul
> 10
U

E
ul

36
2
3
2
Y
1
e
2
E
I
5
rN
Q:

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 .O FREQUENCY,

RAD/SEC

Fig.1 Gyrocompass noise response w i t h fixed gains

Pi DI I DI Pi DI I DI
1
I 1 I I I

91
sm 5o.m 1m.m m.m ao.m m.m m.m sm 5o.m 1m.m is0.m 2w.m 25o.m
MIO) TIME [SEC) &IO) TIME (SEC1

Fig.2 DI north p o s i t i o n navigation Fig.3 DI e a s t p o s i t i o n navigation

error error
I
9-13

I4
0
I4
aJ
x
U
.r(
U
0
4
W

E
U
U
m
4

?
X

z
W
M
2

I-
+ =
v)

v)
Y

a
z
I
I-
In
!& a M
2
9
e
e
a
0

I- I4

;. 0

5
.E
d
N
m

z
e
8
si M
2
S
'd)
 9- 14

w
P

al
3
m
0
m
x c
U .0
.rl d
v u
o m
4 h
aln
c .rl
4
h a
alv
3
nh
a0
85
w
CO
M
;"

h
0
h
al
x
U
.rl
V
0
3
al

E
w
0
U
4m

*?
2
t-
M
i;:
 9-15

l-0
0
Lt
al
U
E
E
&
.A
4
m
r:
U
a
E
.A
N
m

3
ri
rl

M)

;r3

Lt
0
k
01
E
.A
U
.A
U)

a
U
U)
m
al

z
rl
rl

M
i=

0
4
9-16
4

Ll
0
Ll
W

x
U
.rl
U
0
4
W

E
0
U
U
m
4
a
>:
z
Id
n
M
i;:

Ll
0
Ll
Ll
W
x
Y
.A
0
0
4
W

E
0
U
U
m
4
a
A
z
e
4

M
c
 9-17

Y
E
O
LL
a
e
W

-
a
W
c
-1

LL

i
I-
a
W
s
W
t
-1

ti
#L d

\'I
9-18

fn
I-
-1
fn
3

Y
W
U
z
S
U
a
0
k
E

U
W

r qc
I-

i
Ia
8
4
3 3
8 3 0
w c
4 L)

m
VI

,a
8 0
si N
M
.r(
Lr,

8.

Y
U1
m
w

M
i2
 9-19

+
c
(A

Ln
W
U

W
z
U
a
s -
U
0

t
e
W

U
I-W
;
I
LL
z
a
0 -
~n
J
E
l-

-
U
z
W

a
I -
n
W
J
e
e
0 -

-
OO'C

r n '
N
M
i.2

e)
U)
m

M
i.2
9-20

c
v) -
a
n

W
E

W
z
U
Ea
0 -
LL
a
e
W

a
e
-
-I
LL a

I4
2
W
z
U al
a U
S
e - c
U.
0
a
e
W M
.rl
a 4
eJ
6
I
U. 5
z
a E
K .rl
N
m

W
.a
W
e
1

3
 9-21

m
N
M
i;]

LI
0
LI
aJ

Ux
.?I
U
0
d
aJ
a
e
-1 E
I
L -- 4 0
U
z
a
K
U
4m
-1n
0 -
?
-1
5
;
--~
X

W
--.E F:
0
f -
cLn
W
a
J -- 2
CO
N
b
0
-- 5 M
B i;l
00’01 00’6 00‘8 00‘L
9-22

U
W
a'"
k -
I-

9
8
d
8
k
i
8
i

.U
rl
.rl
U)
0
a
U
U)
m
W
h h
m o
- i h
4 h
Uw w
,
U)

El
N
m
W
e
-I M

b s i=
a

OO'C 09'1 09-1 m.1 OL.1 09' rn' 02'

I'IWOPN? UOM1?tkIlISDd 1SM

El

M
c
 9-23

r
-1
3
VI
e
W

W
U
z
U
S
e
0
U.
e
e
W

-
?
-1
LL
e
U
-1
-I
W
I-

?
-1
'L
IK
-

-
Y
I
e
W
-1
e
e
0

-
00'01

r
-1
ln
2
2
W
U
z
U
S
e
0 -
LL
e
e
W

e
W
I-
2
LL

e
U
-1
w
-1 e

52
S
- 1 5I,
I - 0

-
U
z
W

I
e
W
-1
e
(1

g a
-
00'01

l4
W 0
U
z
U
I4
r W
e
0 -
U
2 4
.?I
W
(1 U
U
m
m
W
l4
m
4 .
4

W
U
U)
I

8
9-24

/I
I
a
W
A I

W
z
U
a
S
a
0 -
k
e
a

-
2
-1
LL

a
a
-1

m
t-
-1
m
3

Y
W
U
z
U
a
S

E=-
 9-25

- I
--sa?=-

0
d
M
i2
I 9-26

x
U
.rl
U
0
4
a
>
E
bl
U
m
4
a*
A:::
m a

;
M

E;
In
d
M
i;:

x
U
.rl
U
0
4
W

E
*0
U
m
4
a*
1 0

*:,
m a
M
B
?
E
*
d

M
i;:

m
M
B
U
P

m
d
M
i;:
MODERN AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SENSORS FOR HYBRID SYSTEMS

W. R. F r i e d

Autonetics Division,
North American Rockwell Corporation
10
 10-1

MODERN AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SENSORS FOR HYBRID SYSTEMS

by
W. R. Fried

Autonetics Division

North American Rockwell Corporation

I
This paper presents the basic principles, design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and performance trends, of the four modern

I navigation sensors which make up t y p i c a l hybrid systems, namely Doppler radar, i n e r t i a l measuring units,
ground-based radio systems and airborne radar. The mathematics underlying the combination of these dead
reckoning and position fixing sensor outputs t o form a hybrid system which generates t h e Ilmost probable"
position i s introduced. The most significant modern Doppler radar c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are described, notably
three-dimensional velocity determination by means of fixed antennas and various techniques f o r obtaining
I
accurate over-water operation. Design trends, a t y p i c a l e r r o r model and performance trends a r e presented.
, Significant design trends, a t y p i c a l e r r o r model and performance trends of i n e r t i a l measuring u n i t s a r e
given. The fundamental characteristics, limitations, and implementation trends of t h e modern point-source
and hyperbolic ground-based radio systems a r e analyzed and compared. The use of airborne radar f o r semi-
automatic position fixing i s described and the limitations of conventional airborne radars a r e highlighted.
The basic principles of the more modern, synthetic aperture and squint mode radar a r e described and i t s ex-
c e l l e n t resolution performance behavior i s discussed. The mechanization of a Doppler-inertial-radio m u l t i -
I
sensor system i s presented, with a possible physical configuration, indicating t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of extremely
small, hybrid navigation systems of t h i s type.
Introduction

For several years t h e r e has been an increasing i n t e r e s t in "hybrid" o r "multisensorI1 navigation systems f o r
use on a i r c r a f t . There a r e several reasons f o r t h i s trend. F i r s t l y , the dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of certain
sensors, such as Doppler, i n e r t i a l , radio, and radar, complement one another in such a manner t h a t t h e in-
herent l i m i t a t i o n s of each sensor a r e overcome t o a very high degree. Secondly, the successful development
and application of optimum f i l t e r i n g (Kalman) techniques has lead t o overall system accuracies t h a t a r e
s i g r i f i c a n t l y greater than those of the individual sensors which comprise the system. Thirdly, hybrid sys-
tems afford redundancy, since another sensor can frequently take over in performing t h e function of a sen-
sor which has f a i l e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the f a i l u r e i s only f o r a limited period, s o t h a t over-all system
performance i s only somewhat degraded, r a t h e r than catastrophically affected. It i s a l s o possible t o
" c a l i b r a t e outll c e r t a i n sensor biases during the early portion of a f l i g h t , thereby again improving system
performance in case of sensor f a i l u r e . Finally, i n addition t o improved performance and redundancy, hybrid
systems can a l s o lead t o reduced cost, since optimally integrated systems permit the designer t o reduce t h e
performance specifications and tolerances of each of the individual sensors, i n order t o obtain the desired
over-all navigation accuracy. In t h i s regard, it i s important not t o "push" any of the sensors t o t h e i r
performance limits, since doing so usually r e s u l t s i n high r i s k , severe tolerances, l a r g e complexity, and
excessive cost.

A number of new a i r c r a f t navigation sensors have been developed within the past 10 years and all of these
a r e worthwhile candidates f o r hybrid systems. It i s the purpose of t h i s paper t o describe t h e basic charac-
t e r i s t i c s , ranges of available performance, and performance trends of these sensors. The sensors t r e a t e d
include Doppler radar, i n e r t i a l measuring units, radio systems and airborne radar. A b r i e f outline i s
first given of the basic modern navigation techniques and equations. After a detailed description of t h e
sensors, a discussion i s presented of the performance behavior of a t y p i c a l Doppler-inertial-radio system,
and of a possible physical configuration of a highly-integrated hybrid navigator.

T,mes of Navigation Techniques

Classically, there a r e two basic types of navigation techniques; dead reckoning and position fixing. These
can now be combined i n t o a t h i r d , basic navigation technique which might be called multisensor navigation,
which consists of combining the d a t a from various dead reckoning and position fixing sensors and obtaining
t h e best ( "optimumr1)estimate of the most probable position.

Modern'dead reckoning techniques, a l l of which a r e inherently lrself-containedl1 i n nature, include the fol-
lowing three types:

True Air Speed plus Heading plus Wind Velocity (Single Integration)
(Frequently used f o r back-up only)

Doppler Velocity plus Heading (Single Integration)

I n e r t i a l Acceleration (Double Integration)

The equations for these are given by the following and a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by Figure 1 l a f t e r Reference 11.
10-2

'North
= v
g
cos (q +of)

Doppler
'East
= vg sin (G + 4 )
= V cos TT
Inertial 'North g
'East = V s i n TT
g

where :

d = Drift Angle

YT = True Heading

TT = True Track
= Sideslip Angle

P = Pitch Angle

A = Angle of Attack

C = Climb Angle

I n the area of position f:'udng systems, following a r e t h e four modern techniques in use today:
Radio (Ground Referenced)
Airborne Radar (Self-contained)
Celestial . (Self-contained)
Sat e l l i t e (Space-Ref erenced )

In a modern hybrid system, t h e t h r e e dead reckonhg sensor inputs and the four position f i x sensor inputs
a r e combined i n a d i g i t a l computer, s o as t o obtain t h e most probable position of the a i r c r a f t , range and
bearing t o the desired destination, and the required steering signals, as depicted i n Figure 2 (after
Reference 1).

Doppler Radar

A Doppler radar measures t h e velocity vector of t h e a i r c r a f t with respect t o a reference coordinate system
on t h e a i r c r a f t , through t h e measurement of the Doppler s h i f t experienced by microwave energy which has
been transmitted towards the earth, backscattered by the earth and received a t the a i r c r a f t , by means of
several (usually 3 or 4 ) , suitably oriented non-coplanar beams. A fundamental Doppler radar beam configura-
t i o n f o r obtaining the t o t a l velocity vector i s shown i n Figure 3. Equations (7) through (9) express the
Doppler s h i f t s of each of the three beams:

1 = 3 ( - vi COSYH + vt, cos YD + v; c o s yV ) (7)

g2 = 72 (A' COSY + Vh cos YD + v; cos ")'
(8)
H
"; = 72 (A' cos a
; - Vb cos a D + v; cos Y)' (9)

These a r e then combined i n accordance with the following equations t o obtain the t h r e e orthogonal velocity
components i n a i r c r a f t coordinates, V I H , V I D , V I v :
 10-3

where :

q0 = beam depression angle from plane of the antenna

Qo = acute azimuth angle of t h e antenna beam

In order t o obtain the three velocity components in earth coordinates, i.e., referred t o a t r u e horizontal
plane, V I H , VID, V I v must be combined with pitch angle P and r o l l angle R i n accordance with t h e equations:

VH =
VIH cos P + VID sin P + VIv cos R sin P (13 1

VD = V I D COS R - VIv sin R (4)

vv =-VIH sin P + VID sin R cos P + VIv cos R cos P (15)

The ground speed V is, of course, given by V = (VH2

g g
+ VD2)+ and the d r i f t a n g l e d b y d = arctan VD/VH.

I n most modern Doppler radars, the operations represented by (10) through (12), and frequently a l s o those
represented by (13) through (15), a r e performed in t h e Doppler radar i t s e l f . However, i n a modern hybrid
system, it may w e l l be desirable t o perform all six of these operations i n the c e n t r a l d i g i t a l navigation
computer.

The basic block diagram of a Doppler radar i s shown in Figure 4. As indicated above, t h e outputs of the
tracker may be e i t h e r Ql, g2, v3 or V I H , V I D , V I v or VH, VD, Vv. Another common a l t e r n a t e i s an output
of ground speed V and d r i f t a n g l e d , plus v e r t i c a l velocity, Vv.) The most d i r e c t and most accurate form
g
of Doppler velocity output i s t h a t of Doppler pulses whose r a t e represents velocity and whose periodically
accumulated count represents incremental distance traveled.

I n t y p i c a l modern Doppler radars t h e most significant e r r o r s a r e those which occur during operation over
water. There a r e t h r e e types of over-water errors. Two of them a r e due t o actual water transport motion;
one ( t h e l a r g e r of the two) i s due t o surface wind-induced water droplet motion, and the other i s due t o
sea currents. Although there e x i s t s considerable howledge about the behavior of these two e r r o r s (Ref-
erence 1, p. 264), they do not d i r e c t l y a f f e c t Doppler equipment design and must be d e a l t with elsewhere;
namely, i n the c e n t r a l navigation computer. The t h i r d overwater e r r o r i s the calibration s h i f t or sea bias
error, and equipment design does a f f e c t i t s behavior. T h i s e r r o r i s caused by the l a r g e change of t h e
scattering coefficient with incidence angle, within the beamwidth, as depicted i n Figure 5a. The sea bias
e r r o r i s a function of the slope m of t h i s curve at the nominal incidence angle and c e r t a i n radar constants,
notably beamwidth, as shown by the expression f o r Ew
i n Figure 5. Several techniques have been developed
t o g r e a t l y reduce t h i s error, the most widely used one being the I1lobe-switching1l technique. It consists
of the sequential angular switching of t h e beams, generating two Doppler spectra; t h e frequency tracker
operates by placing a narrow f i l t e r a t t h e equi-power o r cross-over point, determining the Doppler f r e -
quency a t t h i s point. The more narrow t h i s f i l t e r , the greater t h e improvement f a c t o r over a non-lobe
switched radar (as depicted by t h e expression f o r Is i n Figure 5), but a t the expense of a somewhat
l a r g e r fluctuation noise error. A diagram i l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s technique i s shown i n Figure 5b and the re-
s u l t i n g Doppler spectra in Figure 5c. One limitation of the lobe switching technique i s that it requires
a physically azimuth ( d r i f t ) s t a b i l i z e d antenna i n most applications. On t h e other hand, t h e trend in
modern hybrid systems i s in the d i r e c t i o n of a fixed Doppler radar antenna, since t h i s leads t o smaller
s i z e , lower cost and more d i r e c t d a t a conversion requirements, Therefore, other overwater bias compensa-
t i o n techniques have been developed which a r e useable with fixed antennas, such as the m-tracking technique.
The l a t t e r method determines the slope llmll of t h e curve i n Figure 5a f o r the p a r t i c u l a r water roughness
condition, and incidence angle by measuring the r a t i o of t h e power received by beams 1 and 2, as indicated
by Figures 5b and 5c. For a given angle between t h e beams,n’f, t h i s power r a t i o determines m, which can,
i n turn, be used f o r d i r e c t compensation since t h e sea-bias e r r o r i s proportional t o m.

The major Doppler radar design technique trends a r e surmnarized i n Table 1 and a r e seen t o r e f l e c t t h e im-
portant performance problems discussed above. A t y p i c a l e r r o r budget of a modern high-performance Doppler
radar i s shown in Table 2 ( a f t e r Reference 1). However, i n accordance with the e a r l i e r arguments on t h e
philosophy of hybrid system design, the future trend f o r Doppler radar w i l l go i n two directions; one of
very high-performance equipment and one of moderate-performance equipment s u i t a b l e f o r low-cost hybrid
systems. A summary of these future trends i s depicted i n Table 3 .

I n e r t i a l Measuring Units

The operation of a n i n e r t i a l measuring unit,(IMU) i s based on the measurement of acceleration by means of

accelerometers whose angular position i s stabilized by means of several gyroscopes. The basic block dia-
gram of a s t a b i l i z e d platform-type IMU i s shown i n Figure 6 ( a f t e r Reference l). The most s i g n i f i c a n t
advances have been made i n the area of gyros, whose performance l a r g e l y determines the overall IMU per-
formance; i . e . , a 0.017 deg/hr gyro d r i f t r a t e r e s u l t s in an average position e r r o r r a t e of 1 n.m./hr.
For comparison, a 10-4 g accelerometer b i a s r e s u l t s i n a 0.3 n.m. peak position error. The most commonly
used modern gyros a r e single or two-degree of freedom floated, gas bearing units, whose d r i f t r a t e perfor-
mance has shown a steady performance increase. Considerable development i s currently under way on strapped-
i n e r t i a l systems. I n these, the computer calculates vehicle orientation from the outputs of body-mounted
accelerometer outputs i n t o locally-level coordinates, suitable f o r navigation. I n recent years, four SO-
called llnon-conventionalll gyroscopes have been under development and some of these m y find p a r t i c u l a r
application i n strapped-down systems. These include the e l e c t r o s t a t i c gyro (ESG), the r i n g l a s e r gyro
10-4

(RLG), the nuclear resonance gyro and the cryogenic gyro. The basic principles of operation of these have
been discussed i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e (References 2, 3 , 7 and 11). The detailed performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
these llnon-conventionalll gyros a r e currently under intensive investigation. Accelerometers f o r a i r c r a f t
applications have primarily been of the floated-pendulum and flexure-pivot types, with developments on t h e
vibrating beam and vibrating s t r i n g types being pursued, The design technique trends f o r i n e r t i a l naviga-
t i o n equipment a r e surmnarized in Table 4. A t y p i c a l e r r o r budget f o r a modern, moderate-performance iner-
tial navigator i s shown i n Table 5 . As i n the case of Doppler radar, future development trends w i l l go
into'two directions; moderate performance and high performance. I n many of the hybrid systems a moderate
performance IMU w i l l s a t i s f y the system requirements. The future performance trends of IMu's a r e depicted
i n Table 6.
Ground-Based Radio Systems

The four basic types of position fixing methods used by ground-based radio systems a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Figure 7 ( a f t e r Reference 1). The rho-theta system i n Figure 7a, i s a point-source system which measures
range and bearing t o a s t a t i o n . Such systems a r e t y p i c a l l y degraded by "sitell errors, i . e . , errors caused
by topographical features and resulting propagation anamolies (reflections, e t c . ) i n the v i c i n i t y of t h e
s t a t i o n . These a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y significant f o r t h e angle (theta) measurement, which i s normally based on
techniques t h a t depend on the s t a t i o n antenna near-field pattern behavior. Hence, t h e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e prevalent i n t h e theta-theta system of Figure 7b. I n t h e l a t t e r system t h e distance between the sta-
t i o n s and t h e geometry, i . e . , the angles of cut,also become important. The rho-rho system i n Figure 7c
can lead t o highly accurate position determination, although it can exhibit some geometric degradations,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e region outside the t r i a n g l e formed by the s t a t i o n s . The use of only two s t a t i o n s may
give r i s e t o an ambiguity, as indicated in t h e figure. Typically, active interrogation of t h e ground
s t a t i o n by the a i r c r a f t and transponding a r e required, making such a system non-passive. The hyperbolic
system of Figure 7d makes use of l i n e s of constant difference of distance, and hence time, between two
stations. Normally, two p a i r s of s t a t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o provide a f i x .

All four of the techniques i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 7 have been used i n modern radio systems, but t h e i r
performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i f f e r markedly. The four important types of errors of radio systems are:
(1)propagation, (2) geometry, (3) instrumental, and (4) dynamic. The propagation e r r o r s a r e strongly
dependent on the operating frequency used, and hence t h e choice of frequency i s of great importance. On
t h e basis of accuracy performance and range capability, the usefulness of the major frequency bands f o r
radio navigation i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 8 ( a f t e r Reference 1). The ground waves a r e primarily used a t
low frequencies and f o r long ranges, since they tend t o follow the curvature of the earth. These waves
are, however, susceptable t o significant propagation anamolies due t o surface conductivity and d i e l e c t r i c
constant, as well as diurnal e f f e c t s , weather e f f e c t s and, in the case of VLF waves, ionospheric effects.
The line-of-site waves are used in the VHF, UHF and microwave regions and prjmarily f o r short ranges, and
a r e noted f o r t h e i r ease of obtaining high d i r e c t i v i t y and gain with small antennas. In the lower of
these frequency bands, s i t e e r r o r s can become quite troublesome, however. I n general, the s w a v e s , which
a r e produced by r e f l e c t i o n from the ionosphere, are not used f o r navigation and, in f a c t , s p e c i a l means
a r e employed in many long range hyperbolic systems t o eliminate t h e s e wave signals when they appear.
The geometric e f f e c t s apply most s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o the hyperbolic system i n Figure 7d and, t o some degree,
t o the rho-rho system. In the hyperbolic systems, the location of the a i r c r a f t within the coverage area
t o a l a r g e degree determines the achievable position fixing accuracy, i.e., the r a d i a l e r r o r i n f e e t per
microsecond of time difference measurement error. Specifically, the achievable accuracy i s best on a
baseline between stations, but degrades i n regions of shallow angles of cut of t h e hyperbolas, and com-
p l e t e l y vanishes on baseline extensions. The instrumentation errors mentioned are, of course, a function
of t h e q u a l i t y of the receiving equipment which must perform the signal processing i n the presence of
signal variations, noise,and interference. Dynamic performance r e l a t e s t o the a b i l i t y of t h e radio system
t o continue tracking position under a i r c r a f t velocity and acceleration conditions, with o r without aiding
from velocity sensors.

Among t h e other important aspects of radio navigation systems, i n contrast t o self-contained systems, a r e
t h e adequacy of geographical coverage, s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o interference, and f i n a l l y , p o l i t i c a l considerations
which may e f f e c t t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of service from ground s t a t i o n s .

Radio systems may be categorized i n t o t h r e e types; short range, medium range and long range (world-wide).
VOR/DME, TACAN and DECCA a r e i n the short range class, with very wide implementation of ground s t a t i o n s
and airborne units. However, frequently f u l l use i s not made of the available information from these sys-
tems f o r position fixing; For example, bearing information from TACAN o r VOR/DME i s frequently contaminated
by a i r c r a f t magnetic heading i n the a i r c r a f t receivers and range and bearing d a t a a r e read out with l a r g e
instrumentation errors. Loran C and D a r e examples of the medium range class of systems f o r which full,
world-wide, implementation does not e x i s t . However, these systems promise rather high p o t e n t i a l position
accuracy, p a r t i c u l a r l y when net calibration techniques a r e used and c e r t a i n propagation e r r o r s a r e com-
pensated. Operation of these systems on a d i r e c t ranging (rho-rho-rho) basis i s currently under study and
shows promise (Reference 8). Finally, Omega i s the only t r u l y world-wide navigation system currently under
development. It i s inherently a t t r a c t i v e because only 8 s t a t i o n s a r e required t o provide world-wide
coverage. However, the behavior of propagation errors, diurnal e f f e c t s and the l i k e , a r e q u i t e complex
and compensation methods a r e d i f f i c u l t . The usefulness of " d i f f e r e n t i a l Omega" i s currently under investi-
gation and shows considerable promise t o provide increased accuracy performance. Essentially, it i s based
on the use of a reference receiver, whose geographic location i s precisely known and which i s located a t a
moderate distance from the a i r c r a f t . The l a r g e f r a c t i o n of the propagation e r r o r which i s common t o t h e
two receivers can then be eliminated by proper compensation in the a i r c r a f t receiver. For modern a i r c r a f t
applications, Loran and Omega type systems require velocity-aiding from Doppler o r i n e r t i a l equipments, in
order t o provide t h e required dynamic accuracies; but, fortunately, this i s available i n hybrid systems.

A summary of t h e range and accuracy performance of ground-based radio systems i s given in Table 7 ( a f t e r
of the implementation and cost aspects of these systems i s given i n Table 8
__ ----
 10-5

The future outlook points t o increased use of these radio aids i n hybrid navigation systems, i n view of
t h e i r wide-spread a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e i r small a i r c r a f t receivers, and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of velocity aiding
from the self-contained sensors. Digital processing w i l l be applied t o most of these radio sensors and
t h i s w i l l provide increased accuracy and increased r e l i a b i l i t y . Frequently, more than one radio sensor
w i l l be used in hybrid systems, because of the redundancy considerations discussed e a r l i e r .

Airborne Radar

Airborne mapping or navigation radar imagery has been used f o r pilotage navigation on a manual basis f o r
many years. More recently, techniques have been developed which permit t h e obtaining of a semi-automatic
position f i x by means of airborne radar. This process i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 9 ( a f t e r RefgCEnqe-l).
The geographic coordinates of the f i x point or i d e n t i f i c a t i o n point ( I P ) have previously been inserted i n t o
the navigation computer and a r e stored there. The computer calculates the a i r c r a f t position from i t s nor-
m a l navigation sensor inputs. From these two data, it generates bearing and distance from the a i r c r a f t t o
t h e IP. The l a t t e r a r e converted i n t o the equivalent radar coordinates, bearing and s l a n t range. These
a r e then displayed as cursors on the navigator’s radar indicator. When t h e navigator observes the pre-
determined I P on the radar image, he manually places the range and bearing cursors on top of t h e I P t a r g e t
(which i s sometimes called “designationtt). This process causes any position e r r o r signals which e x i s t t o
be automatically fed back t o t h e navigation computer, thereby fix-correcting the position information of
t h e navigation system.

The t o t a l e r r o r of t h i s type of radar position f i x i s made up of the azimuth and range errors of the radar
i t s e l f , the display errors, and the human operator error. In conventional airborne radars, by far the
l a r g e s t of these errors i s the azimuth e r r o r (resolution) of t h e radar i t s e l f , which is, in turn, a function
of the radar antenna azimuth beam width. The l a t t e r i s a d i r e c t function of wavelength and an inverse
function of antenna size. This behavior i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 10 ( a f t e r Reference 1) which shows the
t o t a l radar e r r o r as a function of range f o r a given antenna s i z e and f o r various wavelengths. I n many
cases, t h e higher frequency bands, such a s the Ka-band, a r e operationally unacceptable, because of t h e i r
poor adverse weather performance. Increasing the antenna s i z e t o improve azimuth resolution i s a d i f f i -
c u l t problem i n many a i r c r a f t because of space limitations. On the other hand, the range resolution of
t h e radar has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been a l e s s e r problem, since it i s primarily a function of t h e narrowness of
the pulse width, and since, with the present state-of-the-art, it i s not d i f f i c u l t t o obtain r e l a t i v e l y
narrow pulses. The example i n Figure 10 i s f o r a pulse width of 0.2 ps, which corresponds t o approximately
100 f e e t of range resolution. With conventional techniques, it i s currently possible t o obtain a pulse
width of 0.1 ps and modern pulse compression (Ilchirp”)techniques permit t h e generation of even shorter
pulses. Thus, i n conventional airborne radar t h e available azimuth resolution represents t h e limiting
factor on obtainable position f i x accuracy.

One technique which can lead t o excellent azimuth resolution without the need for higher frequencies o r
l a r g e r antennas i s t h e synthetic aperture or Doppler beam sharpeninq technique. The basic principle of
operation of this technique can be explained by e i t h e r t h e s t h e t i c a r r a concept or t h e Doppler s h i f t
concept. The former i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 11 ( a f t e r R e f w a normal antenna a r r a y of the
type shown in Figure l l a , a l a r g e number of radiator elements a r e fed from a feed l i n e and so spaced t h a t
t h e signals from a l l the radiators a r e in phase i n a preferred direction, s o t h a t the transmitted and re-
ceived signals a r e maximum i n t h a t direction. The r e s u l t i n g beamwidth i s approximately given by csc 8
D
where 3 i s t h e wavelength and D i s t h e physical ( r e a l ) length of the array. I n the synthetic array, i l l u s -
t r a t e d i n Figure l l b , the l i n e a r array i s generated by v i r t u e of the motion of the a i r c r a f t in space, i.e.,
t h e antenna transmits and receives pulses at successive positions, thus forming the array. The received
pulses, with t h e i r phases preserved, a r e s t o r e f o r each element of range and summed at t h e end of a pre-
determined time, called build-up or integration time. It i s t h e integration time which determines the
equivalent length of the array. Because of t h e problem of maintaining the phases of the return signals
from pulse-to-pulse, such a radar must be a coherent radar, i.e., the transmitter c a r r i e r cycles must bear
a d e f i n i t e phase relationship from pulse t o pulse. The beam width or azimuth resolution achievable with
such a synthetic array i s given by d_ csc 8 where d i s the synthetic array length, as w i l l be shown i n
2d
what follows. (The factor of 2 difference between the two expressions j u s t cited, can be r e a d i l y explained
by the f a c t t h a t t h e synthetic array-forming process i s based on the two-way path, i . e . , transmission t o ,
and r e f l e c t i o n from, the t a r g e t ; t h i s i s equivalent t o t h e two-way beamwidth of a physical antenna, which
i s nearly half t h e one-way beamwidth f o r typical antenna shapes.) The other useful method of explaining
and analyzing t h e behavior of a synthetic aperture radar i s by means of the Doppler concept, which i s
i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 12. The returned signals within t h e physical beam experience a Doppler s h i f t i n
accordance with t h e Doppler equation

I f the received s i g n a l i s f i l t e r e d i n t o Doppler frequency bins, each wide, one obtains

where A8 i s the angular resolution equivalent t o a f i l t e r width A d.

In order t o resolve v , requires an integration or build-up time of

where d i s the distance travelled (synthetic antenna length) and V i s the speed.
10-6

Combining '(16), (17) and (18), one obtains f o r t h e angular resolution of a synthetic operture radar, the
following, previously stated, expression:

From (lq), the l i n e a r azimuth resolution i s :

n x = 3 csc 8

I f the system i s so mechanized that t h e f i l t e r passbands t r a c k the changing Doppler frequency of a t a r g e t

during the build-up time, the system i s called I l f u l l y focused!1. I n such a system the maximum synthetic
antenna length i s given by

d = R d0 csc 8 = csc 8

where 68 i s the physical antenna beamwidth. ,

Combining (20) and (21) yields the following expression f o r the ultimate l i n e a r resolution of a f u l l y
focused synthetic aperture system:
[Ax1 = -D
2

This shows the most i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t t h a t t h e ultimate l i n e a r resolution i s equal t o half of t h e physical

antenna length and i s independent of wavelength and range. T h i s implies the d e s i r a b i l i t y of using as small
an antenna as possible. However, other considerations, such as maJdmum a i r c r a f t speed, required radar range,
phase perturbations due t o l a t e r a l velocity errors, atmospheric refraction, and equipment complexity, some-
what negate this conclusion, and make it d i f f i c u l t t o a c t u a l l y achieve t h e ultimate resolution given by
(22).
A system i n which t h e Doppler history of t h e t a r g e t s i s & tracked i s called an tlunfocusedltsystem. The
limiting resolution of an unfocused system can be derived from the f a c t t h a t , since t h e t a r g e t Doppler
history i s not tracked, t h e t a r g e t cannot change i t s bearing by more than t h e equivalent system resolution
during t h e build-up time. The time A t required f o r a t a r g e t t o change bearing b y 0 8 i s ( R A 0/V) csc 0
and the build-up time i s given by the reciprocal of a \/of equation (17); hence, the m i n h u m angular re-
solution i s obtained by equating d t and 1 This r e s u l t s i n the following expression f o r t h e ma;rdmum
m'
l i n e a r azimuth resolution of an unfocused system:

ox = &F
It can be seen from (23) t h a t even with such an unfocused synthetic aperture radar, resolution values (and
hence position fixing e r r o r s ) a r e obtained which provide an order of magnitude improvement over those in-
dicated in Figure 11 f o r conventional radars. For example, numerical substitution i n (23) f o r a range of
10 n.m. and f o r a K -band radar, yields a l i n e a r azimuth resolution of about 4.2 f t . O f course, t h e t o t a l
azimuthal position YiX error can be considerably degraded from this value, because of such f a c t o r s as the
e r r o r in the basic measurement of 0 due t o uncertainty in a i r c r a f t speed and t h e e r r o r i n the direction of
t h e a i r c r a f t velocity vector (both of which w i l l be discussed l a t e r i n this section), as well as the
Ilstraightnessll of the synthetic array due t o l a t e r a l acceleration effects.

In contrast t o many synthetic aperture reconnaissance radars, which a r e s t r i c t l y side-looking, it i s fre-

quently desirable t o permit "looking ahead" of the a i r c r a f t , i.e., a t l e a s t somewhere i n the forward
sector. This has led t o the development of forward-scanning Doppler beam sharpening radars, which provide
azimuth resolution improvement everywhere except d i r e c t l y along the velocity vector (where t h e synthetic
length approaches i n f i n i t y ) . Another version of t h e forward-looking mechanization i s the so-called I'sqUint
mode windowT1system. The l a t t e r i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 13 ( a f t e r Reference 1). I n this mode, t h e radar
beam i s pointed a t a fixed angle, f o r example 30" or 45O, from the forward direction. The synthetic aper-.
t u r e processing i s performed only within t h e r e l a t i v e l y small range increments from %, t o 8$1, and t h e
s m a l l angular increment from 8- to 0
- (Figure 13). Since these increments a r e small, it i s possible
t o obtain only a small degradation in resolution when all Doppler signals a r e shifted in accordance with
t h e frequency change at t h e center point of the window. Such a system i s called "point focusedtt and it
frequently r e s u l t s in s u f f i c i e n t l y good performance without excessive equipment complexity. Electronic
cursor laying techniques have been developed with t h i s technique, which permit t h e semi-automatic fix
correction by generatin suitable range pulses along a range arc and a synthetic Doppler frequency at an
.
azimuth l i n e (Figure 137 It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t t h i s form of fix-correction with a synthetic
aperture radar i s with respect t o t h e a i r c r a f t velocit vector, r a t h e r than the a i r c r a f t center l i n e .
Hence, the orientation of the a i r c r a f t ' s v e l o c i h a r t h coordinates) must be known. Further-
more, i n order t o achieve synthetic aperture performance, t h e a i r c r a f t velocity magnitude and t h e short-
term l a t e r a l velocity component must be known. An uncertainty i n . t h e a i r c r a f t velocity magnitude causes
an e r r o r i n the measurement of 0. Fortunately, i n hybrid systems, these velocity data a r e r e a d i l y avail-
able from t h e i n e r t i a l measuring unit, possibly aided by a Doppler radar. Errors i n velocity magnitude
have a greater e f f e c t in the forward region than t o the side. T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 14 ( a f t e r
Reference 1) which shows t h e t o t a l synthetic aperture position fixing angular e r r o r f o r a velocity magni-
tude error of 0.1 percent and a velocity vector angular e r r o r of 2 mr, as a function of azimuth angle.
It i s seen that t h e error curve slope increases markedly f o r angles below 30 degrees.

I n summary, it can be concluded that while conventional airborne radars may be used f o r semi-automatic
position fixing, t h e i r f i x accuracies a r e limited by t h e r a d a r ' s azimuth resolution. The new synthetic
 10-7

aperture radars, with t h e i r high inherent azimuth resolution, w i l l make possible position f k i n g accuracies
with orders of magnitude inprovement.

There a r e two other techniques, i n developmental status, associated with airborne radar, which beacmen-
tioning. One i s the extraction of genuine Doppler velocity information from the Doppler s h i f t of t h e return
s i g n a l of a coherent forward-looking airborne radar, since this information i s inherently present in t h e
signal, making the concept basically feasible. The other i s the use of airborne radar imagery f o r velocity
determination by means of Ifbootstrap mapmatching" i . e . , by matching suc,cessive returns from the same ground
patch and noting t h e elapsed time, thereby obtaining a m6asure of speed.

Multisensor Navigation Systems

Typical modern multisensor a i r c r a f t navigation systems a r e l i k e l y t o contain, as primary high-accuracy

sensors, the four types which have been discussed in d e t a i l i n this paper, i.e., Doppler,inertial! ground-
based radio, and radar. These w i l l be supplemented by t h e two c l a s s i c a l dead reckoning sensors, i . e . , the
airspeed meter and t h e magnetic compass, a s a back-up and safety-of-flight system. There a r e two additional
high-accuracy sensors which may also be used i n future multisensor navigation systems, depending on mission
requirements and a v a i l a b i l i t y . One i s the astro-tracker, which can be used f o r c e l e s t i a l position fixing or
simply for astroheading (Ref.1). It i s well known t h a t i t s usefulness i s greatest a t high a l t i t u d e s , where
a clear s e prevails, and in the l a r g e r a i r c r a f t which a r e able t o accommodate t h e s i z e and compledty of
these systems. The other sensor which may be part of future hybrid systems i s a receiver-processor of a
navigation s a t e l l i t e system. The only currently operational system of this type, and i t s accuracy and
equipment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been described i n the l i t e r a t u r e , (References 1, 4, 5 and 6). However,
considerable study and development work has recently been done on new versions of navigation s a t e l l i t e sys-
tems and some of tbese w i l l , no doubt, be reduced t o practice within the next ten years. Although much
work has been done toward predicting system performance of these new systems, actual t e s t r e s u l t s from
experimental e q u i p e n t has y e t t o be obtained. Such t e s t r e s u l t s w i l l f a c i l i t a t e t h e synthesis of optimum
mechanizations f o r t h e incorporation of navigation s a t e l l i t e receivers i n hybrid systems.

An integrated multisensor navigation system containing these sensors may be represented by the diagram i n
Figure 15. The block in the center, labelled c e n t r a l d i g i t a l computer, w i l l perform a great multitude of
functions, on the basis of the software program designed f o r it. only a few of t h e more significant ones
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e figure.

The t o t a l system accuracy depends on t h e s p e c i f i c sensors, the software mechanization, the mission p r o f i l e
and t h e operating conditions. I f t h e use of intermediate checkpointing i s ignored, the t o t a l position
e r r o r r a t e curves f o r a Doppler-inertial-radio system, operated in one of four modes, might t y p i c a l l y have
t h e shapes shown i n Figure 16 ( a f t e r Reference 10). It i s somewhat d i f f i c u l t , however, t o draw t h e
correct conclusions from such curves. For example, a f i r s t look a t Figure 16 might convince one t h a t the
radio-inertial mode would be all that i s required f o r optimum performance. While this may be t r u e when the
radio system i s operating within the area of i t s optimum geographic and geometric coverage, i n c e r t a i n
seasonal periods, and without external interference, it might not be t r u e outside t h a t zone. Also,
f l i g h t alignment of t h e i n e r t i a l measurement u n i t requires an external velocity reference, such as Doppler
information. I n addition, it can be shown (Reference 10) that t h e comparative system c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with
regard t o velocity, heading and outputs, a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , i . e . , they indicate t h e superiority of
d i f f e r e n t sensor combinations, thus possibly leading t o d i f f e r e n t conclusions. I n summary, it i s fre-
quently the special mission characteristics, which determine the selection of the specific sensors.

A possible physical configuration of a future, highly-integrated, multisensor navigation system i s

depicted i n Figure 17. A l l of t h e sensor electronics a r e mounted on the Doppler radar antenna. T h i s
includes t h e Doppler radar electronics, IMU, LORAN receiver, OMEGA receiver, NAVSAT receiver and TACAN
receiver, a s well as t h e c e n t r a l d i g i t a l computer, which performs all of the navigation sensor processing,
navigation computation and logic and control functions. I n order t o make possible such a small package,
a l a r g e percentage of t h e electronics w i l l probably use l a r g e scale integration (LSI) c i r c u i t r y ; f o r
example, metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) devices. An e l e c t r i c a l and mechanical configuration of this form,
which represents extremely t i g h t functional and physical integration, w i l l lead t o hybrid navigation systems
of extremely s m a l l weight and s i z e , and having the accuracy, r e l i a b i l i t y and economical production cost
desired by future users.

ACKN0WLF;KEKZNTS

The author wishes t o give c r e d i t t o D r . M. Kayton of TRW Systems Group, Mr. S. H. Dodington of I T T Avionics
Division and M r . C. A. Wiley of the Autonetics Division of North American Rockwell Corporation, f o r t h e i r
o r i g i n a l contribution of some of t h e material which was extracted from Reference 1. The author a l s o wishes
t o acknowledge t h e assistance of J. J. Mizera of t h e Autonetics Division, North American Flockwell Corpora-
tion, i n connection with t h e material on i n e r t i a l measuring u n i t s and a review of t h e paper.

(1) Myron Kayton and Walter R. Fried, "Avionics Navigation Systems", John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
1969.
(2) J. T. Lavan, Vnconventional I n e r t i a l Sensors", Space/Aeronautics, December 1963.

(3) ' A. Nordsieck, "Principles of the E l e c t r i c Vacuum Gyroscope", Progress i n Astronautics and Rocketq,
Vol. 8, Guidance and Control, Academic Press, New York, 1962, pp. 435-441.

( 4 ) W. H. Guier and G. C. Weiffenbach "A S a t e l l i t e Doppler Navigation System", Proceedings of the IRE,
Vol. 48, No. 4, April 1960, p. 507.

(5) R. B. Kershner, TRANSIT Program Results, Astronautics, Vol. 6, No. 5, May, 1961.
10-8,

(6) R. R. Newton, "Everyman's Doppler Navigation S a t e l l i t e System", IEEE Transactions on Aerospace .and
Electronic Systems, May 1967, pp. 527-554.

(7) T. J. Hutchings, e t 61, "Ring Laser Gyro Component and Parameter Study," Report No. X8-2977/201,
Autonetics Division, North American Rockwell Corporation, Anaheim, Calif., January, 1969.

(8) L. Horowitz, "Direct-Ranging LORAN", Proceedings of t h e 21st National Aerospace Electronics Con-
ference, IEEE, Dayton, Ohio, May 1969.

(9) T. W. Brogden, "The Qnega Navigation System", Navigation, Journal of the I n s t i t u t e of Navigation,
Vol. 15, No. 2, Summer, 1968

(10) W. Zbnerman, " O p t h u m Integration of Aircraft Navigation Systemsll, Dynamics Research Corporation,
Stoneham, Mass.; presented a t t h e 24th Annual Meeting of t h e I n s t i t u t e of Navigation, Monterey,
California, June 1968.

(U) J. A . Drelick and J. DeFato "Advances in Unconventional Gyro Technology" paper presented a t t h e
25th Annual Meeting of t h e I n s t i t u t e of Navigation, New York, June, 1969.
 10-9

TABLE x
DESIGN "ECHNIQm TRENDS OF DOPPLER RADAR

CHARACTERISTIC

TfPE MODULATION INCOHiERENT PULSE +CW INTERRUPTED CW +M-CW

FREQUENCY x-BAND -9 $-BAND
ANTENNA (DRIFT) DRIFT-STABILIZED --2. FIXED
ANTENNA (ATTITUDE) PITCH-STABILIZED- PITCH-AND-ROU S T A B I L I Z E D t FIXED
ANTENNA (TYPE) LINEAR A R F V L Y - U N S ~ PARABOLOID+PLANAR ARMY
BEAM CONFIGURATION 2 BEAMS- 4 BEAMS 7 3 BEAMS
SEA B I A S CORRECTION UWD-SEA SWITCH- LOBE-SWITCHING- SIMULTANEOUS L O B m G - m-TRACKING
RECEIVERS CRYSTAL VIDEO --9. INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY TRACKERS WO-FILTER +SINE-COSINE *LOBE-SWITCHING - m- TRACKING
DATA F G M T ANALOG DIGITAL
AVERAGE TRANSMITTED POWER 50 W.--.,lO W. -1 W.
PRIMARY FQKZR 1700 w.--r300 w.--woo w.- loo w.
WEIGHT 300 LB.+lOO LB .+40 LB. -15 LB.
COST $50,000 * $25,000*$15 ,OOO~$lO,OOO

TA13U 2

TYPICAL ERROR BUDGET O F H I Q i PERFORMANCE DOPPLER RADAR (1969)

TYPE
1111

FLUCTUATION (AFTER 10 N.M.) RANDOM

BEAM DlRECTION (ANTENNA AND RADOME) BIAS & RANDOM
SEA BIAS (RESIDUAL. AFTER LOBE-SWITCHING) BIAS

ALTITUDE HOLE (RESIDUAL. AFTER LOBE- BIAS & RANEQM

SWITCHING & MODULATION WOBBLING)

READOUT (DATA CONVERSION) BIAS 0.02

INSTALLATION AND CALIBRATION BIAS 0.03 46

FREQUENCY TRACKER BIAS 0.1 KNOT
00

TOTAL GROUND SPEED ERROR 0.11 46 + 0.1 KNOT (la)

TOTAL DRIFT A N G U ERROR 6 MIN. (14
10-10

PERFORMANCE TRENDS OF DOPPLER RADAR

1969 1975 1975

HIGH-PERFORMANCE HIGH-PERFORMANCE MODERATE- PERFORMANCE

VELOCITY ACCURACY 0.11 $ €0.1 $ 0.25%

TOTAL WEIGHT 40 LB 30 15 LB

TOWL VOLUME 1 - 2 CU. FT. 1 CU. FT. 0.5 CU. FT.

FOWER CONSUMPTION 150 - 200 WATTS 150 WATTS 100 WATTS

TABU 4

DESIGN TECHNIQUE TRENDS O F INERTIAL NAVIGATORS

GYROS - TYPE BALL BEARING+ FLOATED GAS W I N G +ELFCTROSTATIC*RING LASER 3

NUCLEAR REZONANCE +CRYOGENIC

G Y R O - D E W OF FREEDOM S I N G E DE- d T W 0 D E G R E E 4 S I N G L E DEGREE

ACCELEROMETERS FLOATED R E S T R A I N E D - P E N D U L U M + F U ~ PIVOT-VIBRATING BEAM OR STRING

MECHANIZATION 34x1s -4-AXIS -+STRAPPED-DOWN

PLATFORM LEXEL INERTIALLY FIXED- LOCALLY LEVEL a S T R A P P E D - D O W N

PIATFORM AZIMUTH NORM-FOINTING+WANDER-AZIMUTH

COMPUTATION ANALOG->DIGITAL
 10-11

TABLE 2
TYPICAL ERROR BUDGET OF MODERATE-PEWORMANCE INERTIAL NAVIGATOR

CORRELATION
TIME (HRS.1

GYROS

X- AND Y-BIAS 0.0l0/HR. &

X- AND Y-RAMXIM O.OlO/HR. 2
2-BIAS O.O2O/HR. e
2-RAMX)M 0.02o/HR. 2
ACCELEROMETERS
X- AND Y-BIAS 5 x e
X- AND Y-RANDOM 5 x 10-5, 0.2

I N I T I A L CONDITIONS it

ATPITUDE ( T I L T S ) 20 SEC.
HEADING 4.5 MIN.
UT., LONG. 0.25 N.M.
VELOCITY 0.1 KNOT

RADIAL W S I T I O N ERROR RATE 1 N.M./HR.

*Five Minute G y r o c o m p a s s i n g

-6
TABLE

PERFORMANCE TRENDS OF INERTIAL MEASURING UNITS

A222
MODERATE HIGH
PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE
POSITION ACCURACY up to 2 N.M./HR. CEP 1 - 2 N.M./HR. CEP (1.0 N.M./HR. CEP

VELOCITY ACCURACY up t o 3.5 FPS/AXIS 1 6 3 - 3.5 FPS/AXIS i C 4 3 FPS/AXIS lr

ATTITUDE ACCURACY 6 - 10 6i. 1 d 6-IOMIN. ICY 46MIN 10-

REACTION TIME 5 - 15 MIN. 5 - 15 MIN. 5 - 15 MIN.
WIGHT 75 - 100 LB. 5 -3OLB. loo LB.

VOLUME 2 - 2.5 CU. FT. 0.2 - 1 CU. FT. 2 cu. FT.

POWR 400 W. 60 - 120 W. 200 w.

COST $100 - $a0K. $30 - 50K $15OK - 200K

\
10-12

z?EJ
RANQ? AND ACCURACY O F RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

RANm ERROR (t, DEGREES OR + FEET1

-
SYSTPl -
TYPE FREQUENCY ~N.M. 1 PROPAGATION INSTRUMENT ACCEPTED SYSTEM

VOR 8 108 - 118 MHz 208 NEGLIGIBLE '3 '1 <5"

M)PPLER MR Q 108 - 118 MHz 200 NEGLIGIBLE 0.5' '1 1.5'

DECCA HYPERBOLIC 100 KHZ 200 U P To 10,000' NONE 20 F T . 50 - 10,000 FT.B

DME 960 - 12l5 MHz 200 NEGLIGIBLE IKXiF, 200 F T . To 2$ 3000 F T . or 3%
jP
TACAN P-Q
RANm P 960 - 1215 MHz 200 NEGLIGIBLE NONE 200 TO 2000 F T . 2000 FT.

REARING e $0 - 1215 MHz 200 NEGLIGIBLE 2' 0.5' '2

LOMN A HYPERBOLIC 2 MHZ 600 50 FT. NONE 1500 FT. 1500 F T .

LORAN C HYPERBOLIC 100 KHZ 1200 100-1500 NONE 50-100 FT. loo - 1500 FT.D
.
O~GG.4 HYPERBOLIC io - 14 KHZ 8000 6oao FT.' NONE 500 FT. 6000 FT.

A LINE-OF-SIQIT

B DEPENDING ON RANGE

C KTrI CORRECTION FOR PREDICTABLE VARIATIONS

D DEPENDING ON LOCATION I N COVERAGE AREA AND QUALITY O F NET CALIBRATION

TABLE8
IMPLEMENTATION AND COST O F RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEXS

YEAR
-
CRW STATIOh9
1
. CHAINS AIR RNE S E T IMPLEMENTATION
!7ximM IN!CKEiCED -
NLlMB COST ($1 -
ImBEE- C O S T ($1 -
TREND

VOR 1946 2000 30,000 150,000 1000/4000 UP

DOPPLER VOR 1960 4c 100,000 150,000 1000/4000 UP

DECCA 1944 25 2,000,000 ,

10 000 3000/6000 STABLE

DME 1959 50 ,
50 000 13,000 1000/5000 UP

TArA 1954 2000 150,000 30,ooo 3000/8000 UP

LORAN A 1943 25 2,000,000 10,000 2600/6000 STABLFI

LORAN C 1960 8 5,000,000 1,000 20,000/50,000 UP

ONE CA 1968 10,000,000 - 15,000/50,000 UP

(Partial)
 10-13

Fig.1 .The geometry o f dead reckoning

-
m
Ea(ONING HW)ING

-
SENSORS

AIR DATA
IXlPPLER

INERTIN
I-: CALWTIONS 1
IESTINATIONS

-L
J
MOST PROBABLE
POSITION

POSITION FIX
SENSORS

Fig.2 A multFsensor a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n ,system

 10- 14

BEAM d /
Fig.3 Basic Doppler radar beam c o n f i g u r a t i o n

I I i

I I
- < I

F i g. 4 .B1 oc k d i ag ram o f t y p i c a l Doppl e r ; radar

 10-15

1
cw = K m
K=
T
5b

Fig.5 Doppler r a d a r overwater o p e r a t i o n

Vertical. Accel 'mmeter

7 X-aw-ks&&-o~--
s+ji<\---
'I
Vertical
-Altitude -
I

Channel
P
Stcble I b a r o m e t r i ~ q r ~ ~I a r b q u t a t i a
--Y
Attitude Rate ).

Fig.6 S t a b i l ized P l a t f o r m i n e r t i a l measuring u n i t

10-16

b. THE' -
TA

Fig.7 Radio p o s i t i o n f i x i n g methods

DEGREE
OF
USEWESS
Kjl?

NAVIGATION

0 3 PW.2- 3 0 "2 30 $ H Z
Fig.8 Usefulness and p r o p a g a t i o n modes o f v a r i o u s r a d i o frequency bands
 10- 17

Fig.9 Semi-automat i c p o s i t ion f i x by a i r b o r n e radar

--_I

RESOLUTION

2 l-

Fig.10 A i r b o r n e radar p o s i t i o n f i x e r r o r vs. range

10-18

Fig.11 Synthetic aperture radar p r i n c i p l e s (array concept)

Fig.12 S y n t h e t i c a p e r t u r e r a d a r p r i n c i p l e s (Doppler concept)

 10-19
. r.

F i g . 13 S y n t h e t i c a p e r t u r e r a d a r ' s q u i n t mode window d i-splay

Fig.14 T o t a l a n g u l a r e r r o r of s y n t h e t i c a p e r t u r e . radar- f o r ,speed e r r o r

o f 0.1% and v e l o c i t y v e c t o r a n g u l a r e r r o r of, 2 MR

NAV, DATA
*TO DISPLAYS

Fig.15 . I n t e g r a t e d m u l t i s e n s o r n a v i g a t i o n ,system
I . 10-20

7
f==

0' I 1 I

0 1 2 3 + 2 r G 7 8 4 1 0
rrw C:HR~J

Fig.16 Doppler-inertial-radio navigation system ( a f t e r Ref.10)

F i g .17 H ig h 1y i n t eg rated Doppl er- i n e r t i a1-rad i o nav i gat ion ,system package
 11

LORAN SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY

by

Lt. Col. R u s s e l l E . Weaver, J r . , USAF

I n t e r l a b o r a t o r y Technology Division

D i r e c t o r of L a b o r a t o r i e s

A i r F o r c e S y s t e m s Command

Andrews AFB, Maryland

11

SUMMARY

L o r a n has long m e t acceptance as a hyperbolic positioning device fulfilling requirements specified

in miles of accuracy. The first known application of hyperbolic s y s t e m s involved the u s e of audio
frequencies r a t h e r than radio frequencies for locating cannon position during World W a r L During
World W a r 11the development of radio frequency generators made hyperbolic radio s y s t e m s technically
feasible in th'e f o r m of GEE and Loran. During the period 1940-1945, Loran development was pursued
in the 2-8 MH, region with 100-200 KH, development appearing in 1945. Subsequent to this, alternate
periods of i n t e r e s t and disdain a r e noted up to the p r e s e n t period. We a r e now in a phase in which,
although t h e r e is g r e a t i n t e r e s t generated, t h e r e is a l s o a lack of the n e c e s s a r y across-the-board
support to effectively implement and u s e this highly a c c u r a t e position aid,

With the passage of time, a r e a coverage has been enhanced both by higher-powered t r a n s m i t t e r s and
by the siting of additional chains. Additionally, technology advances have made possible t r a n s m i t t e r
and r e c e i v e r improvements which can satisfy requirements of a c c u r a c i e s specified in yards o r meters.
As a result, one c a n now envision a multiplicity of u s e s , both public and private, to which a n unlimited
number of u s e r s can avail themselves.

This paper will p r e s e n t a background introduction of hyperbolic radio aids f r o m its inception to the
p r e s e n t day. Initial u s e s and limitations will be discussed. F r o m this, we will proceed"int0 a basic
description of Loran t r a n s m i t t e r s and r e c e i v e r s which outlines chain configurations, chain coverage,
r e c e i v e r types and control/display capabilities. The paper will then delve p r i m a r i l y into applications
which are envisioned a s a r e s u l t of recent technology advances. A f r o n t runner among t h e s e various
applications i s the u s e of Loran a s a hybrid navigation system. Although each individual navigation
s e n s o r i n existence has c e r t a i n inherent limitations, most, if not all of these, can be successfully
overcome by the appropriate integration of these s e n s o r s into a common system. Additionally, a
number of applications in which Loran can be effectively and profitably used commercially a r e p r e -
sented to stimulate planners and p r o g r a m m e r s .
 11-1

L o r a n S y s t e m Technology

Good morning ladies and gentlemen. It is c e r t a i n l y a deep p l e a s u r e to m e e t h e r e with all of you and
enjoy your kind European hospitality. I l a s t visited E u r o p e in the Spring of 1964. At that t i m e , I
accompanied Mr. Wladimir Reichel, an A i r F o r c e S y s t e m s Command technical d i r e c t o r , on a s u r v e y
of i n e r t i a l navigation p r o g r a m s and capabilities. I a m s u r e many of you r e c a l l Mr. Reichel f r o m his
days a s an engineering m a n a g e r with Bendix and G e n e r a l P r e c i s i o n p r i o r to his government service.
Although Mr. Reichel p a s s e d away i n the F a l l of 1964, his vital contributions have led to g r e a t s t r i d e s
i n the field of low-cost, r e l i a b l e a i r c r a f t navigation. Under his patient tutelage I gained a profound
appreciation f o r h i s b a s i c concepts i n engineering design and development; simplicity, low-cost and
r e l i a b l e operation.

In this p a p e r I will p r e s e n t a background introduction of hyperbolic radio aids f r o m its inception to

t h e p r e s e n t day. Initial u s e s and limitations w i l l b e discussed. F r o m t h i s we will proceed into a b a s i c
d e s c r i p t i o n of L o r a n t r a n s m i t t e r s and r e c e i v e r s which outlines chain configurations, chain c o v e r a g e ,
r e c e i v e r types and c o n t r o l / d i s p l a y capabilities. I will then delve p r i m a r i l y into applications which a r e
envisioned as a r e s u l t of r e c e n t technology advances. A f r o n t runner among t h e s e various applications
i s the u s e of L o r a n as a hybrid navigation system. Although e a c h individual navigation s e n s o r i n
existence h a s c e r t a i n i n h e r e n t limitations, m o s t , i f not all of these, can be successfully o v e r c o m e by
the a p p r o p r i a t e integration of t h e s e s e n s o r s into a common system. Additionally, a number of
applications i n which L o r a n c a n be effectively and profitably used c o m m e r c i a l l y a r e p r e s e n t e d to
s t i m u l a t e p l a n n e r s and p r o g r a m m e r s .

The first known p r a c t i c a l application of position determination by m e a s u r e m e n t of the t i m e

difference of a r r i v a l of signals involved the u s e of sound waves. A s y s t e m of this type w a s used in
World W a r I f o r locating the position of hidden cannon. The t i m e of a r r i v a l of the cannon r e p o r t was
m e a s u r e d at t h r e e different receiving stations r e l a t i v e t o a m a s t e r clock at a f i r e c o n t r o l Center.
Comparison of t h e s e t i m e s indicated the t i m e difference of a r r i v a l between,adjacent p a i r s of r e c e i v e r s .
T h e s e data w e r e then used to d r a w two hyperbolas, the i n t e r s e c t i o n of which located the origin of the
cannon report. The s h o r t r a n g e of t h e sound waves coupled with the m e a s u r e m e n t a c c u r a c i e s of the
sound t i m e a r r i v a l s r e s u l t e d i n v e r y b a s i c limitations being imposed on i t s wide s p r e a d use.

With the technical explosion of electronics i n the 1930-1940 e r a which provided the development of
high-powered r a d i o frequency g e n e r a t o r s and equipment which could m e a s u r e t i m e to high a c c u r a c i e s ,
the t r a n s l a t i o n of hyperbolic positioning methods into r a d i o s y s t e m s became appropriate. The f i r s t
p r a c t i c a l application of this hyperbolic method was used quite extensively by the Allied A i r F o r c e s i n
World W a r II. The s y s t e m involved the synchronous t r a n s m i s s i o n of r a d i o frequency pulses of two to
ten m i c r o s e c o n d duration f r o m t h r e e to four ground t r a n s m i t t e r s s e p a r a t e d by about 75 miles. The
t i m e difference of a r r i v a l of the pulses f r o m the ground t r a n s m i t t e r s w a s m e a s u r e d by a r e c e i v e r unit
composed of a cathode r a y tube with a t i m e b a s e c a l i b r a t e d by indices obtained f r o m a s t a b l e oscillator.
M e a s u r e m e n t s t o a n a c c u r a c y of about one microsecond w e r e obtained and provided a s y s t e m positioning
a c c u r a c y varying f r o m t h r e e hundred m e t e r s at the baselines to five m i l e s at m a x i m u m range with a
nominal two to t h r e e m i l e a c c u r a c y i n the s e r v i c e a r e a .

Loran, a n a c r o n y m d e r i v e d f r o m - k n g Range Navigation, had its inception i n 1940 when the United
States National Defense R e s e a r c h Committee was assigned the job of developing a long range, p r e c i s i o n
aircraft navigation system. T o m e e t the operational r e q u i r e m e n t s of 300 m e t e r s at a r a n g e of two
hundred m i l e s , it,w a s planned to u s e synchronized p a i r s of pulse-type t r a n s m i t t e r s s e p a r a t e d by s e v e r a l
hundred m i l e s and radiating a peak power of 1. 5 megawatts. The original concepts involved the u s e of
groundwave signals only. It w a s a p p a r e n t f r o m t e s t data, however, that skywave stability was much
b e t t e r than anticipated. Based on the m e a s u r e m e n t s , it was determined that a s y s t e m using a combination
of ground and skywaves could provide position a c c u r a c i e s of b e t t e r than five m i l e s to a r a n g e of 1,500
miles. T h e additional benefits which could be obtained f r o m a s y s t e m of this r a n g e and a c c u r a c y w e r e
sufficient t o r e d i r e c t the p r o g r a m toward this new goal.

By 1943 the p r o g r a m had been turned over to the U. S. Navy with the U. S. C o a s t Guard and Royal
Canadian Navy assigned t r a n s m i t t e r operational responsibilities. L o r a n had proved to be a useful
s y s t e m and l a r g e s c a l e p r o c u r e m e n t , installation, and training began.

The first v e r s i o n of L o r a n , now known as L o r a n A, operated i n the 1.8 -

2. 0 m e g a h e r t z band and i s
now widely implemented over the earth. Variations of L o r a n A o c c u r r e d during this period and a r e
d i s c u s s e d briefly t o note the evolving technology. One of t h e s e , Skywave Synchronized Loran, a l s o
operated a t two m e g a h e r t z ; however, the stations maintained synchronization through the u s e of skywaves
r a t h e r than groundwaves. Due to propagation r e s t r i c t i o n s c o v e r a g e was only available at night which was
the m a j o r drawback of the system. Flight testing demonstrated position a c c u r a c y of one to two miles.
Deployment t o E u r o p e and North Africa w a s accomplished i n 1944 with the s y s t e m used extensively f o r
s u p p o r t of night bombing operations and s i m i l a r a c c u r a c i e s . w e r e obtained throughout Europe. Skywave
Long-Baseline L o r a n was tested in 1946. S i m i l a r to Skywave Synchronized L o r a n , but operated at 10.6
m e g a h e r t z f o r daytime use, thks s y s t e m was terminated by frequency allocation p r o b l e m s although t e s t
r e s u l t s w e r e satisfactory.
11-2

The first low frequency, 180 kilohertz, L o r a n was placed i n operation in 1945. It had been recognized
that this frequency would provide i n c r e a s e d a c c u r a c y and g r e a t l y extended coverage, both day and night.
The s y s t e m w a s basically an extension of two m e g a h e r t z L o r a n into the lower frequency. The t r a n s -
m i t t e r s operated i n synchronized t r i p l e t s i n s t e a d of p a i r s ; however, and i n addition to p u l s e envelope
matching, individual radio frequency c y c l e s of the m a s t e r and s l a v e pulses w e r e displayed. The
r e c e i v e r s w e r e designed to provide f o r visual c o r r e l a t i o n of pulses and cycles. A rough c o r r e l a t i o n was
first m a d e using the p u l s e envelopes and a fine c o r r e l a t i o n using selected cycles within each pulse. This
s y s t e m w a s deployed i n support of A r c t i c m a n e u v e r s in 1946 and then submitted to extensive evaluation.
The r e s u l t s showed that longer baselines could be used, that 24 h o u r s c o v e r a g e overland could be p r o -
vided and a n a c c u r a c y of fifty m e t e r s a t 750 m i l e s could be obtained. Conversely, o p e r a t o r s could not
c o r r e l a t e cycles without s o m e p r i o r knowledge of the pulse envelope delay resulting i n positional
ambiguities which w e r e unacceptable.

T o solve the ambiguity p r o b l e m development of c y c l e identification and p h a s e m e a s u r i n g techniques

w e r e undertaken. This r e s u l t e d i n a government-industry p r o g r a m called CYCLAN, CYCLe matching
LorAN. Cyclan w a s the first fully automatic L o r a n s y s t e m . The cyclic ambiguity p r o b l e m was solved
through the u s e of p u l s e t r a n s m i s s i o n s on two frequencies twenty kilohertz apart. I n c o r r e c t cycle
c o r r e l a t i o n at one frequency w a s a p p a r e n t by a m i s m a t c h at the second frequency. T e s t s w e r e compli-
cated by i n t e r f e r e n c e p r o b l e m s with adjacent frequencies although they did show t h e p r o b l e m could be
solved. 'The approach b e c a m e prohibitive, however, i n 1947 when t h e Atlantic City Radio Conference
designated the 90-1 10 kilohertz band f o r the development of long-range navigation s y s t e m s .

In 1952 development began on a long range, automatic, t a c t i c a l bombing s y s t e m called CYTAC, C y c l e

-
TACtical ,system. A pulsed L o r a n s y s t e m operating i n the 90-110 kilohertz band provided the g r o u n d
r e f e r e n c e portion of the system. Automatic methods w e r e used to solve the c y c l e identification p r o b l e m
and t i m e differences w e r e a b l e to be d e t e r m i n e d within tenths of a microsecond. F o r operational r e a s o n s
the s y s t e m development w a s dropped; however, the u s e of L o r a n as a navigation aid was r e a d i l y apparent.
This led, i n 1957, to a n operational r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a highly a c c u r a t e , long-range, m a r i t i m e r a d i o
navigation aid. The a c c u r a c y and range r e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e far i n e x c e s s of those available f r o m L o r a n
A. Utilizing t h e developments achieved under the CYTAC p r o g r a m , equipment was produced and placed
i n operation on the United States E a s t C o a s t i n 1958 and w a s designated L o r a n C. Operational evaluation
d e m o n s t r a t e d r e p e a t a b l e positioning a c c u r a c i e s of 75 m e t e r s over an a r e a of m o r e than one million
s q u a r e miles. Since that t i m e , numerous other L o r a n C stations have been installed and a r e operational
throughout the world.

With the advent of r e q u i r e m e n t s to support quick reaction deployments of limited f o r c e s and the
attendant navigational needs i n t e r e s t was again r a i s e d in t a c t i c a l s y s t e m s . This r e s u l t e d i n the U. S .
A i r F o r c e , i n 1964, initiating the development of a t a c t i c a l L o r a n s y s t e m whiqh b e c a m e known a s
L o r a n D. The p e r f o r m a n c e of L o r a n D i s s i m i l a r to L o r a n C. T o satisfy t a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s s o m e
design tradeoffs w e r e required. Basically, this consisted of s m a l l e r and l e s s powerful t r a n s m i t t e r s to
provide g r e a t e r transportability. T o offset the p e r f o r m a n c e degradation accompanying t h i s , the number
of p u l s e s p e r pulse group was doubled and operation was r e s t r i c t e d to the higher pulse group repetition
r a t e s . Evaluation of this s y s t e m was completed i n 1968.

Since L o r a n C and L o r a n D a r e the s y s t e m s receiving p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s today and r e c e i v e r s being

developed c a n o p e r a t e in a L o r a n C or L o r a n D environment, the t e r m L o r a n C / D is applicable to the
description of t r a n s m i t t e r s and r e c e i v e r s p r e s e n t e d next.

L o r a n C/D, a s a r e all hyperbolic navigation s y s t e m s , is based on the principle that r a d i o frequency

energy i s propagated through s p a c e with a finite and known velocity. A m e a s u r e m e n t of the difference i n
a r r i v a l t i m e s of synchronized signals f r o m two t r a n s m i t t e r s by a r e c e i v e r provides a m e a s u r e of the
difference i n the distance of the propagation paths t r a v e r s e d by each signal. At any position within the
c o v e r a g e a r e a of the t r a n s m i t t e r s , a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e difference can be measured. The locus of all
points with the s a m e t i q e difference f r o m a p a i r of t r a n s m i t t e r s i s a hyperbola, and each p a i r of t r a n s -
m i t t e r s will have a family of hyperbolas of constant t i m e difference a s s o c i a t e d with it. M e a s u r e m e n t of
a t i m e difference p l a c e s a r e c e i v e r on a p a r t i c u l a r line of position, and a simultaneous m e a s u r e m e n t of
a second t i m e difference f r o m a second station p a i r d e t e r m i n e s a position f i x f o r the r e c e i v e r .

F i g u r e 1 is a d i a g r a m of a typical L o r a n chain, consisting of a m a s t e r station (M) and two s l a v e

stations, A and B. E a c h p a i r of stations ( M and A, M and B) g e n e r a t e s a family of t i m e difference
hyperbolas, and a g r i d of constant t i m e difference lines i s f o r m e d over the c o v e r a g e a r e a .

The equation f o r determining any t i m e difference ( T D ) hyperbolic line is i l l u s t r a t e d a s follows using

the m a s t e r and s l a v e A pair:
TDA =z
(dma t dar
C'
dmr) t CDA -
Where: n = a t m o s p h e r i c index of r e f r a c t i o n
c = signal propagation velocity
dma =distance f r o m the m a s t e r to s l a v e A
dar = distance f r o m s l a v e A to the r e c e i v e r
 11-3

-
d m r - distance f r o m the m a s t e r to the r e c e i v e r
CDA = coding delay of the A slave signal.

A s i m i l a r equation will g e n e r a t e the family of constant t i m e difference hyperbolas for the m a s t e r -

s l a v e E pair.

The coordinate s y s t e m that is generated by a L o r a n chain i s not orthogonal. The c r o s s i n g angles of

the t i m e difference lines and the gradient of the grid, the r a t i o of the m e a s u r e m e n t of a change of position
to the corresponding change in t i m e difference n u m b e r s , a r e dependent upon the geometry of the L o r a n
chain and the position of the measuring r e c e i v e r within the grid. Blocks 1 and 2 i l l u s t r a t e the varying
geometry f o r different locations within the grid,

A change in the relative positions of the transmitting stations of the chain would a l s o change the
coordinate s y s t e m that is generated. The illustration in F i g u r e 1 shows a chain with an angle between
baselines a p e r t u r e angle of 1450. However, this configuration is not unique, Typical chains p r e s e n t l y
i n operation have a p e r t u r e angles of 150 to 1600 and baseline lengths of 350 t o 1,000 nautical miles. In
each c a s e , once the configuration of the chain is fixed, a hyperbolic coordinate g r i d can be computed for
the a r e a of coverage.

T h r e e L o r a n coordinate g r i d s a r e considered: Computed g r i d s , predicted g r i d s , and observed grids.

Computed Grid: If the t r a n s m i t t e r locations a r e known p r e c i s e l y and a n a p p r o p r i a t e geoid i s chosen,

assumptions c a n be made as t o the propagation paths and propagation velocities, and the time difference
problem c a n be solved f o r any point within the coverage a r e a . If a smooth, homogeneous e a r t h , with the
shape of the appropriate geoid, and with a conductivity of s e a w a t e r i s a s s u m e d , a g r i d c a n be generated
which is called a Loran Computed Grid. This g r i d will be a n approximation of the r e a l world grid; the
approximation will be only a s good as the assumption. The advantage of the computed g r i d i s that i t is
readily calculated with little knowledge of the n a t u r e of the p a r t i c u l a r coverage a r e a of the chain. As
m o r e knowledge of the p a r a m e t e r s of the coverage a r e a is obtained, this rough approximation, the
computed grid, can be refined.

P r e d i c t e d Grid: Since a c c u r a t e t i m e difference m e a s u r e m e n t s in L o r a n C o r Loran D s y s t e m s a r e made

by m e a s u r i n g the phase of the received pulses, i t i s n e c e s s a r y to consider f a c t o r s which affect the phase
i f the computed grid i s to be refined. F o r the computed model, a smooth, homogeneous s u r f a c e with a
conductivity of s e a w a t e r is assumed. In r e a l i t y , this s u r f a c e is neither smooth n o r homogeneous and its
conductivity will v a r y g r e a t l y throughout the coverage area. A l l t h e s e f a c t o r s will affect the phase of the
propagated p u l s e s , and hence, will d i s t o r t the computed t i m e difference grid.

The effect of paths of mixed conductivity on the phase of a 100 kilohertz L o r a n signal c a n be accounted
f o r by a second phase factor. This secondary phase f a c t o r is a c o r r e c t i o n for the mixed conductivity
paths of the radiated L o r a n signals. With t h e s e secondary phase factor c o r r e c t i o n s , the computed g r i d
c a n be refined into a predicted grid. This predicted grid will be a d i s t o r t e d model of the computed g r i d
over the coverage a r e a , but f o r small a r e a s within the coverage a r e a c a n be c o n s i d e r e d as a l i n e a r
displacement of one o r both s e t s of t i m e difference lines. Thus, a predicted g r i d f o r a s m a l l a r e a c a n
easily be constructed f r o m the computed g r i d by m e r e l y shifting the computed t i m e difference lines by a
distance equal to the secondary phase factor.

Observed Grid: The assumptions and the perturbation predictions that have been made in developing the
predicted g r i d a r e , of c o u r s e , subject t o e r r o r and a r e limited by our ability t o m e a s u r e the various
p a r a m e t e r s involved. T h e r e a r e a l s o other perturbations which m a y not have been e n t i r e l y accounted for
o r a r e beyond p r e s e i t abilities to m e a s u r e o r s e p a r a t e f r o m each other. As a r e s u l t , the observed g r i d
of t i m e difference numbers that a r e m e a s u r e d by a L o r a n r e c e i v e r in a r e a l L o r a n environment m a y differ
f r o m the g r i d that was predicted.

Although the distortions of the L o r a n g r i d a r e not entirely predictable, i t has been observed that the
distortions a r e generally constant with time. A g r i d of Loran t i m e difference n u m b e r s c a n be observed
and r e c o r d e d and although i t differs f r o m the predicted g r i d , subsequent m e a s u r e d g r i d s will provide
t i m e difference values which will be c l o s e to those of the original grid. The difference between the
originally observed g r i d and a subsequently observed grid i s , then, a m e a s u r e of the repeatable accuracy
of a L o r a n system.

T h e r e a r e two types of a c c u r a c i e s with which we a r e concerned: Absolute a c c u r a c y and repeatable

accuracy.

Absolute, o r geographic a c c u r a c y is the ability of the s y s t e m t o m e a s u r e the position of a point in

relation t o a s e t of geographic coordinates. A L o r a n s y s t e m makes position m e a s u r e m e n t s i n a hyperbolic
t i m e difference coordinate s y s t e m and then converts these to a position in geographical coordinates.
This absolute a c c u r a c y , then, i s dependent upon the a c c u r a c y t o which the f a c t o r s involved in the t i m e
difference p r o b l e m c a n be predicted o r measured.

In o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e an a c c u r a t e geographic m e a s u r e of the distance between the stations of the chain,

it is n e c e s s a r y to know the exact position of the transmitting s i t e s . All of t h e s e s i t e s m u s t be located on
11-4

the s a m e geographic datum in which the s y s t e m i s t o be used. A s m a l l e r r o r in position of a single

station c a n r e s u l t in a l a r g e e r r o r in position of a receiver. This e r r o r is not constant throughout the
s e r v i c e a r e a but i s a function of position of the receiver. Thus, the p r e c i s e geographic location of the
transmitting stations is n e c e s s a r y to compute a c c u r a t e r e c e i v e r location.

Another r e q u i r e m e n t for absolute a c c u r a c y is the ability to a c c u r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e the velocity of

propagation of the electromagnetic energy. All m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made in time, but predictions a r e
based on distance. T h e r e f o r e , e r r o r s in the assumption of the propagation velocity equation will affect
the absolute a c c u r a c y of the system. The principal f a c t o r s which affect this propagation velocity are the
index of r e f r a c t i o n of the a t m o s p h e r e and the finite conductivity of the e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e along the propagation
path. Also, the varying conductivity of the s u r f a c e of the e a r t h along the propagation path d i s t o r t s the
phase information of the t r a n s m i t t e d signal. Therefore, absolute a c c u r a c y a l s o r e q u i r e s a knowledge of
the position,shape, and conductivity of all land and w a t e r m a s s e s in the s e r v i c e area. Another factor
which affects absolute a c c u r a c y is the a c c u r a c y of the coordinate conversion scheme of the position
m e a s u r e m e n t equipment.

Lastly, in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e geodesic distances t o any position in the s e r v i c e a r e a , it is n e c e s s a r y

t o have knowledge of the geoid, o r the shape of the s u r f a c e of the earth. F o r instance, the International
Spheroid i s used in the Norwegian Sea a r e a , while the C l a r k Spheroid of 1866 i s u s e d in the United States.
The shapes of each of t h e s e spheroids a r e different and will affect the a c c u r a c y of the ,calculations in the
t i m e difference problem.

Repeatable a c c u r a c y is a s t a t i s t i c a l m e a s u r e of the ability of a L o r a n s y s t e m to r e p e a t the position

m e a s u r e m e n t of a location. I t is, i n other words, r e t u r n t r i p accuracy. Once the coordinates of a point
have been m e a s u r e d , the ability of a r e c e i v e r to r e t u r n to that point is a m e a s u r e of i t s repeatable
accurircy. Repeatable a c c u r a c y is not affected by the e r r o r s of coordinate conversion o r propagation
velocity variations and, consequently, e r r o r s of repeatable a c c u r a c y a r e s m a l l e r than those of absolute
accuracy. Repeatable a c c u r a c y is p r i m a r i l y affected by the e r r o r s contributed by the noise and dynamic
e r r o r s of the total Loran system. Repeatable a c c u r a c y is a function of the t r a n s m i t t e r stability, the
chain geometry, the variations of the p a r a m e t e r s in the time difference problem, and the ability of the
L o r a n r e c e i v e r t o p r o p e r l y receive, m e a s u r e , and i n t e r p r e t the t r a n s m i t t e d Loran signals in the p r e s e n c e
of r a d i o noise, i n t e r f e r e n c e , and dynamics.

Since L o r a n is not a n orthogonal s y s t e m , a c c u r a c y is a function of the position of a r e c e i v e r within

the coverage a r e a . As shown in F i g u r e 1, a n e r r o r in time difference m e a s u r e m e n t of 0. 1 microsecond
will r e s u l t i n e r r o r s of different s i z e s , depending upon the location of the measurement. F o r any given
chain configuration, a c c u r a c y contour plots, consisting of lines of constant e r r o r , c a n be constructed
which d e s c r i b e the a c c u r a c y to be expected a t any point within the coverage a r e a of the chain.

J u s t as t h e r e is no unique chain configuration, t h e r e is a l s o no unique L o r a n equipment configuration,

s e e F i g u r e 2. P r e s e n t Loran-C environments throughout the world a r e provided by t h r e e generations of
equipment with numerous modifications to update each to take advantage of the advancing s t a t e of the a r t .
Included a r e t r a n s m i t t e r s f r o m 300 t o 5,000 kilowatts peak power radiated, antennas 625 feet, 1 , 0 0 0 feet
and 1,350 f e e t tall, and pulse group repetition r a t e s f r o m 10 t o 2 0 pulse groups p e r second. The L o r a n D
configuration that was developed i s a l s o not unique. L o r a n D c a n be a n extremely flexible s y s t e m in
t e r m s of power levels, antenna heights, station locations and chain geometry.

The signals which the L o r a n t r a n s m i t t e r e m i t s a r e omnidirectional pulses. Each pulse l a s t s about

200 microseconds, F i g u r e 3. They a r e t r a n s m i t t e d in groups of eight, s e p a r a t e d by 1,000 microsecond
intervals for L o r a n C and in groups of sixteen, s e p a r a t e d by 500 microsecond intervals f o r L o r a n D,
F i g u r e 4. The group repetition r a t e c a n v a r y f r o m 10 to 25 pulse groups p e r second f r o m one L o r a n
chain to another. The t r a n s m i s s i o n of pulse groups r a t h e r than single pulses allows e a c h t r a n s m i t t e r
to o p e r a t e a t a g r e a t l y reduced power and s t i l l provide wide a r e a coverage of the 100 kilohertz signals.
Within each of the multi-pulse groups the phase of the R F c a r r i e r is changed with r e s p e c t to the pulse
envelope in a systematic manner f r o m pulse t o pulse. The phase of each pulse i n a group i s changed in
accordance with a p r e d e t e r m i n e d code so that it is either in phase o r 180 d e g r e e s out of phase w'ith the
100 kilohertz reference.

The pulse code used a t the m a s t e r station is different f r o m that used at the slave stations. Use of the
phase coded pulses provides s o m e protection against outside i n t e r f e r e n c e s and reduces groundwave
contamination f r o m skywaves of the previous pulse which a s s i s t s in extending the a r e a of groundwave
coverage. The phase coding a l s o provides automatic r e c e i v e r s the n e c e s s a r y logic information to conduct
a n automatic s e a r c h and identification of the m a s t e r and s l a v e stations. Automatic. s e a r c h , in addition to
providing convenience, provides reception when the signal t o noise r a t i o becomes s o poor that visual
acquisition is precluded.

The p r i m a r y components comprising the transmitting station a r e the t r a n s m i t t e r , antenna, and t i m e r

synchronizer. The t r a n s m i t t e r g e n e r a t e s , shapes and d e l i v e r s pulses to the antenna. The antenna i s
usually an e l e c t r i c a l l y s h o r t pole with top loading. The t i m e r synchronizer provides the basic s y s t e m
timing r e f e r e n c e , produces the t r i g g e r s used by t h e - t r a n s m i t t e r to g e n e r a t e and time the pulses and
d e t e r m i n e s whether the station o p e r a t e s a s a m a s t e r o r s l a v e station.

..
 11-5

The f i r s t p r e r e q u i s i t e imposed on the r e c e i v e r i n o r d e r for it to provide a reliable time difference

output is that it sample all received signals at a s e t sampling point. F o r the groundwave coverage a r e a
of L o r a n C the skywave is delayed at l e a s t thirty microseconds beyond groundwave receipt. In the
smaller area covered by Loran D, skywave delay is sixty microseconds. Received signals a r e analyzed
at this number of microseconds a f t e r a r r i v a l of the signal to avoid skywave contamination while providing
operation on g r e a t e r signal energy levels than that available e a r l i e r in the signal. When a signal is
received, the r e c e i v e r delays the envelope by five microseconds, inverts it, then combines it with the
undelayed envelope, F i g u r e 5. The derived envelope which r e s u l t s c r o s s e s the z e r o point at a point
which i s fixed in the r e c e i v e r design. This is the sampling point mentioned e a r l i e r and a s stated is at
thirty microseconds f o r L o r a n C and sixty microseconds f o r Loran D.

Inside the r e c e i v e r , sampling gates, one f o r the m a s t e r signal and one f o r each slave signal, a r e used
to locate the sampling points and to sample the voltage of these points. The r e c e i v e r then maintains the
sampling gates and sampling pulses in coincidence with each other through the u s e of s e r v o s , each s e r v o
controlling the sampling gate by advancing o r delaying it, depending whether it is in the positive o r
negative position of the derived envelope. With the sampling gates of the m a s t e r and slave signals being
maintained in coincidence, the. t i m e difference between the two gates s e r v e s as a c o a r s e measurement.
F i n e m e a s u r e m e n t is obtained by comparing the phase of the received signals. Since the m a s t e r and slave
signal a r r i v e at different t i m e s their phase m u s t be compared to a r e f e r e n c e frequency. This is generated
by a stable oscillator within the r e c e i v e r whose frequency and phase a r e locked to those of the m a s t e r
signal by a Type 11 servo. It is then only n e c e s s a r y to c o m p a r e the phase of the slave signal with the phase
of the r e f e r e n c e frequency to obtain phase difference. . The combination of the c o a r s e and fine m e a s u r e m e n t
combined to provide a t i m e difference output f o r locating a line of position. By using a time difference A
and B, TDA and TDB, a position is determined. These s a m e techniques, described f o r a n analog r e c e i v e r ,
a r e being applied to the design of digital receivers.

Automatic r e c e i v e r s now produced have the capability of measuring two simultaneous t i m e differences
continuously s o that a c c u r a t e position information is available at all t i m e s the r e c e i v e r is tracking. These
t i m e differences may be applied manually to a navigation problem o r be coupled electronically to a
computer which can then provide any of the p a r a m e t e r s associated with the navigation problem such as
t r a c k / c r o s s track, ground speedfheading, et c e t e r a , F i g u r e 6.

W e have previously noted that Type 11 s e r v o s , which display z e r o velocity e r r o r , are used in the
tracking loops. Therefore, bandwidth requirements a r e established by accelerations experienced when the
r e c e i v e r is c a r r i e d on a maneuvering aircraft. E r r o r s in response of the tracking s e r v o s to acceleration
manifest themselves as lags in the phase information. It becomes apparent then that i f the acceleration
is s e v e r e enough to c a u s e a five microsecond lag i n the tracking servo, the s e r v o could slip cycles. As
a r e s u l t , a wide s e r v o bandwidth is indicated. Alternately, signal to noise r a t i o is improved inversely
as the s q u a r e root of the bandwidth s o it is desirable that the s e r v o bandwidth be as narrow a s possible.
These conflicting requirements are m e t by designing the r e c e i v e r f o r two modes of operation, a narrow
band mode f o r tracking under constant velocity and a wide band mode f o r maneuvering. Even under
constant aircraft velocities, however, accelerations a r e generated by noise in the r e c e i v e r and l i m i t the
n a r r o w band which m a y be tolerated. Therefore, the s e r v o bandwidth of the r e c e i v e r is one of the con-
trolling f a c t o r s on accuracy, range, required transmitted power, and s y s t e m information rate. The
bandwidth of the r e c e i v e r can be considerably improved provided a n external acceleration sensing s o u r c e
is available t o assist the tracking s e r v o s in maneuvering flight.

One s o u r c e of acceleration information which a l s o offers other immediate advantages i s the i n e r t i a l

m e a s u r e m e n t unit. The association of L o r a n with I n e r t i a l s y s t e m s is a n a t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t because of
the different yet complementary c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the two systems. Inertial s y s t e m s are self-contained,
p o s s e s s high s h o r t - t e r m accuracy, and operate in all a r e a s of the globe. On the other hand, L o r a n is a
r a d i o navigation s y s t e m that p o s s e s s e s extremely high long-term accuracy.

Some radio s y s t e m s , like Loran, are closed-loop s y s t e m s with r e s p e c t to position and a r e thus d r i f t
free. Of necessity, these s y s t e m s u s e signals contaminated by atmospheric noise and interference, and
t h e r e f o r e m u s t be designated with a fundamental compromise between speed of response to vehicle
maneuver and immunity to noise and interference. On the other hand, Inertial s y s t e m s a r e open loop
with r e s p e c t to position and a r e subject to drift, but they have no internal noise s o u r c e comparable to
atmospheric noise. Consequently, their speed of response is not limited, although the indication drifts
with time. It follows that if the L o r a n and Inertial s y s t e m s are integrated, then the information rate
required of the L o r a n becomes only that n e c e s s a r y to keep up with the d r i f t of the Inertial s y s t e m s o that
the effective bandwidth of the L o r a n can be made v e r y much n a r r o w e r with a corresponding i n c r e a s e i n
immunity to noise and interference. The closed-loop c h a r a c t e r of the Loran conveys this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
to the Inertial system, making it drift free. We then have a complete feedback s y s t e m w h e r e both the
L o r a n and Inertial s y s t e m s are actually improved by the other's performance and while either can take
over i f one s y s t e m should become inoperative. Since the coordinate f r a m e s of L o r a n and Inertial a r e
different, it is n e c e s s a r y that the combination of the two be performed within a computer. Computers
are now in u s e which p e r f o r m this conversion and additionally, solve and display a variety of other
information.

Now that we have looked into the history of Loran, exploring u s e s to which it was applied and noting
limitations which a r o s e , and discussed the p r e s e n t day technology and capabilities, l e t u s consider
11-6

applications which c a n be m a d e of this information s o u r c e which is available t o an unlimited number of

u s e r s within the s e r v i c e a r e a . We have j u s t d i s c u s s e d how L o r a n and Inertial, when p r o p e r l y integrated,
combine into a n optimal s y s t e m f o r navigational purposes. Indeed, when we talk of hybrid navigation
s y s t e m s , this combination a p p e a r s to offer m o r e i m m e d i a t e a s s i s t a n c e t o the navigation problem, m o r e
informational p a r a m e t e r s , and g r e a t e r confidence i n t h e s y s t e m operation and reliability.

With t h e p r e c i s e d a t a available t o e i t h e r t h e a i r c r a f t o r a ground c o n t r o l point f r o m a L o r a n I n e r t i a l

s y s t e m , i m m e d i a t e extensions of traffic c o n t r o l and navigation become apparent. Traffic c o n t r o l
becomes p o s s i b l e i n a common position g r i d coordinate system. Navigation becomes a n a r e a p r o b l e m
r a t h e r than a point-to-point problem. Immediate savings i n ground equipment become possible when a
m y r i a d of navigation a i d s a r e replaced by one L o r a n chain. In addition, to enroute navigation a i d s , the
u s e of L o r a n and the attendant p e r f o r m a n c e could a l s o r e p l a c e approach aids. I n s t r u m e n t landing
approaches have been m a d e to a i r f i e l d s using L o r a n to the s a m e p r e c i s i o n provided by the l o c a l approach
aid.

F r o m the foregoing we m a y o b s e r v e that p r i m a r y developmental support f o r L o r a n is in the a r e a of

a i r c r a f t navigation. However, let u s now investigate other u s e s t o exploit t h i s capability. F o r a number
of y e a r s now, L o r a n has s e r v e d a s a p r e c i s e positioning device f o r the m a r i t i m e industry. Fishing fleets
c a n u s e L o r a n as a device to r e t u r n to otherwise unmarked fishing beds as w e l l a s navigation to and f r o m
t h e s e beds in fair o r a d v e r s e weather. The u s e of Loran could be f u r t h e r applied with r e s p e c t to m a r i n e
life f o r observing t h e i r s h o r t - t e r m movements o r even tracking t h e i r sea'sonal migrations. Since the
.advent of automatic Loran, the capability e x i s t s to extend oceanographic applications even further. By
placing the r e c e i v e r i n suitable packages , such a s buoys, various untended experiments become possible.
Ocean'-wide c u r r e n t studies could be accomplished f r o m fixed b a s e s by data link position tracking of the
instrumented buoy. In the a r c t i c regions continuous tracking of i c e b e r g movement could be m a d e available
by a e r i a l implanting of a L o r a n position r e t r a n s m i t t e r . More p r e c i s e mapping of both the ocean floor and
isolated islands that s e e m t o move f r o m one charting to another now becomes possible t o an a c c u r a c y
n e v e r before achievable. This s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e could a l s o be economically extended in off - s h o r e
drilling operations.

Moving f r o m the ocean t o the a t m o s p h e r e , one c a n envision s i m i l a r u s e s t o ocean c u r r e n t tracking.

Upper air c u r r e n t movement tracking could be accomplished m o r e a c c u r a t e l y and economically with a
balloon c a r r i e d L o r a n device and a data link, relaying position and other valuable information to a fixed
ground station. Similarly, local weather observation balloons, employing only a L o r a n r e t r a n s m i t t e r
could r e l a y position information t o the ground r e g a r d l e s s of weather r e s t r i c t i o n s .

Although the p r i m a r y u s e of L o r a n to d a t e has been concerned with air and s e a u s e s , i t s g r e a t e s t

potential a p p e a r s to be i n s u r f a c e applications. While much thought has gone into traffic management f o r
air traffic c o n t r o l relatively little is observed in the ground environment. The economic considerations
attendant with s u c h thinking, however, m a k e it a p p r o p r i a t e t o d i s c u s s t h e m in s o m e detail. Within u r b a n
a r e a s , when positioning determination is available i n m e t e r s r a t h e r than k i l o m e t e r s , positive c o n t r o l
and traffic management becomes possible with i t s i m m e d i a t e economic benefits. Optimization p r o c e s s e s ,
applied through Queuing theory, c a n be made a r e a l t i m e p r o c e s s i n the handling of u r b a n bus t r a n s p o r t a -
tion. Existing schedules, while they do make a n attempt t o conform t o t r a f f i c flow variations, a r e far
too r e s t r i c t i v e to provide optimum s e r v i c e and revenue. C e n t r a l control, with knowledge of position and
load f a c t o r s , can be m a d e to provide optimum utilization resulting in i n c r e a s e d u s e of the s e r v i c e s s i n c e
they would now be dependable. This, i n turn, would improve revenues beyond that envisioned only by
i n c r e a s e d load factors. Much the s a m e line of reasoning c a n be applied to' the city taxi s e r v i c e which we
all a g r e e s e e m s . t o o p e r a t e i n a r a t h e r haphazard, random m a n n e r , f o r a profit oriented venture. It
s e e m s possible that our u r b a n civil s e r v i c e s , p r i m a r i l y law enforcement, could u s e s o m e s y s t e m in
effecting d e p a r t m e n t a l efficiencies. Expanding t h e s e thoughts to long distance t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n the
trucking, rail, and inland waterways, the s a m e advantages a r e likely to incur.

F o r o u r m o r e isolated land a r e a s , L o r a n o r L o r a n r e t r a n s m i s s i o n techniques m a y have application to

s u c h a r e a s a s tracking exploration p a r t i e s o r a s s i s t i n g t h e m in following p r e d e t e r m i n e d routings. F r o m .
the s u r v i v o r a s p e c t s such techniques would provide far m o r e positive and effective r e s c u e operations.

The high o r d e r of stability achieved i n L o r a n suggests considerable m e r i t in i t s u s e f o r timing m e a s u r e -

ments. The National Bureau of Standards and the U. S. Naval O b s e r v a t o r y have indicated that L o r a n
provides t h e capability of synchronizing and setting clocks to a n a c c u r a c y of one microsecond. This
capability of L o r a n f o r improving t i m e m e a s u r e m e n t a c c u r a c y over wide a r e a s makes possible t h e s y n c h r o -
nization of the various L o r a n chains. T h e r e f o r e , position determinations c a n be made by using stations
f r o m different chains. P o s i t i v e c o n t r o l of a i r c r a f t is a l s o enhanced a s well a s location of thunderstorms.
Additionally, a s t r o n o m i c a l phenomena investigations are a s s i s t e d by better t i m e m e a s u r e m e n t availability.
A c l o s e c o r r e l a t i o n of skywave p h a s e changes with s o l a r f l a r e s and proton events observed i n p a s t studies
show t h a t new studies m a y give f u r t h e r insight to geomagnetic propagation paths and ionospheric changes.

The applications j u s t d i s c u s s e d m a y have other than engineering considerations which p r e s e n t l y p r e c l u d e

t h e i r adoption. However, they have been p r e s e n t e d to gain your attention and p e r h a p s enable you to conceive
of other applications within your specific a r e a of endeavor. It has c e r t a i n l y been a rewarding experience
t o m e e t with you all, and I thank you f o r your kind attention.
 11-7

REFERENCES

Loran C System of Navigation, F e b ru a ry 1962. Pr epar ed f o r the U.S. Coast Guard by Jansky and Bailey.
Alexandria, Virginia.

Tactical Air Navigation, Technical Report No. 68-09. Elmer M. Lipsey, 9 September 1964, International
i Engineering Co. , Arlington. Virginia.

U s e of the Loran C System f o r Time and Frequency Dissemination. Frequency Technology, Vol. 7, No. 7,
I July 1969, pg. 13, Paul E. Pakos, Lieut. Commander, USCC.
11-8

Fig. 1 Typical Loran chain

Fig. 2 Global Loran coverage

 11-9

4 SEC on mow sa: o r H m s r a &LSE 04

LORANS UEPETIVON /NEUVAL
Fig. 3 Loran-C signal characteristics

TRANSMITTED PULSE ENVELOPE

I---.

TRANSmIT’TED PULSE PATTERNS

Fig. 4 Loran-D signal characteristics

11-10

6.m+s pt. ma.t.r

1 - 0

-Tlrn. d8Ir.r.n.. P
."l.. ~

Fig. 5 Localization of sampling points

DISPLAY

START TD

Fig. 6 Loran controlldisplay

 12

SYSTEME DE NAVIGATION A INERTIE

WBRIDE OPTIMISE

P. FAURRE
S.A.G.E.M., 6, avenue d’IBna, PARIS XVIe, France

-0-
'12

SOMMAIRE :

L'utilisation optimale d'informations redondantes est un probllme de nature statistique.

Les methodes modernes de filtrane statistique, particuliiirement bien adaptles au traitement sur
calculateur numlrique, sont foniles sur une reprlsentation markovienne des signaux algatoires (filtre
de Kalman-Bucy).
On expose dans cette conference les principes utilises pour la conception d'un systlme de
navigation optimise utilisant une plate-forme B inertie, ainsi que des informations de vitesse
(Doppler) et des mesures de position intermittentes.

Aprls l'lvaluation des performances et des possibilitgs d'alignement en vol d'un tel
systlme, on expose les probllmes lies B la sensibilite et B la mecanisation numerique du filtre
digital utilisl.
 12-1

1 - UTILISATION OPTIMALE DES INFORMATIONS :

1.1 Les methodes d'utilisation optimale des informations sont essentiellement des methodes
statistiques : connaissant les lois de probabilites des diverses variables d'un probllme,
il est possible d'estimer au mieux l'une de ces variables suivant un critlre donne.

Ainsi supposons que nous ayons deux mesures independantes y1 et y2 d'une mZme quantitl x

Yl = x + w1 (1)

Y2 = x + w2 (2)

03 les erreurs w1 et wp sont deux variables algatoires independantes.centr6eset de

variances 01' et 0 2 ~(on dit alors que les mesures yi et y2 sont entachees d'un bruit blanc w).
Alors la meilleure estimee de x 1 partir de y1 et y2 est donnee par
'JZ2 alp
% - Y1+ Y2 (3)
"712 + U22 U12 + U22

Cette estimee est qualifiee de "meilleure", car la variance de l'erreur residuelle

2 = x - P (4)
est ainsi minimisee.

1.2 Soit 21 present un probllme plus complexe d'estimation en temps reel. On obtient aux instants
discrets 1 , 2 ,..., n... les mesures y de la grandeur x.

entachees,dubruit blanc wi

Alors la meilleure estimee de x (au sens'de la variance de l'erreur residuelle minimale),

etant donne les mesures yl, yn, est ...,
Y1 + + Yn
$ = (8)
n

Loasque l'on obtient une nouvelle mesure yn+l 21 l'instant n + 1 , la nouvelle estimee est

Yl + + Yn+l
$+1 =
n + 1
0
Les formules (8) et (9) n'ont aucun caractlre recursif. Par contre, si l'on lcrit ( 9 )
sous la forme

Cette nouvelle formule presente le caractlre recursif, c'est 21 dire que

i) Pour le probleme qui nous interesse (estimer x), % resume parfaitement les mesures
passees y1, ...,
yn ; en d'autres termes, 2,, etant calcule , il est inutile de
conserver la table des mesures passees (ce qui n'est pas vrai dans le cas 03 l'on
utilise une formule non recursive du type (9).

L'apostrophe ' designe la transposition matricielle et 6 (t - T) est l'impulsion de Dirac.

12-2

ii) Lorsqu'une nouvelle mesure Y,+~ est obtenue, la nouvelle estimee 2 n+l est une
combinaison de 2n et de yn+l'

iii) Si l'on a deja calcule fin, les calculs a effectuer pour obtenir 2 par une formule
recursive (IO) sont bien moins volumineux que par l'expression (9f (coruparer le nombre
d'operations si n = 100 par exemple).

1.3 En general les problsmes d'estimation en temps reel ne consistent pas B estimer une quantite
x constante, mais une quantite x(t) variant avec le temps, c'est 1 dire une fonction algatoire.

On peut montrer que les formules recursives du type (IO) se generalisent si (et seulement si)
x(t) est un processus maxkovien ou, de fafon Squivalente, s'il est l'dtat d'un systlme
lineaire (en general non stationnaire) excite par un bruit blanc.

1.3 Le modlle general est donc le suivant (voir figure 1)

i) Le processus vectoriel markovien x(t) de dimension n est reprbsente par l'equation diffe-
rentielle lineaire

2 = F (t) x + v (t) (11)

03

F (t) = matrice dynamique n x n en general dependant du temps

v (t) = bruit blanc continu d6fini par

I
E {v (t)) = 0

E {v (t) v' (TI) = Q (t> 6 (t -T>

et par la condition initiale x (to) definie par

ii) Les observations y de dimensions p sont

Y (ti) - H (ti) + w (ti> (16)

03

H (ti) = matrice d'observation p x n

w (ti) - bruit blanc discret defini par

1.32 Les formules rdcursives generant la meilleure.eotb6e 2 (t) de x (t), etant donne leo observa-
tions passees y (tl) ...y (ti), sont alors

i) Initialisation 1 l'instant to
-
P (to) = xo (19)
E (to) = Ao (20)

a
L'apostrophe I ddsigne la transposition matrielle et 6 (t - r) est l'impulsion de Dirac.
 12-3

ii) Entre deux observations tiqt<ti+l

4 = F (t) 4
= F (t) C + C F' (t) + Q (t)

1 -K (ti) H (ti) 1 z(ti-)

oG 2 (ti-) d6signe.11estim6ede x (ti), btant donne les observations y (ti) . . . y (ti-!),

et 2 (ti+) l'estimee, dtant donne y (tl) . . . y (ti).

Le calcul de C (t) est necessaire afin de pouvoir obtenir le gain K du filtre, c'est B
dire la ponderation 1 attribuer aux observations.

La matrice C (t) n'est rien d'autre que la variance de l'erreur rbsiduelle

2 = x - %
c'est 1 dire que
E (t) = E { 2 (t) 2' (t) 1

La mecanisation en general numerique, des equations (19) 1 (25) est alors ce que l'on
appelle un filtre de Kalman. Cette mecanisation est sch6matis6e sur la figure 2 (IS), {6r).

1.4 Afin d'appliquer les m6thodes de filtrage recursif ci-dessus exposees, il convient donc de
mettre le probllme consider6 sous la forme canonique ( 1 1 ) 1 (18). On rencontre deux cas :

- le problhe est initialement pose sous cette forme : c'est le cas de nombreux problemes de
guidage, 03 l'bquation ( 1 1 ) est l'equation des perturbations du systhe considGr6.

- les fonctions considEr6es sont d6finies statistiquement par leurs spectres ou d'autres
caracteristiques statistiques ; il convient alors de donner une representation markovienne
de telles fonctions, ce qui est possible soit en utilisant une methode de factorisation,
soit en utilisant le lemme de Yakubovich-Popov-Kalman { I } .

2 - SYSTEM!% DE NAVIGATION "BRIDE OPTIMISE :

2.1 Lorsque l'on veut realiser un systZme de navigation optimal utilisant plusieurs sources
d'information, on doit donc constrdire un modcle markovien representant les informations
fournies par l'ensemble des instruments : ainsi certaines variables sont consider6es comme
appartenant 1 l'6tat du processus markovien, d'autres comme Ltant des observations bruitees
sur cet Stat.

Supposons que le systsme soit composd :

- d'une plateforme 1 inertie

- d'un radar Doppler
- d'un bar0 donnant l'altitude
- d'un instrument donnant des informations de position 1 des instants discrets,

Le modele est construit de la fason suivante : on met dans le vecteur d'Btat les erreurs
dynamiques du systsme 1 inertie et toutes les erreurs instrumentales qui ne sont pas des
bruitsblancs. D'autre part, on forme la difference entre les paramEtres de navigation fournis
par le systemme 1 inertie d'une part et les instruments auxiliaires d'autre part ; le resultat
est interprzte comme une observation y sur les erreurs du systhe. A l'aide d'un filtre de
Kalman, on calcule la meilleure estimee de ces erreurs qui permet de corriger de fason optimale
les parametres de navigation et de recaler Bventuellement les diffgrents systsmes. Le schema
de principe apparart sur la figure 3 .
...I . . .
12-4

Nous avons figure d'autre part un diagramme plus precis du systeme considdrd ici
sur la figure 4 .

2.2 Modlle markovien du systsme hybride (erreurs horizontales) :

2.21 SystSrne B inertie :

On considere un systemme B inertie avec plate-forme asservie au nord. On cherche donc

B maintenir les axes de la plate-forme confondus avec les axes gdographiques locaux (voir
figure 6 ) . Les taux de rotation sur les axes x, y et z sont :

wx = n cos L - vy I Ry

wy = vx f Rx
oz = n sin L - vy tg L I R,,

03
vx - vitesse sur l'axe x
vy = vitesse sur l'axe y
L = latitude
n = rotation terrestre
R
, R,, - rayon de courbure de la terre

On suppose que le canal vertical est trait6 par ailleurs et qu'il n'y a pas d'erreur
correspondante afin d'alldger l'exposd.

Les eauations representant la dynamique des erreurs du systlme B inertie s'dcrivent

alors {81.

avec

03 :
0- , ,Y Y ,et '4, dds-$nent les rotations autour des axes plate-forme {p} -1isant passer
Y
du repere calculateur {c],defini c o m e le triedre geographique local au point calcul6 par
le systeme B inertie,au repsre plate-forme {PI,
- 6, et 6y designent les erreurs de position sur les axes x et y de la plate-forme,
- 6; et 6; designent les derivees temporelles de 6, et 6y.

La matrice Fi est donnee par :

0 wz-'")Jr 0 0 0 0
-Uz 0 wx 0 0 0 0
wy-% 0 0 0 0 0
F i = O 0 0 0 0 I O (33)
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 -fz fy all a12 0 2w:
f, 0 - -f, a21 a22 -2w, 0
<

avec

... I ...
 12-5

et f,, f et f, dlsignent les composantes de la force splcifique (vecteur acclleration

absolue'ihoins vecteur gravitg) sur les axes de plate-forme.

Le vecteur U reprlsente les erreurs instrumentales parmi lesquelles nous avons

retenu : t

i) Les dlrives des gyroscopes cx, et E ~ .

ii) Les facteurs d'lchelle des gyroscopes Kgx, Kgy et Kgz.

Ainsi :

U1 = EX + Kgx WX

U2 = Ey + Kgy "y

U3 = €2 + Kgz wz
U4 U5 U6 U7 a 0

2.22 Modlle des erreurs instrumentales :

La derive ~i de chaque gyroscope est reprgsentle par un modlle d'ordre un :

Ei + vi (43)

OB vi est un bruit blanc

Les facteurs d'lchelle des gyroscopes Kgi sont modells par :

Kgi 0
E { Kgi2 (0)) a'jo2.

Le Doppler fournit sur les axes avions X et Y des mesures Vdx et Vd des composants
vrais VX et VY de la vitesse 1 condition qu'elle soit suplrieure en module B un certain
seuil. Le mod$le des erreurs est

Vdy ba + Vy + *.
Les biais du Doppler bdX et bdY sont modells par :
bdi 0

et wx et wy sont des bruits blancs de covariance r3 et r4.

2 * 24 M o p ~ h , d e s - e r r e u r s l u r - l e ~ - ~ s u ~ ~ ~ - ~ e:- ~ o s ~ ~ ~ o ~
La position est supposee mesurle 1 des instants discrets par divers moyens. On considsre
que :
- les erreurs sont indlpendantes d'une mesure B la suivante,
- l'erreur est caractlrisee par son C.E.P.
12-6

2.25 ModSle markoviei-global :

On reunit en un seul vecteur les diverses erreurs dynamiques et instrumentales

considerees. On obtient ainsi un vecteur de dimension 15
a
X = [ Xi', EX' Eys EZs Kgxs Kgy, K g z ~bdx' bdY ] '
Le modlle markovien est alors :
k=Fx + v

avec
1 0 O ' W , 0 0 0 0
0
0
1
0
0
1
o w
Y
o o w z o o
0 0 0
I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (54)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0

et v est un bruit blanc de covariance Q 6(t - T) avec

Q = Diag {OOOOOOO q, qy qz. 000001 . (55)

La matrice de covariance initiale

E {X (0) X' (0)) = A0

(non &rite ici en detail) contient des termes provenant des modSles statistiques des
erreurs instrumentales d'une part, des erreurs de l'alignement initial du systSme d'autre
part.

Considerons 1 present les informations fournies par le Doppler et les mesures de position
auxiliaires.

i) Mesure de position
La difference entre la position donnee par le systlme 1 inertie et celle donnde
par le moyen auxiliaire de mesure, Lquivaut aux obsersations :

y1 = 6x + w1 (57)
Y2 = 6Y + w2 (58)
03 w1 et w2 sont des bruits blancs de covariance r1 et r2.

ii) Vitesse Doppler

Si le cap avion est a , et si l'on forme la difference entre les vitesses du
systlme B inertie et les vitesses Doppler, on obtient {8}:

y3 = -vz sin a YX + vz cos a YY - vy Y Z + (wz - asin L) sin a 6~

- (wz -n sin L) cos a 6y'+ cos a 6k + sin a 69 - bdX - wx (59)

y4 = -vz cos a Yx - vz sin a Yy + vx YZ + (wz - Qsin L) cos a 6x

+ (wz - sin L) sin a 6y - sin a 6k + cos a 69 - bdy - wy. (60)

... I ...
I
 12-7

Ainsi toutes les informations ext6rieures Lquivalent 1 des observations lin6aires

bruitees sur le vecteur d'6tat x :
yi = hi x + wi
avec
hi = { 000100000000000 I
h2
h3 - {
I
000010000000000 I
- vz sin a , vz cos a , - vy, (wz - Qsin L) sin a,
(63)

- (wz - nsin L) cos a, cos a, sin a, 0 0 0 0 0 0 -I 01

(64)

h4 = { - vz cos a , - vz sin a , vx, (w, - Qsin L) COS a ,

(wz - sin L) sin a, - sin a , cos a, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -11

(65)
Le problsme d'utilisation optimale de l'ensemble des instruments est ainsi mis sous
la forme canonique d'un filtre de Kalman (voir paragraphe 1 ) .

3 - SIMULATION DES PERFORMANCES DU SYSTEME :

3.1 Le calcul des performances du systsme est aise. I1 suffit d'int6grer num6riquement
les Squations (22) et (25) donnant la covariance du vecteur d'6tat. On obtient ainsi les
&carts types des erreurs sur les divers paramstres de navigation.

3.2 On a represent6 1 l'aide de courbes les performances 1 un &art type pour une trajectoire
type -
Supposant d'abord un alignement initial classique par gyrocompas, on voit

- sur la figure 7 , le C.E.P. pour le systemme 1 inertie pure, le systsme avec Doppler,
le systsme avec recalage de position et le systsme avec Doppler et recalage de position.

- sur les figures 8 et 9, les erreurs de vitesses A V X et A V Y pour les mGmes cas,

- sur la figure 10, les erreurs de cap P H 1 2 .

Toutes les courbes sont modifi6es par un facteur classifi6 A. On voit se degager des courbes
. les conclusions suivantes :
les performances du systsme optimal avec Doppler sont am6lior6es d'un facteur 3 par
rapport 1 celles du systsme 1 inertie,

avec un couplage Doppler et des recalages de position optimaux, le C.E.P. reste toujours
inf6rieur 1 2 A km.

3'.3 Possibilit6s d'alignement en vol :

Dans le mode inertie-Doppler optima1,'le systsme peut s'aligner en vol : le filtre de

Kalman realise dans ce cas l'alignement optimal. C'est ce qui ressort des courbes des
figures 1 1 et 12, oG l'on voit l'hvolution du C.E.P. et de l'erreur de cap P H I 2 d'un
systsme t r h grossierement align6 par rapport 1 un systeme bien align6 : on peut conclure
qu'en 20 minutes on a retrouv6 les performances du systhe bien aligns.
12-8

4 - SENSIBILITE AU MODELE :

4.1 Dans la plupart des applications du filtrage statistique, les modlles markoviens sont
connus avec peu de precision, du fait du manque d'experimentation statistique ou de simpli-
fications volontaires du modlle, il y a souvent une grande incertitude sur les valeurs des
paramltres statistiques.

11 est donc fondamental de tester les degradations de performances d'un filtre dOes aux
variations des paramltres ou aux simplifications du modlle. Ce probllme est schematise sur
la figure 5.
Plusieurs methodes existent pour tester la sensibilits. Nous renvoyons aux references
{2}, { 3 } , I41 et { 7 } pour plus de'details.

La sensibilitg du modlle present6 ici a donc BtB testle pour les variations vraisembla-
bles de paramltres et pour les simplifications faites ; et c'est 21 la suite de cette 6tude
que le modlle B 15 variables d'Btat a et6 retenu au lieu du modlle initialement utilise, de
taille sup6rieure.

Par exemple, en mode inertie-Doppler, negliger les biais des accblBromltresconduit 1

une degradation relative maximale de 1 1 X sur le C.E.P, de 10 % sur l'erreur de vitesse et
conduisent, lorsqu'on les neglige, 1 des degradations maximales de 1,5 X, 5,5 % et 0,9 I% sur
le C.E.P. la vitesse et l'azimut.

4.2 Technique de l'epsilon de Stanley SCHMIDT :

Afin d'insensibiliser le filtre de Kalman aux erreurs du modlle utilise, on a pr6vu

d'employer une technique dont l'id6e originale est dOe B Stanley SCHMIDT 19) :

i) Si l'on a une confiance absolue dans le modsle utilise, on utilise la formule

optimale ( 2 3 ) .
-1
%+ = 2- + Z- H' ( H Z- H' + R ) (y -H %-) (66)

ii) Si l'on a une m6fiance totale dans le modsle, on n'utilise que l'observation
presente y pour g6n6rer la meilleure estimee que l'on peut en tirer.

2, = 2- + X H' (H X HI)-' (y - H %-) (67)

03 X est une matrice diagonale de cadrage de x : le terme 6 est l'ordre de

grandeur vraisemblable de la variable xi.

iii) Dans un cas usuel, on n'a ni une confiance absolue, ni une mefiance totale B
l'lgard du modlle, mais plutct un degr6 de confiance 1 E . I1 est alors raison- -
nable d'utiliser l'estimle

Be8 fomules (24) et (26) sont alors modifiees c o m e suit :

-1
K = (1 - E) E-H' (H E- H' + R)-l + E X HI ( H X H ' )
et
E+ = (I - KH) E- (I - KH)' + KRK'.
I1 convient de choisir la valeur 1 attribuer B E pour chaque type d'observation :
le principe que nous avons utili86 consiste a prendre une valeur aussi grande que
possible (bonne insensibilite du filtre) mais cependant conduisant B des dggra-
dations de performances suffisamment faibles. Ces valeurs ont It6 fixees par
simulation.

... I ...
 12-9

5 - MECANISATION NUMERIQUE DU FILTRE :

Le filtre de Kalman consiste en l'ensemble des equations (19) 1 (25). Une partie
des calculs concerne la ggndration de l'estimEe 4 et l'autre partie la matrice de
covariance E.

Du fait des grandes variations relatives des termes de la matrice E au cours du

temps, il convient de faire une partie des calculs au moins en virgule flottante.

Les formules d'integration choisies sont des formules de Runge-Kutta d'ordre deux ;
h dlsignant le pas d'intlgration, on calcule d'abord la matrice de transition attachle
aF:

h 3h 2
4 (t+h, t ) - I + -4
F(t)+TF(t+Zh)
h2 2
+ 2 - F -
(t + 3 h) F (t). (71)

Ensuite l'estimge et la matrice de covariance sont.misesa jour par :

E- (t+h) - 4 E+ (t) 4' + h Q + h2 [F (t + 52 h) Q

+ Q F' (t + ih)]. (72)

Dan8 le cas particulier Etudil, ces formules font un bon compromis entre la prlcision,
la vitesse de calcul et l'importance du progrme.

6 - CONCLUSION :

On a cherchl 1 dlgager la mEthodologie ressortant de la conception d'un eystsme

hybride optimal. L'avant-projet doit comporter une simulation, l'ltude de sensibilitd
et l'ltude de la mEcanisation : il s'agit au total d'un volume de calcul important B
realiser sur gros ordinateur (dans le cas de cette ltude, nous avons utilisl un
UNIVAC 1 108).

... I ...
 R E F E R E N C E S

P. FA=, Representation of Stochastic Process, Ph. D. Dissertation, Stanford

University (1967).

P. FAURRE, MLthode Gengrale d'Etude de SensibilitE d'un Filtre de Kalman, Centre

d'Automatique de 1'Ecole des Mines, E/17, (dikembre 1968).

R.F. GRIFFIN, A.P. SAGE, Large and Small Scale Sensitivity Analysis of Optimum Estimation
algorithms , I.E.E.E. Trans. A.G. 13, 4 (august 1968) pages 320, 329.

T.L. GUNCKEL, 11, Parametric Analysis of Optimal Estimation, Autonetics (Internal Memo).

R.E. KALMAN, New Methods and Results in Linear Prediction and Filtering Theory, R.I.A.S.
TR 61-1 (1960).

R.E. KALMAN, R.S. BUCY, pew Results on Linear Filtering and Prediction Theory,
of Basic Engineering, A.S.M.E. Trans. 83 D (1961) pages 95, 108.

T. NISHIMURA, Error Bounds of Continuous Kalman Filters and the Application to Orbit
Determination Problems, I.E.E.E. Trans A.C. 12, 3 (1967) pages 268, '275.

PITMAN, Inertial Guidance, Wiley (1962).

S.F. SCHMIDT, Estimation of State with Acceptable Accuracy Constraints, Report 67-4,
Analytical Mechanics Associates Inc.
 12-11

Fig.l M o d a l e du processus markovien x

et des observations discrbtes y
(ti)

I
CALCUL D U
GAIN X
PAR 2 2 , 2 4 , 2 5
1

'(ti) '

SYSTEME PA RAM TRE FILTRE D E

r----* A INERTIE DE N A V I G A T I O N KALMAN
I
I OPIIMAUX
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
II
I
lNSTRUMENT PARAMETRE I
b-----* I
I AUXlLl AlRE DE NAVIGATION I
I I
12-12.

BAR0 -

ADAPTE A U PERFORMANCES
MODELE 1
OPTIMALES
( F l LTRE OPT1 M A L )

F i g 5 Sensibiliti d'un f i l t r e de Kalman

Xt=AXF POLAIRE

ztr
F i g . 6 Repire g6ographique local
 12-13

_._._ INERTIE PURE

__
-_
INERTIE +RECALAGE
INERTIE +DOPPLER
INERTIE +DOPPLER + RECALAGE

F i g . 7 C E P ( E R R E U R D E POSITION)

a
U

E
3

1
.I Sec
0
50'0 0 10000 15000

Fig.8 AVX (ERREUR D E V I T E S S E )

12- 14

Y I I
-
ibLlO:,
.Sec

0 5000 10000

Fig.9 AVY (ERREUR D E VITESSE)

/-
U
2 /-
/-
4 IO-'- -/-
L--:-- --q-.
----
*/
I

I
8I \--
I
I
,*---I - - , _ _ _

3 io-?- I

il----'O
I
I
----. ----,
I
I
I
I

:---------:
I

2 10-3.- I
:----------q b,,------Cl L---------l
L-cCC - ---'7 I
L---

1 lo-?-
--- INERTIE PURE
-
______- INERflE+RECALAGE
_I_ L,- IMERTIE+ DOPPLER
INERTIE+DOPPLER +RECALAGE

.Sec
I
I
5000 I
10000 15000
 12-15

-- - --- - -_ SYSTEME BlEN ALIGNE INITIALEMENT

SYSTEME GROSSIEREMENT ALIGNE

CEP
Km
135

035

5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig.11 ALIGNEMENT EN VOL

(EVOLUTION DU CEP)

rgZrad
__ ___ - - __ SYSTEME BlEN ALIGNE INITIALEMENT
SYSTEME GROSSIEREMENT ALIGNE

16

5.1C

10-

5.1C
mn
-
5 ld 15 20 25 30

Fig.12 ALIGN€MENT EN VOL

(EVOLUTION DU PHI Z)
 13

TACTICAL LORAN

LLOYD D. HIGGINBOTHAM

LORAN P r o g r a m s Office
Aeronautical S y s t e m s Division
A i r Force S y s t e m s Command
WRIGHT-PATTERSON A F B , OHIO
13

ABSTRACT

F o r any navigation s y s t e m to p o s e s s the g r e a t e s t potential f o r tactical applications, it m u s t be pilot

operable and p r e c i s e .

LORAN in its various f o r m s h a s been with u s f o r the p a s t s e v e r a l decades and has provided
adequate enroute navigation wherever the ground environment has existed. With the advent of digital
technology and the birth of digital airborne computers, LORAN has advanced to the state of auto-
maticity and precision unmatched by any other existing navigation device. A s such i t i s just beginning
to fulfill its' potential a s a tactical navigation system.

This paper reviews the USAF's efforts over the p a s t five (5) y e a r s to develop a military
capability in LORAN. Briefly it d e s c r i b e s a tactical LORAN s y s t e m and i t s advantages and disadvan-
tages a s a common u s e r grid system. It defines some of the problems encountered in the development
of s y s t e m hardware.

Since LORAN is a relatively low data r a t e system, emphasis i s being given to the problems
encountered when integrating the s y s t e m into high performance a i r c r a f t . It d e s c r i b e s the various
methods of integration and the relative a c c u r a c i e s to be expected of each. It a l s o includes the environ-
mental aspects such a s signal to noise r a t i o s as affected by a i r c r a f t attitude, phase inversions and
precipitation static noise.

A status r e p o r t i s given on hardware technology and where this technology i s leading in t e r m s

of weight, volume and cost. To overcome some of these limitations it i s shown that simple r e t r a n s -
mitting devices can satisfy many projected requirements f o r position locating by remotely processing
the received signals.

In s u m m a r y the author attempts to define the a r e a s that r e q u i r e f u r t h e r development f o r

tactical purposes.

,
 13-1

TACTICAL LORAN
by

Lloyd D. Higginbotham -
Technical P r o g r a m s Manager
LORAN P r o g r a m s Office, Aeronautical S y s t e m s Division

F o r any navigation s y s t e m to p o s s e s s the g r e a t e s t potential f o r tactical applications, it m u s t be pilot

operable and p r e c i s e .

LORAN in i t s v a r i o u s f o r m s h a s been with u s f o r the past s e v e r a l decades and h a s provided adequate

enroute navigation w h e r e v e r the n e c e s s a r y ground environment h a s existed. With the advent of digital
technology and the b i r t h of digital a i r b o r n e c o m p u t e r s , LORAN h a s advanced to a s t a t e of automaticity
and p r e c i s i o n unmatched by any other existing navigation device. A s such it is j u s t beginning t o fulfill
i t s potential a s a t a c t i c a l navigation s y s t e m .

I. INTRODUCTION

LORAN A and e a r l y LORAN C r e c e i v e r s w e r e not only l a r g e but r e q u i r e d a n o p e r a t o r to

manually s e a r c h and t r a c k the signals. F i g u r e 1 is an example of this type. It i s designated the
AN/APN-70B. It w a s initially designed to o p e r a t e on LORAN A and w a s l a t e r modified to work on both
LORAN A and C. The o p e r a t o r w a s r e q u i r e d to s e a r c h out the signals, align them on the scope and
m e a s u r e the differences in t i m e of a r r i v a l . Two s e t s of operation w e r e r e q u i r e d to obtain the time
differences between the m a s t e r station and each of the two s l a v e s . These n u m b e r s w e r e then used to
locate the position on a map. A proficient o p e r a t o r might accomplish h i s position location in a few
minutes. By the t i m e he found h i s position, however, the a i r c r a f t had moved to a new position.
Depending upon the o p e r a t o r s proficiency and the speed of the a i r c r a f t the a c c u r a c y v a r i e s between two
and five nautical m i l e s . It is obvious that such a s y s t e m i s neither pilot operable nor does it have the
precision required for tactical missions.

A reasonable c r i t e r i a f o r being p i l o t operable, especially i n high p e r f o r m a n c e a i r c r a f t , is

that the o p e r a t o r need only to initiate s y s t e m operation and s e l e c t the d e s i r e d outputs through simple
switching. T a c t i c a l p r e c i s i o n can be defined a s the allowable e r r o r in space positioning f o r the p a r t i c u l a r
mission. To m e e t this c r i t e r i a the positioning e r r o r should be s m a l l enough so a s to not be the predomi-
nant e r r o r .

11. Automatic R e c e i v e r Evolution

The automatic operation of L o r a n C r e c e i v e r s c a m e about p r i m a r i l y because digital techniques

w e r e developed to p r o c e s s the received information. Device technology and specifically the integrated
c i r c u i t allowed the application of t h e s e digital techniques in a reasonable volume with r e l a t i v e l y low
power consumption. The f i r s t fully automatic LORAN C equipment to come into existence w a s the
AN/ARN-76 which w a s developed by S p e r r y Gyroscope Company i n the e a r l y 1960's. T h i s device w a s
among the e a r l i e s t to employ the integrated c i r c u i t in l a r g e numbers. Approximately eleven hundred
integrated c i r c u i t devices w e r e employed, It w a s one of a kind fabricated in S p e r r y ' s Engineering shops.
A s such, much c a r e w a s taken in i t s construction which r e s u l t e d i n the exhibition of o v e r 250 h o u r s
between f a i l u r e s . Like e a r l i e r r e c e i v e r s the ARN-76 matched p u l s e s but unlike o t h e r s they a l s o
m e a s u r e d the t h i r d cycle c r o s s o v e r to o b t a i n another o r d e r of precision. Its inherent a c c u r a c y w a s
m e a s u r e d in hundreds of f e e t v e r s u s nautical m i l e s f o r previous manually operated r e c e i v e r s . Since
i t s only output w a s time difference, and since map conversion w a s still r e q u i r e d , the useful a c c u r a c y
r e m a i n e d insufficient f o r m o s t t a c t i c a l applications. It did however, offer a significant improvement f o r
enroute navigation. D i g i t a l computer technology had a l s o advanced to the point w h e r e it w a s becoming
p r a c t i c a l to u s e in a i r b o r n e applications. It w a s obvious that coupling the automatic LORAN r e c e i v e r
with a digital computer would allow the development of a completely automatic navigation and guidance
s y s t e m which could e x t r a c t the full a c c u r a c y of the s y s t e m and provide the guidance p a r a m e t e r s
n e c e s s a r y f o r t a c t i c a l applications.

111. System Description

R e c e i v e r s o r u s e r navigation devices alone do not make a s y s t e m . A ground environment must

a l s o be provided. LORAN C ground stations i n existence a t the t i m e w e r e and still a r e limited in number.
F i g u r e 2 shows today's LORAN C coverage. The d a r k a r e a s a r e the limitations of the ground wave
reception and the light a r e a is the skywave coverage. F r o m the F i g u r e i t can be seen that the m a j o r
o v e r w a t e r r o u t e s of the n o r t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e a r e covered but the m a j o r i t y of the land m a s s e s a r e not.
The stations a r e high powered (100 KW to 4 megawatts) and o p e r a t e with antenna towers varying in
height f r o m 625 f e e t to 1350 feet. They r e q u i r e two to t h r e e months to e r e c t and do not f i t the mobility
r e q u i r e m e n t which i s obviously r e q u i r e d to provide world-wide ground wave coverage n e c e s s a r y f o r
tactical deployment.
 13-2

The t a c t i c a l s y s t e m is defined a s a complex of a t l e a s t t h r e e ( 3 ) t r a n s p o r t a b l e ground t r a n s m i t t i n g

stations, a n a r e a monitor, m a p s and u s e r equipment. S y s t e m a c c u r a c y o r m o r e conveniently s y s t e m e r r o r
is derived f r o m a l l e l e m e n t s of the s y s t e m which a r e ; the stability of each t r a n s m i t t e r , ability of the
monitor to detect and make c o r r e c t i o n s to the coding delzys or the slave stations, the resolution and
inherent a c c u r a c y of the receiving s y s t e m s and the environmental noise l e v e l a t the receiving s i t e s ( F i g 3 ) .
Having the g e o m e t r i c locations of the ground t r a n s m i t t e r s , the expected hyperbolic l i n e s of constant time
difference can be pre-plotted on geodetic o r UTM m a p s and coordinates used interchangeably. The
a c c u r a c y obtained in this m a n n e r is t e r m e d predictable a c c u r a c y . E r r o r s introduced in the computation
of the hyperbola's and by unknown propagation anomalies can be in t e r m s of s e v e r a l hundreds of feet.
T h e s e a n o m a l i e s a r e , however, r e l a t i v e l y stable and the e r r o r s a r e constant. T h e r e f o r e , one can m e a s u r e
the position a t a point within the s e r v i c e ? r e a and r e t u r n to that s a m e point within the limitations of the
h a r d w a r e . T h i s is t e r m e d r e p e a t a b l e a c c u r a c y . If the m a p s a r e calibrated by a c t u a l m e a s u r e m e n t of
points in the s e r v i c e a r e a then a common c L r grid s y s t e m of maximum p r e c i s i o n is a reality. The t a c t i c a l
r e q u i r e m e n t f o r p r e c i s i o n p r e c l u d e s operation on skywaves because of their propagation uncertainty.

IV. Propagation Anomalies

A s mentioned e a r l i e r the low frequency of LORAN operation p e r m i t s effective propagation o v e r

t e r r e s t r i a l s u r f a c e s which cannot be accomplished with line of sight f r e q u e n c i e s . It i s a well known
fact, however, that conductivity v a r i e s o v e r the e a r t h s ' s u r f a c e and in t u r n c a u s e s phase p e r t u r b a t i o n s in
the propagated electromagnetic waves. T h i s is of special concern in a r e a s w h e r e the conductivity changes
s h a r p l y such a s land-water boundaries, d e s e r t and heavy foliage and mountainous t e r r a i n , In F i g u r e 4
the propagation i s shown in l i n e s of constant phase. Over the homogenous s e a w a t e r the l i n e s a r e concen-
t r i c c i r c l e s . Over the inhomogenous t e r r e s t r i a l s u r f a c e phase l a g s o c c u r which d e s t r o y the concentric
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a l t e r the g r a d i e n t s between the l i n e s of constant phase. The hyperbolic l i n e s of
constant time difference f o r m e d by the t r a n s m i s s i o n f r o m a p a i r of such t r a n s m i t t e r s ( i . e . , the LORAN
g r i d ) a r e going to be warped in a s i m i l a r fashion. Warpages of up to 2500 f e e t have been experienced in
a r e a s along the t r a n s m i t t e r baseline extensions. One can n e v e r p r e d i c t w h e r e the l i n e s of constant t i m e
difference a r e going to be u n l e s s t h e s e p e r t u r b a t i o n s can be predicted and the n e c e s s a r y phase c o r r e c t i o n s
i n s e r t e d into the grid computations. F o r t u n a t e l y t h e s e anomalies a r e constant and the m e a s u r e d LORAN
position a t any given point i s stable. In o t h e r w o r d s the repeatable a c c u r a c y i s not affected with the
possible exception being a t the boundaries of d i s s i m u l a r conductivity regions such a s s h o r e l i n e s o r
mountain ridges. In t h e s e regions a third dimension i s involved. The lag which o c c u r s a t ground l e v e l
gradually d e c r e a s e s a s the altitude i n c r e a s e s a s shown in F i g u r e 5. The tactical significance involved
in this situation is that the coordinates of a position m e a s u r e d a t the b a s e of a mountain, f o r example, m a y
be different than the m e a s u r e d coordinates at a point d i r e c t l y overhead and indeed m a y be different a t
different altitudes. Repeatable a c c u r a c y holds t r u e in t h i s c a s e if and only if the s u c c e s s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s
a r e made a t the s a m e altitude above the point of e effects upon reconnaissance and s t r i k e
m i s s i o n s , f o r example a r e obvious.

We in the LORAN P r o g r a m s Office at WrightYPatterson A i r F o r c e Base in connunction with the

Environmental Science S e r v i c e s Administration of Boulder, Colorado a r e c u r r e n t l y conducting r e s e a r c h
i n t h i s a r e a . The purpose of t h i s effort is to d e t e r m i n e the magnitude of these effects and to d e r i v e
prediction techniques which would enable u s to apply c o r r e c t i o n s through computer p r o g r a m m i n g . The
r e s u l t s should a l s o enable u s to implement operational p r o c e d u r e s to f u r t h e r minimize t h e s e effects.

V. S y s t e m Development

In 1964 the United S t a t e s A i r F o r c e established a n Advanced Development P r o g r a m to develop

a LORAN D t a c t i c a l navigation s y s t e m . Its b a s i c objectives w e r e to develop a pilot operable navigation
s e t and t r a n s p o r t a b l e ground stations which could be a i r deliverable to the s i t e s and be put into operation
with a minimum c r e w and in the s h o r t e s t possible time. Design of the s y s t e m w a s to be based on and be
compatible with LORAN C. In F e b r u a r y 1965 the A i r F o r c e contracted with S p e r r y Gyroscope to develop
the s y s t e m .

T o m e e t the ground station transportability r e q u i r e m e n t two b a s i c changes in the LORAN C

operation w e r e introduced. The number of p u l s e s p e r pulse group w e r e doubled and sampling of the
sixth cycle c r o s s o v e r point w a s introduced instead of the third cycle c r o s s o v e r . ( F i g 6 ) . T h i s w a s
possible because of the skywave coverage exclusion and the f a c t that skywave contamination within the
p r e s c r i b e d s e r v i c e a r e a is delayed beyond the sixth cycle. The techniques allowed S p e r r y to provide the
r e q u i r e d coverage using solid s t a t e 3KW peak pulse power output a m p l i f i e r s feeding a 300 foot antenna
(Fig 7). E a c h t r a n s m i t t e r station i s delivered in 4 p a l l e t s ( F i g 8), which can be t r a n s p o r t e d by c a r g o ,
a i r c r a f t o r by hellcopter. Ground s y s t e m stability w a s obtained by using rubidium frequency s t a n d a r d s
a t each t r a n s m i t t i n g site. Vehicular u s e r equipment designated the AN/ARN-85 w a s a l s o developed and
consisted of the components shown in Fig. 9. The specified resolution of the r e c e i v e r w a s 0. 025 m i c r o -
seconds with the r e s u l t a n t a c c u r a c y being a function of bandwi th, signal-to-noise r a t i o and pulse r e p e - .
tition r a t e a s shown in the equation f o r output e r r o r E = l . 25
8
KA/SNR PRR.
 13- 3

Due to the delayed r e c e i p t of the LORAN D t r a n s m i t t e r s , initial testing of the s y s t e m was done using
a LORAN C chain and completed in the LORAN D environment in August 1968. Averaging the m a s s
r e s u l t s g e n e r a l l y yielded c i r c u l a r e r r o r probabilities keyed to synchronization t o l e r a n c e of the r e s p e c t i v e
cahins of 2 0 . 2 m i c r o s e c o n d s f o r LORAN C and 2 0 . 0 5 m i c r o s e c o n d s f o r LORAN D with the g r i d g r a d i e n t
a t the point of m e a s u r e m e n t controlling the s p r e a d in feet.

T h e r e a r e many o t h e r applications which can be extrapolated f r o m t h e s e t e s t r e s u l t s . I t s

uniqueness i s d e r i v e d f r o m the f a c t that it c a n provide p r e c i s i o n navigation to a n unlimited number of
u s e r s without s e r i o u s degradation because of w e a t h e r , d a r k n e s s , foliage, e a r t h c u r v a t u r e or o t h e r
obstacles.

P r i o r to the completion of testing of the LORAN D s y s t e m the A i r F o r c e m a d e the decision to

produce a i r b o r n e s y s t e m s f o r operational useage. In l a t e 1966 a c o n t r a c t w a s given to the Avionics
Division of International Telephone and T e l e g r a p h Company f o r the production of a i r b o r n e s y s t e m s d e s i g -
nated the AN/ARN-92 ( F i g 10). The computer and c o n t r o l indicator a r e provided by s u b c o n t r a c t to the
L e a r Siegler Company. Most of the testing of this s y s t e m h a s been in a LORAN C environment and i t s
operational employment, h a s been exclusively LORAN C. Testing w a s a l s o accomplished on both c a r g o and
f i g h t e r type a i r c r a f t . The t e s t r e s u l t s obtained w e r e f u r t h e r evidence that LORAN can and d o e s provide
a c c u r a t e navigation.

To bring s o m e of the p r o b l e m s of a i r c r a f t integration into focus, it i s n e c e s s a r y to explain

s o m e of the unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s y s t e m . The propagation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the f r e q u e n c y
of o p e r a t i o n of 100 Khz allows u s e f u l long r a n g e propagation o v e r a l l types of t e r r a i n and d e n s e foliage.
It is a l s o the u s e of this low f r e q u e n c y that p e r m i t s effective o p e r a t i o n a t ground l e v e l and behind
mountains without fade and shadow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that s e r i o u s l y affect line-of-sight t r a n s m i s s i o n
s y s t e m s . The d a t a r a t e is correspondingly low (10 to 25 pulse groups p e r second) and to e x t r a c t the
p r e c i s i o n a g r e a t amount of integrating or averaging t i m e i s n e c e s s a r y . T h i s n a r r o w bandwidth i s a n
a p p a r e n t limitation f o r r e a l t i m e t a c t i c a l operations.

If the a i r c r a f t i s flying s t r a i g h t and level, the velocity f r o m e a c h of the t r a n s m i t t i n g s i t e s is

constant and the r e c e i v e r t r a c k i n g loops have no difficulty in following the change in difference in t i m e
of a r r i v a l of the signal p a i r s ( F i g 11). When the a i r c r a f t changes d i r e c t i o n a s shown in the 90' t u r n
and the velocity v e c t o r s a r e changed or a n a c c e l e r a t i o n component i s added, the tracking c i r c u i t s , being
of low speed r e s p o n s e a r e incapable of keeping up with the changes and c a u s e a n e r r o r to build up in the
t i m e difference output. This e r r o r c a n be anywhere f r o m a few f e e t to 1000 feet or m o r e depending upon
the r a t e of t u r n and the s y s t e m t i m e constants. T a c t i c a l l y this would not be a p r o b l e m because t e r m i n a l
action i s s e l d o m taken during a m a n e u v e r . ' I t i s a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m f r o m the standpoint that the r e c e i v e r ' s
t h r e s h o l d m a y be o v e r c o m e and the s y s t e m m a y b r e a k lock which i s c a t a s t r o p h i c . It i s s e r i o u s a l s o
f r o m the standpoint that the l a r g e r the e r r o r , the longer i t takes to s e t t l e out a f t e r the m a n e u v e r i s
completed. The l a t t e r p o s e s the r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s t r a i g h t and l e v e l flight f o r a significant t i m e i n t e r v a l
a f t e r the t u r n which i s m o s t u n d e s i r a b l e in a h o s t i l e environment.

T h e s e e r r o r s can be bounded by providing maneuver or a c c e l e r a t i o n a s s i s t a n c e f r o m e x t e r n a l

s e n s o r s . One of two u s e a b l e s o u r c e s a r e n o r m a l l y available f r o m the a i r c r a f t . T r u e a i r speed and
heading or i n e r t i a l s y s t e m s . A s c a n be s e e n in F i g . 12 a plot d r a w n f r o m a t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s ,
i n e r t i a l aiding i s by far the b e s t s o u r c e . It i s significant to note that the velocity e r r o r s in i n e r t i a l
s y s t e m s a r e e x t r e m e l y s m a l l o v e r t h e s e s h o r t p e r i o d s of t i m e even in the p o o r e s t i n e r t i a l p l a t f o r m .

VI. Applied LORAN in High P e r f o r m a n c e A i r c r a f t

P e r f e c t a c c e l e r a t i o n aiding would c a n c e l out a l l of the e r r o r . P r a c t i c a l l y t h i s d o e s not happen.

The d e g r e e to which cancellation i s affected i s dependent upon the velocity aid s o u r c e s and the m a n n e r in
which they a r e i n t e g r a t e d . In high p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t bed a i r c r a f t the i n e r t i a l p l a t f o r m f r o m the LN-12 i s
used a s the acceler,ation aid s o u r c e . Because of e a s e of a c c e s s and the schedule l i m i t a t i o n s the output
w a s taken f r o m p o t e n t i o m e t e r s available a t the output c o n n e c t o r s of the LN-12 i n e r t i a l s y s t e m . The
d e l a y s a c c r u e d in the m e c h a n i c a l linkage allow e r r o r buildups of 300 to 500 f e e t ( i n addition to the s t a t i c
e r r o r ) during a 2g t u r n . The t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r this e r r o r to s e t t l e out v a r i e s between 26 seconds and
52 seconds depending upon the pulse repetition r a t e of the t r a n s m i t t e r chain and the magnitude of the e r r o r .
E x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t p r o g r a m s conducted a t W r i g h t - P a t t e r s o n A F B with a n optimumized ( m i n i m u m t i m e l a g s )
tie-in to the i n e r t i a l s y s t e m h a s verified that e r r o r i n a m a n e u v e r c a n be reduced to that experienced
during constant velocity. It w a s a l s o proven that this hybrid s y s t e m , under conditions of constant velocity,
produce e r r o r s which a r e l e s s than e i t h e r LORAN or i n e r t i a l taken independently.

The m o s t s e r i o u s p r o b l e m a s mentioned e a r l i e r i s s y s t e m breaklock. The AN/ARN-92 r e q u i r e s

anywhere f r o m 3 to 15 m i n u t e s to s e a r c h and t r a c k the signal. A breaklock in m o s t t a c t i c a l situations
m e a n s a n a b o r t . In addition to m a n e u v e r e r r o r s , the antenna and i t s a s s o c i a t e d p r o b l e m s will affect
the tendency to breaklock.
13-4

Selecting the p r o p e r location f o r the antenna on high speed a i r c r a f t i s c r i t i c a l to the p r o p e r

operation of the LORAN r e c e i v e r . Any receiving antenna which i s adaptable to high speed maneuvering
a i r c r a f t i s nothing m o r e than a point s o u r c e a t 100 Khz. A s a r e s u l t the antenna element and the
e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r of the a i r c r a f t a c t a s the feed points of a dipole antenna. Ideally the orientation of this
dipole should be a s shown in Fig. 13. If f o r any r e a s o n it becomes n e c e s s a r y to locate the antenna
element a t p l a c e s o t h e r than d i r e c t l y above or below the e l e c t r i c a l c e n t e r of the a i r c r a f t , p e r f o r m a n c e
degradation will o c c u r . F o r example, if the antenna element is located on the t a i l cap of the a i r c r a f t a s
shown in Fig. 14, both the signal to noise r a t i o s a s s e e n by the r e c e i v e r a s well a s the a i r c r a f t m a n e u v e r -
ability a r e affected. The r e s u l t of this type of installation i s an antenna orientation of 25' to 35O off the
horizontal c e n t e r l i n e of the a i r c r a f t . F r o m this illustration it becomes quite c l e a r that the signal s t r e n g t h
v a r i e s d r a m a t i c a l l y with a i r c r a f t attitude. Unfortunately this does not affect the noise signals s e e n by the
antenna and they r e c e i v e full amplification causing an e x t r e m e degradation in signal to noise level. It i s
a l s o obvious that a nose up attitude in e x c e s s of 35O c a u s e s a r e v e r s a l in signal polarity. The sampling
p r o b e s in the r e c e i v e r s e n s e this a s a l a r g e change in position and attempt to follow the change which
l i t e r a l l y d r i v e s the r e c e i v e r into a breaklock condition. Slow r o l l s in e x c e s s of 20 - 30 seconds will a l s o
c a u s e this condition to e x i s t r e g a r d l e s s of antenna location. The t a i l cap antenna i s a l s o in the area
w h e r e m a x i m u m precipitation s t a t i c d i s c h a r g e takes place.

F r o m t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i t i s shown that the antenna should be a s c l o s e to the top o r bottom e l e c t r i c a l

c e n t e r of the a i r c r a f t a s the physical c o n s t r a i n t s will p e r m i t . If possible this location should a l s o be in a n
a r e a which p e r m i t s maximum decoupling f r o m the points of e l e c t r i c a l s t a t i c d i s c h a r g e .

VII. Status of LORAN Technology

C u r r e n t LORAN receiving s y s t e m s a r e l a r g e , heavy and expensive. The fully automatic ones

a r e m o r e costly by a n o r d e r of magnitude. The integrated c i r c u i t technology which allowed u s to put
these s y s t e m s in fighter a i r c r a f t and to be pilot operable s t i l l p r e s e n t s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s in installation
in the p r e m i u m space provided. The AN/ARN-92 f o r example ( F i g l o ) , h a s a volume of 1. 75 cubic feet,
weighs 96 pounds and c o s t s in e x c e s s of $100, 000 f o r the black boxes alone. When r e t r o f i t t e d into fighter
type a i r c r a f t i t is usually a t the expense of s o m e o t h e r capability. The l a r g e component count h a s caused
the reliability to be l e s s than d e s i r a b l e . The advancements made in receiving s y s t e m technology since
1966-67 have been a l m o s t exclusively by company funded efforts. Component count h a s been reduced by
improved c i r c u i t design and by medium and l a r g e s c a l e integrated devices. The r e l a t i v e s i z e reduction
is f r o m 2 : l up to 1O:l a s illustrated in Fig. 15, P r i c e quotations which have been r e c e i v e d f o r s y s t e m s
functionally equivalent to the A N / A R N - 9 2 range f r o m $50K to $70K p e r s y s t e m . Additional c o s t
reduction i s f o r e s e e n in f u t u r e A i r F o r c e development.

VIII. Other LORAN Applications

T h e r e a r e many position locating r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r which it would be economically inadviseable

to u s e this expensive h a r d w a r e . Many of t h e m r e q u i r e throw-away a n d / o r lightweight, inexpensive devices.
Effort i s c u r r e n t l y under c o n t r a c t to develop the concept of LORAN r e t r a n s m i s s i o n . A s m a l l r e c e i v e r
t r a n s m i t t e r which i s a i r droppable or h a n d c a r r i e d will r e c e i v e the 100 Khz signals and r e t r a n s m i t t h e m
via VHF o r UHF data link to a r e m o t e point e i t h e r a i r b o r n e or fixed f o r processing. A s mentioned e a r l i e r
the ARN-92 r e q u i r e s 3 to 15 minutes to s e a r c h and t r a c k the signal. If the concept of r e t r a n s m i s s i o n i s to
be p r a c t i c a l the r e m o t e signal p r o c e s s i n g m u s t be n e a r r e a l t i m e . It i s this n e a r r e a l t i m e p r o c e s s i n g
capability which i s being a d d r e s s e d under the c u r r e n t p r o g r a m . By using the timing f r o m a LORAN r e c e i -
v e r ( a s depicted in Fig. 16) which i s a l r e a d y tracking the LORAN signals then the t i m e r e q u i r e d to achieve
t r a c k on the r e t r a n s m i t t e d signal i s d i r e c t l y proportional to the distance between the two s t a t i o n s . I t is
anticipated that acquisition will be in the o r d e r of five seconds or l e s s in most c a s e s . Applications f o r
t h i s concept a r e many and include position location of inaccessible points f o r p u r p o s e s of r e c o n n a i s s a n c e
o r s t r i k e , location of ground t r o o p s , f o r w a r d air control vehicles, etc. Examples of r e t r a n s m i t t i n g
d e v i c e s a r e shown in Fig. 17.

IX . Technological Needs

LORAN and Hybrid LORAN navigation s y s t e m s a r e proven to have t a c t i c a l m e r i t . A S a

tactical tool it i s e s s e n t i a l that a l l component (ground and vehicular) development be pursued as a
s y s t e m to i n s u r e t a c t i c a l control o v e r the g r i d generation, a s well a s , the u s e r equipment. Since
a c c u r a c y i s a function of signal-to-noise, development should be undertaken to obtain higher effective
power output while d e c r e a s i n g the r e q u i r e d ground station e r e c t i o n t i m e . Both can be accomplished by
the development of a i r inflatable antenna s t r u c t u r e s of i n c r e a s e d height. Higher powered solid s t a t e
a m p l i f i e r s f o r ground t r a n s m i t t e r s should a l s o be p u r s u e d , User equipment needs to be developed which
a r e s m a l l e r , lighter and c h e a p e r . It i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y that r e c e i v e r s f o r a i r c r a f t applications be
designed to recognize and p r o t e c t against signal phase inversions, precipitation s t a t i c , etc. Modular
construction must be emphasized so that the navigation or navigation d e l i v e r y s y s t e m can be t a i l o r e d
to the m i s s i o n r e q u i r e m e n t f o r r e a s o n s of economy of finance and economy of p r e m i u m a i r c r a f t space.
<. SUMMARY

LORAN Technology h a s advanced to the state of automaticity and precision which provides a
tactical capability. It i s c u r r e n t l y the best known s y s t e m available for position locating of a n unlimited
number of u s e r s .

This paper h a s described A i r F o r c e experience in the s y s t e m development and touched on

s e v e r a l applications. With vision and foresight one can s e e applications limited only by the computation
capacity and depth of integration with e x t e r n a l auhsystema to provide such things a s s f f s e t acquisition
of coordinates, single p a s s acquisition of t a r g e t s r e g a r d l e s s of delivery modes. etc.

The ultimate precision of LORAN is not r e s t r i c t e d solely to the transmitting and receiving
components but i s a l s o dependent upon optimum integration with the computer and other a i r c r a f t
subsystems.
13-6

,_ ..."
.. ..
. ._.S.

FIGURE 1

A MANUALLY OPERATED LORAN RECENER

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

THE LORAN SYSTEM

 13-7

FIGURE 4

PHASE PERTURBATIONS I N TEE

VERTICAL PLANE (exaggerated)

FIGURE 5

LORAN PULSE GROUPING

LORAN C

MASTER SLAVE A SLAVE B

II11111 IIIIIIII 1111111I

LORAN D

FIGURE 6

LORAN C SAMPLINQ LORAN D SAMPLING

'NOTE . PULSE SHAPE I S I D E N l l C A L

13-8

FIGURE 7

LORAN D TRANSMITTING STATION

FIGURE 8

FIGURE 9
 13-9

FIGURE 10

I
I
,--..
TDTRACK

I
I
I

FIGURE 11

A/c TRACK
RECEIVER TRACK ERROR DURINQ MANEUVER

FIGURE 12
13-10

FIGURE 13

IDEAL DIPOLE P A T T E R N
'IIXIIUI I I I I - L E V E L F L I I W T
' N O P H I l E R E Y E I I I L U l O E l 00" P I T C H
on n o t i

.%.
... %.
.*. N THE A I R P L A N E - T H E
DIPOLE PATTERN I S

FIGURE 14

I
NEXT SENElllnON TECHWOMOI
I

IC
FIGURE 15
 13-11

LORET

FIGURE 16

I
I
I

FIGURE 17
 14

THE C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM - AN APPLICATION OF

DIGITAL SYNERGISTIC STOCHASTIC HYBRID NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY

Bruce J.Miller

Northrop Corporation
Electronics Division
Hawthorne, California
14
 14- 1

THE C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM - AN APPLICATION OF

DIGITAL SYNERGISTIC STOCHASTIC HYBRID NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY

Bruce J. M i l l e r
Northrop Corporation
Electronics Division
Hawthorne, C a l i f o r n i a

The C-5 Navigation System is b u i l t around a high speed general purpose d i g i t a l computer which r e c e i v e s
navigation s i g n a l s from an i n e r t i a l measurement u n i t (IMU), doppler r a d a r , l o r a n r e c e i v e r , t a c a n r e c e i v e r ,
magnetic gyro compass, a i r d a t a computer, multi-mode r a d a r , and manually entered v i s u a l p o s i t i o n and
s t e l l a r f i x e s from t h e c o n t r o l and i n d i c a t o r panels. A l a r g e number of s t e e r i n g and navigation modes
a r e a v a i l a b l e which make use of a number of sensor combinations,

T h i s paper d e s c r i b e s t h e system, t r a c k s t h e t e c h n i c a l approach and a p p l i c a t i o n of theory t o t h e develop-

ment of t h e mechanization, and p r e s e n t s p r e d i c t e d performance r e s u l t s generated v i a d i g i t a l computer
simulations.

1. INTRaDUCTION

A b a s i c premise i n t h e organizing and w r i t i n g of t h i s paper is t h a t it is u s e f u l and of i n t e r e s t t o t h i s

symposium t o i d e n t i f y t e c h n i c a l s t e p s and the r a t i o n a l e which r e s u l t e d i n t h e mechanization of t h e C-5
Navigation S.ystem.

Phase I S e l e c t i o n of Technical Approach

A means f o r guaranteeing t h a t t h e s p i r i t and l e t t e r of t h e c o n t r a c t u a l performance s p e c i f i c a t i o n ( s e e

S e c t i o n 2 ) was sought. I n p a r t i c u l a r , mechanisms f o r c o r r e c t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e system formulation
were sought. The t e c h n i c a l management mechanisms used were:

1) A l l equations and programs f o r t h e on-board navigation computers were "released" and c o n t r o l l e d with
standard hardware c o n f i g u r a t i o n c o n t r o l procedores -
i.e., "Engineering Orders" t o r e l e a s e , o r change
t h e s e equations and programs, were used.
2) A l l system i n t e r f a c e s were completely s p e c i f i e d , i n w r i t i n g , before engineering development was
initiated.
3) Simulation techniques were s e l e c t e d a s the means of developing t h e system mechanization and f o r
v e r i f y i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n c y of subsystem and component s p e c i f i c a t i o n s with t h e c o n t r a c t u a l system
performance s p e c i f i c a t i o n .

4 ) Simulation techniques were s e l e c t e d a s t h e means f o r d e t e c t i n g and, when p o s s i b l e , f o r c o r r e c t i n g

d i f f e r e n c e s between p r e d i c t e d and a c t u a l hardware performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

A s a r e s u l t of t h e above, t h e t h r e e major simulation programs, described i n S e c t i o n 6 , were developed from

previously e x i s t i n g programs, and were used a s t o o l s f o r t h e Phase I1 and Phase I11 a c t i v i t i e s .

Phase I1 Development of t h e Mechanization

The i n i t i a l systems a c t i v i t y led t o t h e establishment of s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e subsystem elements, and was

followed by two c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e i n t e r - r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s , v i z . , hardware development and software
development. The hardware development process culminated in t h e i n t e g r a t i o n t e s t s and l a b o r a t o r y and f l i g h t
t e s t s of t h e hardware elements t o prove out proper s i g n a l flow between the c e n t r a l d i g i t a l computer and t h e
various subsystem elements. The software development process culminated a t the same p o i n t , but r e s u l t e d i n
t h e confirmation t h a t t o t a l system performance requirements were s a t i s f i e d . Although many problems were
encountered and solved i n t h e hardware development a r e a , t h e key q u e s t i o n i n a hybrid navigation system
mechanization is t h e question of how t o mechanize the mixing of information from the various sensors. For
t h i s reason, t h e primary emphasis i n t h e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of the system mechanization given i n S e c t i o n 6
is upon t h e r e l a t i v e l y unique approach taken i n developing t h e system software.

Phase 111 Adjustment of t h e Mechanization t o Actual Hardware C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

An important last s t e p i n t h e development of a hybrid navigation system is i n r e s o l v i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

between l a b o r a t o r y f l i g h t t e s t r e s u l t s and t h e p r e d i c t e d performance r e s u l t s of Phase 11.

A s t h e accuracy of a hybrid navigation system i n c r e a s e s , h i g h e r - q u a l i t y sensors must be used, and it

becomes necessary t o "model" t h e system hardware c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with g r e a t e r and g r e a t e r accuracy i f t h e
f u l l p o t e n t i a l accuracy of t h e navigation system is t o be a t t a i n e d . A t y p i c a l problem occurring i n high-
performance navigation systems, such a s i n t h e C-5, is t h a t t h e system hardware does not perform e x a c t l y
a s was a n t i c i p a t e d when t h e hardware s p e c i f i c a t i o n s were w r i t t e n . The problems t h a t o f t e n occur a r e one
o r more of t h e following:

1) One o r more of t h e design parameters is out of s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n t h e a c t u a l hardware.

2) The parameters s p e c i f i e d i n t h e procurement s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e s a t i s f i e d , but t h e hardware possesses
some a d d i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e not l i s t e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n . This is e s p e c i a l l y preva-
14-2

l e n t when new innovations a r e incorporated n hardware which cause t h e new e r r o r models of t h e hardware
t o d e v i a t e from t h e e r r o r models of more conventional designs.

A v e r y d i f f i c u l t t a s k i n l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g , f l i g h t t e s t i n g and debugging a hybrid navigation system is i n

i s o l a t i n g t h e causes of u n s a t i s f a c t o r y system performance. The various sources of e r r o r s , programming
e r r o r s i n t h e computer, modelling e r r o r s of t h e hardware w i t h i n t h e computer program, and e r r o r s i n t h e
hardware have s u b t l e manifestations a t t h e system l e v e l . The most e f f e c t i v e technique f o r t r a c k i n g e r r o r s
has been through t h e use of t h e System Simulator Program, described i n S e c t i o n 6. V a r i a t i o n of component
and modelling e r r o r s i n t h e System Simulator Program enables a n a l y s t s t o match f l i g h t t e s t d a t a , t h u s
providing t h e necessary i n s i g h t f o r compensating o r removing t h e e f f e c t of t h e error.. The Phase 111
a c t i v i t y is now poceeding a t Northrop, but i t s d e s c r i p t i o n is beyond t h e scope of t h i s paper.

The paper has been organized a s follows: S e c t i o n 2 p r e s e n t s t h e h i g h l i g h t s of t h e C-5 Navigation System

performance s p e c i f i c a t i o n . S e c t i o n s 3 , 4, and 5 d e s c r i b e t h e hardware, o p e r a t i o n a l modes, and information
flow of t h e mechanization, r e s p e c t i v e l y . S e c t i o n 6 d e s c r i b e s t h e s t e p s taken i n t h e development of t h e
system mechanization, and S e c t i o n 7 p r e s e n t s predicted system performance r e s u l t s from s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s .

2. NAVIGATION SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

The h e a r t of t h e navigation system, t h e I n e r t i a l Doppler Navigation Equipment (IDNE), supplied by Northrop,

c o n s i s t i n g of t h e doppler r a d a r , IMU, computers and c o n v e r t e r s , has been configured t o s a t i s f y t h e
following requirements:

Ground Alignment: Warmup from -65' F., and alignment, assuming a p o s i t i o n u n c e r t a i n t y of 1 n

mile ( 3 U), is r e q u i r e d between l a t i t u d e s of -70' and +70°. Accuracy of alignment must be
compatible with navigation,accuracy requirements. Warmup and alignment must be c a r r i e d out
w i t h i n 25 minutes.

Airborne Alignment: Airborne alignment, assuming a p o s i t i o n u n c e r t a i n t y of 5.0 n miles ( 3 U),

is required between l a t i t u d e s of -70' and +70°. Accuracy of alignment must be compatible with
navigation accuracy requirements. Airborne alignment must be c a r r i e d out w i t h i n 20 minutes
a f t e r warmup.

Navigation Accuracy:

Free i n e r t i a l and doppler i n e r t i a l - after ground alignment:

0.75 n mile/hour, CEP ( 1 s t 5 hours)

1.25 n mile/hour, CEP (2nd 5 hours)

Free i n e r t i a l and doppler i n e r t i a l - after a i r b o r n e alignment:

1.0 n mile/hour, CEP ( 1 s t 5 hours)

2.0 n mile/hour, CEP (2nd 5 hours)

Terminal navigation (computed a i r r e l e a s e p o i n t , or CARP):

230 f e e t , CEP ( c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e IDNE equipment above)

325 f e e t , CEP accuracy required i n p o s i t i o n i n g t h e a i r v e h i c l e

3. SYSTEM HARDWARE

The C-5 Navigation System c o n s i s t s of two general purpose D i g i t a l Computers, a n I n e r t i a l Measurement Unit,
a Doppler Radar, a Loran Receiver, a Tacan Receiver, a Multi-mode Radar, two A t t i t u d e and Heading Reference
U n i t s , an A i r Data Computers, a Control Panel, an I n d i c a t o r Panel, and two A/D-D/A Converters. The u s e of
two general purpose computers, a t t i t u d e and heading reference u n i t s , c o n v e r t e r s , and a i r d a t a computers provides
redundancy and i n c r e a s e s r e l i a b i l i t y t o the system. A block diagram o f t h e system is i n d i c a t e d i n
Figure 1. A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e equipments follows.

3.1 D i R i t a l Comuuters

The two Northrop NDC 1051A computers i n t h e navigation system a r e described i n Table 1. The Primary Computer
is capable of providing a l l of t h e alignment, navigation, p o s i t i o n augmentation, terminal navigation, and
s t e e r i n g f u n c t i o n s l i s t e d i n S e c t i o n 4. The A u x i l i a r y Computer provides most of t h e f u n c t i o n s of t h e Primary
Computer, except f o r Loran and Tacan p o s i t i o n augmentation, s t e e r i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e v e r t i c a l plane,
and a i r b o r n e alignment.

3.2 I n e r t i a l Measurement Unit (IMU)

The I n e r t i a l Measurement Unit is t h e Northrop Floated I n e r t i a l Platform (FLIP), which c o n s i s t s of a n o u t e r

support sphere assembly which c o n t a i n s t h e f l o a t e d i n n e r b a l l and a l l i n e r t i a l components and i n t e r n a l
e l e c t r o n i c s . The o u t e r support sphere assembly is r i g i d l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e o u t e r housing of t h e I n e r t i a l
Reference Unit which, i n t u r n , is b o l t e d t o t h e v e h i c l e s t r u c t u r e .
 14-3

The i n n e r b a l l assembly provides t h e s t a b l e element of FLIP. I n s t a l l e d on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e of t h e sphere

a r e : e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t brushes f o r power transmission; electromagnetic torquer segments (two per a x i s )
t o c o n t r o l sphere motion and maintain a s t a b l e i n e r t i a l reference; l o w - f r i c t i o n a d j u s t a b l e c a s t e r wheels
t o l i m i t t r a n s l a t i o n a l motion; e x c i t a t i o n bands t o i n d i c a t e t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e f l o a t e d sphere w i t h i n
t h e support sphere.

Three Northrop single-degree-of-freedom f l o a t e d , r a t e - i n t e g r a t i n g gyroscopes a r e orthogonally mounted

i n s i d e t h e f l o a t e d b a l l . Each gyro e r r o r s i g n a l is d e t e c t e d and amplified. The amplified s i g n a l s a r e
applied t o ball-mounted t o r q u e r s which cause t h e b a l l t o r o t a t e . T h i s high-gain t h r e e - a x i s feedback
a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system i s o l a t e s t h e f l o a t e d b a l l from t h e case, maintaining a s t a b l e platform t o a high
degree of accuracy. Each gyro has an input t o r q u e r whose comand s i g n a l s a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e d i g i t a l
computer. Hence, t h e platform a t t i t u d e r e l a t i v e t o a given r e f e r e n c e frame can be changed by q u a n t i t i e s
computed by t h e d i g i t a l computer.

Three K e a r f o t t l i n e a r pendulous accelerometers a r e a l s o orthogonally mounted i n s i d e t h e f l o a t e d inner

b a l l . The accelerometer-sensed s i g n a l s a r e s e n t t o t h e d i g i t a l computer i n t h e form of a t r a i n of
pulses. The number of pulses i n a given u n i t of time divided by t h e time i n t e r v a l is a measure of t h e
average s p e c i f i c f o r c e exerted on t h e IMU case over t h e i n t e r v a l . The frequency of t h e pulses f o r the
C-5 system is high enough t h a t , f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, t h i s average s p e c i f i c f o r c e can be considered
a s an instantaneous q u a n t i t y .

3.3 Doppler Radar

The Doppler Radar, manufactured by t h e GPL D i v i s i o n of General P r e c i s i o n Systems, Inc., s u p p l i e s t h e

computer with measurements of ground speed and d r i f t angle. By u t i l i z i n g information from t h e " b a l l
readout" mentioned p r e v i o u s l y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e ground speed r e l a t i v e t o platform axes.

3.4 Loran

The Loran Receiver is manufactured by t h e C o l l i n s Radio Company. When a v a i l a b l e , t h e Loran d a t a is

converted by t h e d i g i t a l computer t o p o s i t i o n information and displayed t o t h e navigator. S u b j e c t t o
h i s judgement and c o n t r o l , t h e Loran d a t a can a l s o be used t o update t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e of t h e s t a t e
v e c t o r which includes p o s i t i o n , v e l o c i t y , and o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s .

3.5 - T

The Tacan Receiver, manufactured by Hoffman E l e c t r o n i c s , provide s l a n t range and bearing information t o
ground s t a t i o n s a t known l o c a t i o n s . The navigator can use t h i s d a t a , when it is a v a i l a b l e , i n a s i m i l a r
manner t o t h a t described f o r t h e Loran.

3.6 Multi-Mode Radar (MMR)

The Multi-Mocle Radar, manufactured by t h e Norden D i v i s i o n of United A i r c r a f t , provides many modes of

o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e C-5. Two modes a r e used t o o b t a i n navigation information. I n t h e terminal phase of
f l i g h t , t h e navigator can, through a cathode r a y tube d i s p l a y , s i g h t on landmark p a t t e r n s whose p o s i t i o n
r e l a t i v e t o a d e s i r e d supply and/or personnel drop l o c a t i o n is known. S l a n t range and bearing d a t a is
provided by t h e MMR during t h e terminal phase. The navigator can a l s o use t h e MMR f o r s i g h t i n g on land-
marks whose a b s o l u t e p o s i t i o n ( l a t i t u d e and longitude) a r e known. I n t h i s mode t h e measurements of range,
bearing, and landmark l o c a t i o n go d i r e c t l y t o t h e Kalman f i l t e r .

3.7 A t t i t u d e Heading Reference Unit (AHRU)

The two redundant A t t i t u d e and Heading Refernce Units shown i n Figure 1 a r e manufactured by Lear S i e g l e r .
Data from t h e s e u n i t s is used t o provide a backup mode of o p e r a t i o n i n c a s e of a n IMU malfunction.

3.8 C e n t r a l A i r Data Computer (CADC)

,
The two a i r d a t a computers a r e manufactured by E l l i o t Brothers. One of t h e functions of t h e CADC is t o
provide barometric p r e s s u r e a l t i t u d e d a t a t o t h e navigation system ( s e e Reference 1 f o r o t h e r f u n c t i o n s ) .

4. SYSTEM OPERATION

The o v e r a l l o p e r a t i o n a l concept f o r t h e C-5 Navigation System is s i m p l i c i t y of usage. O p e r a t i o n a l l y ,

p r i o r t o f l i g h t , t h e navigator w i l l load d a t a from t h e f l i g h t p l a n punched t a p e i n t o t h e system's computers
v i a t h e t a p e reader. This d a t a w i l l include d a t a required f o r t h e f l i g h t f o r navigation and s t e e r i n g
o p e r a t i o n s . Alignment, navigation and s t e e r i n g modes, s e l e c t e d by t h e navigator, a r e automatic.

Although Loran and Tacan d a t a is a u t o m a t i c a l l y processed, t h e navigator is required t o perform a few

r e l a t i v e l y simple t a s k s , such a s s e l e c t i o n of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f i x number and p o s i t i o n update source
(Tacan, Loran, e t c . ) a t t h e proper time. For r a d a r f i x e s , t h e navigator m u s t i d e n t i f y t h e f i x number
and a l i g n t h e c u r s o r s over t h e f i x p o i n t on t h e cathode ray-tube d i s p l a y of t h e radar. For v i s u a l and
s t e l l a r f i x e s , t h e navigator m u s t i d e n t i f y t h e f i x number, and input d a t a d e s c r i b i n g t h e f i x through t h e
keyboard. Any combination of p o s i t i o n augmentation may be u t i l i z e d with any of t h e b a s i c modes, a s is
i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 2.

4.1 Operational Modes

The f u n c t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e mechanized system include t h e following modes:

14-41

Two alignment modes Ground Alignment

Airborne Alignment

Four b a s i c navigation modes Free I n e r t i a l

Doppler I n e r t i a l
Doppler Dead Reckoning
True A i r Speed Dead Reckoning

Five methods of p o s i t i o n augmen- Loran

tation Tacan
Multi-Mode Radar
Visual F i x
S t e l l a r Fix

Two terminal s t e e r i n g modes Computed A i r Release Point (CARP)

Radar Approach

Two v e r t i c a l s t e e r i n g modes Point

Slope

Three h o r i z o n t a l s t e e r i n g modes Rhumb Line

Great C i r c l e t o D e s t i n a t i o n
Great C i r c l e Track

4.2 Built-in Tests

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b a s i c navigation and s t e e r i n g computations, t h e navigation computers perform a s e t of

t e a t s using t h e B u i l t I n T e s t Equipment (BITE) which a r e capable of determining which Line Replaceable
Unit (LRU) o r which e x t e r n a l a v i o n i c s u n i t has f a i l e d ; f a i l u r e information i s provided t o t h e Control and
I n d i c a t o r Panels and t o t h e Malfunction D e t e c t i o n and Recording Computer (MADAR), a s e p a r a t e Northrop
supplied on-board computer ( n o t t h e Primary o r A u x i l i a r y Navigation Computer). T e s t s include computer
s e l f t e s t ( m u l t i p l y , d i v i d e , indexing, addressing, e t c . ) , memory t e s t s , 1/0 s e l f t e s t , program sequence
t e s t . i n t e r r u p t t e s t s , computer v a l i d t e s t s , IMU r e g i s t e r s e l f t e s t , temperature s t a t u s t e s t s , b a t t e r y - i n
l i n e t e s t s , power supply t e s t , d i s c r e t e t e s t , D/A-A/D t e s t , LRU and e x t e r n a l f a u l t i s o l a t i o n t e s t s . The
b u i l t i n teshsand a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of computer operations a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s e t e s t s i s presented
by J. Sekiguchi and R. Berg [2].

5. INFOFUUTION FLOW

A s shown i n Figure 1, information e n t e r s t h e Primary D i g i t a l Computer from t h e following equipment:

a t t i t u d e and heading s i g n a l s from t h e AHRU; ground v e l o c i t y and d r i f t angle from t h e Doppler Radar; baro-
m e t r i c a l t i t u d e , and t r u e a i r speed from t h e CAM; t e r r a i n a l t i t u d e from t h e radar a l t i m e t e r ; v e l o c i t y
increments from t h e IMU accelerometers; b a l l a t t i t u d e s i g n a l s from t h e IMU b a l l a t t i t u d e bands; d i s t a n c e
and bearing from t h e Tacan Receiver; time d i f f e r e n c e s from t h e Loran Receiver; master time s i g n a l and
antenna r e l a t i v e bearing from t h e MMR; various c o n t r o l input s i g n a l s from t h e Control Panel; various
intercomputer s i g n a l s from t h e A u x i l i a r y Computer. I n a d d i t i o n , a l a r g e number of v a l i d s i g n a l s from
t h e s e i n t e r f a c i n g equipment8 a r e received f o r processing i n t h e BIT subprograms.

Most of t h e information sources l i s t e d above operate a s follows: a n i n t e r r u p t s i g n a l is generated by t h e

information source, t h e computer temporarily s t o p s executing i t s computations, information from t h e i n f o r -
mation source is brought i n t o computer memory b i t by b i t , and t h e computer resumes o p e r a t i o n of i t compu-
t a t ions.

Processed information i s t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e computer t o t h e following equipment: gyro torquing s i g n a l s

a r e s e n t t o t h e IMU f o r alignment and l e v e l i n g ; v a l i d i t y d a t a from t h e e n t i r e navigation system is t r a n s -
mitted t o the MADAR computer; d a t a is t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e Telemetry Recorder; bearing and range s i g n a l s a r e
t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e MMR t o properly place c u r s o r s on an i n d i c a t e d p o s i t i o n of a p r e s e l e c t e d landmark upon
t h e MMR Cathode Ray Tube; a i r c r a f t d r i f t angle i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e S t a t i o n Keeping Equipment (SKE), a i r -
c r a f t c r o s s t r a c k p o s i t i o n , and t r a c k angle e r r o r is t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e Automatic F l i g h t Control System
(AFCS); energy management d a t a a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e Energy Management and Control (EMAC); various d i s p l a y
information, l i s t e d i n Table 2, is t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e Control and Display Panels.

The subprogram s t r u c t u r e i n t h e navigation computer, and t h e memory a l l o c a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with each sub-

program is shown i n Table 2. These subprograms a r e discussed below.

5.1 Mode Control Subprograms

These subprograms provide t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r i n g of t h e r e a l time o p e r a t i o n of t h e computer. Mode s e l e c -

t i o n from t h e Control P a n e l , a s well a s automatic mode switching t o degraded modes caused by f a i l u r e s , a r e
executed by t h e s e subprograms.

Executive Routines
Control and I n d i c a t o r Panels
Turn-on I n i t i a l i z a t i o n
Mode S e l e c t i o n
Loader
 14-5

5.2 Navigation Subprograms

These subprograms execute computations necessary t o generate p o s i t i o n and v e l o c i t y . I n addition, the

Kalman subprogram generates e s t i m a t e s of a number of b i a s e r r o r s i n t h e system.

Coarse Align
Fine Align
Navigation
Kalman F i l t e r i n g

5.3 Navigation Sensor SubDr0g;rams

These subprograms provide f o r proper s c a l i n g , and generation of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e "measurement" matrices f o r

use i n t h e Kalman subprogram. It is t h e s e programs which operate d i r e c t l y upon t h e measurement a c t u a l l y
received from t h e v a r i o u s sensors.

AHRU Processing Loran Processing

CADC Processing Tacan Processing
Doppler Processing Manual Processing
MMR P o s i t i o n F i x Processing

5.4 F l i g h t Control and Steering; Subprograms ,

These subprograms execute computations t o permit f l i g h t p l a n d a t a t o be entered i n t o t h e computer, a s well

a s providing t h e computations necessary f o r generation of s t e e r i n g s i g n a l s t o t h e a u t o p i l o t t o a u t o m a t i c a l l y
c o n t r o l t h e f l i g h t p a t h of t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e p r e s e l e c t e d t r a c k o r d e s t i n a t i o n , both h o r i z o n t a l l y and
vertically.

V e r t i c a l F l i g h t Vector Terminal S t e e r i n g
Vertical Navigation S t e e r i n g Flight Plan
Mid Course S t e e r i n g

5.5 System Communication Subprogram

These subprograms provide s i g n a l processing f u n c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d with s i g n a l d a t a conversion, and d a t a

transmission.

Input-Output (Ah)-D/A)
B a l l Readout Computation
Inter-Computer Communications

5.6 Equipment Test and S t a t u s Subprograms

These Subprograms execute s e t a of t e s t s , applying c o n t r o l i g n a l s a t various i n p u t t s t p o i n t s , reading

and comparing various output t e s t p o i n t s , e t c . , t o check t h e - v a l i d i t y of hardware s t a t u s , a s well a s t o
check computations through t h e uae of "sum checks" and reasonableness t e s t s .

B i t e Monitor Update MADAR

B i t and B i t e MMR P r e f l i g h t
Computer S e l f -Test

5.7 Miscellaneous Subprograms

The S t a r Data Subprogram provides azimuth, e l e v a t i o n , and time t o s e l e c t e d s t a r s t o t h e navigator common

subroutines a r e s e l f explanatory.

S t a r Data
Common Subroutines

6. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MECHANIZATION

6.1 Maior Tasks

The system s p e c i f i c a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d t h e b a s i c requirements f o r t h e system mechanization. A study of t h e .

system s p e c i f i c a t i o n l e a d t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of o p e r a t i o n a l , f u n c t i o n a l , and performance requirements f o r
t h e system.

Four s e p a r a t e but coordinated paths lead from t h i s common s t a r t i n g p o i n t t o t h e f i n a l system mechanization,

namely:

1) System I n t e g r a t i o n : T h i s a c t i v i t y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y of a l l equipment i n t e r f a c e s , t h e proper

flow of a i g n a l s and information from one system element t o another, a l l o c a t i o n o f t o t a l system e r r o r s
t o subsystem elements, establishment of t h e requirements f o r andimplementation of system checkout,
system marriage t e s t a , i n t e g r a t i o n t e s t s , e v a l u a t i o n t e s t s , q u a l i f i c a t i o n t e s t s , and r e l i a b i l i t y t e s t a .
14-6

D e f i n i t i o n and Implementation o f Functional Requirements: This a c t i v i t y involved t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

and development of t h e system hardware and software t o s a t i s f y t h e intended uses of t h e syqtem, s p e c i -
f i c a l l y , a l l modes of o p e r a t i o n of t h e system were analyzed t o d e f i n e t h e method t o be used t o generate
t h e required s i g n a l s and information flow. Each of t h e f u n c t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e mechanized
system, l i s t e d under "System Operation" above, were developed i n t h i s category of a c t i v i t y .
D e f i n i t i o n and Implementation of Operational Requirements: This a c t i v i t y involved t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
t h e procedures which were required t o o p e r a t e t h e system equipment. This a c t i v i t y is i n t i m a t e l y
a s s o c i a t e d with t h e Control Panel and I n d i c a t o r Panel designs ( s e e - F i g u r e 3 ) , and culminated i n t h e
d e f i n i t i o n of t h e Control and I n d i c a t o r Subprogram f o r t h e a i r b o r n e computer. It i s t h i s subprogram
which causes s p e c i f i c information t o be displayed, and causes s p e c i f i c a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e computer a s
a r e s u l t of navigator use of t h e Control Panel. (A l i s t i n g of t h e parameters displayed i s presented
i n Table 2 . )
4) D e f i n i t i o n and Implementation of Performance Requirements: The development of t h e system performance
c a p a b i l i t i e s involved t h e development of e r r o r budgets w i t h i n subsystems, such a s t h e ZDNE, t o t h e
e x t e n t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l component e r r o r s became defined i n procurement s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Development of
a c c u r a t e models, d e f i n i t i o n of techniques f o r removing system e r r o r s , and o t h e r a n a l y t i c a l t a s k s required
t o s a t i s f y system accuracy requirements were p a r t of t h i s a c t i v i t y .

6.2 Kalman F i l t e r Implementation

One of t h e major a c t i v i t i e s i n developing t h e C-5 Navigation System mechanization was t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a

s u i t a b l e "Kalman f i l t e r " mechanization. It has been mentioned t h a t i n c o r p o r a t i o n of a n optimal (such a s
Kalman) f i l t e r having a minimum of 14 s t a t e v a r i a b l e s was a requirement of t h e system s p e c i f i c a t i o n ; i n
a d d i t i o n , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n required t h a t t h e t o t a l e f f e c t of a l l e r r o r sources not implemented could be
no g r e a t e r than 10% of t h e CEP of t h e p e r f e c t e r r o r model of t h e system.

An a d d i t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e f o r applying Kalman f i l t e r theory i s t h a t , under reasonable p r a c t i c a l assumptions

(system l i n e a r i t y , normal d i s t r i b u t i o n s of measurement e r r o r s and f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n u n c e r t a i n t i e s ) , a sub-
s e t of t h e Kalman f i l t e r equations - d e a l i n g with t h e propagation of t h e covariance matrix of e s t i m a t i o n
errors - provides a complete, i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , general s t a t i s t i c a l e r r o r a n a l y s i s c a p a b i l i t y . Hence,
even i n s i t u a t i o n s where a "complete" Kalman mechanization cannot be implemented, it is of i n t e r e s t t o
e v a l u a t e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l accuracy a t t a i n a b l e by a "complete" Kalman mechanization -f o r two s p e c i f i c pur-
poses l) t o determine t h e "ultimate" s t a t i s t i c a l accuracy a t t a i n a b l e by a p e r f e c t l y mechanized system, and
2) t o determine t h e s t a t i s t i c a l accuracy a t t a i n a b l e by an "incomplete" Kalman mechanization, i t i s convenient
t o f i r s t solve f o r t h e accuracy of t h e "complete'" Kalman mechanization.

The a p p l i c a t i o n of Kalman f i l t e r theory i s not without i t s problems, however; while it i s t r u e t h a t , under

what appear t o be f a i r l y reasonable assumptions, the Kalman f i l t e r is t h e "optimal f i l t e r " a number of
c o n d i t i o n s become i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o s a t i s f y a s t h e system accuracy requirements a r e made more
severe.

1) The s t a t i s t i c a l model f o r instrument and measurement e r r o r s m u s t be v a l i d - a d i f f i c u l t requirement

f o r components such a s high-precision i n e r t i a l gyros.

2) The s t a t i s t i c s of f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n e r r o r s must be modelled c o r r e c t l y -

v i b r a t i o n a l environments of
t h e s e n s o r s , thermal anomalies, electro-magnetic propagation e r r o r s ( f o r r a d a r s , Loran and Tacan),
a r e d i f f i c u l t t o c h a r a c t e r i z e f o r o p e r a t i o n a l conditions.

3) For Kalman f i l t e r theory t o be " p e r f e c t l y " a p p l i c a b l e , t h e implemented Kalman f i l t e r computations

m u s t be c a r r i e d out with " i n f i n i t e " p r e c i s i o n a r i t h m e t i c , o r i t s equivalent.

4) Computer memory l i m i t a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t an incomplete e r r o r model and incomplete s t a t e v e c t o r be

mechanized, hence, a process t o r a t i o n a l l y s e l e c t t h e mechanized e r r o r model and s t a t e vector
must be defined.

5) Since computer speed i s not s u f f i c i e n t t o process a l l p o s s i b l e measurements a v a i l a b l e , t h e process

t o s e l e c t t h e most important measurements, and t h e processes t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e number of
measurements processed must be defined.

The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s led t o t h e establishment of the following plan:

1) A complete model of a l l s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r sources had t o be e s t a b l i s h e d t o permit e v a l u a t i o n of a

p e r f e c t l y implemented Kalman f i l t e r .

2) A s t a t i s t i c a l e r r o r a n a l y s i s d i g i t a l computer s i m u l a t i o n program, c a l l e d Program I ( s e e Figure 3 )

r e l f l e c t i n g t h e t h e o r e t i c a l accuracy a t t a i n a b l e with a p e r f e c t l y implemented complete Kalman f i l t e r
(complete e r r o r model, i n f i n i t e p r e c i s i o n a r i t h m e t i c , e t c . ) had t o be generated.

3) A s t a t i s t i c a l e r r o r a n a l y s i s d i g i t a l computer s i m u l a t i o n c a l l e d Program I1 ( s e e Figure 4 ) r e f l e c t i n g

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l accuracy a t t a i n a b l e with an incomplete Kalman f i l t e r ( s t i l l r e f l e c t i n g i n f i n i t e
p r e c i s i o n a r i t h m e t i c ) had t o be generated.
 14-7

4) A d e t e r m i n i s t i c d i g i t a l computer s i m u l a t i o n program, c a l l e d Program I I I ( s e e Figure 5 ) had t o be generated.

T h i s program was t o b e a t r u e d e t e r m i n i s t i c s i m u l a t i o n involving t h e processing of two s e t s of navigation
equations - one s e t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e high numerical p r e c i s i o n processing of s i g n a l s from a p e r f e c t ZMU
-
( p e r f e c t l y a l i g n e d , with p e r f e c t i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s ) and t h e o t h e r s e t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e l i m i t e d p r e c i s i o n
of error-corrupted s i g n a l s from s e n s o r s , i n c l u d i n g s i g n a l s from an imperfect IMU ( i m p e r f e c t l y a l i g n e d ,
imperfect i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s , e t c . ) , and corrupted s i g n a l s from a doppler, Loran, Tacan, barometer and
M M R navigation sensors. T h i s program was designed t o simulate t h e e f f e c t s of v a r i a b l e word-length, t h e
e f f e c t s of f i x e d or f l o a t i n g p o i n t computations, t h e e f f e c t s of i n c o r r e c t e r r o r s t a t i s t i c s , and t h e
a b i l i t y t o r e p r e s e n t any s e l e c t e d s e t of s t a t e v a r i a b l e s f o r t h e mechanized sub-optimal Kalman f i l t e r .

5) An e v a l u a t i o n using Program I was required t o confirm t h a t t h e e r r o r budget e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e system,

when combined with a complete e r r o r modelling of t h e system, would have t h e c a p a b i l i t y of s a t i s f y i n g
t h e performance requirements f o r t h e system,

6) A s e t of t r a d e - o f f e v a l u a t i o n s using Program I1 were required t o d e f i n e t h e number of s t a t e v e c t o r elements

f o r t h e mechanized sub-optimal Kalman f i l t e r ,

7) A s e t of trade-off e v a l u a t i o n s u s i n g Program 111 were required t o :

a) Define t h e word-length required.

b) S e l e c t e i t h e r a f i x e d p o i n t o r f l o a t i n g p o i n t mechanization.
c) Confirm t h a t t h e s e l e c t e d number of s t a t e v e c t o r elements, with t h e s e l e c t e d word-length and
f i x e d / f l o a t i n g p o i n t s e l e c t i o n , produced acceptably a c c u r a t e performance.

This procedure is shown i n Figure 6. A t t h e p r e s e n t time, a l l of t h e above t a s k s have been completed,

though new computer runs a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y made t o r e f l e c t changed parameter c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a c t u a l hard-
ware from those i n i t i a l l y assumed.

Before p r e s e n t i n g t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e s i m u l a t i o n s , i t is a p p r o p r i a t e t o b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e two new advances

i n Kalman f i l t e r theory which have been incorporated i n t o t h e sub-optimal Kalman mechanization.

The f i r s t of t h e s e advances, developed by D r . S. F. Schmidt, c a l l e d t h e Epsilon Mechanization a t Northrop,

c o n s i s t s of adding a new term t o t h e Kalman f i l t e r equations [ 4 ] .

The r e v i s e d f i l t e r equations a r e presented i n Table 4. It i B noted t h a t by s e t t i n g t h e e p s i l o n s ( E ) equal

t o z e r o y i e l d s t h e o r i g i n a l Kalman equations by Kalman [SI.

The v a l u e of e e s t a b l i s h e s t h e s t e a d y s t a t e asymptotic value of t h e Covariance m a t r i x of t h e e s t i m a t i o n

e r r o r s . T h i s technique prevents t h e weighting v e c t o r from approaching z e r o a s t h e number of
measurements becomes l a r g e . This technique thus avoids one of t h e most s e r i o u s problems i n Kalman f i l t e r
implementations. The eventual divergence of t h e estimated s t a t e from t h e t r u e s t a t e , which r e s u l t s from t h e
weighting v e c t o r approaching z e r o ( a s P+O), means t h a t new measurment information y has l i t t l e e f f e c t
upon t h e estimated s t a t e , even though t h e measurement r e s i d u a l may be l a r g e . T h i s technique has proven t o
be very powerful i n f o r c i n g s t a b i l i t y and s t r o n g convergence i n t o a sub-optimal Kalman f i l t e r . I n a d d i t i o n ,
a s discussed l a t e r i n t h i s paper, t h i s technique a l s o reduces t h e numerical e r r o r propagation induced by
t r u n c a t i o n and roundoff. ( I t is noted i n passing t h a t standard techniques f o r f o r c i n g convergence of t h e
Kalman f i l t e r involve 1 ) t h e use of f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n noise denoted R i n t h e Table 4 equations, which'
accounts f o r i n a c c u r a c i e s of t h e s t a t e t r a n s i t i o n model and 2) techniques t o a r t i f i c i a l l y p e r i o d i c a l l y f o r c e
t h e covariance m a t r i x of e s t i m a t i o n e r r o r s t o a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e , u s u a l l y diagonal, p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e matrix.
The former of t h e s e techniques has been incorporated, but t h e l a t t e r was evaluated and r e j e c t e d i n favor of
t h e more powerful E p s i l o n Technique.)

The second of t h e s e advances, c a l l e d t h e Data Averaging Technique, developed by J. D. Weinberg, p r i n c i p a l

Kalman a n a l y s t a t Northrop, permits t h e averaging of measurement d a t a , and optimal i n c o r p o r a t i o n of t h e
averaged value a s a s i n g l e measurement, v i a a modified s e t of Kalman f i l t e r equations. This technique has
permitted t h e equivalent of t t e r a t i n g t h e e n t i r e s e t of Kalman equations during alignment and during Doppler-
I n e r t i a l Navigation a t a r a t e of once per second ( o r f a s t e r ) .

6.3 Major Features of t h e Mechanization

1) L i n e a r i z a t i o n of t h e System: The a p p l i c a t i o n of Kalman f i l t e r i n g r e q u i r e s l i n e a r i z a t i o n . I n t h i s

system, t h e process is l i n e a r i z e d about a conventional ( n o n - l i n e a r ) f r e e i n e r t i a l s o l u t i o n of p o s i t i o n
and v e l o c i t y , r e s u l t i n g from an i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e IMU outputs. Small d e v i a t i o n s from i d e a l f r e e i n e r t i a l
behavior a r e modelled l i n e a r l y ; nine f r e e i n e r t i a l e r r o r equations a r e required.

2) S t a t e Variables: Associated with each of t h e nine f r e e i n e r t i a l e r r o r equations discussed above is an

e r r o r , which is used a s a Kalman f i l t e r s t a t e v a r i a b l e . These nine e r r o r s , l i s t e d i n T a b l e 5 a r e : t h r e e
p o s i t i o n e r r o r s , t h r e e v e l o c i t y e r r o r s , and t h r e e platform a t t i t u d e e r r o r s .
14-8

These e q u a t i o n s are f o r c e d by f o u r component e r r o r s t h a t a r e a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d a s s t a t e v a r i a b l e s , namely,

3 c o r r e l a t e d g y r o d r i f t r a t e e r r o r s , and one c o r r e l a t e d a c c e l e r o m e t e r e r r o r . The a d d i t i o n a l t h r e e s t a t e
v a r i a b l e s a r e measurement e r r o r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e Kalman e s t i m a t i o n p r o c e s s when measurements a r e made.
These e r r o r s a r e : d o p p l e r groundspeed e r r o r , d o p p l e r d r i f t a n g l e e r r o r , and b a r o m e t r i c a t t i t u d e e r r o r .

S t a t e T r a n s i t i o n M a t r i x : The e x a c t s o l u t i o n f o r t h e s t a t e t r a n s i t i o n m a t r i x , assuming A i s c o n s t a n t
over a s h o r t time i n t e r v a l , i s :

-
m

Q (At) = C (A A t ) j
j=o j!

I n t h e mechanization, t h i s was approximated by:

Q (At) = I + A(tl) 2
A t + A (tl)
m2
where :

At = t2 - tl
A = time v a r y i n g m a t r i x o f t h e system e q u a t i o n

x = system s t a t e v e c t o r

I n t h e m e c h a n i z a t i o n , a l l terms of A 2 a r e not r e t a i n e d .

Measurement P r o c e s s i n g : I n t h e Kalman e q u a t i o n s f o r "Observation Update" i n T a b l e 4 , i t is noted t h a t

+
t h e m a t r i x Q = & C must be i n v e r t e d t o compute both t h e updated v a l u e o f t h e c o v a r i a n c e m a t r i x P ,
and t h e v a l u e o f t h e "Kalman gain" b = (P +
€1) MT Q'l.

By s e l e c t i n g t h e measurement v e c t o r y t o always be a s c a l a r , t h i s m a t r i x i n v e r s i o n r e d u c e s t o a s i m p l e
d i v i s i o n . T h i s is e x a c t o n l y when t h e n o i s e o f a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s are u n c o r r e l a t e d . During ground a l i g n -
ment t h i s c o n d i t i o n is n o t s a t i s f i e d , b u t s i m u l a t i o n s proved t h e t h e o r e t i c a l v i o l a t i o n produced no
s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r a d a t i o n o f performance.

E s t i m a t o r C o n t r o l : A t t h e end o f e v e r y Kalman c y c l e , new d e v i a t i o n s of t h e system s t a t e a r e computed.

These d e v i a t i o n s may be used t o update t h e n o n - l i n e a r s o l u t i o n b e i n g g e n e r a t e d by t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l
f r e e - i n e r t i a l equations - o r , t h e s e d e v i a t i o n s may be propagated through t h e s t a t e t r a n s i t i o n m a t r i x
t o form new estimates o f s t a t e d e v i a t i o n s when more measurements a r e processed. T h i s l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e
was r e j e c t e d because a l a r g e r and l a r g e r e r r o r b u i l d u p would c a u s e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l a r g e r d e p a r t u r e from
t h e d e s i r e d s t a t e . "Impulsive" c o n t r o l - i.e., t h e v a r i a b l e having i t s d e v i a t i o n s modelled by a s t a t e
v e c t o r element, i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y updated by t h e newly e s t i m a t e d d e v i a t i o n - is implemented e x c e p t f o r
p l a t f o r m t i l t e r r o r s . P l a t f o r m t i l t e r r o r s a r e c o n t r o l l e d t o z e r o w i t h i n one Kalman c y c l e f o l l o w i n g t h e
es t ima t e .
Multi-Mode Kalman: A u n i f i e d multimode Kalman f i l t e r d e s i g n was formulated -
i.e., t h e same f o r m u l a t i o n
of t h e f i l t e r w a s u t i l i z e d f o r a l l n a v i g a t i o n modes, and was c a p a b l e o f a c c e p t i n g measurement d a t a from
a l l sources. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e ground alignment mode u t i l i z e d t h e same multimode Kalman f i l t e r ; t h i s was
brought about by p r o c e s s i n g t h e IMU v e l o c i t y r e g i s t e r o u t p u t s a s v e l o c i t y measurements.

Real Time A l l o c a t i o n f o r Kalman F i l t e r i n g : The i n i t i a l r e a l - t i m e a l l o c a t i o n f o r t h e Kalman f i l t e r

computations was e s t a b l i s h e d a t 15% f o r a i r b o r n e n a v i g a t i o n , and a t 25% f o r ground alignment. I f the
computer were e x e c u t i n g j u s t t h e Kalman f i l t e r e q u a t i o n s , i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t 45 seconds of r e a l
time would be r e q u i r e d f o r one c y c l e . By t i m e s h a r i n g t h e computer w i t h q t h e r programs, and appor-
t i o n i n g 15% o f r e a l time t o t h e Kalman f i l t e r e q u a t i o n s , t h e t o t a l e l a p s e d time f o r one Kalman
c y c l e t h u s became 45 s e c o n d s / . l 5 = 300 seconds = 5 minutes f o r a i r b o r n e o p e r a t i o n . Similarly, for
ground a l i g n m e n t , t h i s e l a p s e d time f o r one Kalman c y c l e became 45/.25 = 180 seconds = 3 minutes.
The e l a p s e d time f i g u r e was o f paramount importance i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e number of terms r e q u i r e d
f o r t h e t r a n s i t i o n m a t r i x computations. I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s r e l a t i v e l y slow c y c l i n g r a t e of t h e
Kalman f i l t e r a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d t h e need f o r Data Averaging Technique d e s c r i b e d above i n Paragraph 6.2.

E r r o r C a l i b r a t i o n : F i g u r e 7 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e flow o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e system, and d e n o t e s t h e o u t p u t s

o f t h e Kalman f i l t e r . Note t h a t t h e Kalman f i l t e r e s t i m a t e s of hardware e r r o r s , such a s d o p p l e r d r i f t
a n g l e e r r o r , d o p p l e r groundspeed s c a l e f a c t o r e r r o r , and b a r o m e t r i c a l t i t u d e e r r o r , a r e s u b t r a c t e d
w i t h i n t h e computer from t h e i n p u t s i g n a l s r e c e i v e d from t h e s e n s o r s themselves. I f t h e s e e r r o r s were
removed w i t h i n t h e s e n s o r s themselves, both m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o a t s and c a l i b r a t i o n c o s t s would be i n -
c r e a s e d . The Kalman f i l t e r s u b s t i t u t e s e s t i m a t i o n a c c u r a c y f o r manufacturing a c c u r a c y , and t h u s c a n
be e x t r e m e l y c o s t e f f e c t i v e s i n c e it p e r m i t s r e l a x a t i o n o f manufacturing t o l e r a n c e s .

G r a c e f u l Degradation: F a i l u r e o f n a v i g a t i o n equipment c a u s e s " g r a c e f u l d e g r a d a t i o n " o f system p e r f o r -

mance. The h i e r a r c h y o f n a v i g a t i o n modes is a s f o l l o w s :

Doppler-Inertial
Inertial
Doppler-AHRU
TAS -AHRU
 14-9

Hence, i f t h e system were o p e r a t i n g i n t h e D o p p l e r - I n e r t i a l mode, and t h e doppler f a i l e d , t h e doppler

BIT s i g n a l would so i n d i c a t e , and t h e system would a u t o m a t i c a l l y switch t o an I n e r t i a l Mode. I f t h e
system were i n t h e D o p p l e r - I n e r t i a l mode and t h e IMU f a i l e d , t h e IMU BIT s i g n a l wmld so i n d i c a t e , and
t h e system would a u t o m a t i c a l l y switch t o t h e Doppler-AHRU mode. S i m i l a r l o g i c is used f o r t h e o t h e r
modes.

Any p o s i t i o n augmentation follows s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s . I f Loran o r Tacan d a t a is a u t o m a t i c a l l y flowing

i n t o t h e system, and a f a i l u r e causes automatic switching t o a degraded mode, t h e Loran o r Tacan d a t a
continues t o flow i n t o t h e degraded mode i n an optimal manner - i . e . , with a p p r o p r i a t e Kalman weighting.
The o t h e r p o s i t i o n augmentations - -
radar f i x , v i s u a l f i x , or s t e l l a r f i x r e q u i r e e x p l i c i t operator
a c t i o n s , and a r e a l s o a u t o m a t i c a l l y given proper Kalman weighting, even i n degraded mode operation.

6.4 V a l i d a t i o n of Assumptions

Space does not permit enumeration of a l l of t h e assumptions which were v a l i d a t e d through s i m u l a t i o n and
t e s t . Four of t h e major v a l i d a t i o n s a r e discussed below t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e methods of v a l i d a t i o n employed.

1) V a l i d a t i o n of t h e L i n e a r i t y of E r r o r Propagation: The System Simulator Program, Program 111, was

u t i l i z e d t o generate time h i s t o r i e s of a c t u a l navigation e r r o r s f o r various i n i t i a l e r r o r s . These
were compared t o e r r o r s propagated by t h e implemented t r a n s i t i o n matrix:

x(t) = Wt, to) x(to>

Such t e s t s v a l i d a t e d t h a t , f o r ' a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, t h e system e r r o r s propagated l i n e a r l y . It is

noted i n passing t h a t u l t i m a t e l y it is t h e q u a l i t y of t h e sensor d a t a t h a t permits t h e t r a j e c t o r y of
t h e estimated s t a t e t o lie w i t h i n t h e " l i n e a r " r e g i o n of t h e t r u e s t a t e t r a j e c t o r y .

2) V a l i d a t i o n of t h e L i n e a r i t y of t h e Measurement E r r o r s : The System Simulator Program, Program 111, was

a l s o u t i l i z e d t o generate time h i s t o r i e s of navigation e r r o r s f o r various combinations of sensor data.
These simulations v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e measurement r e s i d u a l s were l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e s t i m a t i o n e r r o r s .

3) V a l i d a t i o n of t h e E f f e c t s of Large C a l i b r a t i o n E r r o r s : E a r l y l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s of t h e f i n e ground
a l i g n mode were obtained a t a time before t h e c a l i b r a t i o n c o n s t a n t s of t h e IMU were a v a i l a b l e .
Figure 8' shows a t y p i c a l time h i s t o r y of t h e north v e l o c i t y r e g i s t e r obtained from t h e a c t u a l system.
Comparison with Figure 9 shows t h a t t h e behavior of t h e r e a l system was f a r from nominal. A t t h i s time
i t was recognized t h a t l a r g e unmodelled e r r o r s could have a harmful e f f e c t on f i l t e r performance. Since
t h e f i n a l system would be p r e c a l i b r a t e d , t h e r e was l i t t l e need f o r concern i f t h e e f f e c t seen i n Figure
8 was indeed caused by t h e s e f a c t o r s .

The simulator was used t o confirm t h a t t h e problem seen i n Figure 8 was caused by poor c a l i b r a t i o n con-
s t a n t s . Figure 10 shows a time h i s t o r y obtained from simulated d a t a f o r an example f o r l a r g e uncalibrated
s c a l e f a c t o r e r r o r s on t h e gyros. The s p e c i f i c values a r e given on t h e graph,

4) V a l i d a t i o n of t h e System Simulator Program, Program 111: Since a l l v a l i d a t i o n s were accomplished by

using t h e same b a s i c t o o l , t h e System Simulator Program, Program 111, it was necessary t o e s t a b l i s h i t s
v a l i d i t y before t h e o t h e r v a l i d a t i o n s could be accepted. The u l t i m a t e t e s t of a simulation program's
v a l i d i t y n a t u r a l l y r e s t s upon t h e correspondence of t h e simulated system performance, and t r u e r e a l -
world system performance. Hence, t h i s l a s t v a l i d a t i o n had t o await t h e c o l l e c t i o n of a c t u a l t e s t data.
F i n a l v a l i d a t i o n r e q u i r e s v a l i d a t i o n of each mode, under various f l i g h t conditions. These t e s t s a r e
s t i l l i n progress. It can be s t a t e d , however, t h a t real-world t e s t d a t a corresponds very well with
s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s , a s is i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e q u a l i t a t i v e s i m i l a r i t y of Figures 8 and 10. The s i m u l a t i o n
r e s u l t s were generated months before t h e l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s , hence, t h e s i m u l a r i t y of t h e dynamics was
coincidental.

7. SIMULATION RESULTS
Typical r e s u l t s i n d i c a t i n g the accuracy a t t a i n a b l e with a "complete" Kalman mechanization a r e presented i n
Figures l l t h r o u g h 16. For r e f e r e n c e , t h e 67 elements of t h e "complete s t a t e vector" a r e defined i n
Table 5. For t h e f i r s t s e t of r u n s , F i g u r e s l l t h r o u g h 1 3 , a g r e a t c i r c l e f l i g h t p a t h , commencing a t a
45" N l a t i t u d e , with a heading of 90' and an alignment time of 15 minutes, was assumed.

For t h e second s e t of runs presented, Figures 15 and 16 t h e Lockheed F l i g h T e s t Course(Figure 1 4 ) , was

u t i l i z e d . A 15 minute alignment time was assumed. The dramatic improvement i n D o p p l e r - I n e r t i a l performance
produced over t h i s f l i g h t t e s t course is a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e "automatic" c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y e r r o r s
by t h e Kalman f i l t e r during t h e "turns".

Typical r e s u l t s of t h e reduced v a r i a b l e e r r o r a n a l y s i s program, (Program 111), f o r - a 16 element sub-optimal

Kalman f i l t e r mechanization , a r e shown i n Figure 17. These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e 16 element mechaniza-
t i o n is, f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes, as a c c u r a t e ( w i t h i n 2%) a s t h e 67 element mechanization. (For example,
t h e r e a d e r may c o r r e l a t e Figures 11 and 1 2 , and conclude t h a t a f t e r 10 hours of g r e a t c i r c l e f l i g h t i n t h e
b a r o m e t r i c - i n e r t i a l mode, t h e 67-element Kalman produced a CEP of approximately 7.5 n m i l e s , hence, from
Figure 1 7 , t h e CEP with t h e 16-element Kalman produces a CEP which is 0.75%, approximately .OS7 n miles
larger - o r approximately 7.557 n miles.) The elements of t h e 16-element Kalman s t a t e v e c t o r a r e defined
i n Table 5.

The f i n a l s t e p i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l e v o l u t i o n of t h e f i l t e r mechanization involved t h e establishment of:

1) Required minimum word-length t o a s s u r e adequate accuracy of thehplemented Kalman equations.

2) A s e l e c t i o n of f l o a t i n g p o i n t o r f i x e d p o i n t a r i t h m e t i c .
14- 10

3) A v e r i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e exact "form" of t h e equations t o be implemented provided adequate accuracy

under t h e influence of mismodelling, poor o r marginally a c c u r a t e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s , and numerical
e r r o r s induced by round-off and t r u n c a t i o n .

Results of t h i s a c t i v i t y have produced t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1) It has been demonstrated t h a t a 28-bit word-length provides adequate accuracy i n t h e implemented

sub-optimal Kalman f i l t e r .

2) Although somewhat of a departure from the usual p r a c t i c e , f l o a t i n g p o i n t a r i t h m e t i c has been s u c c e s s f u l l y

implemented i n t h e covariance m a t r i x computations.

An unexpected r e s u l t was generated i n t h e course of t h e word-length/mechanization t r a d e - o f f s , namely, t h a t

t h e combined use of t h e 1 3 - b i t mantissa (which c a r r i e s t h e numerical s i g n i f i c a n c e ) with t h e Epsilon Mechani-
a t i o n produces a more a c c u r a t e navigation c a p a b i l i t y t h a n did a more "conventional" Kalman mechanization
u t i l i z i n g a f i x e d p o i n t 27-bit word-length ( p l u s 1 b i t f o r s i g n ) .

A s i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f i t o t t h e f l o a t i n g p o i n t mechanization was t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e s e v e r e s c a l i n g pro-

blems which occur i n fixed p o i n t mechanizations, a s well a s gross s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e p r o g r a m i n g t a s k
and reduction of t h e memory requirements f o r the Kalman implementations.
8. CONCLUSIONS

With r e s p e c t t o hybrid navigation systems, t h e experience from developing t h e C-5 Navigation System has
l e d t o t h e following conclusions:

Based upon t h e simulations conducted, t h e p r a c t i c a l implementation of a hybrid navigation system is

f e a s i b l e and e f f e c t i v e .

Implementation of a sub-optimal "Kalman" f i l t e r in a hybrid navigation system is s y n e r g i s t i c , s i n c e

t h e hybrid system performance exceeds t h e performance c a p a b i l i t i e s of a l l s e n s o r s i n d i v i d u a l l y .

Techniques f o r r a t i o n a l l y s e l e c t i n g t h e number of s t a t e v a r i a b l e s , and ahe a r i t h m e t i c , i n a sub-optimal

"Kalman" f i l t e r e x i s t and produce p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s .

A simulation of t h e real-time performance of t h e hybrid navigation system i s e s s e n t i a l , s i n c e it pro-

vides t h e most v a l i d non-flight t e s t method f o r :

a) V a l i d a t i n g t h e approximations, a r i t h m e t i c , and t h e forms of t h e equations programmed i n t h e

a i r b o r n e computer.
b) D e t e c t i n g and c o r r e c t i n g e r r o r s i n t h e equations f o r t h e a i r b o r n e computer.
c) Developing v a l i d models f o r equipment e r r o r s by re-generating with t h e simulator t h e
l a b o r a t o r y and f l i g h t t e s t r e s u l t s .

The use of a n a i r b o r n e d i g i t a l computer i n hybrid navigation systems provides enormous f l e x i b i l i t y

and growth p o t e n t i a l . The timely adjustment of t h e system mechanization t o t h e r e a l f l i g h t environ-
ment and r e a l hardware c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be accommodated without a f f e c t i n g t h e system hardware, by
simple reprogramming of t h e a i r b o r n e computer. Although s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t theory has been a p p l i e d ,
t h e door is open t o t h e f u t u r e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of more a c c u r a t e navigation techniques, such a s might
be derived from non-linear f i l t e r i n g theory, which may evolve i n t h e hardware l i f e t i m e of t h e developed
hybrid navigation system.
REFERENCES

"Self Contained Avionics Broader Scope of X-5 Missions", Aviation Week and Space Technology,
November 20, 1967, pp 192-202.

Sekiguchi, J . , and Berg, R., 'The C-5 Navigation Computing System", Dayton, Ohio, National Aerospace
E l e c t r o n i c s Conference, May 6-8, 1968.

Schmidt, S. F. , "Estimation of S t a t e With Acceptable Accuracy Constraints", Report 67-4, Contract

NAS 5-9085, A n a l y t i c a l Mechanics Associates, Inc., January 1967.

Schmidt, S. F., Weinberg, J . D . , and Lukesh, J . S . , 'The Application of Kalman F i l t e r i n g t o t h e C-5

Navigation System", U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, J o i n t Automatic Control Conference,
J u l y 1968.

Kalman, R. E . , and Bucy, R. S., "New R e s u l t s i n L i n e a r F i l t e r i n g and P r e d i c t i o n Theory", Journal of

Basic Engineering, March 1961.

Lukesh, J. S., "Simulation of t h e Nortronics Kalman F i l t e r Augmented C-5 I n e r t i a l Doppler Navigator",

Dayton, Ohio, National Aerospace E l e c t r o n i c s Conference, May 6-8, 1968.
ACKNOWLDGEMENTS

The work reported i n t h i s paper was performed by the t e c h n i c a l s t a f f of t h e Systems Laboratory, Navigation
Department, Northrop E l e c t r o n i c s Division. Technical c o n t r i b u t i o n s of D r . S . F. Schmidt, A n a l y t i c a l Mechan-
i c s A s s o c i a t e s I n c . , and J. D. Weinberg, J. S. Lukesh, A. P r i n c e , and R. Berg of Northrop m e r i t s p e c i a l
aaknowledgement.
 14-11

PRIMARY AUXILIARY
DIGITAL DIGITAL

-
COMPUTER COMPUTER
(Northrop)
- (Northrop)

IMU c 1/0 & A-D/D-A CONVERTERS CONTROL

PANEL
(Northrop) .* (Nort hro p)
- (Nor t hro p)

A A A A A
DOPPLER INDICATOR
RADAR PANEL
c-c-
(GPL) (No r t hro p)

I RADAR

FIGURE 1 BLOCK DIAGRAM O F C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM

C - 5 NAVIGATION . AUTOMATIC AUGMENTATION TO B A S I C MODES

SYSTEM MODXS LORAN TACAN RADAR FIX V I S U A L FIX STELLAR FIX
DOPPLER INERTIAL X X X X X
INERTIAL X X X X X
DOPPLER-AHRU X X X X X
TAS -AHRU X X X X X

FIGURE 2 NAVIGATION SYSTEM MODES

INPUT DATA LOGIC FLOW OUTPUT DATA

ENTER

0 SEQUENCE
0 POSIFON
0 MEASURP1ENI TYPE
0 VELOCITY
TIME SHARING NEW MODE
SET-UP
r--
I 0 HEADING
0 ALTITUDE
I
0 VWTIUL VELOCITY
I
I
0 LEG DATA I
0 TURN DATA
8-
I
I

1-d
0 LoCh'URN SEQUENCING I
- - I
: I UPDATE I
b i i i i m i
KINWATICS
S Y S T M ERROR
mROR STATISTICS STATISTICS

TIME-UPDATE 0 POSITION
I
0 DOPPLER S Y S T M ERROR 0 VELOCIN

*
0 BARWETER I STATISTICS 0 HEADING
I II:-
0 POSITION REFmENCE I 0 ALTITUDE
I I 0 VERTICAL VELOCITY
II ~ASURPIE~-UPDATE
SYSTEM ERROR
STATISTICS
1 I
0 IHU CCFIPONEVI'S
0 DOPPLER
0 POSITION REFERLNCE

. - EXIT

FIGURE 3 FLOW DIAGRAM C-5 NAVIGATION/ALIGNMENT ENSEMBLE SIMULATION,

PROGRAM I (COMPLETE, 67-VARIABLE ERROR MODEL)
14- 12

INPUT DATA OmPW DATA

PROGRAM I
INPUT DATA:
FLIGHT PROFILE
MODE SEQUENCE
ERROR STATISTICS t
REDUCED ERROR MDDEL

t
M E C H A N I Z ~ I O NERRORS:
LIST OF
RETAINED
ERROR VARIABLES VERTICAL VELOCITY
GYROS/ACCEIEROMETER
PLATFORM ATTITUDE

FIGURE 4 FLOW DIAGRAM C-5 NAVIGATION/ALIGNMENT ENSEMBLE SIMULATION,

PROGRAM 11 (REDUCED ERROR MODEL)
,

Ente
* NAVIGATOR
IDEAL

COMPUTATIONS
r-
IMU
SIMULATOR - NAVIGATION
EQUATIONS
MECHANIZATION
SIMULATOR ---q

Iterate

?IGURE 5 FLOW DIAGRAM C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM SIMULATOR, PROGRAM III

 14-13'

ENSEMBLE
ERROR
ANALYSIS

, ,, ,,
n n i REDUCE
STORAGE REQUIREMENTS
REAL TIME
ENSEMBLE
CHOICE OF ARITHHETIC PERFORMANCE
RROR ANALYSIS
(FLIXED OR FLOATING EVALUATION
ECHANIZED MODE I, WORD IBNGTH (28,56))
(67 VARIABLES) I.u.".. -RROR EVALUATION
0 CHOICE OF EPSILONS
(Wlrre CARLO
SIMULATION
(28.24.17.16) PROCRAW)
0 CHOICE OF TRANSITION PROCRAW)
MATRIX ELEUEWTS

-
RESULT:
i -
RESULT:
i RESULTS:
i
16- VARIABLE 16-VARIABLE MECHANIZATION
MECHANIZATION MEETS SYSTEM ACCURACY
MEETS SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS W I n l MINIMAL
ACCURACY TIME/SToRAGE COST USING:
REQurReneNTs REQUIREmNTS
2 8 - B I T FLOATING POINT ARITHHETIC
APPROPRIATE EPSILON VALUES
ALL F I S T - O R D E R . AND SELECTED
SECOND-ORDER TF~NSITION MATRIX
ELEMENTS
KALNAN EQUATIONS OPTIMALLY COK
PERSATED FOR DATA AVERAGING

FIGURE 6 C-5 KALMAN MECHANIZATION DEVELOPMENT APPROACH

I A V I C A l I o * EPUIPYEIl AlRBORlE COMPUTER

- F -

FIGURE 7 BLOCK DIAGRAM O F C-5 KALMAN NAVIGATION/ALIGNMENT MECHANIZATION

14-14

+5

U
E
E o
B
W

c
8
U

-5
>

-1c
SECOND POSITION -
15

FIGURE 9 SIMULATED NORTH VELOCITY HISTORY FOR NOMINAL

TWO-POSITION FINE GROUND ALIGNMENT

U 2
kl
v)
\
E4
L*
“ 1

kl

GyrO Errors: k h t h C2 C3
W Bias Error 0.7S0/hr O.lOO/hr O.lOO/hr
> -1-
Scale Factor 1.1 1.1 0.9
criFrl i

C3 M e North
8 -2,
>
I
I I I I I I 1 I 1 1
0 5 10
TIME, MINLTTES
FIGURE 10 SIMULATED NORTH VELOCITY HISTORY FOR
SINGLE-POSITION FINE ALIGNMENT IN PRESENCE
O F LARGE UNMODELED ERRORS
 14-15

(GREAT CIRCLE COURSE, hn - 45', He = 90')

POSITION
8.0t
6.0
ERROR
(N MI., 4.0
OEP)
2.0

HEADING
ERRROR
(W.,
13

OJ0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
c
10

2.a
8 vj (CROS STRACK)

VELOCITY 1.5
ERROR
KNOTS,
1.0
1d

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 TIME HOURS
FIGURE 11 SIMULATED PERFORMANCE BARO-INERTIAL-NAVIGATION
(67 VARIABLES)

8.0
(GREAT CIRCLE COURSE, Xo = 45', Ho = 9
0
'
)
POSITION 6.0
ERROR
(N = . a
CEP)
4.0t
-.----.-c
---------
2.0.- __c__
.__c_
0-

0.01

4.0.-

2.0..

O+
- I I
--

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

t
1,4
r 8V3 (CROSSTRACK)
/
0.5 :.*' r8V, (ALONG TRACK)
KNOTS'
OC
-*-:.
*-

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 , 7 8 4 10
TIME (HOURS)
FIGURE 12 SIMULATED PERFORMANCE DOPPLER-BARO-INERTIAL
NAVIGATION (67 VARIABLES)
 14-17

POSITION 6 . 0 . - (LOCKHEED FLIGHT TEST COURSE) /---

ERROR
4.0..
(N M I . ,
/
CD)

2*o"
0.0 - //; 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
c

Ol c
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . 10

.
:

c
1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TIME (HOURS)
FIGURE 15 CL5 IDNE SIMULATED PERFORMANCE BAR€)-INERTIAL
NAVIGATION (67 VARIABLES)

(LOCKHEED FLIGHT TEST COURSE)

POSITION 4 * 0
..
ERROR
(N
CEP)
m., 2 . 0 . -
-
8.OA

6.0..
HEADING
=OR
MIN, lu)
4.0..

2.0.-
-.__ZCC.--- - t

VELOCETl
ERROR
KNOTS, 1~)l.O
'.'[
f 1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TIME (HOURS)

FIGURE 16 (2-5 IDNE SIMULATED PERFORMANCE DOPPLER-BARO-INERTIAL

NAVIGATION (67 VARIABLES)
.14-18

3-
PI - BARDM&TRIC-INERTIAL NAVIGATION FOLIDUING GROUND ALI-T
100 cep CEP161 CEP671 -
PERFORMANCE 2-- CEP671
DEGRADATION

\
I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TIME (HOURS)

3- DOPPLER-BAROMETRIC INERTIAL NAVIGATION FOLIDWING GROUND ALIGNMENT

'DI PDI - 100 CEPILDI - cEp67DI

DEGRADATION

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
.
7
I
8 9
4
10
SUBSCRIPTS TIME (HOURS)
16 - PERFORMANCE OF 16 ELEMENT
STATE VECTOR
67 - PERFORMANCE OF 67 ELEMENT
STATE VECTOR
I - BARO-INERTIAL MODE
DI - BARO-DOPPLER-INERTIAL MJDE

FTGURE 17 C-5 IDNE SIMULATOR PERFORMANCE COMPARLSON OF A 16 VS 67

VARIABLE MECHANIZATION

ADD TIME HALF-WORD 6 MICROSECONDS MEMORY TYPE , RANDOM ACCESS CORE

FULL-WORD 8 MICROSECONDS NON-VOLATILE DRO
MULTIPLY TIME HALF-WORD 28 MICROSECONDS INSTRUCTIONS 51, WITH TWO INSTRUCTIONS
FULL-WORD 74 MICROSECONDS PER WORD AND HALF-WORD
ARITHMETIC CAPABILITIES
(YR1ER FEATURES INDEXING
DIRECT ADDRESSING
ROLL TABU,
INTERRUPT CAPABILITY

TABLE 1 C-5 IDNE COMPUTER CHARACTERISTICS

~~~~ ~ ~

SUBROUTINE WORDS SUBROUTINE WORDS

-
BITE MONITOR UPDATE PROGRAM 51 MADAR 130
B I T AND B I T E 549 BALL READOUT COMPUTATION 2 15
CONTROL AND INDICATOR 2170 INTER-COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS 70
LOADER 35 FLIGHT PLAN 148
EXECUTIVE ROUTINES 100 MMR CONTROL 575
COMPUTER SELF-TEST 83 VERTICAL FLIGHT VECTOR 10
"-ON INITIALIZATION 220 VERTICAL NAVIGATION STEERING 550
COMMON SUBROUTINES 189 EMAC PROCESSING (AUX ONLY) --
INPUT-OUTPUT (AID-D/A) 400 MID COURSE STEERING 226
MODE SELECTION 260 TERMINAL STEERING 302
AHRU PROCESSING 500 MMR POSITION F I X PROCESSING 350
COARSE ALIGN 135 LORAN PROCESSING ( P R I ONLY) 428
NAVIGATION 390 TACAN PROCESSING (PRI ONLY) 130
F I N E ALIGN 65 MANUAL PROCESSING 50
KALMAN FILTER (16 x 16) 2200 STAR DATA 665
CADC PROCESSING 70 MMR PREFLIGHT 2 30
DOPPLER PROCESSING 350

TABLE 2 MEMORY REQUIREMENTS FOR THE C-5 PRIMARY NAVIGATION COMPUTER

 14-19

TABLE 3
INFORMATION DISPLAYED ON THE C-5 NAVIGATION INDICATOR PANELS

PRS PC6 LAT - The l a t i t u d e of t h e a i r v e h i c l e ' s

present position
FIX LAT - The l a t i t u d e of t h e a i r c r a f t a s d e t e r -
mined by t h e f i x p o i n t measurement
PRS POS LNG - The l o n g i t u d e of t h e a i r v e h i c l e ' s FIX LNG - The longitude of t h e a i r c r a f t a s d e t e r -
present position mined by t h e f i x p o i n t measurement
DEST COURSE - The heading of t h e intended t r a c k LAT ERR - The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c r a f t ' s
a t the c r a f t ' s position is positive l a t i t u d e a s determined by t h e f i x
when measured CW from True North measurement and t h e l a t i t u d e a s d e t e r -
DEST NO. - The number of t h e designated d e s t i - mined by t h e IDNE computers
nation point LNG ERR - The d i f f e r e n c e between
the c r a f t ' s
X -TCK-DST - The perpendicular d i s t a n c e from t h e longitude a s determined by t h e f i x
measurement and t h e l o n g i t u d e a s
intended g r e a t c i r c l e path t o t h e
determined by t h e IDNE computers
present p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r v e h i c l e
GND TCK - The a c t u a l t r a c k ( t r a c k made good) REQD ANG - The angle required t o reach a s p e c i f i e d
a l t i t u d e a s determined by t h e POINT or
A f C HDG - The angle from True North measured SLOPE modes of V e r t i c a l Navigation.
CW t o t h e keel l i n e of t h e a i r The angle i s measured p o s i t i v e from t h e
vehicle l o c a l h o r i z o n t a l down t o t h e slope a t
DEST DST - The d i s t a n c e
from t h e 6ir v e h i c l e
the current destination point
t o t h e designated d e s t i n a t i o n p o i n t PRESENT ANG - The instantaneous p r e s e n t g l i d e angle
GS - The ground speed of t h e a i r v e h i c l e
of t h e a i r v e h i c l e with r e s p e c t t o t h e
l o c a l horizontal
DEST-T - The time t o t h e designated d e s t i n a - BRG TO FLARE - The bearing of t h e next t r a c k with
t i o n point I

r e s p e c t t o True North. I n t h e case of

DEST LAT - The l a t i t u d e of t h e designed a landing o p e r a t i o n , i t is t h e heading
d e s t i n a t i o n point of t h e runway with r e s p e c t t o Magnetic
DEST LNG - The longitude of t h e designated
destination point REQD ALT
North
- The required a l t i t u d e of t h e a i r v e h i c l e
rmEL -T - The expected f u e l time remaining
DST MNI
a t the current destination point
- The d i s t a n c e from t h e a i r v e h i c l e t o
for the flight
DEST ALT - The a l t i t u d e above sea l e v e l of
t h e designated d e s t i n a t i o n p o i n t
FLARE t h e s t a r t of t h e f l a r e measured i n
n a u t i c a l miles

FIX PT LAT - The l a t i t u d e of t h e designated

PRESENT ALT - The instantaneous a l t i t u d e of t h e a i r
v e h i c l e above s e a l e v e l
f i x point
FIX PT LNG - The longitude of t h e designated T-MIN FLARE - The time in minutes before the a i r
v e h i c l e reaches t h e p o i n t t o begin t h e
f i x point
f l a r e t o the current destination point
TERR ALT - The a l t i t u d e of t h e t e r r a i n above or aim p o i n t
sea level a t the f i x point
AIM PT LAT - The l a t i t u d e of t h e aim p o i n t
CH NO. - The channel number of t h e Tacan A I M PE LNG - The longitude of t h e aim p o i n t
station
T -DELAY - The microseconds p a r t of t h e time AP-DZ DST - The d i s t a n c e from t h e aim p o i n t t o t h e
drop zone
1-secs d e l a y from t h e Loran s l a v e t o t h e
Loran master . APRCH - The required approach course t h a t t h e
T -DELAY - The microseconds p a r t of t h e time
COURSE a i r v e h i c l e must f l y t o CARP measured
CW with r e s p e c t t o True North
Mu-secs d e l a y from t h e Loran s l a v e t o t h e
Loran master AP-DZ BRG - The bearing measured CW from T r u e North
FIX TYPE - The type of f i x p o i n t , namely,
PCH DLY
t o t h e AP-DZ l i n e a t t h e drop zone
- The d e l a y time from t h e moment of
Radar, Loran, Tacan, o r External
and t h e v a r i a n c e a s s o c i a t e d with r e l e a s e of t h e parachute t o t h e time
t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f i x p o i n t t h a t it i s f u l l y deployed
FIX NO. - The number of t h e designated f i x
point
WND D I R - The d i r e c t i o n from which t h e wind is
coming with r e s p e c t t o magnetic north
CSR LAT - The l a t i t u d e of t h e MMR c u r s o r FALL RT - The v e r t i c a l component of t h e v e l o c i t y
CSR LNG - The longitude of t h e MMR c u r s o r
of t h e parachute a f t e r i t is f u l l y
deployed
CSR BRG - The bearing o f t h e MMR c u r s o r CW mvEL - The speed of t h e wind
from t h e a i r c r a f t k e e l l i n e
CSR RNG - The range of t h e MMR c u r s o r from DROP NO. - The number of t h e designated aim point
t h e computed p o s i t i o n of t h e c r a f t CARP COURSE - The r e l a t i v e bearing of t h e CARP t o
t o t h e f i x point, destination point, t h e k e e l l i n e of t h e a i r c r a f t

RADIAL ERR
o r recon p o i n t
- T h e e r r o r i n d i s t a n c e between t h e
CARP DST - The along t r a c k d i s t a n c e from t h e pre-
s e n t p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r v e h i c l e t o CARP
MMR c u r s o r s and t h e computed p o s i t i o n
of t h e reference p o i n t
CARP -T - CARP
The time before t h e a i r v e h i c l e reaches

RADAR TGT - The number of t h e f i x point or

DOP DFT ANG - The angle measured CW from t h e Doppler
NO. d e s t i n a t i o n p o i n t t h a t is d e s i r e d
antenna i n t h e keel l i n e is p o s i t i v e
t o t r a c k with t h e MMR
and t h e angle measured CCW from t h e
Doppler antenna t o t h e k e e l l i n e is
negative
14-20

KALMAN FILTER EQUATIONS

~

OPERATION MATRIX FORMULATION QUANTITY AND DEFINITION DIMENS ION

Observation Ay=y-& ^x = system e r r o r e s t i m a t e v e c t o r n x l
Residual P = e s t i m a t e e r r o r covariance m a t r i x n x n
0 = system,error t r a n s i t i o n matrix n x n
E s t ima t o r ,
: = f(9)
Control R = system noise covariance m a t r i x n x n
Ay = observation d i f f e r e n c e v e c t o r 1 x 1
T
Observation Q=MPM + C 1 x 1
M = measurement m a t r i x
Update
b = (P + €1) MTQ-' C = observation noise m a t r i x 1 x 1
A = time varying m a t r i x of system n x n
9 = % +b (Ay)
equation
y = observation residual vector 1 x 1
Q = observation r e s i d u a l covariance 1 x 1
Time matrix
Update b = weighting v e c t o r n x l
I = i d e n t i f y matrix n x n
System U = g(9)
sc 1 x 1
Control E = epsilon factor
= system c o n t r o l v e c t o r n x l
Transition
@(At) = I +A At + A2 & U
sc
f ( ) = e s t i m a t o r c o n t r o l algorithm; a p p l i e s
Matrix e s t i m a t e t o system
Calculation
g ( ) = system c o n t r o l ; computers new
e s t i m a t e t o be applied t o system
At = period of Kalman c y c l e
n = s t a t e v e c t o r dimension

TABLE 4 C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM KALMAN EQUATIONS

~ ~

INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT STATE VARIBLES C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM STATE VARIABLES

STATE VARIABLES Mod e 1 STATE VARIABLES Model

C omp1e t e techanized zomple t e lechanized

-~ ~-

Velocity E r r o r 3 3 I n e r t i a l Measurement Unit E r r o r s 50 13

Position Error 3 3 Doppler
Platform A t t i t u d e E r r o r 3 3 0 Groundspeed 3 1
Gyro D r i f t Rate E r r o r 0 D r i f t Angle 3 1
0 Correlated 3 3 o v e r t i c a l Velocity 3 0
0 Bias 3 0 A l t i t u d e Reference E r r o r
.Scale Factor 3 0 0 Barometric 2 1
Ramp 3 0 Radar Altimeter 3 0
0 Mass Unbalance 6 0 P o s i t i o n Reference E r r o r
Input Axis Alignment 6 0 0 Horizontal P o s i t i o n 2 0
Accelerometer E r r o r Heading Reference E r r o r
ocorrelated 3 1 AHRU 1 0
0 Bias 3 0
0 S c a l e Factor 3 0
0 Input Axis Alignment 6 0
B a l l Readout 2 *
~~

IMU TOTALS 50 13 C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM TOTALS 67 16

*A s i n g l e - s t a t e element i s used t o model B a l l readout/Doppler d r i f t angle azimuth e r r o r

TABLE 5 COMPLETE AND MECHANIZED STATE VARIABLES

 15

THE H Y B R I D N A V I G A T I O N S Y S T E M F O R THE N I M R O D M A R I T I M E

PATROL AIRCRAFT

R.P.G.Collinson, B.Sc.(ENG)., C.ENG., M.I.E.E.

Manager, Inertial Navigation Division,

Elliott Flight Automation,
Marconi - Elliot Avionic Systems Limited
15
 15-1

THE HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEM FUR THE NIMROD MARITIME

PATROL AIRCRAFT

R.P.C. Collinson, B.Sc.(mG)., C.ENG., M.I.E.E.

Manager, Inertial Navigation Division
Elliott Flight Automation
-
Marconi Elliott Avionic Systems Limited

1, Introduction
The Hawker Siddeley NIMROD is the latest maritime patrol aircraft about to enter service with the
R.A.F. and will replace the Hawker Siddeley Shackleton. It is a development of the very well proven
Hawker Siddeley Comet jet air liner and it is propelled by four Rolls Royce Spey by-pass jet engines, giving
-
it a long range, high speed cruise capability in fact, the Nimrod will be the fastest maritime patrol
aircraft in service in the Western world. It is also able to operate with two engines shut down for the
slow speed search mode and possesses excellent handling throughout its speed range. The Nimrod is
fitted with very advanced,avionicequipment, including a digital navigation and tactical computer which
drives a sophisticated display system.
2. System Requirement
The basic requirement is for high accuracy navigation for prolonged periods of cruise and search
over the sea, together with the provision of accurate heading and attitude information for the other systems
in the aircraft, such as the tactical digital computer, the automatic flight control system, etc.
To t h i s end and with regard to visibility and other factors the aircraft cannot rely exclusively upon radio
aids, radar fixes or visual ground/stellar fixes and thus requires self-contained facilities.
The alternatives (in 1964-65) were:-
Pure Inertial Systems
-
Doppler Compass Systems
-
Hybrid Doppler Inertial Systems

(all updated by periodic fixes)

3. Choice of System
The use of a pure inertial system was feasible but not practical at the time in terms of cost and
development. Also, a high degree of reversionary navigation capability was required which would have meant
either fitting multiple INS (more expense) or a standby doppler/compass fit. This latter alternative, in
terms,ofoverall cost-effectiveness, was not viable when compared with the hybrid D-I combination.
Use of the Doppler-Compass arrangement as the basic navigation facility gave deficiencies in two main
-
areas initial azimuth alignment and performance during prolonged tactical manoeuvres. The use of a high
accuracy Doppler as the velocity sensor places the onus upon the heading reference system for maintaining
long term navigation accuracy. The latter, therefore, must have a low azimuth drift rate and be initially
aligned accurately. Compass systems which are capable of relatively good drift performance have very
limited capabilities for rapid, accurate, initial alignment and involve either optical alignment or reference
to a master standard. A further deficiency of this configuration occurred during the tactical manoeuvreing
phase where the Doppler would be spending a considerable amount of time in the memory mode and would rely
upon Air Data information during this time, thereby degrading the overall navigation capability and the
weapon delivery effectiveness. The ideal solution thus evolved as a hybrid Doppler-Inertial system
which utilises the complementary natures of the individual systems as indicated below.

Schuler Tuned Heading Reference System (H.R.S.1 Doppler

Accurate navigation capability for limited
periods.
Excellent dynamic response but with long
term oscillatory error generation.
Low Azimuth Drift Rate.
Accurate self-contained initial azimuth
alignment capability.
High accuracy. Errors are bounded and not
time dependant.
Low susceptibility to lasofterrorsIt.
If Doppler isItonlock" (which is monitored)
then there is a very high probability that
it is working accurately.
Accurate Groundpseed and Drift Angle
measurement under reasonably steady flight
conditions.
Precision H.R.S. required for navigation.
Loss of accuracy in manoeuvres and under
. certain flight conditions.
15-2

The Hybrid Navigation System for the Nimrod Maritime Patrol Aircraft

4. Doppler-Inertial Mixing
The chosen configuration hybrid D-I system is indicated in Fig. (A). Routine navigation is
performed using the Doppler Groundspeed resolved about Drift and the True Heading from the I.N.S.
The I.N.S. feeds velocity signals to the G.S.R. for comparison with the resolved Doppler velocities the -
differences being fed back to continuously update and align the inertial system. Thus, when the Doppler
reverts temporarily to the memory mode during the Tactical phase, the I.N.S. is pre-aligned and can maintain
the accurate navigational facility as shown in Fig. (B).
The I.N.S. information is also used to update the Doppler llmemoryll
of groundspeed and drift to enable
the latter to relock more quickly when suitable conditions return. The doppler-inertial velocity 'lmM.ngfl
in the inertial system is performed by a simple second order loop with fixed gains as shown in Fig. (C).
The second order loop as depicted was chosen for the following reasons:-
Damping of Schuler Oscillations (Gain factor %)
Maintenance of an "exact" system (Gain factor K2)
Higher order loops not incorporated due to the llbalancedll accuracies of the
I.N. and Doppler systems.
Fixed gains were used for simplicity, economy (with analogue system) and the fact that a large volume
of trials data was available on comparable fixed gain systems. The loop natural frequency and damping
factors were selected as a result of studies of trials data on the Doppler and analysis of the inertial
system parameters. Under normal flight conditions, the mixing loop is capable of setting up the inertial f
system to better than 2 ft/sec. velocity error and 1 min. arc tilt.
The Doppler velocity is not used to correct the long term azimuth errors as the drift and initial mis-
alignment errors are of sufficient accuracy to obviate this. Provision is made for azimuth correction from
astro fixes. The azimuth performance is a prime factor in the routine navigation mode, and
the O.lo/hr. drift rate capability of the azimuth reference is obtained with full compensation for earth
rate and meridian convergency performed automatically by the inertial system. Initial azimuth alignment,
an equally critical factor is achieved by a self contained runway alignment technique.
5. Runway Alignment
The principle of operation is to measure the inertially derived across-track distance (X) accrued
.
during the take-off run, with reference to the known direction of the runway centre-line and the length of
runway used (S)
The across track error can fairly be attributed entirely to azimuth error provided that the aircraft
#
starts and finishes on, or close to, the runway centre line; thus is a measure of the misalignment in
azimuth of the Stable Platform and the azimuth gyroscope is precessed proportionately to this amount in
order to achieve, automatically, a precise initial alignment.
The following description, in conjunction with the Figs. D. €f E., details the method of operation:-

(a) The platform is initially erected in the n o d way and coarse alignment in azimuth is
obtained by gyro compassing to within 20, having set the aircraft compass heading to reduce the gyro
compassing time.

(b) The surveyed Runway True Bearing is set in to the pair of Sin/Cos Potentiometers, so
that the inertial velocities will now be resolved about this bearing.
(c) A distance slightly less than the calculated take-off distance is set into comparator 1.
(d) The aircraft is positioned (azimuth alignment is imnaterial) on the Runway in the normal
way, on or close to the centre-line and stops. The system is '!zeroed" electricfly at this
time and 'b-eleased"into its operating mode just prior to llbrakes-offlf.

(e) The aircraft commences the take-off run and aims to be on or close to the centre-line
just prior to 'lrotationll (leaving the ground). Wander or drift of the aircraft during the
intermediate stage is of no consequence.
(f) The n o d inertial outputs of East-West and NorthSouth velocities are fed to the
Sin/Cos Potentiometers, whose outputs then become along and across-runway-bearing velocities.
These latter velocities are integrated to give along and across runway distances (S,X).
1
( g ) When S is equal to S , 'Comparator 11 disconnects the inputs of the two integrators;
these are now storing quantities analogous to S and X.
1
(h) The quantity S is now fed into the across-runway (X) integrator to unstore X whilst
the azimuth (Z) gyroscope is precessed at a constant rate until this unstore is complete
(detected by 'Comparator 21 which then disconnects the precession signal). Thus the azimufh
gyroscope is precessed for a time directly proportional to X and inversely proportional to S
which is the required solution.
 15-3

The Hybrid Navigation System for the Nimrod Maritime Patrol Aircraft

The whole sequence of operations is automatic, being initiated at the start of the take-off run.
Systems have been devised which average the heading over short periods but, since the aircraft drifts and
heading varies, they have failed. This system, by using velocity outputs, overcomes these failings and
variations of heading do not matter.
With the exceptions that the aircraft must pause momentarily at the initial take-off position and be
close to the centre-line just prior to rotation, there are no constraints on the aircraft or aircrew.
Knowledge of accurate runway direction is already available at all major world airports; calculated take-
off distance is a routine pre-requisite for all civil and most military flights.
It can be shown that the residual heading error at the end of the computation is of the following
fo m : -

vc +
._I

Error = F1 + F2 3 +
F t . -
F4t L + F5
D 2D D

where:

F1
is the r.s.s. of the following:

(a) The setting error of the runway heading.

(b) The errors in angular resolutions.
(c) Error due to scale factors in computing velocity, i.e.,
accelerometers, integrators and amplifiers.

is the error due to scale factors in the unstoring arrangement.

F2
is the initial velocity error.
F3
is the initial acceleration error.
F4
is the error due to displacement of the aircraft from its position
F5 relative to the runway centre line between the start and finish of the
take-off run. This error is not introduced by the system but by the
pilot.

yc is the total azimuth correction to be applied.

t is the time the aircraft takes t o cover the distance D.
D is the distance the aircraft has travelled along the runway.

Thus, in general, the error due to factorSF1and F, 'are independent of the length
of take-off run, but are functions of computing aEcuracy, the dominant factor being
.theresolution of velocity from X and Y axes about runway heading.
The effect of error F can be shown to be roughly the ratio of initial velocity
error t o the velocitg at rotation. Thus, the lower the latter, the greater the
error.
The contribution due to F is, in a similar way to F the ratio of initial
acceleration error (i.e.: platform verticality) to &e mean acceleration down
the runway. Both of these errors are time dependent, but that due to F is
purely a function of the take-off run length selected. 5

Using expected values for the above error sources including values found as a
result of evaluation trials at Bgscombe Down, the overall alignment accuracy was
predicted to be better than 0.15 r.m.s. This has been borne out in subsequent
operation of the Nav/Tac. system, together with the adoption of satisfactory
operating techniques.

I
15-4

The Hybrid Navigation System for the Nimrod Maritime Patrol Aircraft

6 . Description of the Equipnent

The units making.up the system are shown in Fig. D. They comprise the following units:-

E 3 Platform
Platform Computer No.1
Platform Computer No.2
Power Supply Unit
Ground Speed Resolver
I.N. Control Panel
The flow diagram of the system is shown in Fig.G.
A summary of the salient features of the system is given in Table 1.
A summary of the system outputs is given in Table 2.

6 3 Platform
The Elliott E-3 Platform is shown in the photograph in Fig. H.
The stable platform is suspended in an tvinside out" gimbal configuration, using+" 9uckle joint for
freedom in pitch and roll. The platform has full freedom in roll and azimuth and -60 freedom in pitch.
The spatial reference is provided by 3 single Pgree of freedom floated integrating rate gyroscopes -
British Aircraft Corporation GG.49 type of 0.1 /hour randomdrift performance. The platform has two
Ferranti FA2 force balance accelerometers for measuring the horizontal components of acceleration.
The unique feature of the platform is the use of 4 separate azimuth axes for the inertial components which
are coupled together by a precision linkage mechanism. This configuration results in a compact, extremely
rugged platform which gives maximum component accessibility.
The signal buffer nmplifiers for the gyros and the gyro temperature control amplifiers are mounted on
the stable element itself. The gimbal servo amplifiers, gyro precession amplifiers and accelerometer
amplifiers are in tlplug-inll
card module form mounted inside the platform canister.
Platform Computer No. 1
This unit contains the first stage integrators which are electromechanical integrators of the
Velodyne type, using a precision D.C. tacho generator as the feedback element. A multiple gang of
Potentiometers is mounted on the output shaft. These are used to provide the precision D.C. voltage
analogue output of velocity for D-I mixing and also for carrying out the multiplication operation in
generating the Coriolis acceleration terns. Various buffer amplifiers involved in the alignment mode and
for analogue computing are also located in this unit.
Platform Computer No. 2
This unit contains the runway alignment integrators and runway alignment resolver. 'The heading
repeater servo which repeats Heading to the other sub-systems in the aircraft is located in this unit.
Power Supply Unit
This unit provides the precision 400 HZ supply for the gyro spin motors, together with the necessary
stabilised H.T. supplies for the system electronics. The automatic sequencing and protection unit is
also located in the P.S.U. The gyro temperature and gyro capture angles are continually monitored and the
system is shut down automatically and a failure signal given if these exceed the allowable limits.
Ground Speed Resolver
This unit carries out the resolution of the Doppler output into Northing and Easting Velocities, in
conjunction with the True Heading input from the stable platform. It also performs the Doppler-Inertial
velocity differencing operation. It uses a very accurate (1 to 2 minutes of arc) Elliott 2" ball resolver
to perform this resolution, Although mechanical resolvers are not regarded as the tllatestll
in technology,
-
the fact remains that they can be extremely accurate and reliable devices this unit in particular was
selected because of its outstanding record in the V bomber fleet.
I.N. Control Panel
The control of the system modes is carried out by the I.N. Control Panel.

Acknowle&ement:- The author wishes to acknowledge the permission of the Directors of

Elliott Flight AutmTtion in publishing this paper, together with the assistance and
co-operation of his colleagues in Inertial Navigation Division.
 15-.5

Northing
Ground Speed Velocity
w b Latitude
DOPPLER
v, x
COMPUTER
GROUND Eating
Drift Velocity
b SPEED b b Longitude
6 RESOLVER IJ
Heading

K
* -
-

4
I
I Inertial
Velocities
Dopplerll nertial
I U,!% Velocity Error

-
E3
INERTIAL
NAVIGATION
4

D O P P L E R / S m TUNED HEADING REFEXENCE

Northing
Ground Speed Velocity
w t
DOPPLER %'
Drift

b'
\
GROUND
SPEED
RESOLVER
Eating
Velocity
- COMPUTER

.
)

Heading

I
I Velocities
Inertial

E3
INERTIAL
NAVIGATIUN
SYSTEM
Digital
Computer)

FIG. B. DOPPrW CUT-OUT PURE I . N . bDDE

15-6

FIG. C. DOPPLER/INERTIAL MIXING

SINGLE CHANNEL)

Doppler
lnertiel
Velocity

Airframe
I,
Drift

-
I 1

Earting
Velocity I
I I

Doppler and inertially derived velocities are combined to

overcome the deficiencies present in each source on its own.
Doppler is inherently noisy and requires smoothing, its long
term accuracy is good but it is subject to dynamic errors
because of its lags.
Inertial velocity i s very accurate for a short period and is free
from lags.
 15-7

FIG. D. RUNWAY AL1C"T S C M T I C

_(BritishPatent 1,120,1811

Distance
travelled
along
Runwey

Initial
haading
/w Accelerometer
velocity

RUNWAY

along
Acroar
runway

Accelerometer Integrator
Runway
heeding Distance
travelled
acrou
2 Runway

Apparent distance
4A travelled across runway
$g
Ta
due to initial heading
F2 error Sy
15-8

FIG. E. RUNWAY ALIGNMENT MECHANISATION

Relay
Along R LA
Runmy
Vdoclty
RLA1
-
Y

Integrator

I
: PrsrstDirtsncaS

Acron
Runway
velocltv U
Integrator cornpa rato r

Pnxeulon
C onNnt A . .
Cumnc
RIA4

RELAY A
OPERATION

TIME
b
15-9
15-10

FIG. 0. SYSTBX FMY DIMRlul

;I r 1

Hdins
 15-11

I
I
 16

The U s e of Hybrid Navigation

Techniques i n Commercial Transport Aviation

Siegbert B. Poritzky
Manager- Navigation
A i r Transport Association
of America
16

SUMMARY

Commercial a i r l i n e s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been r e l u c t a n t t o use n a v i g a t i o n o r c o n t r o l

systems i n which t h e m i s s i o n of an a i r c r a f t i s dependent on h y b r i d combinations, espe-
c i a l l y of e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e a i d s . While, f o r long d i s t a n c e n a v i g a t i o n , combinations o f
D o p p l e r / i n e r t i a l systems o r i n e r t i a l / L o r a n systems have been a t t r a c t i v e t o some u s e r s ,
a i r l i n e s have g e n e r a l l y o p t e d f o r u s i n g the a i d s s e p a r a t e l y ( i f b o t h w e r e t o be c a r r i e d )
i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e f o r a h i g h degree o f f a u l t s u r v i v a b i l f t y . I n one of t h e most b a s i c
u s e s of h y b r i d systems -- t h a t of a range dependent Doppler system used t o bound t h e
e r r o r of a time-bounded i n e r t i a l system -- a i r l i n e s have been a b l e t o choose, because of
t h e r e g u l a r i t y of t h e i r m i s s i o n , t o u s e i n e r t i a l systems a l o n e .
The i n t r o d u c t i o n of i n e r t i a l systems, and t h e p r o s p e c t f o r s a t e l l i t e systems, how-
e v e r , may b r i n g a q u i t e unique form of h y b r i d o p e r a t i o n i n t o t h e a i r l i n e f l e e t . Some
a s p e c t s of t h i s form of h y b r i d o p e r a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d .
A form o f h y b r i d i z a t i o n may come a s a by-product of t h e i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n capa-
b i l i t y s i n c e t h e i n e r t i a l system p r o v i d e s n o t o n l y n a v i g a t i o n , b u t more fundamentally,
p r o v i d e s v e r y good b a s i c heading and a t t i t u d e s e n s o r s f o r t h e a i r c r a f t . Thus f o r t h e
f i r s t t i m e , a s i n g l e system p r o v i d e s a series of e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s -- n a v i g a t i o n ,
heading, a t t i t u d e and a c c e l e r a t i o n s . They p e r m i t r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n and smoothing of o t h e r
n a v i g a t i o n s e n s o r s which may be more a c c u r a t e b u t sometimes less c o n s i s t e n t . Again,
independence can be p r e s e r v e d i n such a way t h a t t h e b e s t f e a t u r e s of b o t h systems can
be used b u t w i t h o u t t h e u n d e s i r a b l e dependence of one upon t h e o t h e r .

One i m p o r t a n t use of i n e r t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l come i n t h e augmentation of ground

s i g n a l - b a s e d a u t o m a t i c approach and l a n d i n g guidance systems. Here h i g h - q u a l i t y
i n e r t i a l d a t a w i l l come t o be used t o smooth I L S s i g n a l s and overcome some o f t h e
e f f e c t s o f windshear and g u s t s . H y b r i d i z a t i o n may also p e r m i t t h e u s e of an o u t e r - l o o p
monitor crosscheck of v a r i o u s a i r p l a n e systems, and c o u l d form t h e b a s i s f o r a common
--
m u l t i l a t e r a t i o n t y p e n a v i g a t i o n and s u r v e i l l a n c e system once a g a i n i n a way which
can p r o v i d e the advantages of h y b r i d i z a t i o n w i t h o u t t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e o f inter-dependence.
 16-1

The U s e of Hybrid Navigation

Techniques i n Commercial T r a n s p o r t A v i a t i o n

S i e g b e r t B. P o r i t z k y
Manager - Navigation
A i r Transport Association
of America

According to my d i c t i o n a r y , "hybrid" means t h e o f f s p r i n g of two animals o r p l a n t s

of d i f f e r e n t r a c e s , b r e e d s , v a r i e t i e s , s p e c i e s , o r g e n e r a ; o r a group of p e r s o n s pro-
duced by t h e i n t e r - a c t i o n o r c r o s s - b r e e d i n g of two u n l i k e c u l t u r e s , t r a d i t i o n s , etc.
I n o u r c o n t e x t i t a l s o means a n y t h i n g d e r i v e d from heterogenous s o u r c e s o r composed
of elements o f d i f f e r e n t o r incongruous k i n d s . Hybrid n a v i g a t i o n h a s been long d e b a t e d
and, depending on your d e f i n i t i o n of i t , used o r shunned, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r long-haul
over-water o p e r a t i o n s o r o p e r a t i o n s over undeveloped t e r r a i n . I n t h e minds of many a i r -
l i n e p e o p l e , i t means the simultaneous u s e of two u n l i k e systems s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o r i n
p a r a l l e l . The most f r e q u e n t l y d i s c u s s e d arrangements have been D o p p l e r / i n e r t i a l system
combinations i n which one t a k e s advantage of t h e f a c t t h a t Doppler n a v i g a t i o n system
e r r o r s a r e range-bounded w h i l e i n e r t i a l system e r r o r s a r e time-bounded. Other combi-
n a t i o n s o f t e n d i s c u s s e d a r e Doppler o r i n e r t i a l systems combined w i t h Loran o r a s t r o
f i x e s . You are aware, of c o u r s e , t h a t by c u r r e n t FAA requirement U. S. a i r l i n e s u s i n g
Doppler a s primary n a v i g a t i o n , are o b l i g a t e d on c e r t a i n long l e g s to use Loran a s an
a d d i t i o n a l a i d . Many proponents of h y b r i d n a v i g a t i o n systems, however, t r y to make l i f e
e a s i e r f o r u s by o f f e r i n g a c e n t r a l computer i n t o which w e f e e d s e v e r a l n a v i g a t i o n d a t a
s o u r c e s and which, by a p p r o p r i a t e w e i g h t i n g of t h e s e v e r a l n a v i g a t i o n d a t a i n p u t s , can
p r o v i d e n a v i g a t i o n guidance based on i t s assessment of t h e q u a l i t y of the s e v e r a l i n p u t s .
H y b r i d i z a t i o n f o r Long D i s t a n c e Navigation
The a i r l i n e s , c e r t a i n l y t h e United S t a t e s a i r l i n e s , have opposed t h i s approach and
have n o t implemented it i n Doppler/Loran a i r c r a f t . Doppler and Loran systems a r e c a r e -
f u l l y k e p t a p a r t ; i n f a c t , many a i r l i n e s use q u i t e e l a b o r a t e p r e c a u t i o n s to a s s u r e t h a t
c o c k p i t h y b r i d i z a t i o n i s avoided, i.e., to a s s u r e t h a t w e p r e v e n t , a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e ,
any c r o s s - b r e e d i n g of e r r o r s from system t o t h e o t h e r .
There a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r a v o i d i n g h y b r i d i z a t i o n of t h e t y p e I ' v e j u s t t r i e d t o
d e s c r i b e . The a i r l i n e s a r e anxious to make themselves a s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t a s p o s s i b l e ,
and wish to use s e l f - c o n t a i n e d n a v i g a t i o n a i d s , which r e q u i r e no dependence on ground
f a c i l i t i e s . S i n c e , u n l i k e m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t , most a i r l i n e s o p e r a t e day a f t e r day a l o n g
r o u t e s of known l e n g t h , it i s p o s s i b l e to examine a r o u t e and determine whether a s e l f -
c o n t a i n e d n a v i g a t i o n system (such a s an i n e r t i a l system) can, by i t s e l f , meet t h e
accuracy requirements a t t h e end of t h a t r o u t e . N a v i g a t i o n systems and p r o c e d u r e s can
be a c c e p t e d o r r e j e c t e d based on t h e r o u t e s t r u c t u r e and t h e l e n g t h of the r o u t e s to be
flown, u n l i k e t h e m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n where more f l e x i b i l i t y i s o f t e n needed and must be
planned f o r . More i m p o r t a n t , however, i s the need to avoid t h e i n t i m a t e connection o f
systems i n ways which could encourage, o r even which do n o t do a l l p o s s i b l e to p r e v e n t ,
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of the same o r a c o r r e l a t e d e r r o r t o two n a v i g a t i o n schemes. T h i s
m a t t e r i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t s i n c e it i s t h i s k i n d of e r r o r o r b l u n d e r which w e are
t r y i n g h a r d e s t to avoid. The p o i n t i s w e l l made by N a t h a n i e l Braverman of t h e F e d e r a l
A v i a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n a paper e n t i t l e d , " S a f e t y and System Design," d a t e d
A p r i l 1969:
"Undetected e r r o r s cause b l u n d e r s which may c a u s e a c c i d e n t s . u n d e t e c t e d
e r r o r s a r e of two t y p e s . One t y p e i s caused by v a r i a t i o n of d e s i g n param-
e t e r s and i s u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d by t h e s i z e o f t h e mean e r r o r and t h e s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n of t h e e r r o r s which a r e assumed to have a Gaussian frequency d i s t r i -
b u t i o n . These two s t a t i s t i c a l v a l u e s a r e u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d to d e s c r i b e t h e
' a c c u r a c y ' of the system. T h i s ' a c c u r a c y ' i s a major f a c t o r i n t h e system
s a f e t y only when t h e s e p a r a t i o n s t a n d a r d (nominal s p a c i n g ) i s less t h a n about
f i v e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s . When t h e nominal s p a c i n g i s more t h a n about f i v e
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s , t h e o t h e r t y p e o f u n d e t e c t e d e r r o r s (caused by v a r i a t i o n
of non-design p a r a m e t e r s ) u s u a l l y becomes t h e major f a c t o r i n system s a f e t y . "
16-2

Thus a f t e r h a v i n g a s s u r e d o u r s e l v e s t h a t t h e n a v i g a t i o n system chosen can meet o u r

performance r e q u i r e m e n t s i n terms of a ) n a v i g a t i o n a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d t o a r r i v e a t the
d e s t i n a t i o n , and b) p o s i t i o n - k e e p i n g a l o n g t h e r o u t e f o r a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l , o u r n e x t
major concern i s t h e avoidance and, i f p o s s i b l e , e l i m i n a t i o n o f b l u n d e r e r r o r s . I n the
view o f most a i r l i n e s , h y b r i d i z a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y h y b r i d i z a t i o n i n which two s e p a r a t e
d a t a s o u r c e s come t o g e t h e r i n a s i n g l e computer, i s n o t the b e s t way t o a c h i e v e this
protection.

I n e r t i a l N a v i g a t i o n a s " S o l e Means''
Many o f you know t h a t a i r l i n e s e x p e c t t o u t i l i z e i n e r t i a l systems a s t h e s o l e means
of n a v i g a t i o n o v e r w a t e r , and e x p e c t t o b e wholly i n d e p e n d e n t o f ground-based n a v i g a t i o n
a i d s d u r i n g t h e e n r o u t e phase. Without going i n t o t h e l e g a l i s t i c d e t a i l s , an FAA
Advisory C i r c u l a r on i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t such o p e r a t i o n s a r e a c c e p t a b l e
if a s i n g l e f a i l u r e o f a n a v i g a t i o n system does n o t r e s u l t i n l o s s o f n a v i g a t i o n capa-
b i l i t y t o r e a c h t h e d e s t i n a t i o n ; and i f s u f f i c i e n t f a i l u r e d e t e c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y i s pro-
v i d e d t o a s s u r e t h a t a f a i l u r e o f t h e s l o w l y d r i f t i n g t y p e i n one system i s e x t r e m e l y
u n l i k e l y t o l e a v e t h e p i l o t i n a quandary a s t o which system h a s gone wrong. In other
words, s u f f i c i e n t f a i l u r e d e t e c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y must be p r o v i d e d t o g i v e h i g h c o n f i d e n c e
t h a t t h e p i l o t can d e t e c t which o f two ( o r more) systems h a s f a i l e d . T h i s problem i s
b e i n g t a c k l e d i n a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t ways, t h e most d e s i r a b l e , of c o u r s e , b e i n g a
f a i l u r e d e t e c t i o n and warning system w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l n a v i g a t i o n system which
announces i t s own f a i l u r e s .

The a i r l i n e s b e l i e v e t h a t by p r o v i d i n g a t l e a s t two i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n systems

which a r e k e p t s t r i c t l y i n d e p e n d e n t one from t h e o t h e r , an a d e q u a t e l e v e l o f performance
and b l u n d e r p r o t e c t i o n can be a c h i e v e d . E l a b o r a t e p r e c a u t i o n s a r e t a k e n t o p r e v e n t
common mode f a i l u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y common mode f a i l u r e s o f t h e human t y p e i n which one man
can i n t r o d u c e t h e same wrong s e t of numbers i n t o two o r perhaps even t h r e e s y s t e m s . The
i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n systems w i l l be a r r a n g e d i n such a way t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e
independence o f the i n d i v i d u a l p l a t f o r m s i s p r o v i d e d from a t e c h n i c a l p o i n t o f view, and
t h a t b o t h t h e d a t a i n s e r t i o n methods and t h e check and c r o s s c h e c k methods a r e a r r a n g e d
so t h a t a b l u n d e r a f f e c t i n g a l l systems becomes a h i g h l y improbable c i r c u m s t a n c e .
C l a s s i c a l H y b r i d i z a t i o n n o t Desirable, B u t . . .
Thus h y b r i d n a v i g a t i o n o f t h e t y p e d i s c u s s e d i s n o t d e s i r a b l e by t h e a i r c a r r i e r s .
However, h a v i n g s a i d t h i s , h y b r i d i z a t i o n o f a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t t y p e i s p r o l i f e r a t i n g
a l l o v e r o u r a i r l i n e a i r p l a n e s . W e e x p e c t t o make e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f it i n newer
aircraft.
S a t e l l i t e S u r v e i l l a n c e f o r ATC

I want t o mention one example which r e l a t e s t o long-haul over-water s e r v i c e s , i n

p a s s i n g , even though i t ' s one that may n o t be needed f o r a w h i l e . T h i s i s t h e u s e o f
s a t e l l i t e s u r v e i l l a n c e o f over-water a i r t r a f f i c . S a t e l l i t e t r a f f i c s u r v e i l l a n c e and
s a t e l l i t e n a v i g a t i o n have, of c o u r s e , been b r o a d l y d i s c u s s e d i n a myriad of p a p e r s ; and
1 want t o mention o n l y one s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n . There i s l i t t l e i n t e r e s t among t h e
U. S. a i r c a r r i e r s i n s a t e l l i t e n a v i g a t i o n a s such. W e a r e i n t r i g u e d , of course, with
t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a s a t e l l i t e - b a s e d s u r v e i l l a n c e system, p o s s i b l y u s i n g t r a n s p o n d e r s
i n t h e a i r c r a f t . I t would b e a s o r t o f " s p a c e r a d a r " t o m o n i t o r a i r t r a f f i c i n l a r g e
over-water a r e a s . L i k e t h e s i t u a t i o n o v e r l a n d , r a d a r i s d i f f i c u l t t o j u s t i f y u n t i l
t h e r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t t r a f f i c d e n s i t y , b u t it becomes more and more i n t e r e s t i n g a s
reduced s e p a r a t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d and i t becomes d e s i r a b l e t o impose t a c t i c a l a i r
t r a f f i c c o n t r o l , e.g., t r a f f i c c o n t r o l i n - w h i c h a i r t r a f f i c i s m a n i p u l a t e d d u r i n g a
North A t l a n t i c c r o s s i n g i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e smooth and uniform t r a f f i c flow.
The i d e a I ' d l i k e t o mention h a s been propounded i n t h e French P r o j e c t D i o s c u r e s
and i s w e l l d e s c r i b e d i n p a p e r s by J a c q u e s V i l l i e r s and Bernard Manuali o f t h e French
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . S i m i l a r i d e a s have been proposed i n t h e United S t a t e s and o t h e r
c o u n t r i e s . The p h i l o s o p h y i s t h a t b l u n d e r s w i l l o c c u r , b u t that t h e b a s i c n a t u r e o f the
b l u n d e r , and t h e r e f o r e t h e s h a p e of t h e b l u n d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r v e , i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i -
c u l t t o d e s c r i b e o r p r e d i c t . T h i s i n t u r n makes it d i f f i c u l t e i t h e r t o a s s e s s r i s k
numerically, o r t o a s s e s s with confidence t h e effects of i n c r e a s e s i n accuracy i n t h e
n a v i g a t i o n f u n c t i o n . Thus t h e p r o p o s a l would impose a s a t e l l i t e s u r v e i l l a n c e system,
whose primary f u n c t i o n would b e t o d e t e c t l a r g e e r r o r s o r b l u n d e r s and t h u s s e r v e a s a
p r o b a b i l i t y c u r v e t a i l c u t t e r . I t would n o t need h i g h a c c u r a c y purpose n o r even a
p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h d a t a renewal r a t e . I t would, however, b e c a p a b l e of s e r v i n g a s an
e r r o r bound, and would do s o i n a way e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f n a v i g a t i o n conducted i n
the a i r c r a f t . I f and when t r a f f i c d e n s i t i e s i n over-water a r e a s become h i g h enough t o
j u s t i f y t h i s t y p e o f t r a f f i c c o n t r o l s u r v e i l l a n c e system, w e would have e s t a b l i s h e d a
h y b r i d system, b u t this t i m e a h y b r i d system i n the b e s t s e n s e , because the two d a t a
s o u r c e s f o r t h e achievement o f the d e s i r e d r e s u l t s a r e e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e from t h e o t h e r .
I t meets a b a s i c c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n t o be conducted. Braverman p u t s it t h i s
way, " P r e v e n t i o n o f dangerous b l u n d e r s r e q u i r e s t h e u s e o f maximum independence between
t h e redundant p a r t s . The r e d u n d a n t p a r t s s h o u l d b e a s d i f f e r e n t a s p o s s i b l e , b e l o c a t e d
 16-3

i n d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s , b e owned and o p e r a t e d by d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , etc. I n a d d i t i o n ,

f o r maximum s a f e t y , t h e o u t p u t o f one of t h e redundant p a r t s must n o t b e ' u p d a t e d ' by
a n o t h e r . I f t h e o p e r a t i o n c a n n o t c o n t i n u e w i t h o u t v i o l a t i n g t h e s a f e t y l i m i t s on one
o r more of t h e redundant p a r t s , t h e n a backup p r o c e d u r e must b e a v a i l a b l e which i s s a f e
even i f v e r y i n e f f i c i e n t " .
H e adds t h e f i n a l f i l l i p t o h i s c o n c l u s i o n s : " E x c e s s i v e automation may' l e a d t o
d a n g e r i f humans a r e s t i l l p a r t of t h e system".
The U s e s of I n e r t i a l P l a t f o r m s

While s a t e l l i t e s u r v e i l l a n c e may s t i l l b e a l o n g way away i n a i r l i n e o p e r a t i o n s ,

some o t h e r examples of h y b r i d i z a t i o n a r e c l o s e r a t hand. The i n e r t i a l p l a t f o r m s b e i n g
p l a c e d on o u r new a i r c r a f t a r e t u r n i n g o u t t o be f a r more t h a n t h e b a s i s of n a v i g a t i o n
s y s t e m s . I n f a c t , a s some o f us p r e d i c t e d l o n g ago, i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n may r e a l l y be
a by-product of p u t t i n g a s t a b l e , p l a t f o r m i n t h e a i r c r a f t which w i l l s e r v e many
f u n c t i o n s , i n a s o r t o f h y b r i d f a s h i o n . The r e a s o n , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h e s t a b l e
i n e r t i a l p l a t f o r m p r o v i d e s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a v e r y a c c u r a t e s o u r c e of h e a d i n g and a t t i -
t u d e i n f o r m a t i o n . I t can t h e r e f o r e a l s o p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n on h e a d i n g and
a t t i t u d e r a t e s d e r i v e d from t h e b a s i c a c c e l e r a t i o n measurements. The i n e r t i a l p l a t f o r m
becomes t h e s o u r c e o f a v a r i e t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n , and w i l l be used t h r o u g h o u t t h e a i r c r a f t
f o r smoothing r a w n a v i g a t i o n d a t a from o t h e r s o u r c e s .

C e r t a i n l y t h e use of t h e i n e r t i a l navigation platform a s a b a s i c source of master

h e a d i n g and m a s t e r a t t i t u d e , and a s I ' l l mention i n a moment, a s a s o u r c e of d a t a f o r
a u t o m a t i c l a n d i n g i s a form o f h y b r i d i z a t i o n . But t h e r e i s an i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n
between h y b r i d i z a t i o n o f t h e Doppler/Loran o r Loran/Astro t y p e and t h e u s e o f i n e r t i a l
smoothing, f o r example, o f a VOR o r an ILS l o c a l i z e r s i g n a l . While an a s t r o f i x i s used
t o " u p d a t e " a Loran f i x , and t h e two a r e mixed t o g e t h e r i n a way i n which t h e y a r e i n t e r -
dependent and p o s s i b l y subject t o t h e consequence of a s i n g l e e r r o r , t h e smoothing f u n c t i o n
which t h e i n e r t i a l system can p r o v i d e t o "sweeten" a l o c a l i z e r s i g n a l i s k e p t q u i t e f i r m l y
i n i t s p l a c e . The b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e remains t h e l o c a l i z e r s i g n a l . The i n e r t i a l
system i s u s e d s t r i c t l y f o r smoothing, o r i n some i n s t a n c e s f o r t h e checking o f p l a u s i -
b i l i t y of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n . I t i s p r a c t i c a l t o a v o i d b l u n d e r s which c o u l d be i n t r o d u c e d
by f e e d i n g t h e same e r r o r t o t h e two s y s t e m s , a s t h e y a r e d r a s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t one from
the other.
Automatic Landing w i t h I n e r t i a l Data

A h i g h l y promising use of i n e r t i a l information i s i n automatic landing. Here a g a i n ,

a form o f h y b r i d i z a t i o n w i l l f i n d its way i n t o a i r l i n e systems. I ' v e a l r e a d y mentioned
t h e u s e o f i n e r t i a l d a t a f o r smoothing I L S s i g n a l s simply t o overcome d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e
I L S beams and t o p r e v e n t t h e a i r p l a n e from a t t e m p t i n g t o f l y o r i n t e g r a t e bends o r rough-
n e s s i n t h e ILS beams. There may b e a n o t h e r u s e f o r t h e i n e r t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e
e a r l y d e t e c t i o n o f t r a n s l a t i o n e r r o r s and a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n changes due t o windshear o r
g u s t e f f e c t s . The i n e r t i a l d a t a , i n t h i s mode o f o p e r a t i o n , i s a watchdog on what t h e
a i r c r a f t i s a c t u a l l y d o i n g , and t h u s p e r m i t s a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between e r r o r s o r
b u r b l e s i n t h e ILS and a c t u a l a i r c r a f t r e s p o n s e s t o e x t e r n a l s t i m u l u s . T h i s p e r m i t s a
b e t t e r , smoother approach and a u t o m a t i c l a n d i n g t o be made t h a n w i t h ILS a l o n e . A good
d e a l o f work i s g o i n g on i n t h i s area i n t h e F e d e r a l A v i a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t h e
N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e United S t a t e s , a s w e l l a s i n a i r -
frame m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' p l a n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e world. While i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n i t s e l f , even
w i t h q u i t e h i g h i n h e r e n t a c c u r a c y and f r e q u e n t u p d a t i n g i s n o t l i k e l y t o s e r v e t o p r o v i d e
t h e b a s i c guidance f o r a u t o m a t i c l a n d i n g , it can l i k e l y be used t o p r o v i d e i n d e p e n d e n t
p o s i t i o n d a t a t o t h e a i r c r a f t c o n d u c t i n g an ILS approach, may p r o v i d e a s i g n i f i c a n t i m -
provement t o t h e a u t o m a t i c l a n d i n g , and may b e a b l e t o p r o v i d e it i n a way t h a t t h e b a s i c
r u l e governing s u c c e s s f u l h y b r i d i z a t i o n i s properly applied.
O u t e r Loop M o n i t o r i n q
Y e t a n o t h e r form o f h y b r i d i z a t i o n may be i n t h e form o f s y s t e m s t o s e r v e a s a check
on t h e p l a u s i b i l i t y of o t h e r s i g n a l s p r o v i d e d . T h i s i s a p r o c e s s which I w i l l c a l l
o u t e r - l o o p m o n i t o r i n g . I t i s a p r o c e s s which has been d e s c r i b e d by McDonnell-Douglas
f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o DC-10 a i r c r a f t f o r u s e i n a d d i t i o n t o , o r p o s s i b l y i n p l a c e o f , t r a -
d i t i o n a l system m o n i t o r i n g methods. T h i s i s a p r o c e s s i n which, t o s a y i t i n an over-
s i m p l i f i e d way, t h e m o n i t o r i n g system i s e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e from t h e a c t i n g s y s t e m s , and
simply checks t o d e t e r m i n e whether t h e a i r p l a n e r e s p o n s e i s " s e n s i b l e " . One way o f
l o o k i n g a t t h i s i s t o c o n s i d e r an a i r c r a f t on an ILS approach, f l y i n g i n a s t a b i l i z e d
f a s h i o n a l o n g t h e l o c a l i z e r c o u r s e . Suddenly t h e a i r c r a f t v e e r s o f f t h e l o c a l i z e r c o u r s e .
T h i s w i l l , o f c o u r s e , b e d e t e c t e d by t h e l o c a l i z e r r e c e i v e r , and t h e approach d i s c o n t i n u e d .
However, t h e d e v i a t i o n from t h e l o c a l i z e r c o u r s e c o u l d b e due t o an a p p a r e n t o r r e a l d e v i -
a t i o n o f t h e l o c a l i z e r s i g n a l , i n which t h e l o c a l i z e r r e c e i v e r would s i m p l y t e l l t h e a u t o -
p i l o t t o f o l l o w a now a p p a r e n t l y s h i f t e d l o c a l i z e r c o u r s e -- an u n d e s i r a b l e s i t u a t i o n .
An o u t e r - l o o p m o n i t o r i n g system might be used t o d e t e c t t h e l a t e r a l motion and make t h e
judgment t h a t t h i s l a t e r a l motion is n o t p l a u s i b l e i n a s t a b i l i z e d , l o c a l i z e r - c o u p l e d
approach, and might warn t h e p i l o t t h a t something h a s gone s o u r . The p r o c e s s o f f a u l t
d e t e c t i o n i n t h i s c a s e would come a b o u t by t h e examination o f motion e f f e c t s which a r e
16-4

c o n s e q u e n t i a l t o t h e change i n ILS d a t a , b u t t o t a l l y u n r e l a t e d t o t h e ILS m o n i t o r i n g

f u n c t i o n o r t h e ILS system i t e s e l f . Here a k i n d of h y b r i d i z a t i o n i s used i n m o n i t p r i n g
performance by examining f a c t o r s which a r e u n r e l a t e d t o t h e e l e c t r o n i c system b e i n g
monitored -- a rather attractive possibility.
M u l t i l a t e r a t i o n Systems
I want t o f i n i s h w i t h a b r i e f review o f a p o s s i b i l i t y f o r system i n t e g r a t i o n o r
h y b r i d i z a t i o n which, though it a p p e a r s t o b r e a k t h e r u l e s o f independence, may t u r n o u t
t o be q u i t e a c c e p t a b l e from t h a t p o i n t o f view: W e a r e h e a r i n g more and more a b o u t
t r i l a t e r a t i o n o r m u l t i l a t e r a t i o n systems f o r n a v i g a t i o n and a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l . These
systems a r e a l l c h a r a c t e r i z e d by measuring time/range t o o r from two o r t h r e e o r more,
o f t e n widely-separated l o c a t i o n s t o determine p o s i t i o n f i x e s . S a t e l l i t e s u r v e i l l a n c e
systems a r e l i k e l y t o be o f t h i s t y p e . The work b e i n g done on a t i m e - o r d e r e d r a n g i n g
c o l l i s i o n avoidance system (CAS) may show t h e time/frequency p o s i t i o n i n g t e c h n i q u e
a t t r a c t i v e . Thus a t i m e - o r range-ordered p o s i t i o n f i x i n g system u s a b l e by b o t h t h e
a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l system f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n s , and by t h e a i r c r a f t f o r
n a v i g a t i o n may become p r a c t i c a l . A j u s t - c o n c l u d e d s t u d y f o r FAA i n d i c a t e s t h a t it i s
p l a u s i b l e t o a c h i e v e a t i m e - o r d e r e d m u l t i p l e r a n g i n g o r m u l t i l a t e r a t i o n system which
might be used by b o t h a i r c r a f t and ground systems.

A S i n g l e System f o r Two F u n c t i o n s ?

I n o t e d e a r l i e r t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of complete independence between t h e a i r t r a f f i c

c o n t r o l s u r v e i l l a n c e system and t h e a i r c r a f t ' s n a v i g a t i o n system i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t one
system t o c a t c h t h e b l u n d e r s o f t h e o t h e r . I n t h e d o m e s t i c environment, t h i s i s now
u s u a l l y done by t h e a i r c r a f t n a v i g a t i n g u s i n g s h o r t - r a n g e n a v i g a t i o n a i d s , w i t h r a d a r
used w i d e l y , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i g h - d e n s i t y t r a f f i c a r e a s , t o s e r v e a s t h e b o t t l e n e c k
e l i m i n a t o r and a s a t r a f f i c monitor. T h i s i s a tremendously e x p e n s i v e p r o c e s s ; many,
many m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s a r e i n v e s t e d i n an e x p e n s i v e r a d a r network. The a i r l i n e s would
l i k e t o see a r e d u c t i o n o f t h i s e x p e n d i t u r e i f p o s s i b l e . While many a i r l i n e s c o n t i n u e
t o a g r e e t h a t independence i s d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e r e a s o n s n o t e d , a r e c e n t r e p o r t by an
a i r l i n e ATC System P l a n n i n g Group s t a t e d t h a t " t h e r e is a need t o a c h i e v e a s i n g l e o v e r a l l
system o f p o s i t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n which can have s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y , r e l i a b i l i t y , and
i n t e g r i t y t o s e r v e b o t h t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e ATC s e r v i c e " . What w e a r e l o o k i n g f o r i s a
system which i s a complete, r e l i a b l e and a c c u r a t e system of p o s i t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n so
t h a t t h e r e i s no need f o r a s e p a r a t e system t o m o n i t o r t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e a i r c r a f t . The
r e a s o n i n g i s t h a t , a s i d e from t h e economic b e n e f i t s , a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n re-
q u i r e d by t h e p i l o t and t h e ATC system t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s a r e
i d e n t i c a l , s i n c e m i d - a i r c o l l i s i o n s o c c u r o n l y when two a i r c r a f t a r e n a v i g a t e d t o t h e
same p o i n t i n s p a c e a t t h e same t i m e . The u s e o f such a s i n g l e system h a s t h e a d d i t i o n a l
advantage o f e l i m i n a t i n g t h e problem o f r e g i s t r a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s which o c c u r when two
systems o f d i f f e r e n t e r r o r d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e u s e d , one f o r n a v i g a t i o n and one € o r a i r
t r a f f i c control surveillance.

The major q u e s t i o n which w i l l f a c e u s i n c o n s i d e r i n g a s i n g l e p o s i t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n /

n a v i g a t i o n system i s t h e c l a s s i c a l one we've been t a l k i n g a b o u t -- whether t h e r e i s a
f i n i t e p r o b a b i l i t y -- an u n a c c e p t a b l e one -- o f h a v i n g b o t h t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e A i r
T r a f f i c C o n t r o l system working from i n f o r m a t i o n i n which a common-mode e r r o r i s p o s s i b l e .
I t may b e p o s s i b l e t h a t a t i m e - o r d e r e d m u l t i l a t e r a t i o n system can b e t h e b a s i s o f a system
which can do b o t h n a v i g a t i o n and s u r v e i l l a n c e w h i l e s t i l l p r e s e r v i n g a h i g h d e g r e e o f
independence between t h e two f u n c t i o n s , s i n c e o n l y t h e same b a s i c t r a n s m i s s i o n medium i s
u s e d , and i n d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i o n f i x i n g i s done by two p a r t i e s . The a c t u a l p o s i t i o n -
d e t e r m i n i n g p r o c e s s conducted by the a i r c r a f t and t h e ATC system may b e e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e ,
and have no common e l e m e n t . I t i s an e n t i c i n g p r o s p e c t f o r t h e f u t u r e .
Conc l u s i on

H y b r i d i z a t i o n i n a form p e r h a p s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h e k i n d w e have c o n s i d e r e d i n

t h e p a s t i s f i n d i n g i t s way i n t o a i r l i n e a i r c r a f t . A i r l i n e s a r e w i l l i n g t o u s e t h i s t y p e
o f h y b r i d i z a t i o n where it makes s e n s e , and where w e can keep from p u t t i n g " a l l o u r e g g s
i n one b a s k e t " . Where t h e f a i l u r e o f a s i n g l e system may knock o u t two systems b e c a u s e
w e have m a r r i e d them, w e w i l l no d o u b t c o n t i n u e t o oppose h y b r i d i z a t i o n . Where one
system can enhance a n o t h e r w i t h o u t imposing dependence o f one upon t h e o t h e r , w e ' l l
u s e it. But a i r l i n e s a r e a n x i o u s t o a v o i d t h e u s e of h y b r i d i z a t i o n which s i m p l y s e r v e s
a s a prop on a b a s i c a l l y i n a d e q u a t e system.
 17

INTEGRATED AVIONIC SYSTEM DESIGN

FOR HELICOPTERS AND VTOL .

L a w r e n c e A. Kaufman

Vice P r e s i d e n t , D i r e c t o r of P r o g r a m s
Teledyne S y s t e m s Company
17
 17-1

INTEGRATED AVIONIC SYSTEM DESIGN

FOR HELICOPTERS AND VTOL

By :
Lawrence A. Kaufman
Vice President, Director of P r o g r a m s
Teledyne Systems Company

SUMMARY

T h i s paper reviews the system concepts employed i n the development of the Integrated
Helicopter/VTOL Avionics System (IHAS). The IHAS development which began in 1965 has succeeded in
demonstrating a l l flight requirements in a CH-53A Helicopter, representing thereby, the f i r s t f u l l y
integrated avionics s y s t e m f o r helicopters.

The concept review s t a r t s with a definition of the overall s y s t e m organization scheme, identifying
the s y s t e m s e n s o r s , data p r o c e s s o r s and output elements. The digital interface design technique is next
described. Then the m a j o r concepts f o r each of the individual subsystems of the IHAS is discussed
including flight control, navigation, t e r r a i n following, stationkeeping and displays. This concludes the
review of the on-line s y s t e m and is followed with a presentation of the off-line self-test concepts
both pre-flight and in-flight and of the diagnostic properties of the central computer used to evaluate the
specific mode consequence of any equipment failure. The review of s y s t e m concepts is completed with
a description of the computer central complex, covering the hardware architecture used.

The next section of the paper p r e s e n t s a critique of the IHAS design concepts, based on experiences
in the development and test of the system. This critique includes discussions of c r i t i c a l design problems
resulting f r o m some of the concepts previously described and of the solutions to these problems. The
critique continues with commentary on the effectiveness consequences of some of the concepts employed
i n the s y s t e m design leading to recommendations f o r future concepts.

The paper is concluded with some examples of future functional capabilities which can be realized
f o r helicopters and VTOL a i r c r a f t using the integrated s y s t e m technology base afforded by:IHAS.
Examples of the functions covered a r e : optimal flight path control f o r VTOL and automatic landing
8 y s tems.

INTRODUCTION

This is a paper which deals in avionic s y s t e m design concepts. Lest the mathematically inclined
reader be m i s l e d , , no original scientific derivations of a general nature a r e to be found h e r e . Nor i s ' t h e
presentation concerned with cost-effectiveness justifications of the required functions. Rather, the
paper is concerned with the implementation of a s e t of complex helicopter functional requirements
starting a t the point where these functions have already been p r e s c r i b e d as n e c e s s a r y
and useful. The specific object is to review the concepts used to develop the Integrated Helicopter/VTOL
Avionics System (IHAS) and to p r e s e n t commentary on the desirability of pursuing these concepts i n the
future.

T o accomplish the objectives of this paper, the paper is divided into two major sections. F i r s t ,
the functional require'ments of the s y s t e m development a r e reviewed, with a specific a i m of stating the
ma jor concepts which launched 'the development. Presumably this discussion will enable the reader to
understand the philosophic point of departure f o r this undertaking. Next, a critique of the IHAS design
concepts is presented in the hope that experience gleaned f r o m the IHAS development may find m o r e
g e n e r a l future application.

So much f o r the objectives of the paper. What is the background of the IHAS?

The IHAS development began in the late 1950's with a formulation of basic tactical concepts by the
United States Marine Corps. These concepts deal with the execution of a v e r t i c a l a s s a u l t mission, in
which t r a n s p o r t helicopters a r e used to overfly beach a r e a s where amphibious landings have been
undertaken in o r d e r to s e c u r e inland staging a r e a s . In these e a r l y days of s y s t e m requirements
formulation. it became c l e a r that a minimum requirement existed f o r a p r e c i s e self-contained naviga-
tion s y s t e m to ensure positive location of the desired landing area. A s helicopter vulnerability studies
and t e s t s w e r e completed, the need f o r two additional functions a r o s e : t e r r a i n following and station-
keeping. These l a t t e r functions w e r e advanced as a means f o r minimizing a i r c r a f t vulnerability and
maximizing transportation efficiency.
17-2

In 1963 a p r o g r a m definition phase was s t a r t e d . By this t i m e the functional r e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e

f i r m ; the p r o g r a m definition phase was l a r g e l y concerned with a study of s y s t e m implementation
techniques and, a s such, combined concepts of both the Navy and the p r i m e c o n t r a c t o r s .

Following completion of the p r o g r a m definition phase, the IHAS development began in March 1965 as
a joint Navy/Army undertaking, the A r m y support being based on a d e s i r e to apply the integrated s y s t e m
technology to the advanced a e r i a l f i r e sypport s y s t e m , then under consideration. The development
activity culminated in a successful official flight demonstration i n a CH-53A helicopter i n
May 1969, in which all s y s t e m functions w e r e satisfactorily demonstrated.

Over the four y e a r period r e q u i r e d to develop the IHAS, a number of changes became n e c e s s a r y to
virtually all of the detail equipment specifications; yet the s y s t e m level specifications and fundamental
s y s t e m concepts remained invariant. It i s a review of t h e s e s y s t e m concepts which f o r m s the b a s i s f o r
this paper.

SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

The MAS is rigorously organized a s a n integrated s y s t e m , using a c e n t r a l digital computer to

p r o c e s s all data t r a n s m i t t e d by the s y s t e m s e n s o r s . The outputs consist of situation and command
information to displays and control equipment a s shown in F i g u r e 1. The data processing s y s t e m
enables manual a n d / o r automatic operation of the a i r c r a f t for all flight modes. In addition to the on-line
functional operation of the c e n t r a l computer a continuous off -line monitoring p r o g r a m i s c a r r i e d out to
e n s u r e the integrity of the functional modes and to s t o r e information on the identification of any failed
equipment t o enable rapid maintenance.

F i g u r e 1 shows that the signal i n t e r f a c e a r c h i t e c t u r e for M A S i s e n t i r e l y digital (with only one o r

two m i n o r exceptions d e s c r i b e d l a t e r ) . The interface, f u r t h e r , consists of s e p a r a t e data lines f o r each
s e n s o r signal. F o r example, the doppler t r a n s m i t s the t h r e e velocity components and absolute altitude
on f o u r independent data lines. The use of s e p a r a t e data lines for each of the s e n s o r signals r e p r e s e n t s
one of two fundamental concepts specified f o r the interface design. The second concept embodies the use
of identical data t r a n s m i t t e r s , and, thereby, a uniform o r "standard" input/output word s t r u c t u r e . The
"standard" interface i s achieved by installing identical p a r a l l e l - t o - s e r i a l digital c o n v e r t e r s into each of
the s e n s o r s , one p e r signal to be transmitted. F i g u r e 2 is a photograph of the digital d a t a t r a n s m i t t e r
emphasizing the v e r y s m a l l s i z e of t h e s e units. E a c h of these t r a n s m i t t e r s contains approximately
100 integrated c i r c u i t s in a package whose circuit density m a y be the maximum yet achieved in produc-
tion hardware. The data t r a n s m i t t e d to the computer is word parallel--bit s e r i a l . T h e f o r m a t of the
t r a n s m i t t e d data is shown in F i g u r e 3. It should be noted that in-addition to the t r a n s m i t t a l of the data in
a 16 bit data field, 4 additional bits a r e furnished for p a r i t y and validity checks, malfunction indication,
and t e s t m e s s a g e .

T h e data a r e received by a compatible digital r e c e i v e r module in the c e n t r a l computer and subjected

to the r e q u i r e d r e a l - t i m e processing p r o g r a m s t o r e d in the computer m e m o r y . A discussion of
computer organization and the programming approach i s r e s e r v e d f o r l a t e r , in o r d e r that the concepts
of the o v e r a l l s y s t e m organization m a y proceed without interruption.

T h e computer outputs a r e t r a n s m i t t e d to the display and control e l e m e n t s using the s a m e digital

t r a n s m i s s i o n s c h e m e d e s c r i b e d in F i g u r e 3. Each of the display and control e l e m e n t s houses digital
data r e c e i v e r s , whose s i z e and appearance i s identical to that of the digital data t r a n s m i t t e r shown in
F i g u r e 2 (except for differences i n connector keying and p a r t identification). T h e digital data r e c e i v e r s
p e r f o r m the i n v e r s e c o n v e r t e r function, i. e. s e r i a l to p a r a l l e l digital conversion. Unlike the rigid
concept of s e p a r a t e data lines f o r each s e n s o r output a t the t r a n s m i t t e r interface, some multiplexing is
c a r r i e d out a t the r e c e i v e r interface for the displays--principally f o r the acceptance of groups of data
which have no s y s t e m value unless the group as a whole is available.

In s u m m a r y , then, the m a j o r concepts of the IHAS f r o m a s y s t e m organization point of view a r e a s

follow 8 :

(a) All r e a l - t i m e data processing i s c a r r i e d out in one c e n t r a l digital computer.

(b) All data a r e t r a n s m i t t e d digitally.

( c ) T h e r e a r e s e p a r a t e data lines f o r all s e n s o r outputs.

(d) The word f o r m a t is uniform for all digital data transmitted.

(e) Data t r a n s m i s s i o n is word parallel--bit s e r i a l .

Having reviewed the design concepts employed t o organize the s y s t e m as a whole, the following
sections of this paper d e s c r i b e d the concepts employed a t the m a j o r subsystem/equipment levels.

NAVIGATION SUBSYSTEM

The navigation s u b s y s t e m is of the simple doppler/heading configuration as shown i n F i g u r e 1. An

air data s y s t e m is employed to enable the continuous estimation and s t o r a g e of wind data to p e r m i t back-
up dead reckoning t o be accomplished in the event of a doppler malfunction.
 17- 3

The doppler used i r i the IHAS is of the b e a m i n t e r s e c t i o n type, affording substantial improvements
in inherent accuracy. The fundamental a c c u r a c y p r o p e r t i e s of the doppler a r e exploited through digital
conversion of the sensed R F p a r a m e t e r s resulting i n a velocity sensing a c c u r a c y approaching 0.270,
with b e a m lobing used to eliminate l a n d / s e a biases. The doppler antenna, shown in F i g u r e 4 is attitude
and ground t r a c k stabilized.

The heading r e f e r e n c e is a p r e c i s e , f r e e directional gyroscope of simple, non-floated construction.

It h a s a random d r i f t r a t e of less than 0. 15 d e g r e e / h o u r . The synchro output, which is a c c u r a t e to four
minutes of a r c , is p r o c e s s e d (as shown i n F i g u r e 1). through a synchro/digital c o n v e r t e r of equal
accuracy. The platform a l s o f u r n i s h e s pitch and roll attitude outputs in synchro f o r m .

The spin axis of the heading r e f e r e n c e is permitted to align randomly (the p l a t f o r m not being
equipped with a gyro compassing f e a t u r e ) . A m a j o r trade-off used in the navigation s u b s y s t e m was a
reduction in a i r b o r n e s y s t e m complexity and c o s t (by using a non-aligning heading r e f e r e n c e ) through
the employment of ground support equipment with which to initialize the a i r c r a f t heading. The t r a n s f e r
alignment: s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of a s e p a r a t e heading r e f e r e n c e which is kept continuously aligned to t r u e
north and which is mounted t o the a i r c r a f t on a n accurately jigged surface, as shown in F i g u r e 5. The
t r a n s f e r alignment r e f e r e n c e is e l e c t r i c a l l y connected t o the c e n t r a l computer (through a s e p a r a t e
synchro/digital conversion channel) and the a i r c r a f t heading corresponding t o the randomly oriented
a i r b o r n e gyro spin axis is t h e r e a f t e r s t o r e d i n the c e n t r a l computer.

The heading r e f e r e n c e h a s a back-up magnetic slaved mode i n which the spin a x i s m a y be

' aligned on a selt-contained b a s i s t o a f l u x valve installed in the a i r c r a f t . Being subject t o the inaccu-
r a c i e s attributable t o the magnetic anomalies of the a i r c r a f t and the lack of p r e c i s e knowledge of the
e a r t h ' s magnetic variation i n flight, t h i s degraded mode of operation results i n a substantially i n f e r i o r
heading accuracy.

The a i r data device used in the IHAS is m e r e l y a t r a n s d u c e r of the static and total p r e s s u r e outputs
available f r o m the a i r c r a f t pitot/static s y s t e m , performing the function of p r e s s u r e t o digital data
conversion. A s y s t e m concept f o r the a i r data s y s t e m was t o specifically avoid c a r r y i n g out the t r u e
a i r s p e e d computations in the p e r i p h e r a l sensing element, but r a t h e r in the c e n t r a l computer (in a t r u l y
integrated s y s t e m fashion). It should be noted, in passing, that the inherent p r e c i s i o n of the a i r data
converter (of the o r d e r of 0. 1%) is s e v e r e l y compromised in the low a i r speed region (of approximately
40 knots or less) by g r o s s i n a c c u r a c i e s of the a i r c r a f t pitot/static system. This is a problem, long
unsolved f o r helicopters, which inhibits the usefullness of a i r d a t a s e n s o r s a t low speeds.

In addition to all of the above, the IHAS navigation s y s t e m includes TACAN update provisions as
shown in F i g u r e 1.

Navigation computations c a r r i e d out in the c e n t r a l computer include p r e s e n t position determination

(in latitude/longitude coordinates), range and bearing t o any of 8 destinations, checkpoints or with
r e s p e c t to a moving b a s e (such as a n a i r c r a f t c a r r i e r ) . P r o v i s i o n s a r e available t o i n s e r t the coordi-
n a t e s of these destinations p r i o r t o flight or in-flight. The computer a l s o d e t e r m i n e s time-to-go to any
of these selected destinations. Navigation data a r e displayed both by digital readouts and by a m a p
plotter; a discussion of the IHAS displays is presented l a t e r .

I The m a j o r navigation s y s t e m concepts may t h e r e f o r e be s u m m a r i z e d as follows:

(a) The p r i m a r y s e n s o r s a r e a doppler f o r a i r c r a f t ground velocity, and a f r e e directional

gyroscope f o r heading.

(b) The doppler s y s t e m function is conventional but neui concepts a r e employed a t the equipment
level to maximize a c c u r a c y (beam intersection, digital data outputs).

( c ) S y s t e m operation is p r e m i s e d on the use of ground support equipment t o initialize the a i r b o r n e

g y r o heading p r i o r to take-off; this p e r m i t s the a i r b o r n e directional gyro t o be simple and
relatively inexpensive.

I (d) A back-up slaved magnetic heading s y s t e m is provided in the heading reference system.

( e ) A back-up a i r data s y s t e m p e r m i t s dead-reckoning navigation in the event of a doppler

malfunction.

I (f) A l l a i r d a t a computations a r e c a r r i e d out i n the c e n t r a l computer.

(g) Navigation computations a r e c a r r i e d out in a conventional manner based on latitude /longitude

coordinates.

I AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

The IHAS automatic flight control s y s t e m p e r f o r m s the functions of stability augmentation,

attitude/heading stabilization and control, and guidance. It is probably in the flight control s y s t e m
technology where IHAS h a s departed m o s t d r a s t i c a l l y f r o m previous helicopter/VTOL s y s t e m s .

T h e IHAS flight control s y s t e m is divided into two e l e c t r i c a l l y separated subsystems: a stability

augmentation s y s t e m or inner loop s y s t e m f o r controlling the helicopter s h o r t period motions and long
t e r m stabilization s y s t e m o r outer loop s y s t e m f o r controlling the attitude and flight path of the
helicopter.
17-4

The inner and outer loop hydraulic actuator outputs a r e added mechanically as shown in F i g u r e 6.
The inner loop actuation is of the so-called limited a u t h o r i t y - - s e r i e s type. These motions a r e t r a n s -
mitted to the helicopter rotor controls without being reflected a t the pilot controls. By "limited
authority" is m e a n t that the m a x i m u m displacement of these controls which is p e r m i t t e d , i s a small
f r a c t i o n of the total control available (specifically in the IHAS, f 10% f o r the pitch, roll, and yaw axes).

The outer loop motions a r e p a r a l l e l motions which d i r e c t l y move the pilot controls. The outer loop
a c t u a t o r s hatre full authority.

The disengagement technique f o r the inner loop s e r i e s a c t u a t o r s is t o center and lock the a c t u a t o r ;
f o r the outer loop, the actuation r a m is de-energized.

A s shown in F i g u r e 1 the stability augmentation s y s t e m s e n s o r s a r e rate gyros sensing the angular

r a t e of motion of the vehicle about the t h r e e body axes. These gyros a r e coupled t o the s e r i e s a c t u a t o r s
by m e a n s of appropriately designed analog equalization networks. The rigorous isolation of the stability
augmentation s y s t e m f r o m the digitally controlled outer loop is a concept aimed a t s e p a r a t e l y maximiz-
ing the reliability of the augmentation s u b s y s t e m the reby ensuring adequate handling qualities f o r the
vehicle. The augmentation s u b - s y s t e m contains only the minimum level of equipment required to
p e r f o r m the b a s i c function. P r i o r s y s t e m s i n s e r t e d long t e r m d a t a into the s e r i e s actuation loop,
the reby achieving higher level stabilization capability, but a t the reliability disadvantage of introducing
additional f a i l u r e modes a t reduced reliability levels.

By restricting the inner loop t o be a p u r e rate gyro s t a b i l i z e r , i t is possible t o synthesize a

p r a c t i c a l fail-operational/fail-safe s y s t e m (i. e. one f o r which any f i r s t f a i l u r e can be sustained with no
degradation of operational performance and f o r which any second f a i l u r e , of the same type, will always
cause the actuator to c e n t e r and lock in i t s safe position). In the IHAS, the rate gyro s e t s a r e t r i p l y
redundant, feeding t r i p l y redundant analog equalization networks, all of this equipment packaged into a
small 15 pound box. A simplified block d i a g r a m of the redundant stability augmentation s y s t e m is
presented i n F i g u r e 7.

Whereas the inner loop is e n t i r e l y analog, the outer loop is digitally controlled by the c e n t r a l
computer enabling selection of a l a r g e number of higher stabilization modes.

F i g u r e 8 is a n illustration of the m a j o r control modes of the digital flight control system. There a r e
five b a s i c modes:

1) ASE (acronym f o r automatic stabilization equipment

Attitude stabilization and t u r n coordination.
-- a c a r r y o v e r f r o m the e a r l y a r t ) :
2) CRUISE: The s u p e r position of a i r speed control on the ASE mode.

3) HOVER: The superposition of ground speed control on the ASE mode t o enable automatic
hovering; operation of this function f r o m a f o r w a r d flight condition w i l l provide a n automatic
transition p r o g r a m to hover.

4) S K (stationkeeping): The superposition of relative spacing data between a follower and leader
a i r c r a f t t o p e r m i t automatic formation flight.

5) AUTO DES (cend): The superposition of a p r o g r a m m e d letdown t o the HOVER mode.

T h e r e a r e f o u r modifying modes which can be employed with the above, two f o r v e r t i c a l "steering"
and two f o r l a t e r a l "steering".

1) ALT (itude): Automatic control of altitude ( r a d a r derived at low altitudes and b a r o m e t r i c a l l y

m e a s u r e d a t higher altitudes, i. e . , g r e a t e r than'750 feet).

2) T F ( t e r r a i n following): Flight of the a i r c r a f t a t a fixed c l e a r a n c e altitude above t e r r a i n as

enabled by a forward looking radar.

3) HDG (heading): Maintenance of constant (magnetic) heading.

4) NAV (navigation): Automatic steering t o selected destinations by m e a n s of the self-contained

navigation system.

The modes a r e a l l logically interlocked i n the computer. Mutually exclusive modes a r e p r o p e r l y

inhibited (e. g. HOVER and NAV) so that the l a s t selected mode is not accepted. Where the selection of
a higher o r d e r o r lower o r d e r mode (as a logical step i n m i s s i o n u s a g e ) i s m a d e , the previous mode
i s automatically disengaged and the new mode a s instated (e. g . , ASE and CRUISE).

F i g u r e 9 is a t r u t h table showing the b a s i c organization of the computer instructions with r e s p e c t t o

mode selection. This table shows all of the possible switch combinations which a r e accepted and those
which a r e not (i. e . , the blank s p a c e s ) . It a l s o shows the functions which a r e selected f o r computational
solution (viz. the control equations which have to be solved). The p r o c e s s of automatic flight control,
therefore, reduces t o instructions to a c e n t r a l computer (into which all a p p r o p r i a t e data have been
a c c e s s e d ) to c a r r y out the mathematical solutions t o a number of selectable control equations.

The control of the outer loop a c t u a t o r s is achieved by converting the attitude a n d / o r guidance
commands to analog signals p r o p e r l y interfaced to the electro-hydraulic s e r v o valves. This operation
is c a r r i e d out i n a s e r v o control a s s e m b l y e m b r a c e d by the dotted lines of F i g u r e 1.
 17-5

Unlike the inner loop, the design concept f o r the outer loop did not r e q u i r e full fail-operational/
f a i l - s a f e construction, owing t o the fact that it was neither r e q u i r e d (because of the long-period n a t u r e
of the control m o d e s ) n o r practically achievable (because the complexity of the s e n s o r s and data p r o c e s -
s o r s u s e d p r e c l u d e s redundancy). Instead, the outer loop concept w a s to employ p a r t i c a l redundancy
i n the actuation and s e r v o control e l e m e n t s to avoid hard-over f a i l u r e m o d e s a n d i n the a r i t h m e t i c /
control and digital differential analyzer sections of the computer, again to protect against catastrophie
f a i l u r e modes. (The technique concept i s d i s c u s s e d l a t e r ) .

T o s u m m a r i z e the m a j o r concepts of the automatic flight control s y s t e m , one would l i s t the

following :

a) Rigorous separation of the stability augmentation and longer period control modes is c a r r i e d
out.

b) T h e stability augmentation s y s t e m is fully redundized to furnish fail-operation/fail-safe

performance.

c) T h e outer loop i s only partially redundized t o minimize the possibility of selected catastrophic
( h a r d - o v e r ) f a i l u r e modes.

d) Attitude control and guidance modes a r e all controlled through the c e n t r a l digital computer.

TERRAIN FOLLOWING

With the exception of the t e r r a i n following and s h o r t range stationkeeping functions, all of the
guidance m o d e s d e s c r i b e d in the pervious section have been accomplished in other helicopter avionic
s y s t e m s in the p a s t , (generally using somewhat different design concepts). T e r r a i n following and station-
keeping modes have no p r i o r h i s t o r y and thereby r e p r e s e n t , in their totality, unique functional concepts.

T h e t e r r a i n following s u b s y s t e m enables safe flight a t v e r y low c l e a r a n c e altitudes by e i t h e r manual

(flight direction) techniques o r by fully automatic control. Both the manual and automatic modes a r e
based on pitch plane control (i. e. v e r t i c a l maneuvering) and are accomplished by variation of the climb
o r descend flight path angle, achievable through d i r e c t control of the helicopter t h r u s t ( o r lift) vector.

T h e t e r r a i n following s y s t e m u s e s two guidance s e n s o r s . A downward looking absolute altitude

r a d a r is contained within the navigation doppler (described in a previous section) and i s used to monitor
"instantaneous" c l e a r a n c e altitude. This s e n s o r is augmented by a forward looking t e r r a i n r a d a r , which
illuminates the oncoming t e r r a i n , effectively m e a s u r i n g range and d e p r e s s i o n angles to t e r r a i n p r o m -
inences f r o m which r e t u r n s a r e received. By m e a n s of a n azimuth scan, and a s t o r a g e and update
s y s t e m , the t e r r a i n f e a t u r e s a r e mapped a t varying r a n g e s over a n azimuth swing of a 4 5 d e g r e e s about
the flight path vector of the a i r c r a f t . The function of the forward looking r a d a r , a s pictorially i l l u s -
t r a t e d in F i g u r e 10, is to d e t e r m i n e those f e a t u r e s of the oncoming terrain'which p r e s e n t collision
t h r e a t s in the s e n s e that immediate control is r e q u i r e d to e n s u r e c l e a r a n c e of the observed t e r r a i n
prominence based on the maximum available r e s p o n s e of the helicopter. T h i s continuous r e a l time
evaluation is c a r r i e d out by f i r s t offsetting the observed t e r r a i n profile by the d e s i r e d c l e a r a n c e
altitude (designated ho in F i g u r e 10). Then the offset t e r r a i n i s compared with a template representing
the d e s i r e d altitude v e r s u s range r e s p o n s e of the helicopter. The template p a r a m e t e r (shown a s two
straight line segments in F i g u r e 10) is v a r i e d as a function of a i r c r a f t flight conditions, to best
c h a r a c t e r i z e the estimated a i r c r a f t r e s p o n s e capability for any flight condition.

The principle used is to control on the b a s i s of absolute altitude m e a s u r e m e n t s in the absence of a

t e r r a i n threat a s observed by the forward looking t e r r a i n r a d a r . This is shown in the block d i a g r a m of
F i g u r e 11. The weighting between commands generated by the two guidance s e n s o r s i s c a r r i e d out in
the c e n t r a l computer. Of a v a r i e t y of weighting s c h e m e s which w e r e considered, a n entirely s a t i s f a c -
t o r y ( and sufficiently s i m p l e ) method is to use the m o s t positive flight path angle commanded by the two
s e n s o r s , a technique which was, in fact, used with s u c c e s s in the IHAS. The r e q u i r e d flight path angle
is then compared with the m e a s u r e d flight path angle, computed using the helicopter v e r t i c a l and forward
velocity components a s m e a s u r e d by the doppler. E r r o r s a r e then displayed on a v e r t i c a l situation
display, o r t r a n s m i t t e d to the collective pitch controls of the helicopter to v a r y the d i r e c t lift generated
by the helicopter r o t o r . F o r m o d e s t t e r r a i n slopes (requiring m o d e s t flight path angles) the l e f t control
i s achieved while maintaining constant forward speed. F o r m o r e e x t r e m e t e r r a i n slopes (requiring
flight path angles inconsistent with the existing helicopter speed) reductions in forward speed a r e
automatically commanded making m o r e power available to climb. This i s shown in F i g u r e 10 by the
limiting functions which t r a n s f e r flight path e r r o r to the control of the helicopter forward speed.

The specific concepts specified for the IHAS t e r r a i n following subsystem are s u m m a r i z e d below.

a) Pilot control i s limited to pitch plane control using either manual o r automatic control
( o r both).

b) Control is achieved by d i r e c t variation of the total lift of the helicopter r o t o r .

c) T h e forward looking r a d a r i s additionally used to generate conventional r a d a r s e a r c h

displays (described l a t e r ) . P o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r l a t e r a l maneuvering ( t e r r a i n avoidance) exist
through the use of these displays.
17-6

It is not possible to d i s c u s s in detail the quantitative performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the t e r r a i n

following s u b s y s t e m owing to the classified nature of t h e s e data.

SHORT RANGE STATIONKEEPING

The object of this IHAS s y s t e m function is to enable groups of helicopters to maintain a c c u r a t e

formation flight even under conditions of no visibility thereby optimizing m i s s i o n efficiency. Such a
s y s t e m required p r e c i s e ranging between the l e a d e r and follower a i r c r a f t as i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 12,
in o r d e r to enable the continuous calculation of the stationkeeping e r r o r s cx, c y , and c z (the l a t t e r , i n
the v e r t i c a l direction and not i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 12). The coordinate s y s t e m originates in the l e a d e r
a i r c r a f t enabling followers t o s e t in d e s i r e d range and bearing ( rl and P ) f r o m the l e a d e r . Of t h e two
possible techniques, p a s s i v e o r cooperative ranging, the IHAS concept was based on the l a t t e r . All
a i r c r a f t a r e equipped identically. Leader and follower relationships a r e established through coding.
The ranging implementation is achieved through the t r a n s m i s s i o n of a s h o r t r a d a r pulse f r o m the
follower to the l e a d e r , followed by r e t r a n s m i s s i o n t o the l e a d e r and receipt of the pulse by a n a r r a y of
f o u r fixed antennas in the follower a i r c r a f t , a c c u r a t e l y located and positioned t o exploit the l a r g e s t
available baselines, whence through a p r o c e s s of triangulation the range vector t o the leader is d e t e r -
mined with the requisite accuracy.

In detail, refering to F i g u r e 12, the actual position of the follower, with respect t o the leader is
determined as follows:

The t h r e e range of i n t e r e s t a r e determined using the s h o r t pulse ranging technique. A s shown,

t h e s e a r e ranges 1, 3 and 4. (In the p a r t i c u l a r situation i l l u s t r a t e d , antenna #Z is m a s k e d f r o m the
l e a d e r , so that no range m a y be determined). The location of each of the ranging antennas on the a i r -
c r a f t is a c c u r a t e l y known. Note that the antennas a r e not a l l located in the plane of the illustration but
a r e a l s o s e p a r a t e d v e r t i c a l l y in o r d e r t o achieve a v e r t i c a l baseline.

Utilizing the m e a s u r e d ranges and the known separations of the antennas, the initial solution p r o v i d e s
the location of the leader (X, Y. Z ) i n a n orthoginal coordinate s e t coincident with the m a j o r a x e s of the
follower a i r c r a f t . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e then rotated through the pitch and roll angles of the a i r c r a f t t o
provide the location of the leader in a coordinate s e t that originates a t the follower a i r c r a f t , is locally
level and is oriented with the follower a i r c r a f t heading. Finally, these distances a r e operated upon by
a rotational m a t r i x based upon difference in heading between the leader and follower and the location of
the follower is determined in a level l e a d e r oriented coordinate set. T h e s e distances a r e then compared
with the longitudinal, l a t e r a l (and v e r t i c a l ) reference ranges to produce c x , cy, and c Z .

As i n the t e r r a i n following s y s t e m the control concept c o n s i s t s of making e i t h e r manual o r automatic

modes available. The manual mode is accomplished i n a n analogous m a n n e r , i. e. by flight direction
cues displayed on the v e r t i c a l situation display t o show the commZiided(f1ight path vector required to null
the stationkeeping e r r o r s and as schematically illustrated i n F i g u r e 13. Shown i n this figure is a
stationkeeping display f o r monitoring the long t e r m plan position of the formation. Symbology in this
display is as follows. The centered c r o s s r e p r e s e n t "own ship", the "semi-circle", turned downward is
the l e a d e r , and the other " s e m i - c i r c l e s " , turned upward, r e p r e s e n t other a i r c r a f t i n the formation.

The m a j o r concepts f o r the stationkeeping s y s t e m , in review, a r e as follows:

a) The ranging s y s t e m is cooperative.

b) L e a d e r s and followers have identical equipment. Any a i r c r a f t can be a leader o r a follower,

dependent upon the codes he selects.

c) The control principle provides f o r both manual and automatic modes.

H e r e too, a s in the c a s e of the t e r r a i n r a d a r description. quantitative data cannot be presented

owing t o s e c u r i t y classification of these data.

DISPLAYS

In previous s e c t i o n s , r e f e r e n c e h a s been made to s o m e of the display functions provided in the IHAS.

It is a specific purpose of this section of the paper to a s s e m b l e and codify the IHAS display provisions.

The m a j o r IHAS displays available to the pilot a r e the v e r t i c a l situation display for presentation of
urgent and p r e - e m p t o r y flight data and the horizontal situation display f o r presentation of longer t e r m ,
monitoring type of data. A u x i l i a r y displays (digital readout panel, stationkeeping display) a r e a l s o
furnished.

The v e r t i c a l situation display is a multi-mode synthetically generated display (i. e. video techniques
capable of furnishing the following modes :

a) Contact analog mode

b) T e r r a i n avoidance mode ("shades of gray")

 17-7

c) T e r r a i n following mode ("E-scan")

d) Low light level TV mode.

The contact analog mode, which i s designed to replace the data display functions normally furnished
by conventional electro-mechanical displays ( e , g. vertical gyro indicators, etc. ), i s provided primarily
because the display indicator must occupy that most prominent portion of the instrument panel reserved
for the primary flight instruments. This assignment i s tied to the role of the indicator a s an essential
instrument for the conduct of critical t e r r a i n following/terrain avoidance flights when used in the other
modes. Reserving discussion of the t e r r a i n control display modes for l a t e r , the contact analog mode i s
required fundamentally, to furnish the attitude and heading data provided by conventional electro-
mechanical displays. Figure 14, shows that this i s basically an attitude display. In addition to the
available pitch and roll data, vertical "tapes" a r e furnished to the left and right for continuous
display of absolute altitude and airspeed, respectively. The small vertical bar adjacent to the
absolute tape indicates vertical velocity (proportional to the length of the b a r ; bar llup" i s climb,
while bar "down" is descent). Other symbology includes a heading (horizontal) tape for displaying true
heading against a reference stroke and a synthetic ground texture ("railroad tracks") whose relative
motion (longitudinally o r laterally) is used a s a cue for helicopter speed control. Perhaps the most
useful of the symbolic displays a r e the command flight vector symbol and the actual flight vector symbol.
Used in a pursuit manner, these symbols form a flight direction set, in which the pilot commands the
actual flight vector to coincide with the commanded flight vector. The control laws which govern the
motion of the commanded flight vector a r e selectable by the pilot following a logical organization similar
to that used for the selection of the automatic flight control modes, illustrated in Figure 9.

The symbology called forth on the contact analog display mode is controlled by the central digital
computer except for roll attitude, for which a synchro controlled servo drive is furnished for the cathode
ray tube yoke. (This simpke device rotates the video r a s t e r in direct proportion to the aircraft roll
angle. ) An interface equipment accepts the digital outputs of the central computer to control the position
of the electronically generated symbols. Symbol generation is accomplished in the interface equipment.

In addition to the contact analog mode, two other modes a r e available, shown in Figure 15. One of
these modes, the "shades-of-gray" mode, displays slices of terrain which lie transverse to the
direction of flight of the vehicle, a t five different ranges. This is accomplished by sorting out the video
data returns received a s a function of range and azimuth. The terminology "shades-of-gray'' derives
from the fact that each range is coded by a different shade, the darkest shade being used for the closest
(1/4 mile) range. A delay line technique i s used to store the video data to be displayed; the update rate
is once per second.

The "shades-of-gray" mode enables the pilot to select desirable valleys into which the aircraft can
be maneuvered to minimize detection. The superimposed flight direction symbology may be used for
manual t e r r a i n following a s well a s for lateral steering.

The "E-scan" mode is the compliment to the "shades-of-gray" display. It displays range versus
depression angle to t e r r a i n in a plane containing the flight path vector. Depression angles a r e r e f e r -
*
enced to the instantaneous flight path vector. A constant clearance line may be set by the pilot to
portray an idealized "flat earth" profile. The method by which this display i s used, i s to preclude
penetration of the constant clearance line by the plotted t e r r a i n profile at some reasonably close range
(i.e. of the o r d e r of 1 / 2 to 1 mile).

The low light level television display (LLLTV) is a straight forward video monitor, accepting the
output of an externally mounted video camera.

Whereas, the vertical Situation display is used for pre-emptory data display, a horizontal situation
display i s used for longer t e r m monitoring. This display i s also a multi-mode display. A retouched in-flight
photograph of this display, Figure 16, in the navigation mode, shows the main features of this display.
A pre-assembled cartridge, prepared from ordinary aeronautical (paper) maps, enables appropriately
coded map sections of the map to be located above the face of the cathode ray tube. Electronically
generated symbols a r e then projected through the paper map to display present position, selected check
points, and aircraft heading, all self-explanatory in the photograph. These symbols a r e located by the
central digital computer. The present position symbol is a c r o s s from which a ground speed stroke
emanates. The direction of the ground speed stroke i s the existing helicopter ground track; the length
of the ground speed stroke shows where the helicopter will be in the next two minutes if existing
direction and speed a r e maintained.

When the map cartridge is prepared, clear plastic sections a r e furnished about every 18 inches.
These sections permit the cathode ray tube to be viewed directly in those mission sequences where it is
desired to use the display a s a radar monitor. In this mode the display furnishes conventional radar
maps a s shown in Figure 17.

The two major displays a r e augmented by a computer readout panel, with which desired data
(principally of navigation parameters) may be called forth with precision. The IHAS readout panel i s
shown in Figure 18.
The principal concepts employed in the IHAS displays a r e a s follows.

a) A vertical situation display is used to present primary flight data. It appears in the system
principally a s a consequence of needing to display t e r r a i n radar video data when the low altitude
clearance modes a r e used.
17-8

b) Because the v e r t i c a l situation display occupies the center of the pilot instrument panel, it is
required to furnish a contact analog mode which r e p l a c e s the data normally presented on gyro
horizons, a i r s p e e d indicators, etc.

c) The contact analog mode is digitally controlled.

d) A pursuit type of flight direction s y s t e m is furnished in the v e r t i c a l situation display f o r both

, the contact analog and "shades-of-gray" modes. The flight direction symbology, f o r e i t h e r
mode, is computer controlled.

e) Horizontal situation data a r e displayed on the console mounted multi-mode display; navigation
and r a d a r modes a r e available.

f) Navigation symbology is electronically generated on the display cathode r a y tube, being

controlled in location by the c e n t r a l digital computer.

g) A computer readout panel is furnished to enable p r e c i s e computer s t o r e d data to be displayed

augmenting the m o r e pictorial v e r t i c a l and horizontal displays.

SELF-TEST

Each of the s y s t e m equipments contains built-in t e s t equipment (BITE). The function of the BITE
implementation is to p e r m i t equipment f a i l u r e a t the weapon replaceable a s s e m b l y ( o r unit) level to be
identified without the u s e of organizational support equipment, thereby simplifying maintenance. T h e r e
is considerable variation in t e s t technique, but the BITE implementation in m o s t c a s e s c o n s i s t s of
continuous monitoring of input/output relationships a s well a s available power supply voltage levels. .
A s a c o r r o l a r y t o unit f a i l u r e isolation, it is possible to a s s e s s the mode consequence of the
observed failure through the use of a diagnostic look-up-table s t o r e d in the c e n t r a l computer. T h e s e
findings a r e displayed on a mode advisory panel.

In addition to the BITE feature, two other self-test f e a t u r e s a r e provided. F i r s t , the c e n t r a l

computer is equipped with a brief pre-flight diagnostic routine to a s c e r t a i n that the computer h a r d w a r e
is functioning properly. Second, upon command, a l l of the automatic flight control equipments a r e
e x e r c i s e d in an end-to-end t e s t p r i o r to take-off. T h e s e performance a s s e s s m e n t t e s t s a r e conducted
to e n s u r e that t h e s e safety of flight e l e m e n t s of the s y s t e m a r e in good condition.

In s u m m a r y , s e l f - t e s t includes:

a) BITE f o r unit f a i l u r e fault isolation and mode advisory data.

b) P e r f o r m a n c e a s s e s s m e n t t e s t s f o r evaluating the condition of safety-in-flight equipments.

c) P r e s e n t a t i o n bo the pilot of available s y s t e m capabilities a n d / o r allowable operating modes.

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

The IHAS computer is a hybrid machine which contains a g e n e r a l purpose computer and a digital
differential a n a l y z e r operating in p a r a l l e l to c a r r y out r e a l time data processing. Machine capacity is
expandable through a modular design to enable m e m o r y growth (to a maximum of 16, 000 words (of 20
bits e a c h ) input/output growth (up t o 3 2 inputs and 36 outputs) and digital integrator growth (to a s many
a s 360 i n t e g r a t o r s , each with a n iteration r a t e in e x c e s s of 30 KHz). A block d i a g r a m showing the
machine organization is p r e s e n t in F i g u r e 19. Detailed description of the computer is not believed to
be appropriate to the purpose of t h i s paper, and t h e r e f o r e no f u r t h e r elaboration is presented. Instead,
it a p p e a r s m o r e d e s i r a b l e to proceed to a discussion of the m a j o r computer a r c h i t e c t u r a l concepts.
T h e s e include the following:

a) A hybrid machine i s specified, in which demanding high r a t e calculations (for example, f o r

automatic control) a r e done in the digital differential a n a l y z e r , and in which longer t e r m
executive control i s c a r r i e d out in the g e n e r a l purpose section.

b) The computer h a r d w a r e a r r a n g e m e n t is modular, permitting growth t o g r e a t e r functional

capacity a s required. This concept d e r i v e s f r o m the intended usage of one u n i v e r s a l s y s t e m
f o r differing mission needs varying f r o m only the navigation s u b s y s t e m of the IHAS, to the full
functional capability of IHAS (i. e. navigation, stationkeeping, t e r r a i n following, and automatic
flight control). An illustration of the modular packaging technique is presented in F i g u r e 20.

c) Except f o r power r e g u l a t o r s and m e m o r y , the computer i s fabricated f r o m integrated c i r c u i t s ,

in pursuit of s e p a r a t e technology advantages in this a r e a of activity.

d) The computer is t r i p l y redundant in both the digital differential a n a l y z e r e l e m e n t s and in the

a r i t h m e t i c and control portion of the g e n e r a l purpose section.
 17-9

CRITIQUE O F IHAS DESIGN CONCEPTS

In official flight t e s t s recently completed, a l l s y s t e m functions were successfully demonstrated and

all performance p a r a m e t e r s m e a s u r e d w e r e within the r e q u i r e m e n t s of the specification. T h e r e f o r e ,
the LHAS organization, f r o m a design point of view can be regarded a s one which satisfactorily provided
the required complex functions and can be used a s a model f o r a s s e s s i n g the design implementations
used. Certainly a minimum r e q u i r e m e n t for s u c h a model is that it f u r n i s h e s the r e q u i r e d functional
p e r f o r m a n c e in the f i r s t place. (Again the r e a d e r is reminded that justification of the specific functions
furnished by IHAS is outside the purview of this p a p e r . )

The critique which follows is largely subjective and is peculiarly attached to the w r i t e r . It does
not n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t the position of the contracting agency, the U. S . Navy, o r the p r i m e
contractor, the Teledyne S y s t e m s Company.

The critique is a r r a n g e d below to comment on the m a j o r concepts listed in p r i o r sections.

System Organization

The u s e of a c e n t r a l digital computer a p p e a r s to be totally warranted when a s y s t e m of the

functional complexity of IHAS is required. Computer h a r d w a r e is substantially minimized with r e s p e c t
to a n alternative implementation using s e p a r a t e computers in autonomous and separated subsystems.
F u r t h e r , the c e n t r a l computer affords a composite computational capability in e x c e s s of the s u m of
individual computers in autonomous s u b s y s t e m s , each of which i s generally compromised i n terms of
the software that can be handled in o r d e r to minimize cost on a "stand-alone" b a s i s . Thus the l a r g e
c e n t r a l computer is able to solve the complex equations that really have to be solved, whereas each of
the s m a l l autonomous computers used in a non-integrated design will generally be s t r u c t u r e d to handle
simplified equations in o r d e r to m e e t minimum levels of cost practicality.

On the o t h e r hand the u s e of a c e n t r a l digital computer concept f o r simple s y s t e m s is ill-advised.

Data conversion r e q u i r e m e n t s alone, tend t o make this a costly and overdesigned data processing
technique.

Even when a c e n t r a l digital computer is p r o p e r l y suited t o the functional requirement, the u s e of a n

"all-digital" data t r a n s m i s s i o n s i s t e m does not appear to be a logical g e n e r a l rule. Many analog-to-
analog i n t e r f a c e s can be accomplished m o r e reliably and with b e t t e r performance by by-passing the
c e n t r a l computer altogether. F o r example, the flow of analog attitude data f o r automatic control in
IHAS, shown in F i g u r e 1, proceeds through a synchro/ digital converter, a digital data t r a n s m i t t e r ,
the computer, a digital data r e c e i v e r , and a digitallanalog converter a t which point it is power
amplified to d r i v e the actuator s e r v o valves. Yet the only operation performed on t h e s e attitude d a t a
in the computer is subtraction f r o m the command attitudes being computed continuously. This
subtraction could be achieved directly in the s e r v o control a s s e m b l y by analog means, i f the inputs to
this a s s e m b l y w e r e commanded r e f e r e n c e attitude (digital) and the m e a s u r e d attitudes (analog). In
such a scheme, the data t r a n s m i s s i o n of attitude d i r e c t l y to the output element i s quite a bit s i m p l e r
and much m o r e reliable.

In the s a m e s e n s e that exclusive digital data t r a n s m i s s i o n does not a p p e a r to be a good g e n e r a l

r u l e , it a l s o a p p e a r s that the rigorous u s e of s e p a r a t e data lines does not r e s u l t in a optimum design.
Quite simply the u s e of a s many data t r a n s m i t t e r s a s t h e r e a r e output signals, m e a n s that t h e r e will be
a population of integrated c i r c u i t s (using the IHAS implementation) equal to the product of 100 (number
of integrated c i r c u i t s p e r t r a n s m i t t e r ) t i m e s the total number of signals. In IHAS t h i s number is
2100 integrated c i r c u i t s . With judicious multiplexing, this number could be reduced to 700 c i r c u i t s , by
combining outputs f r o m each of the s e n s o r s on a single data line f o r a total of 7 data lines. The u s e of
multiplex techniques should then logically expand to the data r e c e i v e r s and to the sampling of common
conversion channels. The specification of s e p a r a t e data lines c a r r i e s with it the notion of reduced
vulnerability, but t h i s p r e m i s e is illusory since t h e r e a r e not too many useful functions that can be
performed without l a r g e groups of data inputs. The loss of single i t e m s of data can r e s u l t in a l a r g e
l o s s of functional capability. F o r example, virtually no useful IHAS functions can be achieved without
pitch attitude data. T h e vulnerability of the s y s t e m is not r e a l l y different if all data being c a r r i e d on a
single data line a r e lost, o r if only the pitch data c a r r i e d on a single data line is lost. The concept of
s e p a r a t e data lines is tidy and neat, but not cost effective. It m e r e l y substitutes conceptual simplicity
for equipment complexity.

L e s t the critique on the IHAS s y s t e m interface concepts be considered a l l negative, t h i s is the time
and place to a f f i r m the powerful design a t t r i b u t e s of a uniform digital interface f o r m a t , a s u s e d in t h e
IHAS. A standard interface f o r m a t , in addition to the obvious resultant h a r d w a r e uniformity, e n s u r e s
a s well uniformity in the s y s t e m interface software, enables radio frequency interference considera-
tions to be reduced to the t r e a t m e n t of a single, repetitive d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n scheme, and a s s u r e s
growth capability without a need for working out new interface a r r a n g e m e n t s . When approached,
f u r t h e r , in a modular design, the standard digital interface f o r m a t becomes a m o s t effective s y s t e m
engineering tool.

Navigation

The use of a dopplerfheading s e n s o r s y s t e m a p p e a r s to be both satisfactory and adequate f o r the

helicopter. Required navigation a c c u r a c y h a s been achieved, and the velocity and altitude data available
17-10

a r e useful in a v a r i e t y of automatic control modes (altitude control, t e r r a i n following, automatic hover,

etc. ). In r e s p e c t to a n a l l - i n e r t i a l type of sensing s y s t e m , the doppler a p p e a r s to be inherently b e t t e r
suited for t h i s c l a s s of low speed c r a f t , principally because it is a velocity s e n s o r with substantially
s m a l l z e r o velocity offset.

T h e u s e of a t r a n s f e r alignment technique to enable a simple f r e e directional gyroscope to be used

(instead of a gyro compassing platform) is practical, and f o r the intended application tactically
acceptable. The technique does r e q u i r e i n c r e a s e d support equipment cost and complexity, but t h e s e a r e
essentially in proportion to the number of s i t e s used. The use of m o r e elaborate a i r b o r n e equipments
on the o t h e r hand r e s u l t s in cost and complexity escalation which is proportional to the number of
a i r c r a f t . Where the number of s i t e s is s m a l l , but the number of a i r c r a f t i s l a r g e , the u s e of t r a n s f e r
alignment ground equipment with m o r e simple a i r b o r n e platforms a p p e a r s to be a d e s i r a b l e concept.

The r e m a i n d e r of the IHAS navigation s y s t e m concepts a r e straightforward and do not r e q u i r e

commentary.

Automatic Flight Control System

The o v e r a l l s y s t e m organization offered no problems in execution and the advantages of r i g o r o u s

separation of stability augmentation f r o m the higher o r d e r control and guidance modes h a s been
supported with a p r a c t i c a l h a r d w a r e implementation. This technique does enable a fail-operational/fail-
safe stability augmentation function t o be reliably available thereby ensuring adequate vehicle handling
qualities under stringent operating conditions (e. g. flight under instrument conditions).

Similarly, the superposition of higher o r d e r digitally control modes a p p e a r s to be a sound concept

f o r a s y s t e m containing a s many different and complex modes a s does the IHAS. The availability of the
c e n t r a l digital computer p e r m i t s a programming of the d e s i r e d control laws a s opposed to inadequate
simplifications. Some of t h e s e d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s include the widespread u s e of integral control, the
s t o r a g e of non-linear look-up tables for making l a r g e t r i m adjustments, and the incorporation of
p r e c i s e l y organized limiting functions.

The p a r t i a l redundancy approach to the outer loop design, however, would appear to be capable of
achievement by s i m p l e r m e a n s in the future. As opposed to the u s e of t r i p l e redundancy f o r selected
equipments (e. g . , the computer and s e r v o control a s s e m b l y ) a m o r e d i r e c t f a i l - s a f e m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m
( s t o r e d in the c e n t r a l computer) would be much m o r e conservative of h a r d w a r e while achieving the
s a m e mission objectives with equal o r b e t t e r reliability.

T e r r ain F o 110wing 1Station ke e pin g

Because these a r e new functions, and because t h e r e is nothing with which the IHAS implementations
can be compared, a useful critique is really not possible. All of the s e n s o r concepts used did indeed
work, and while s o m e simplification in a design s e n s e is probably in o r d e r f o r future application, t h e r e
would a p p e a r to be no need f o r changes in concept of a fundamental nature.

D is pla y s

The w r i t e r believes that the IHAS displays may be considerably simplified f o r future application.

F o r the v e r t i c a l display, the E - s c a n mode in its entirety does not s e e m to offer a needed functional
capability and should be omitted altogether. General simplification of the contact analog mode (i. e.
elimination of secondary f e a t u r e s such a s tapes, v e r t i c a l r a t e , etc. ) should a l s o be considered.

F o r the horizontal display, the combination of navigation and r a d a r display modes into a single
display i s achieved a t the expense of g r e a t hardware complexity. The separation of these functions into
two s e p a r a t e displays h a s been estimated to r e s u l t in a savings of n e a r l y 60 pounds of equipment weight
and correspondingly l a r g e n u m b e r s of c i r c u i t elements. F u r t h e r , the s e p a r a t e d displays enable both
modes to be continuously operative. These advantages a r e achieved a t the expense of requiring m o r e
console a r e a , always a s e r i o u s installation problem. Yet i t would appear to be worth the effort looking
f o r (or c r e a t i n g ) the needed space.

-
Se If T e s t

The BITE concept, in t e r m s of organizational .maintenance is becoming increasingly m o r e

important a s the d i s p a r i t y between required and available maintenance skills i n c r e a s e s . The
mechanization employed in IHAS, and some s y s t e m s which have followed is believed by the w r i t e r to
approach this objective in an excessively complex way. Two principles a p p e a r to be worthy of review.
F i r s t , it i s questionable, in an integrated s y s t e m design, to r e q u i r e each i t e m of equipment t o contain
completely, and separately, i t s own diagnostic self-testing hardware. It is questionable because a
workable interface a l r e a d y e x i s t s t o enable the computer to interrogate a l m o s t a l l of the i t e m s of
equipment on a n end-to-end b a s i s , using'the p r o g r a m m e m o r y f o r s t o r a g e of appropriate diagnostic
t e s t routines. The second principle worth reviewing is the specified confidence level of t e s t . In the
 17-11

I U S , BITE is specified at the 95% level. A modest reduction of this figure could result in substantial
hardware simplification. Some intelligent trade-off between test confidence and hardware implementa-
tion would be a most useful approach before launching future efforts.

The writer estimates that a s much a s a 10 to 15% swing in total system circuitry exists between
the BITE implementation concepts used in the IHAS development system and one which would take
maximum account of the principles described above.

Computer Organization

F o r the intended application, 'the hybrid, modular machine suits the functional requirements.
Perhaps the only Simplification worthy of note is the replacement of triple redundancy in the digital
differential analyzer and arithmetic and control sections with a fail-safe diagnostic routine. This has
already been cited in respect to the automatic flight control system.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The IHAS in the scope of its effort and in the specific thrust made into integrated avionic system
technology, has produced amongst others, the following "firsts":

- F i r s t integrated helicopter avionics system

- F i r s t avionics system emphasizing digital techniques, microelectronics, BITE

- F i r s t avionics system to establish a standard digital interface throughout

- F i r s t helicopter digital, adaptive, automatic terrain following system

- F i r s t automatic formation flight system

- F i r s t airborne parallel digital differential analyzer

- F i r s t operational digital doppler

In the process of producing these accomplishments. it is also the f i r s t established system model
from which design critiques can be made. The writer has made his here. His critique can be
summarized by stating that the implementation concepts can be substantially simplified in many a r e a s ,
without really affecting the basic system design, o r the value of the integrated systems approach, Most
of this simplification, in fact, amounts to wholesale deletion of equipment elements. It is perhaps a
good thing, from a technology point of view, that the IHAS concepts did, in fact, require a compre-
hensive and rigorous design approach thereby providing a most suitable model for evaluation.

That the integrated avionic system will continue to be exploited in the future appears to be a
foregone conclusion. The ability to solve complex control equations by means of a high capacity,
central computer provides the tools for dealing with a large class of problems a s yet unsolved for
vertically rising aircraft.

F o r future VTOL aircraft, it may very well evolve that a digital computer solution to pptimize
flight path control will represent the most practical means for minimizing hover time to a point where
fuel requirements a r e practical. To date almost a l l VTOL aircraft have suffered from inordinate fuel
consumption characteristics in hover and no fundamental solutions to these characteristics appear
promising. Therefore, only the minimization of hover time appears a s a practical solution. In the
general case, this will require a complex calculus of variations approach using a relatively large number
of variables. Digital control of such a function would appear to be the most logical way of carrying out
this optimization process; the development of such automatic take-off and landing systems may indeed
be requisite to the further development of VTOL a i r c r a f t a s such.

Other optimization controls can be anticipated: Controls t o maximize cruise speed t o within a
pre-calculated and controlled.increment of blade stall speed; controls to achieve maximum endurance,
etc. The introduction of digital computation into the hel;icopter and VTOL technology can only be
regarded a s a beginning; the ultimate exploitation i s only a matter of time and further mission definition.

Yet, regardless of the degree to which this further exploitation takes place, the general design
techniques described here will apply. Appropriate sensors and actuators have to be selected and
compatibly interfaced with the central computer. The designer must then set forth the control laws
applicable to the function desired and reduce t h i s formulation to computer 1anguag.e. He must pay
attention to the accuracies and dynamic responses required of the system. The IHAS development shows
that this process works, that central digital computation i s both justified and feasible for helicopter
applications, and that subsequent growth of this concept can be clearly anticipated.
,
17-12

r1
 17-13

Figure 2 . Digital Data Transmitter

11-14

225

. .
750KC CLOCK
n
INPUT

750KC CLOCK
n 1 1
' 50 MIN
OUTPUT I .
1 - p
WORD SYNC
OUTPUT
20 BIT TIMES
DATA (16 BITS) 1
DATA OUTPUT
MESSAGE
VAL1D ITY

NOTE: ALL TIME VALUES IN NANOSECONDS

Figure 3. TMR Timing Diagram

SIGNAL DATA CONVERTER STABILIZED ANTENNA

Figure 4. Doppler Navigation Sat, Electronic ANIAPN-I 72

-
 17-15

Figure 5. Transfer Alignment System

17-16

I
I
I

LONG PERIOD MOTIONS

OUTER L O O P

INNER LOOP

Figure 6. AFCS Mechanical Implementation Schematic

 17-17

I
 / I

\
17-20

AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE TEMPLATE

Figure 10. Terrain Following System Geometry

 17-21

' I
I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
17-22
17-23
 11-24

PITCH LINES ACTUAL AIRCRAFT AIRSPEED

COMMAND STEERING HEADING
VECTOR SYMBOL

SKY SHADING

HEADING
AIRCRAFT VELOCITY SCALE
VECTOR (IMPACT
F0INT)SYMBOL
HORIZON LINE

PITCH AND
ROLL REFERENCE
MARKER
---- FlWClAL
MARK

-PITCH AND
ROLL REFERENCE
I- i- MARKER
VERTICAL /
VELOCITY
'GROUND
SHADING

MARK
G
R
OU
N
D
!
TEXTURE
M:

Figure 14. Contact Analog Display

17-26
11-26

I
....
P

LEGEND:

MINT
~ C H K K 0 DESTINATION T~RGET

A NAVIGATION *ID

+ O W AIRUAFI
0
USE

POSITION SVMBOL

Figure 16. Horizontal Situation Display Navigation M o d e

 11-21

TERRAIN CLEARANCE PPI RADAR MAPPING

N

Figure 17. Horizontal Situation Display Radar M o d e

8 8 6 8 6 5 IHC

7 7 7 8 .9 NHI

Figure 18. Computer Readout Panel

17-28

r--- r
I

I
II I
II I
II I

-
II I
11
5---1- -r---+
 11-29

MEMORY MODULE 110 MODULE

Figure 20. Computer Assembly

 18

INTEGRATED NAVIGATION BY LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT

Prof. Dr - Ing. K. Ramsayer

I n s t i t u t fur Flugnavigation,
Univer sit at Stuttgart,
West Germany
 18- 1

INTEGRATED NAVIGATION BY LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT.

By Karl Ramsayer

0.Abstract.
The usual way of combining different navigational aids by a human navigator has the dis-
advantage that the available navigational informations are utilized only very imperfect-
ly. The efficiency can be improved essentially by combining the different navigational
aids by an airborne general purpose computer in such a way, that we get an integrated
navigation system, which makes optimum use of the navigational informations.
For this purposeethe following way is proposed:
The basic navigational system is a dead reckoning system (DRS). This can be a Doppler -
or inertial navigator or a classic dead reckoning system, which determines the flight
path from true airspeed and wind. The other navigational aids serve for control measure-
ments, with the help of which we determine by least square adjustment during the flight
the error of the dead reckoning position and the most important systematic error sources
of DRS. These error quantities are then used for a corresponding correction of the DR-
position. The supplementary navigational aids are consequently used both for the cor-
rection of the DR-position and for the calibration of the DR-system.
For practical application two different methods are proposed. Using method I we determine
continuously or from time to time the coordinates of the present position in the coordi-
nate system of DRS by the supplementary navigational aids. These control coordinates are
compared with the coordinates of the DR-position. The resulting coordinate differences,
caused by errors of DRS and by errors of the control coordinates, are described by ob-
servation equations, which take into account the influence of the most important syste-
matic errors of DRS. All other errors are supposed as random corrections. As soon as the
coordinates of a sufficient number of control points are available, the unknown error
quantities of the assumed error model are determined by adjustment and are then used
for a corresponding correction of the DR-position. The adjustment is repeated for each
new fix or for a set of new fixes. Hereby the changes of the error parameters, determined
by the consecutive adjustments, eventually together with the automatic computation of the
standard deviations of the error parameters, can be applied for judging the quality of
the assumed error model.
With method I1 we compute for the present DR-position continuously or from time to time
quantities corresponding to the control measurements carried out by the supplementary
navigational aids (e.g. distances or bearings). From the differences between the measured
and computed control quantities observation equations are derived for the determination
of the most important error quantities of DRS. Method I1 is more flexible than method I.
It permits to utilize single control measurements and to introduce weights for the control
measurements.
The proposed methods of integrated navigation are based on practical and theoretical error
analysis of Doppler navigation. Some important results of this error analysis will be dis-
cussed. As an example the methods will be explained in details for the integration of a
Doppler navigator.with,TACAN.

1. Introduction.
If we look critically at the navigational aids, which are available today, we find none
can be considered to be the best or to be suitable for all purposes. All have their ad-
vantages and their disadvantages. This situation will still exist for a long time. There-
fore, since many years, it is the custom to combine several navigational aids, whereby the
human navigator has the task to evaluate the different navigational informations as well
as possible. This evaluation of the navigational data is, however, often disturbed by un-
favourable conditions such as lack of time or space, overload by other tasks, disturbances
and errors of the navigationalsensors, overcharge' of the navigator by the high degree of
difficulty of some evaluations, etc. This necessarily means, that the evaluation of the
data is reduced to the absolut minimum, and that a great deal of the available Information
is lost.
For these reasons we can expect an essential improvement of navigation, if'we combine the
available navigation systems automatically in such a way that we get an integrated navi-
gation system, which uses all available navigation informations with the highest possible
efficiency. First steps in this direction are the hybrid navigation systems, such as
doppler-inertial or astro-inertial systems. There are already different philosophies how
to integrate automatically the different navigational aids of a vehicle. A very promising
but also rather complicated method is the application of the Kalman Filter.
In the following it will, be shown that the integration of the navigational aids can also
be done by the application of least square adjqstment. This method is the result of an
extensive error analysis of Doppler navigation. [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 1 . For this reason at first a
18-2

short review of the most important results of this analysis is given.

2. Error analysis of Doppler navigation.

The first trials[l] were made with a Decca Doppler radar Type 61, a Sperry Gyrosyn Com-
pass CL2, an analogue Decca navigation computer Type 9013 with flight log and the navi-
gation computer AK3J with moving map display developed by the Institute of Air Navigation
of the University of Stuttgart. To determine the errors of this navigation system, which
was installed in a propeller driven Douglas C 4 7 , a number of triangles were flown. An
example is shown in Fig.1.

r!
10 0
.

10 20 SO 40 km
Walda

Bad Tolz

Fig. 1

Before and after each turn the exact position of the aircraft was determined by several
vertical photographs of the overflown landscape and by simultaneous registration of the
coordinates 4 , 1 indicated by the navigation computer. For the error analysis only the
straight legs of the flight path were used. The errors in the turns were analysed sepa-
rately.
For the error analysis the following errors were taken into account:
A = constant error of heading, caused by bias errors of
compass, Doppler antenna, synchro chain, constant error
of magnetic grivation, etc.
B.sin H,+C.cos H, = Deviation of magnetic compass at magnetic heading Hk
caused by the components of aircraft magnetism
along (coefficient B) and across the aircraft (coefficient C) .
= scale error of the measured and in two rectangular components
kJ,kl resolved ground speed. The scale factors have not the value 1
but (l+k ) resp. (l+kZ )
F .
A v! ,A Vl = bias errors of ground speed components.

& = rotor interaxis error of the electromechanical resolver.

The influence of these errors to a flight path with approximately constant heading is
given by the following observation equations

V!, Vz = Corrections.

q v q s= Components of the flight path in the map

considering the variable scale factor of the map.
A $', A 21 = Changes of the coordinates indicated by the navigation
computer after considering the mean scale factor of the map.
lt 9 12 = Errors of the indicated change of position.

Each test line gives a pair of such observation equations. For the determination of 8
unknowns at least 4 different test lines with different headings are required in order
to be able to separate the magnetic deviation, which depends on heading, from the con-
stant heading error. To increase the accuracy redundant test lines were measured. From
the whole of these measurements the unknowns were then determined by least square ad-
 18-3

justment. For the mentioned Decca navigation system the adjustment of 17 test lines
with an average length of 9 4 km gave the following values:

-9 = - 4,1495 r U, 6 4 3 3 , A, = - 0,1649 t u,au23

AV! * t U,l'j" 0,24 m/& , dVrl E - 0,31 f U,16 m/&c

A = t O:IO 2 0311 , B = t 6:73 C O',21

The main error sources are the scale errors ke , k p of the groundspeed components. They
are approximately 15% too small. These abnormal large errors were caused by systematic
errors of a special connecting device. The next important error source is the difference
between k! and k 2 with approximately 1,5%. Furtheron the B-component of the deviation
with +0:7 is of essential influence, when flying to magnetic east or west. All other
errors are not important.
If we correct the indicated positions for the computed systematic errors we get the
following standard deviations ( 6 8 % error) for one test line:
2 384 m

me= f385m , w,+ = f 381 m

WLT= f U', 2 6 .
ms= mean value of the total position error,
me= standard deviation along the flight path,
m y = standard deviation across the flight path,
m ~ standard
= deviation of track.
These remaining, mainly random errors are very small. Herefrom follows that the accuracy
of the mentioned flight tests was essentially depending on systematic errors, which were
approximately constant for some days, and that the influence of random errors was extreme-
ly small.
This statement was confirmed by later test flights with the same equipment and with the
Bendix Doppler radar DRA-12B. In each case the errors of the dead reckoning positions were
reduced to a third up to a tenth of their original values, if the computed flight path
was corrected for the influence of the systematic errors.
Furtheron a special investigation of drift and groundspeed measurements with a Doppler
radar showed that the random errors are extremely small. The resulting error for a flight
of 1 hour is of the order of 100 m. [3] , [ 4 ] .
The above mentioned results relate to flights over land. Over sea by different reasons no
test flights and hence no error analysis could be made. Here we have to expect, that the
I
influence of the random errors will be somewhat greater than over land, and that the
systematic errors will be superimposed by long periodical errors. This increase of the
errors is mainly caused by unpredictable movements of the scattering elements at the sur-
face of the water. In spite of these facts it can be expected, that the systematic errors
are also over sea the predominant error sources.
From the error analysis of Doppler navigation we can draw the following conclusion: The
accuracy of Doppler navigation depends mainly on systematic errors. These systematic
errors can be determined as unknowns of a least square adjustment, if the true position
can be determined with sufficient accuracy in a sufficient number of points. With the
determined systematic errors we can correct the dead reckoning position and get a very
much improved accuracy.
In the mentioned trials the adjustment and the corrections were made after the flight.
As nowadays airborne digital computers with high efficiency are available, it is pos-
sible to make the adjustments and corrections during the flight, and to get so an auto-
matic, integrated navigation system with high accuracy.

3 . Principle of the integration of different navigational aids by adjustment.

From the before mentioned experience with Doppler navigation the following principle for
the integration of different navigational aids was derived[5]: The primary navigation
system is a dead reckoning system (DRS). This DRS can be a Doppler or inertial navi- -
gation system or for emergency cases a classical DRS, which determines the dead reckoning
position by integration of true airspeed and windspeed. It is assumed that the errors of
dead reckoning are mainly caused by some systematic errors, which are constant or only
slowly changing during the flight, and that the influence of the other errors, e.g.
18-4

the random errors of ground speed, drift and heading, errors of the computer etc. is
not importaat.
This DRS is combined with other navigational aids by one or more computers in such a way,
that the most important systematic errors Qf the DRS can be determined and taken into
account by corresponding corrections. For this combination two different methods are
proposed.
According to method I we determine with the help of the other navigational aids con-
tinuously or from time to time the coordinates of the present position in the coordi-
nate system of the DR-navigation. These control coordinates are compared with the co-
ordinates of the DR-position. The differences of the corresponding coordinates, which
are caused by the errors of dead reckoning and the errors of the control coordinates,
are described by observation equations. These observation equations take into account
the influence of the most important systematic errors of the DRS and include the other
errors as unknown corrections. The size of the systematic errors, which are described
by the error model, are then determined by least square adjustment so, that the square
sum of the unknown corrections is a minimum. Now it is easy to calculate the influence
of the systematic errors on the DR-position and to get a corresponding correction.
With method I1 we make with the other navigational aids continuously or from time to time
control measurements, such as distances, bearings, differences of distances etc., which
refer to points, whose position is known. Now we compute quite the same quantities,for
the indicated DR-position. The differences between the measured and the computed quanti-
ties give again observation equations, which can be used to determine the systematic
errors of the dead reckoning system by a least square adjustment. Method I1 is somewhat
more complicated but also more flexible than method I and has the advantage that we can
introduce weights for the control measurements.
In the following method I1 will be described for the example of the integration of a self
contained Doppler navigation system with TACAN, which is a ground based radio navigation
system for the determination of polar coordinates of the aircraft position relative to
the station. More details of method I can be found in[5].

4. The Doppler dead reckoning system and its errors.

The DRS is assumed to consist of a Doppler radar measuring groundspeed and drift, a
gyro stabilized platform as heading reference and a computer for the computation of the
flight path in the grid coordinate system and of a moving map display.

If there are no errors at all, the exact grid coordinates of the DR-position can be com-
puted according to Fig.2 from

,
x - ~ ~ + ~ ~ r n ~ v ~ c o s Ty ~= dy ot + l t m . v - s i n T *d t
0
T = H t d + ~ y .

X,Y = grid coordinates of DR-position at time t,

Xo,Yo = grid coordinates of the inertial point (t=O),
m = (variable) scale factor of the map depending
on X,Y,
V = groundspeed,
T = grid track,
 18-5

H = platform heading,
d = drift due to wind,
Ayl = drift of the platform due to
transportation.
If we denote the measured values of groundspeed, drift and heading with v’,d’,H’, the
inserted coordinates for the initial point with X I , y’, and assume that no additional
errors are efficient, we got the following coordi8ateg of the dead reckoning position

Now we assume as main error sources of the Doppler DR

AXo,Ay,= errors of the inserted coordinates of the

initial point ,

w
-
AH =
=
constant error of heading,
mean random gyro drift,
k = scale error of measured groundspeed,
V = v’ (l+k) = true groundspeed.
A X , ay can reach relatively large amounts because the initial point must be in-
serted i8 flight. LZ is for the present assumed to be approximately constant during the
whole flight. It is further assumed, that the influence of all other error sources is
not important.
On these suppositions we get for small error quantities the following relations between
the true coordinates x,y and the indicated coordinates x ‘ , y ‘
- ,
x = x ’ + A x , + ( x ’ - x , ’ ) ~ ~ - (y’-yo’j.aH t b , . w
y = y ‘ + . ~ +(y’-y,’).k+(x’-x,’).~H
y~ t b y . w
- ,
(4.5)
b, = - i ‘ m I v’. t . sin T’.d t , by = + i t m e v’. t . COS T ’ . d t ,

5. Integrated Doppler-TACAN-navigation system.

Grid North
Magn.North \, ;
\ I
‘psi
$- Il+x
5
1’

Fig.3
Y

In order to describe the integration of the Doppler-DRS with other navigational ids
we select as example the integration with TACAN. With the TACAN-receiver we can measure
the slant range R, Fig.3, from the present position F of the aircraft to the ground
based TACAN-station S and the bearing 8 related to magnetic north in S . These measured
values are compared with the computed values RI, 0 relating to the indicated DR-position
F ’ with the coordinates x’,y’.
vR = -a - ( ( X I - xo’). CO)OC’+ (y’- yoJ)
~ L ’ . A X , -~L~oc’.AY, d I ) .k

-
+((yl-yo’)*M oLJ ( X I - x t ) . n ; h d J ) A H
- ( b x . ~ d ’ + b y . k ~ ’ ) . 3 - ( R - R ’ ) ,
1

(5.1)
+) In this formula the influence of the height difference between aircraft and TACAN
station is neglected. A more accurate formula is given in [5] p.25.
18-6,

v, = +& C L ’ . A X ~- mo(’. AY# + (( x‘-xo’) .A& a’-( y’- y o ’ ) . coJ a’) k

--((y’- y o ) .A
+(b,.hoL’-by
o(’ + ( x’- x o ’ ) CA a’) A H -
a ’ ) - &- ( o - s ’ ) . R ’ ,
8

(5.2)

R”* \ I ( x ’ - x S ) ‘ + (y’-yS)* (5.3)

pa a
i
a Z +b’. R1 J PQ
C
( ~ a . (5.4)
&’is the grid bearing of the TACAN-station S referred to the DR-position F’.
P is the weight of R with C, a nd b as constants. Pe is the weight, m e the standard
dbiation of the position line corresponding to 8 .

R
n
L
TACAN
I
0

I I

XO ! Y O

1U
-t

- I

Fig. 4
 18-7

The comparison of the measured values R, 8 and the computed values R', 0 I is made
n-times. Then we get 2n observation equations. If 2n is greater than the number of
unknowns - in our case 5 - we can determine the unknowns A X , AY^, k, A H and= by a
least square adjustment so, that the square sum of the corre8tions VR and Vg under con-
sideration of the weights get a minimum.
Fig.4 shows a simplified scheme of the integrated Doppler-TACAN-navigation system. The
general purpose computer is for simplification subdivided in several special purpose
computers. The groundspeed v' and the drift d' measured by the Doppler radar and the
heading HI measured by the compass and further the inserted coordinates x' , y' of the
initial point are fed into the dead reckoning computer I, which computes t8e co8rdinates
x',y' and the scale factor m of the dead reckoning position. The computer I1 computes
continuously the slant range RI and the bearing 0' from the present dead reckoning
position to the TACAN-station.
The computers211 and IV compute for each time interval.. ~t(e.g.At= 1 min) the mean
differences R-RI and 0 - Q between the outputs R and 0 of the TACAN-receiver and the
computed values R' and 0 I . This averaging is very important, because it reduces the
noise of the TACAN-informations essentially.
- -
The mean differences R-RI, 0 - a ' , the corresponding coordinates x',y' of the dead
reckoning position and the time t are stored in the adjustment computer V. This adjust-
ment computer computes in regular time intervals n. at (e-gan.At=5 min)the systematic
errors A x , A y , k, AH, w'of the dead reckoning system. These error quantities are
fed togeth?r wit8 the dead reckoning coordinates x' ,y' and other quantities to the cor-
rection computer VI. The output of VI are the corrected coordinates x,y of the present
position.
The adjustment is repeated in regular time intervals or every times when one or more
new control measurements are available. If the error model of the DRS would be rigorous,
the computed systematic errors wouldeconverge within a short time to constant values.
In this case it would be possible to calibrate the system within the range of one TACAN-
station. Afterwards one could navigate with high accuracy with the calibrated dead
reckoning system alone.

6 . Remarks on the treatment of changing systematic errors.

The integrated navigation by least square adjustment is ideal, if the error model is
rigorous or nearly rigorous, that is 1.) the error model comprises all important system-
atic error sources, 2 . ) these error sources are constant or changing predictably, and
3 . ) all other error sources are neglectably small. In reality we have to expect, that
the error model is incomplete, and that the introduced systematic errors are changing
gradually.
E.g. the random gyro drift of a stabilized platform serving as heading reference, will
generally change with time. Over land this fact can be taken into account by reducing
the time of the validity of the error model e.g. to the last 30 minutes, provided that
a sufficient number of control measurements with sufficient accuracy is available.
Then each adjustment gives the most probable values for the present position, ground-
speed, track and gyro drift based on all control measurements during the last 30 minutes.
If we have to expect an irregular drift of the heading reference, and if only a few
control measurements with poor accuracy are available, it is impossdble to separate the
constant heading error A H from the gyro drift 6 . In this case it is better to renounce
the determination of the gyro drift and to determine only a mean heading correction for
the different adjustment sections. Ifzresp. A H can be determined several times, and if
the changes are steadily, it is eventually possible to derive herefrom a second correction

7 . Automatic estimation of the accuracy.

In order to be able to estimate the accuracy of the integrated navigation it is useful

to extend the program of the adjustment computer in such a way that the standard devi-
ation of the computed systematic errors and of the corrected DR-position are additionally
determined. Then it is possible to judge the quality of the assumed error model. For
example, if one or more error quantities can be determined only with poor accuracy, it
is useful to simplify the error model by omitting these error quantities. The slmul-
taneous computation of the most probable position and its standard deviation would come
very close to the optimum evaluation of all vailable navigational informations.
18-8

8 . Generalisation of the integration method.

The described method can be generalised as follows:

We compare the measured control value with the corresponding value computed for the dead
DR-position. Each comparison gives an observation equation, the weight of which is pro-
portional to the reciprocal value of the square of the standard deviation of the measured
control value.
Here some more examples:
1. The bearing measured with VOR from the aircraft to the VOR-station is compared with the
computed bearing of the DR-position.
2 . The slant range measured with DME from the aircraft to the DME-station is compared with
the computed range of the DR-position.
3 . The range difference measured with LORAN between the aircraft and two LORAN-stations
is compared with the computed range difference for the DR-position.
4 . The altitude of a star measured with a sextant is compared with that altitude, which
is computed for the DR-position.

In the aircraft multiple navigational aids for the control measurements are available, the
computer program has to be extended in such a way that all available navigational infor-
mations are integrated.
Furtheron the error model of the DRS will be adapted as close as possible to the error
characteristic of the available system. For example, if the directional gyro is slaved by
a magnetic sensor, we have to consider the influence of magnetic deviation.
The method is also applicable, if an inertial navigator is used as DRS. Regarding this
system, we have at first to investigate how to transform the differential error equations
of the inertial navigator in linear error equations. But this is not an unsolvable problem;

9. Example for the correction of Doppler navigation by adjustment.

In Fig.5 you see a practical example for the correction of a Doppler navigation system by
adjustment of photographical determined positions. The figure shows the navigational errors
of a flight with a length of about 500 nm. The navigation was made with a Doppler radar,
a gyro-magnetic compass and an analogue navigation computer indicating distance and bearinc
to preselected reference points. The full points connected by dotted lines represent indi-
cated DR-positions, the open circles represent true positions determined by vertical phbto-
graphs. A n error analysis after the flight by least square adjustment gave as a result the
following systematic errors:
for the east-west legt Walda-Rolampont:
AH=Q,% , k=+0,0(15 , ,
~ ~ , = - 1 , 7 n m bya =+P,4nrn
for the north-south leg Rolamont-Istres:
AH = 0,'7 k = 0,000 , AX,, = - ?,S nrl) , AY, = t 4,7nm .
The different values for A H depend on the variation of the magnetic deviation with the
magnetic heading. The variation of the scale factor k is mainly caused by the fact, that
the DR-computer neglected the variable scale factor of the grid coordinate system.
If we take in account the systematic errors we get corrected positions with a standard
deviation of 2 0.9 nm. This error is much smaller than the errors of the uncorrected
indicated positions, which grow from 1 nm in Walda to 7 nm in Istres.
 18-9

-700
km

P
StraRburg
-600

Mirecourt

5:- R.o l a m p o n t AH = 039

I -500
I
I

L\ D i j o n
\ \ \

\\ -400
A H = Or7
k, = 0,000
AX, = - 1,s nm

\ -300
\: I
l a To;' du Pin
I
I

-200
/I'
I
I
I
/ Montelimar
I

\\
---.--
-<)-True Position
Indicated PHI- Position
0- C o r r e c t ed Po s i t i on
I

-100

- 0

0 100 200 300 400 krn

Fig .5
18-10

R E'F E R E N C E S

[l] K.Ramsayer: "Untersuchungen m e r die Genauigkeit der Dopplernavigation".

Ortung und Navigation, 1964, Heft 4.
[2] K.Ramsayer,W.Kiechle,E.Wildermuth: "Untersuchungen iiber die erreichbare Justier-
genauigkeit einer Dopplernavigationsanlage mit magnetischem Richtungs-
geber und analogem Navigationsrechner".
Ortung und Navigation, 1965, Heft 4.
[3] K.Ramsayer und P.Tautenhahn: "Statistisches Verfahren zur Bestimmung des mittleren
zufllligen Fehlers und zur Schwingungsanalyse von Abtriftmessungen
mit einer Dopplernavigationsanlage".
Zeitschrift fiir Flugwissenschaften, 1966, S.150-157.
[4] K.Ramsayer und P.Tautenhahn: "Ermittlung der zufllligen MeBfehler von Grund- und
Eigengeschwindigkeit, Abtrift und Kurs eines Flugzeugs. Auswirkungen
auf die automatische Wind- und Flugwegberechnung".
Ortung und Navigation, 1966, Heft 1.
[5] K.Ramsayer: "Automatische Korrektur einer Dopplernavigationsanlage durch Ausgleichung
von Kontrollmessungen mit zusstzlichen Navigationshilfen".
Ortung und Navigation, 1969, Heft 2.
 19

A S I M P L E KALMAN FILTER F O R VOR/DME

by

M .A. V. Mat thews

Ferranti Ltd
 19- 1

A SimDle Kalman F i l t e r f o r VOR/DW

by M.A.V. Matthews, F e r r a n t i Ltd.

Author's Note It is r e g r e t t e d t h a t not enough computer r u n s have been made t o enable t h e paper t o be
f i n i s h e d i n time f o r t h e p r e p r i n t . However t h i s incomplete v e r s i o n should provide
some background t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l material which w i l l be presented a t t h e Panel Meeting.

1. Introduction

I n overland commercial a v i a t i o n , t h e most widely used navigation a i d i s t h e vOA/DME system. In

c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e , t h i s system is used as a homing r a t h e r t h a n a p o s i t i o n f i x i n g a i d , i.e. t h e a i r c r a f t
f l i e s along a r a d i a l t o t h e VOR beacon, u s i n g t h e DME component t o i n d i c a t e d i s t a n c e t o go. While t h e
DME range measurement is q u i t e a c c u r a t e , t h e VOR b e a r i n g i s s u b j e c t t o an e r r o r due t o propogation
e f f e c t s , which can have a magnitude of s e v e r a l degrees. A t p r e s e n t this i s not t o o s e r i o u s s i n c e t h e
e r r o r t e n d s t o be a constant angle a l o n g a given r a d i a l and does not a f f e c t t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t
t o home on t o t h e beacon. S a f e t y is assured by a r r a n g i n g t h a t b a s i c airways i n t e r s e c t only a t a VOR/DME
beacon, and ensuring that a i r c r a f t passing over t h e same beacon a t t h e same a l t i t u d e are s u f f i c i e n t l y
s e p a r a t e d i n time, by use o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y a c c u r a t e DME range t o p r e d i c t times of a r r i v a l .

However t h i s s a f e and simple system i s becoming overloaded, and i t i s now necessary t o consider area
n a v i g a t i o n i n which t h e r o u t e s flown are no l o n g e r VOR radials and w i l l no longer i n t e r s e c t d i r e c t l y over
a beacon. Because of t h e l a r g e investment both in ground and a i r b o r n e equipment which has a l r e a d y been
put i n t o VOR/DME, t h i s system w i l l continue t o be used i n t h e area navigation era. However i t must now
become a means of f i n d i n g p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n from which t h e d e s i r e d t r a c k may be calculated. I n this nev
s i t u a t i o n t h e VOR e r r o r s have more s e r i o u s consequences. Since r o u t e i n t e r s e c t i o n s w i l l no l o n g e r be
over t h e VOR beacons, t h e VOR e r r o r s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n errors at t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s and
w i l l have a d i r e c t e f f e c t on t h e s e p a r a t i o n s necessary t o ensure s a f e t y . Furthermore s i n c e - t h e a i r c r a f t
is no l o n g e r f l y i n g a VOR r a d i a l , t h e e r r o r w i l l change as VOR bearing changes and t h i s w i l l tend t o cause
d e p a r t u r e s from s t r a i g h t f l i g h t . F i l t e r i n g o f the VOR input is t h e r e f o r e necessary both t o improve
knowledge of p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n and t o reduce p e r t u r b a t i o n i n t h e demanded t r a c k induced by VOR e r r o r s which
f l u c t u a t e with change of bearing.

Any commercial a i r c r a f t w i l l c a r r y some means o f dead reckoning navigation, such as compass/air d a t a ,

compass/Doppler or inertial navigation. It is t h e r e f o r e f e a s i b l e t o mix dead reckoning i n p u t s with
VOR/DME i n a K a l m a n f i l t e r aa a means o f reducing t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s of VOR/DME on its om.

A computer s i m u l a t i o n o f such a system has been mounted with t h e o b j e c t of i n v e s t i g a t i u g t h e e f f e c t -

i v e n e s s of a K a l m a n f i l t e r i n t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . The f i l t e r haa been kept s i m l e , having only f o u r
elements i n i t s state v e c t o r ( 2 p o s i t i o n components, v e l o c i t y b i a s , t r a c k biasP. The performance o f
such a simple system is o f considerable i n t e r e s t s i n c e many commercial o p e r a t o r s a r e not y e t ready f o r
e l a b o r a t e and.expensive c e n t r a l computers. Simulation o f a simple system is a l s o l i k e l y t o g i v e more
i n s i g h t i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e f i l t e r t h a n a more complicated one i n which i t i s more d i f f i c u l t t o
understand t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f functions. The p r e s e n t f l l t e r would be most s u i t a b l e
f o r we with compass and Doppler; It would a l s o be m i t a b l e f o r use with i n e r t i a l v e l o c i t y i n p u t s f o r
s h o r t p e r i o d s o f time (compared t o t h e S c h u l e r period). It is intended a l s o t o simulate a modified
v e r s i o n o f t h e f i l t e r i n which t h e v e l o c i t y and heading b i a s e s are replaced by northings and e a s t i n g a
wind components. This would be s u i t a b l e f o r use with air d a t a and compass. The s i m u l a t i o n programme
is designed t o a s s e s s t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e f i l t e r i n determining p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n t a k i n g account of t h e
following f a c t o r s :

(a) P o s i t i o n of Beacon r e l a t i v e t o F l i g h t Path.

(b) Use of VOR or DME a l o n e (without o t h e r component).

(c) Erroneous assessment of e r r o r s t a t i s t i c s i n f i l t e r design.

(d) Effect of further simplification of f i l t e r .

(e) E f f e c t i v e n e s s of f i l t e r i n trimming heading and v e l o c i t y b i a s e s f o r use i n

subsequent dead reckoning (e.g. an over water l e g ) .

R e s u l t s of t h e s i m u l a t i o n w i l l be p r e s e n t e d - t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e above f a c t o r s and t o b r i n g out t h e

method o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e filter.

2. The Simulation Promamme

2.1. Representation of t h e Real World

This model i s inte.nded t o r e p r e s e n t t h e real world s i t u a t i o n in which t h e f i l t e r i s operating;

It provides t h e i n p u t s t o t h e f i l t e r and t h e t r u e values o f p o s i t i o n , v e l o c i t y , e t c . a g a i n s t which
t h e f i l t e r performance is t o be measured.

The s i t u a t i o n modelled is that In which t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s past a single co-located VOR/Dm

beacon. The programme allows f o r v a r i a t i o n i n t h e d i s t a n c e o f c l o s e s t approach t o t h e beacon, and
in t h e l e n g t h o f t h e run. I n a l l NM simulated so far, t h e a i r c r a f t has followed a s t r a i g h t path.
19-2 .

So f a r no attempt has been made t o simulate a run past a series of beacons, which are used
s u c c e s s i v e l y as the navigation a i d for t h e a i r c r a f t . A l l runs t o d a t e have been used t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e improvement i n navigation accuracy i n a run p a s t a single beacon.

2.1.1. VOR E r r o r s

Before programming t h e model, a v i s i t was made t o t h e civil Aviation Flying U n i t , a t

S t a n a t e d , Essex, who are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r monitoring t h e performance of VOX and Dm i n s t a l l a t i o n s
i n t h e U.K. It w a s l e a r n e d t h a t VOR e r r o r s ( a p a r t from t h o s e a r i s i n g w i t h i n t h e a i r b o r n e
equipment) are mainly due t o m u l t i p l e p a t h propagation caused by r e f l e c t i o n s from o b j e c t s near
t h e transmitter. T h i s r e s u l t s i n an angular e r r o r p a t t e r n which i s f i x e d i n space and time,but
g i v e s rise t o e r r o r f l u c t u a t i o n s at t h e a i r c r a f t r e c e i v e r due t o t h e a i r c r a f t ' s motion through
t h e pattern. There d i d not appear t o be much information a v a i l a b l e on t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f e r r o r s
along d i f f e r e n t VOR radials. However, an a n a l y s i s was made o f some f l i g h t recordings made
a v a i l a b l e t o u s by t h e C.A.F.U. ' h i s showed considerable v a r i a t i o n from one VOR s t a t i o n t o
another both i n t h e magnitude o f e r r o r and i n t h e way t h e e r r o r s are c o r r e l a t e d . I n a typical
c a s e , t h e a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n showed a component o f period 15'. superimposed on a component
goo. The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n appears t o vary from s t a t i o n t o s t a t i o n between about
of period
0.7 and 2 .
Information obtained from a r t i c l e s e t c . (e.g. Ref 1 ) was c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t provided
by t h e C.A.F.U., but d i d not provide any more d a t a on c o r r e l a t i o n .

For s i m u l a t i o n purposes t h e VOR e r r o r i s represented by a sum o f s i n u s o i d a l components a t

d i f f e r e n t frequencies, and random phase angles. This expression has c o r r e l a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s
comparable with t h o s e o f real VOR e r r o r s ; it can be v a r i e d i n magnitude, and i t s a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n
f u n c t i o n can be a l t e r e d by changing t h e r e l a t i v e magnitudes of i t s components.

S i n c e Kalman F i l t e r i n g is only p r a c t i c a b l e i n a d i g i t a l computer, i t was considered t h a t

t h e system would be most l i k e l y t o operate with a d i g i t a l a i r b o r n e r e c e i v e r . The e r r o r i n such
a r e c e i v e r should be s e v e r a l times smaller t h a n that i n c u r r e n t analogue equipments (Ref 1 ) and
would be n e g l i g i b l e compared t o t h e propagation e r r o r s discussed above.

2.1.2. Errors

Published d a t a and information from t h e C.A.F.U. i n d i c a t e t h a t DME e r r o r s are i n t h e o r d e r

o f 0 . 1 - t o 0.2 n.m. r.m.8. No information on c o r r e l a t i o n was o b t a i n a b l e ; accordingly t h e
combination o f a f i x e d b i a s e r r o r , with a random e r r o r which is u n c o r r e l a t e d between s u c c e s s i v e
measurements, w a s assumed i n t h e simulation.

2.1.3. Track and Ground Sueed Errors

Track e r r o r i n c l u d e s a l l t h e error sources a f f e c t i n g t h e knowledge o f t r a c k a n g l e r e l a t i v e

t o North. I n a Doppler system t h e s e would i n c l u d e compass error, harmonisation o f Doppler a e r i a l ,
Doppler d r i f t e r r o r , and synchro transmission e r r o r s . It is assumed t o c o n s i s t o f a b i a s combined
with a random component (as f o r DME e r r o r ) .

Ground speed e r r o r is a l s o assumed to have b i a s and random components.

T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is also adequate i f an i n e r t i a l navigator is used i n p l a c e o f t h e

Compass/Doppler system, provided t h e model is only run f o r a s h o r t period o f time (e.g. 5 mins.).
I n a l o n g e r run t h e Schuler period of t h e i n e r t i a l v e l o c i t y e r r o r s would show up, and would need
t o be represented.

It can a l s o be used t o s i m u l a t e a compass/air d a t a system, provided t h e a i r c r a f t follow8

a s t r a i g h t course, s i n c e t h e wind components w i l l combine with T.A.S. and compass e r r o r s t o
produce equivalent ground speed and t r a c k e r r o r s . However, i f t h e a i r c r a f t were t o t u r n , t h e
compass and T.A.S. e r r o r s would be r o t a t e d w i t h i t , w h i l e t h e wind components would remain f i x e d ;
i n this c a s e i t would be necessary t o r e p r e s e n t wind and compass/".A.S. biases separately i n t h e
model.

2.1.4. Dead Reckoninn Programme

The a i r b o r n e computer is assumed t o perform a continuous dead reckoning estimate of

p o s i t i o n u s i n g t h e i n p u t s of t r a c k and ground speed. The t r u e e r r o r s i n t h i s process are
obtained as part of t h e r e a l world r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , by i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e t r a c k and ground speed
errors.

2.2. The Kalman F i l t e r

A s e c t i o n of t h e s i m u l a t i o n programme reproduces t h e K a h n f i l t e r i n g computations assumed t o

be c a r r i e d out i n t h e a i r b o r n e computer, u s i n g i n p u t s derived i n t h e "real world model". The
o b j e c t of t h e Kalman f i l t e r i s t o make e s t i m a t e s of t h e e r r o r s i n p o s i t i o n , ground speed and t r a c k
used i n the dead reckoning computation, so that by adding t h e s e estimates t o t h e dead reckoning
o u t p u t s a b e s t e s t i m a t e o f a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n and v e l o c i t y can be formed.

The set of q u a n t i t i e s t o be updated(knovn as t h e state v e c t o r ) a r e four i n number: t h e

n o r t h e r l y and e a s t e r l y components of p o s i t i o n e r r o r , t r a c k a n g l e b i a s , and ground speed bias. In
o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s , t h e f i l t e r r e q u i r e s t o e s t i m a t e s t a t i s t i c a l parameters of t h e
s t a t e v e c t o r , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e probable a c c u r a c i e s o f its elements and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between them.
 19-3

These parameters are arranged i n a symmetric 4 x 4 m t r i x known as t h e covariance matrix.

Following t h e treatment of Barham and Humphries (2). t h e Kalman process i s regarded as two
independent s t e p s :

1. An e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f new values o f t h e s t a t e v e c t o r and t h e covariance matrix

a r i s i n g from t h e passage o f time; i n t h e case o f t h e state v e c t o r t h i s process
r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n p o s i t i o n e r r o r with time, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a
dead reckoning; i n t h e case of t h e covariance matrix i t expresses t h e diminishing
l e v e l of confidence i n t h e s t a t e v e c t o r e s t i m a t e s as time passes without f r e s h
information from VOR/DME.

2. Mixing o f t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e v e c t o r e s t i m a t e s with f r e s h i n p u t s from VOR o r DME;

T h i s y i e l d s new and more a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e s , r e f l e c t e d i n a reduction i n magnitude
o f t h e covariance matrix elements.

S t e p 1 must be computed a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s o f time, but s t e p 2 i s only conputed when

i t is p o s s i b l e or expedient t o b r i n g i n a VOR or DME measurement. The f i l t e r is programmed so
that s t e p (2) involves only one measurement a t a time, VOR or DME. This i s not fundamental t o
t h e f i l t e r , b u t is adopted i n o r d e r t o s i m p l i f y t h e computation.

By keeping S t e p s 1 and 2 s e p a r a t e we are a b l e t o choose t h e frequencies with which VOR and

DME d a t a a r e fed i n t o t h e f i l t e r according t o t h e following considerations:

(a) Correlation

I n t h e i r most s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d form t h e Kalrnan f i l t e r i n g equations assume that

s u c c e s s i v e e x t e r n a l measurement (i.e. VOR or D b E i n p u t s , i n t h e p r e s e n t case) are
s t a t i s t i c a l l y independent (2). While i t is p o s s i b l e t o modify t h e equation t o
allow f o r c o r r e l a t i o n e i t h e r by adding e x t r a elements t o t h e s t a t e v e c t o r or by
i n c l u d i n g a d d i t i o n a l terms, involving t h e covariance of s u c c e s s i v e measurements,
i n t h e equations, i n t h e p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e i t w a s decided t o keep t h e f i l t e r i n i t s
b a s i c form i n t h e i n t e r e s t s of s i m p l i c i t y . This means t h a t t h e e x t e r n a l i n p u t s
must be s u b s t a n t i a l l y uncorrelated: i f t h i s r u l e is not observed, t h e f i l t e r w i l l
a c t as though each measurement were a p i e c e o f genuine new information when i n
f a c t i t is l a r g e l y a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e previous measurement; t h i s r e s u l t s i n over
r e l i a n c e on t h e e x t e r n a l measurement and a f a l s e l y o p t i m i s t i c covariance matrix.

(b) Availabilitg

I n p r a c t i c e t h e r e w i l l be occasions when VOR or DME signals a r e not a v a i l a b l e

because o f range l i m i t a t i o n s , or t h e cone of confusion; while r e t u n i n g t h e r e c e i v e r ,
or because o f i n t e r f e r e n c e . I n t h i s c a s e s t e p 2 cannot be executed u n t i l t h e s i g n a l
is restored.

(c) Comuutina time

The frequency with which s t e p s 1 and 2 can be taken i s obviously l i m i t e d by

t h o speed of t h e computer.

I n t h e simulated f i l t e r t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e allowed f o r i n t h e following fashion. S t e p 1 is

executed a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s of time. The programme allows f o r t h i s i n t e r v a l t o be v a r i e d , but
i n t h e s i m u l a t i o n so f a r i t has been s e t t o 2 minutes. T h i s allows ample time, even f o r a slow '
computer, t o perform t h e Kalman f i l t e r i n g and o t h e r necessary t a s k s . Following s t e p 1, s t e p 2 is
executed f o r e i t h e r a VOR or a D I G input. A VOR i n p u t is taken i f t h e beacon b e a r i n g has changed
by more t h a n a chosen amount ( v a r i a b l e i n t h e programme; s e t t o 15' up t o now) s i n c e t h e last VOR
i n p u t , otherwise a DME i n p u t i s taken. C o r r e l a t i o n o f VOR e r r o r s depends on t h e bearing d i f f e r e n c e ;
i t is t h e r e f o r e l o g i c a l t o t a k e VOR i n p u t s a t f i x e d i n t e r v a l s of bearing, t h e i n t e r v a l being chosen
t o e m u r e low c o r r e l a t i o n between successive measurements. DME i n p u t s on t h e o t h e r hand w i l l be
taken a t f i x e d i n t e r v a l s of time, except when t h e sequence is i n t e r r u p t e d t o allow a VOR i n p u t .
The a c t u a l c o r r e l a t i o n time f o r DME i n not known; however i t seems u n l i k e l y t o exceed 2 minutes
except p o s s i b l y f o r a f i x e d b i a s , which i s allowed f o r i n t h e r e a l world model. As a v a r i a n t
e i t h e r VOR o r DME i n p u t s can be suppressed a l t o g e t h e r .

3. Simulation R e s u l t s

3.1. Procedure.

I n o r d e r t o produce s t a t i s t i c a l l y meaningful r e s u l t s , i t would be necessary t o run each case

a l a r g e number o f times, using d i f f e r e n t randomly generated i n p u t e r r o r s i n each run. This would
r e s u l t i n a l a r g e amount o f d a t a which could be analysed t o produce a mean, s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , and
p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f exceeding d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of e r r o r . Such a procedure would r e q u i r e a very l a r g e
number of run6 p e r case t o provide r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c a l information, p a r t i c u l a r l y considering that,
i n t h e c a s e o f c i v i l a v i a t i o n , t h e q u a n t i t y which i t is most i n t e r e s t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h is t h e l e v e l
of e r r o r which is only exceeded i n a small percentage of cases. Furthermore, a l a r g e number o f
c a s e s a r e o f . i n t e r e s t , s i n c e t h e r e a r e many parameters which can be v a r i e d t o produce d i f f e r e n t
c a s e s , such as d i s t a n c e o f c l o s e s t approach t o t h e beacon; speed; e r r o r l e v e l s of VOR/DME, Track,
and Ground Speed ( b o t h a c t u a l and as assumed i n t h e Kalman f i l t e r ) ; computation i n t e r v a l . In
f a c t t h e large number o f cases, and t h e large number o f r u n s r e q u i r e d per c a s e would make this
e x e r c i s e q u i t e p r o h i b i t i v e i n terms of c o s t and time.
19-4

Ae a n a l t e r n a t i v e , t h e following procedure has been adopted. Two b a s i c c a s e s are chosen, in

each of.which t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e at 500 k t s . for 200 n.m. t h e mid p o i n t of this
r u n being the c l o s e s t approach t o t h e beacon. I n t h e f i r s t b a s i c c a s e t h e distance of c l o s e s t
approach is 25 n.m., and i n t h e second i t is 5 n.m. The o t h e r parameters i n t h e b a s i c cases a r e
s e t t o t h e following values:

Track Error: Bias 1 deg.

Standard Deviation 1 deg.

Sueed Errox: Bias 2 kts.

Standard Deviation 2 kts.

DHE Ranne: Bias 0.1 n.m.

Standard Deviation 0.2 n.m.

VOR Bearing: Standard Deviation 1 deg.

I n i t i a l S t a t e Vector: P o s i t i o n Error (North) 1 n.m.

P o s i t i o n Error ( E a s t ) -1 n.m.
Ground Speed Error 5 kts.
Heading Error 4 deg.
2
I n i t i a l Covariance Matrix: P o s i t i o n Error Variance (North and E a s t ) 4 n.m.
2
Track Error Variance 1 deg.
Ground S p e d Variance 4 kts. 2
Off-diagonal elements (covariances) a l l z e r o

I n t h e b a s i c cases t h e e r r o r l e v e l s s e t i n t o t h e Kalman f i l t e r are t h e same as t h o s e used i n

t h e real world model.

Following t h e b a s i c c a s e s , a number of v a r i a n t s are chosen, i n each o f which one parameter is

v a r i e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e b a s i c case; t h e s e v a r i a n t s are described below i n d e t a i l . I n running each
v a r i a n t c a s e t h e random number generator i n t h e real world model is arranged t o g e n e r a t e t h e same
sequence of random numbers as i n t h e b a s i c case. Thus t h e e r r o r i n p u t s to the f i l t e r are t h e same
i n each case. T h i s makes i t e a s i e r t o compare t h e c a s e s on t h e b a s i s of a s i n g l e run for each case.

While t h i s procedure does not produce r e l i a b l e numerical information on f i l t e r performance, it

does g i v e adequate q u a l i t a t i v e cornparisone between t h e f i l t e r o u t p u t s and t h e raw d a t a , and between
t h e b a s i c case6 and t h e v a r i a n t s .

3.2. Results

Basic Case 1

The r e s u l t s f o r t h i s b a s i c case are i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g s . 1-4. Figs 1 and 2 show t h e e r r o r s

i n t h e Kalmn e s t i m a t e s of dead reckoning p o s i t i o n e r r o r . They a l s o show t h e Kalman e s t i m a t e s
o f p o s i t i o n e r r o r s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , and t h e e r r o r i n t h e raw VOR/DME i n p u t . I n the
n o r t h e r l y (along t r a c k ) d i r e c t i o n DME is e f f e c t i v e a t t h e beginning of t h e run and t h e e r r o r
i s r a p i d l y reduced from its i n i t i a l value of 2 n.m. -
An e r r o r l e v e l o f about 0.2 0.4 n.m.
is maintained from a p o i n t about 30 n.m. s h o r t of t h e c l o s e s t approach u n t i l t h e end of t h e
run.

I n t h e e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n VOR i s i n i t i a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e a t long range and t h e e r r o r grows

at f i r s t . However as range s h o r t e n s VOR improves and DME begins t o make a c o n t r i b u t i o n i n
the easterly direction. Thus t h e e r r o r is p u l l e d i n t o b e t t e r t h a n 0.5 n.m. near t h e c l o s e s t
approach. It begins t o grow a g a i n a f t e r t h e beacon is passed, but less slowly t h a n before,
because o f t h e trimming o f t r a c k e r r o r b i a s provided by t h e f i l t e r . This trimming is
i l l u s t r a t e d i n fig.3, i n which t h e f i l t e r is shown t o g e t within 0.5’ of the heading b i a s ,
by t h e end of t h e run. The v e l o c i t y b i a s i s a l s o trimmed w i t h i n 1 knot (fig.4).

Variant 1.1.

T h i s case is intended t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t of o m i t t i n g t h e VOR input. It was f e l t

t h a t a s t h e more a c c u r a t e DME range measurement i s a v a i l a b l e i n both n o r t h e r l y and e a s t e r l y
d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e course o f t h e run, i t might be p o s s i b l e t o l e a v e out t h e VOR, without
g r e a t l y a f f e c t i n g t h e performance. However, t h i s is not so. While t h e p o s i t i o n i s fixed
with f a i r accuracy near t h e p o i n t of c l o s e s t approach, t h e t r a c k b i a s is not adequately
trimmed, with t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e e a s t e r l y e r r o r runs away quickly as t h e a i r c r a f t recedes
from t h e beacon (figs.5-8). .
 19-5

References.

(1) RD-66-46, Ronald Braff, Final Report Project No,3X)-103-@tX Vortac Error Analyeis for
Helicopter Navigation, New York City Area". Atlantic City, New Jersey, Federal Aviation
Agency Test and Evaluation Division. July 1966, 39 + 12 *gee.

(2) TR 69095, P.M. Barham & D.E. Hmphries "Derivation of the Kalman Filtering Equatiomfrom
Elementary Statistical Principles". Farnborough, Hants., U.K. , Royal Aircraft Establishment
Hay 1969, 14 pages*
19-6

N.M.

,
I.5
\

-.I

-I
I
I
-IS

r CLOSEST
-2 APPROACH DISTANCE(N.M.)
-100 -50 0 +5 0 +IO0

0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 I4 16 Ib 20 22 24 26 28
TIME (MINUTES)

Fig.1. BASIC CASE I NORTHERLY FOSITION ERRORS

N.M
a \,,
1.5
Error in Estimating Dead Reckoning Error

I
Estimated Standard Dwiation of Dead Rcckoninp Error w
/ 4:4
,
FROM
,

.I

C
I-VORIDME PosWon Error

-.5

'I

-1.3

-2 -_-,,\ -100 -50

CLOSEST
APPROKH
I
+SO DISTANCE
(N.M.
t 100

0 2 4 6 8 lo I2 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
TIME (MINUTES)

Fig.2. BASK: CASE I EASTERLY POSITION ERRORS

 19-7

DEGREES
',
5
\
S.D of Estimate
4

I-\
/ \ /\
/ \
2 / \
-\---L-A---
\ L\\
. \
' \
\
I
Actual '\
\
\ /
/ Actual Track Bias
\
-- --/ \

Heading
Error-\\ I
I \
\ 0 0
/
-- ------ ---- -
0 \ I
\ / 0 4 -/-
V
/'
-I /
/'
-2 /'
I'
CLOSEST
-3. APPROACH DISTANCE (NM.)
0 +so
I ,

0 2 4 6 0 IO 12 14 16 10 20 22 24 26 28
TIME (MINUTES)

Fig.3. BASIC CASE I. TRACK ERRORS

KNOT
SD of Esthato
6
Ground Speed Bias Estimate

3 I ----

*
I
I
\ /
\ I \
\ I \
I I
\I I
---r
\
\ I
I 7--- I
1- \
0
\
1 ;,/---- \ /

0 /
---+r \ I
\
' \/ /'
/'

-I \ I
------- \I

-2
i CLOSEST DISTANCE ( N.MJ
-Do -50 APPROACH +so +DO
I I
I
0 2 4 6 8 IO I2 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
TIME (MIMITES1

Fig. 4 BASIC CASE I GROUND SPEED ERRORS

A
19-8

N.M
2

1.5
\,
E m in Estimating Dead Reckoning Error
I
d Standard DcvIation d D.R. Error 1 FROM KALMAN

.5

0
I
I
I
I . -.
.-.., /
/
/
..'- I
I \
'--- --#
4
/
e

-z
-_I
;*VOR/ DME Poritlon Error
-5

-I
I

-1.5 I
-2
i CLOSEST DISTANCE (HM)
-100 -5 0 APPR~ACH f50 +DO
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 10 20 22 24 26 20
TIME (MINUTES)

Fig 5 VARIANT 1.1 NORTHERLY POSITION ERRORS

TIME (MINUTES)

Fl9,6 VARIANT 1.1 EASTERLY POSITION ERROR

 19-9

' DEGREE!
\
5 \

-I

/
-2

CLOSEST
-3 APPROACH DISTANCE (N.MJ
/-loo -50 0 50 +Do
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 U 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
TIME MINUTES)

Fig. 7: VARIANT 1.1 TRACK ERRORS

KNOT!

6
/,Ground
SD ol Estlrnak
(Plotted Rebtlve to Actual Bias)
Speed Bias Estimate I FROM KALMAN
FILTER

-I

-2 I
CLOYST DISTANCE (N.M.1
/- 100 -!io APPROACH +50 c m
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 I6 18 20 22 ?A 26 28
TIME IMINUTES)

Fig.8. VARIANT 1.1 GROUND SPEED ERRORS

A
 20

OPTIMAL CORRECTION OF STOCHASTIC ERRORS

OF AN INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

- SIMULATION STUDIES -

BY

R. SWIK AND DR. G. SCHMIDT

DORNIER GMBH

FREEDRICHSHAFEN - GERMANY
20

List of Symbols

: position errors [km]

: velocity errors [km/h]
: platform angle errors [degree]
: random gyro drift [deg./h]
2
: random accelerometer error [km/h ]
2
: nominal accelerometer output [km/h ]
: earth's rate with respect to an inertially fixed
set of axes [deg./h]
: rate of the coordinate system in which computation
is performed with respect to the earth's fixed set,
.
[deg /h]
: rate of the coordinate syptem in which computation
is performed with respect to inertial space, [deg./h]
: Schuler angular frequency [rad/h]
: platform angle errors with respect to the computer
coordinate system, [deg.]
: position measurement errors, [km]
: measurement vector [km]
: white system noise
: system matrix of the error equations (12x12)
: measurement matrix (2x1 2)
: updating Vector
: discreted white noise vector
: transition matrix for the system errors
: loss function
: optimal estimate of the error vector xk
: covariance matrix of the estimate error
: covariance matrix of the discrete system noise
: covariance matrix of the measurement noise
: optimal filter gain
: corrected precession rate of the platform gyros
: corrected accelerometer signal
: accumulated estimate &
: gyro drift estimate propagated through a shaping
filter
: accelerometer erriix.detimate propagated through a
shaping filter
I

20- 1

Optimal C o r r e c t i o n o f S t o c h a s t i c E r r o r s
o f an I n e r t i a l Navigation System

R. Swik and D r . G. S,chmidt

D o r n i e r GmbH
F r i e d r i c h s h a f e n , Germany

Summary
T h i s p a p e r d i s c u s s e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a Kalman-Bucy F i l t e r t o t h e u p d a t i n g p r o c e s s o f
an i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n system.
Noisy p o s i t i o n measurements from a LORAN-receiver are u t i l i z e d a s a r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l f o r
u p d a t i n g t h e i n e r t i a l system.
A f t e r each p i e c e o f measurement i s i t a k e n , t h e o p t i m a l e s t i m a t e s from t h e f i l t e r a r e used
f o r e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n s . During t h i s p r o c e s s t h e s e e s t i m a t e s are t r e a t e d as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of t h e u n a v a i l a b l e e x a c t v a l u e s o f t h e system e r r o r s .
One s p e c i a l advantage o f t h i s method i s t h a t a l l modeled e r r o r s a r e e s t i m a t e d and c o r r e c t e d
from t h e p o s i t i o n f i x e s .
The concept h a s been e v a l u a t e d by d i g i t a l s i m u l a t i o n of t h e n a v i g a t i o n system and t h e
computer, a s w e l l a s t h e d i g i t a l f i l t e r i n g and c o r r e c t i n g scheme.
1. Introduction
Pure I n e r t i a l N a v i g a t i o n Systems accumulate e r r o r s which become s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r a l o n g
p e r i o d of time. T h e r e f o r e "damped" o r ' h y b r i d " systems are u t i l i s e d . These systems a r e
c o r r e c t e d by e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s independent
v e l o c i t y o r p o s i t i o n measurement.
The e r r o r s o u r c e s i n such an h i g h q u a l i t y h y b r i d system, (e.g. gyro d r i f t , a c c e l e r o m e t e r
e r r o r , and r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l i n a c c u r a c i e s ) a r e mainly s t o c h a s t i c w h i l e t h e d e t e r m i n i s t i c
e r r o r s a r e k e p t s m a l l by c a r e f u l component s e l e c t i o n , i n i t i a l alignment and b i a s i n g .
T h e r e f b r e c l a s s i c a l c o n t r o l t h e o r y a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n of t h e u p d a t i n g mechanism w i l l n o t
y i e l d t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . The Kalman-Bucy o p t i m a l f i l t e r i n g t h e o r y s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d
f o r t h e optimal u t i l i s a t i o n of t h e reference information.
The problem o f e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n i n terms o f modern c o n t r o l t h e o r y i s d i v i d e d i n t o two
parts :
(i) o p t i m a l e s t i m a t i o n of t h e e r r o r s by t h e f i l t e r u t i l i s i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n ,
( i i ) o p t i m a l c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n system w i t h t h e s e e s t i m a t e d e r r o r s .
1
Because t h e e s t i m a t e s ftom t h e f i l t e r a r e o p t i m a l o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o a l i n e a r dynamic
model o f e r r o r p r o p a g a t i o n and t h e assumed s t a t i s t i c s , t h e s e p o i n t s must be s p e c i a l l y
i n v e s t i g a t e d.
2 . E r r o r p r o p a g a t i o n i n t o t h e n a v i g a t i o n system
The e r r o r e f f e c t i n an i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n system can be d e s c r i b e d approximately by a s e t
I of l i n e a r e r r o r equations.

Assuming small d e v i a t i o n s , t h e s e e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e nominal

p a t h ( i . e . t h e a c t u a l v e l o c i t y and p o s i t i o n ) and t h e computed p a t h .
The f o l l o w i n g e r r o r s w i l l a p p e a r :
- position error 6 r
- velocity error 5
- p l a t f o r m a n g l e e r r o r 'p
( u n d e r l i n e d symbols i n d i c a t e v e c t o r s )
The a n g l e and p o s i t i o n e r r o r s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n fig. l., for a locally-level latitude-
l o n g i t u d e mechani z a t i o n .
For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i n t h i s p a p e r o n l y t h e gyro d r i f t 6 w and t h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r o f f s e t
e r r o r fi a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s e r r o r s o u r c e s . Thus f o l l o w z g [l] t h e e r r o r e q u a t i o n s o f t h e
p u r e i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n system are:
20-2

a: nominal accelerometer output.

-H: earth's r a t e w i t h r e s p e c t t o an i n e r t i a l l y f i x e d s e t o f a x e s .
-P : r a t e of
respect
t h e c o o r d i n a t e system i n which computation i s performed w i t h
t o the e a r t h ' s fixed set.
-w = n + p : r a t e of t h e c o o r d i n a t e system i n which computation i s performed w i t h

*s
-)I
= dq: respect
Schuler
t o i n e r t i a l space.
a n g u l a r frequency.
i s t h e a p p a r e n t a n g l e e r r o r o f t h e p l a t f o r m a t t h e computed p o s i t i o n 2 + (see f i g . l ) ,
and i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e a c t u a l p l a t f o r m a n g l e e r r o r i s d e s c r i b e d by

where

ay - -
6rX
r
?
Z
P E -
6rX t g
r
e, (0 = l a t i t u d e )

Eq. ( 1 ) r e p r e s e n t s a s e t of l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s w i t h t i m e - v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t s .
I n e r r o r a n a l y s i s , t h e e r r o r e q u a t on c o o r d i n a t e system i s o f t e n c o n v e n i e n t l y chosen t o
b e t h e nominal s e t of a x e s . But i n d e s i g n i n g an u p d a t i n g mechanism, t h e c o o r d i n a t e system
f o r t h e e r r o r model must be t h a t o t h e n a v i g a t i o n computer. For t h e x-channel t h e e r r o r
e q u a t i o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n a s i m p l i f i e d block diagram ( s e e f i g . 2 ) . I t i s assumed h e r e
t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s n o t o b t a i n e d from t h e i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n s y s t e m , b u t
from a s e p a r a t e a l t i t u d e - m e t e r w i t h n e g l i g i b l e e r r o r s .
A p o s i t i o n r e f e r e n c e from a LORAN r e c e i v e r i s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e t o update t h e i n e r t i a l system.
These p o s i t i o n measurements a r e n o t p r o c e s s e d c o n t i n u o u s l y , b u t o n l y a t d i s c r e t e sampling
times t k ( " p o s i t i o n f i x e s " ) . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p o s i t i o n from t h e i n e r t i a l system
and t h e p o s i t i o n f i x y i e l d s t h e p o s i t i o n e r r o r a t time t k , b u t a measurement e r r o r 5 from
t h e p o s i t i o n r e f e r e n c e i s added:
-Z ' b f + S (3)
3. Models f o r t h e s t o c h a s t i c e r r o r s [ 2 1 , r3]

The e r r o r s o u r c e s 60, & and 2 a r e u s u a l l y s t o c h a s t i c . The d e t e r m i n i s t i c e r r o r s on t h e

o t h e r hand i n a moGrn n a v i g a t i o n system a r e g e n e r a l l y l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . I t i s c o n v e n i e n t
t o approximate random gyro d r i f t 6 w and random a c c e l e r o m e t e r e r r o r s 6a by independent
e x p o n e n t i a l l y time c o r r e l a t e d Gaus=an p r o c e s s e s . T h i s c o l o r e d n o i s e G n t h e n be modeled
by l i n e a r s h a p i n g f i l t e r s w i t h w h i t e n o i s e i n p u t 2 ( t ) .
The random Loran n o i s e 5 can be approximatedby a w h i t e d i s c r e t e n o i s e i f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
time c o n s t a n t i s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e sampling i n t e r v a l o f t h e f i l t e r i n g c y c l e .
4 . Discrete e r r o r equations i n state-space notation

Eqs. (1) and (3) and t h e s h a p i n g f i l t e r s r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n t i n u o u s e r r o r model o f t h e

n a v i g a t i o n system, b u t a c o r r e c t i o n scheme h a s n o t been i n t r o d u c e d . The e q u a t i o n s can be
w r i t t e n i n s t a t e space n o t a t i o n a s follows: .

where
 20- 3

- B , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -By 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 - B z O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 - a x O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 - Ya 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
l o o o o o w z - W o 0 0 0
Y
matrix F = 0 1 0 0 0 - w z o w x o 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 wy -wx 0 0 0 0 0
O O O 1 O 0 -az a 0 (wz+nz) -usz 0
Y
0 0 0 0 1 a Z 0 -ax -bz+nzp 0 -wsz
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
O Qz
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 -Pz 0

...... 010
and
0
0 ...... 001 1 i s a 2 x 12 Matrix.

To c o r r e c t t h e e r r o r s o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n system, a c o n t r o l v e c t o r m u s t be defined t o
conform w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e c o n t r o l of t h e system.
The f i r s t assumption made i s t h a t a l l components o f t h e s t a t e v e c t o r 5 can be c o r r e c t e d
d i r e c t l y . The r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s c o r r e c t i o n scheme i s d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n
Chapter 6 . T h i s c o r r e c t i o n scheme i s d e s c r i b e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y by i n t r o d u c i n g a c o n t r o l
v e c t o r U i n eq. ( 4 ) :

P o s i t i o n measurements a r e a v a i l a b l e o n l y a t d i s c r e t e times, t k . T h e r e f o r e c o n t r o l a l s o
is f e d i n t o t h e system d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y .
The e r r o r v e c t o r 5 and t h e measurement v e c t o r 2 a t time tk a r e g i v e n by:

where

'k, k-1 : t r a n s i t i o n m a t r i x o f t h e system f o r t h e time i n t e r v a l 4-15 t 5 tk

I n t h e form ,of eq. ( 7 ) , (8) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s t a t i s t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s , t h e problem of

e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n i s now s o l u b l e u t i l i s i n g t h e well-known Kalman-Bucy t h e o r y of o p t i m a l
f i 1t e r i n g .
S . Optimal e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n

To compute t h e o p t i m a l c o n t r o l 2 from t h e measurement v e c t o r z , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o

d e f i n e f i r s t a s u i t a b l e l o s s f u n h i o n Vk. The o p t i m i z a t i o n for-the e s t i m a t i o n c o r r e c t i o n
problem c o n s i d e r e d h e r e i s known t o be s e p a r a b l e i n t o t h e o p t i m a l f i l t e r i n g problem
a n d t h e d e t e r m i n i s t i c o p t i m a l c o n t r o l problem f o r l i n e a r systems w i t h a q u a d r a t i c l o s s
f u n c t i o n r [ 4 ] . T h e r e f f r e t h e l o s s f u n c t i o n t o minimize i s chosen t o be [3]:
(9)

i . e . t h e mean s q u a r e e r r o r of a l l e r r o r components w i l l be minimized. S i n c e random gyro

d r i f t and a c c e l e r o m e t e r e r r o r a r e components o f t h e e r r o r v e c t o r 2 , we n o t e t h a t
minimization o f these q u a n t i t i e s i s a l s o required.
The s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n s i d e r e d problem i s given through

A
 20-4

where zk, t h e
A
optimal estimate of t h e e r r o r zk i s computed r e c u r s i v e l y from t h e f o l l o w i n g :
T
pk O k , k-1 'k-1 k-1 + Qk

Pk = :P - Kk Hk P:

Eqs. (11) r e p r e s e n t s t h e Kalman-Bucy F i l t e r . I n t h e s e e q u a t i o n s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

measurement v e c t o r zk,
t h e c o v a r i a n c e m a t r i c e s Q ( c o v a r i a n c e o f t h e random f o r c i n g
f u n c t i o n s wk) and R ( c o v a r i a n c e o f t h e measurembnt n o i s e ) a r e r e q u i r e d t o compute
t h e optimaT e r r o r e k t i m a t e 9 , Furthermore i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s p e c i f y t h e i n i t i a l con-
ditions & and Po ( t h e s t a t i k t i c s o f t h e e r r o r a t time t o ) t o s t a r t t h e computing c y c l e .
6 . R e a l i z a t i o n of t h e c o r r e c t i o n scheme i n an a i r b o r n e d i g i t a l computer

One advantage o f t h e above e s t i m a t i o n and c o r r e c t i o n scheme i s t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f

s e q u e n t i a l "on-line" computing, i . e . o n l y measurement z i s p r o c e s s e d a t time t k . T h i s
scheme y i e l d s t h e same r e s u l t s a s i f a l l measurements Zk (j = 1 , 2 , .....,k) were p r o -
c e s s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y (known a s "curve f i t t i n g " ) . A c o q a r i s o n o f t h e s e two methods shows
t h a t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e Kalman-Bucy F i l t e r i n g scheme would be f a r more e f f e c t i v e
i n an a i r b o r n e computer [4].
To compute t h e o p t i m a l e r r o r e s t i m a t e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y n o t o n l y t o program t h e f i l t e r
e q u a t i o n s b u t a l s o t o s p e c i f y o r compute t h e above-mentioned m a t r i c e s 0, H , Q , R. S i n c e
t h e system c o n s i d e r e d h e r e i s t i m e - v a r i a b l e (moving n a v i g a t o r ) e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e
q u a n t i t i e s r e q u i r e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f computation.
A d d i t i o n a l programming i s n e c e s s a r y t o perform c o r r e c t i o n scheme (10) due t o l i m i t a t i o n s
i n c o n t r o l p o s s i b i l i t i e s . The c o n t r o l v e c t o r was i n t r o d u c e d i n eq. ( 6 ) . For s i m p l i f i -
c a t i o n , i t was assumed t h a t d i r e c t c o n t r o l could be a p p l i e d t o a l l components o f t h e
s t a t e v e c t o r x. But such c o n t r o l i s p o s s i b l e o n l y f o r v e l o c i t y and p o s i t i o n , because
these q u a n t i t i e s a r e numbers i n t h e n a v i g a t i o n computer. The e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e v e l o c i t y
and p o s i t i o n e r r o r s a r e t h e r e f o r e s u b t r a c t e d a t time t from t h e computed v e l o c i t y and
p o s i t i o n ( d i r e c t r e s e t ) . The e r r o r s r e s u l t i n g from gyrb d r i f t , a c c e l e r o m e t e r o f f s e t
e r r o r , and p l a t f o r m a n g l e e r r o r are c o r r e c t e d i n d i r e c t l y . T h i s i s accomplished by
i n t r o d u c i n g a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i v e terms i n t o t h e n a v i g a t i o n e q u a t i o n s mechanized i n t h e
computer. Thus a c o r r e c t e d p r e c e s s i o n r a t e can be commanded t o t h e gyros i n s t e a d of
-w t o d r i v e t h e p l a t f o r m r a t e e r r o r 4 t o z e r o ?
h A
w
-c -
= w - E k X W - k

and by u t i l i s i n g t h e c o r r e c t e d a c c e l e r o m e t e r s i g n a l a i n s t e a d of 2 t o compensate p l a t -
form a n g l e e r r o r $ and random a c c e l e r o m e t e r e r r o r k T C
A A
a = a + a x z k - k
-c -
A
I n e q u a t i o n s (12) and ( 1 3 ) , E i s t h e accumulated e s t i m a t e of t h e p l a t f o r m a n g l e e r r o r
-$ because no a t t e m p t i s made-io r e s e t t h e p l a t f o r m . d"w and & a r e o b t a i n e d by modeling
t h e s h a p i n g f i l t e r s s p e c i f i e d i n s e c t i o n 3 f o r 6 w a n h s a , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The r e s e t mechanism
given through e q u a t i o n s ( 7 ) and (10) can be accomplishEl i n t h i s model f o r s t o c h a s t i c
gzro and a c c e l e r o m e t e r e r r o r s . The o u t p u t o f t h e s e f i l t e r s a r e t h e r e q u i r e d e s t i m a t e s
-Aw and & f o r s t o c h a s t i c gyro and a c c e l e r o m e t e r e r r o r s . For t h e i n t e r v a l t k < t
i
t k +1
t h e s e e s t i m a t e s a r e given by:

f a ( t ) = (AAa ( t k ) + 62,) * e -a(t-tk)

The u p d a t i n g mechanism i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a block diagram ( s e e f i g . 3 ) .

The r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e e s t i m a t i o n and c o r r e c t i o n scheme i n t h e computer i s simple i n
p r i n c i p l e . Problems w i l l a r i s e from t h e a t t r i b u t e s of such a computer a s
- f i n i t e memory
- f i n i t e computing speed
- f i n i t e word l e n g t h .
Thus t h e p o s s i b l e complexity o f t h e e r r o r model i s g e n e r a l l y r e s t r i c t e d , because r e q u i r e d
memory i n c r e a s e s roughly w i t h t h e s q u a r e o f and computing time w i t h t h e cube of t h e
number of s t a t e v a r i a b l e s .
 20-5

Round-off e r r o r s w i l l become s i g n i f i c a n t f o r an i n c r e a s i n g number of e s t i m a t i o n

c o r r e c t i o n c y c l e s a s w e l l a s f o r z e r o n o i s e i n t h e e r r o r model, i . e . Qk + 0 o r Rk + 0.
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e e r r o r s i n c o m p u t a t i o n a l r e a l i z a t i o n can be r e d u c e d by s u i t a b l e
f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e e r r o r e q u a t i o n s , by i n t r o d u c i n g t h e s t a t i s t i c s o f t h e r o u n d - o f f
n o i s e i n t o t h e Qk m a t r i x o r by u s i n g m o d i f i e d f i l t e r e q u a t i o n s ( s e e [4] and [SI).
7. S i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s
The a b o v e - d e s c r i b e d method o f e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n h a s been t e s t e d by d i g i t a l s i m u l a t i o n .
A r e a l i s t i c t e s t , t h i s simulation included not only the necessary f i l t e r equations
( t h e P-matrix g i v e s t h e s e c o n d o r d e r s t a t i s t i c s o f t h e l i n e a r i z e d e r r o r p r o p a g a t i o n )
b u t a l s o t h e n a v i g a t i o n computer, s e n s o r o u t p u t s w i t h a d d i t i v e n o i s e , e q u a t i o n s f o r
t h e p l a t f o r m a n g l e e r r o r , and t h e c o r r e c t i o n a l g o r i t h m o f e q u a t i o n s (12) and ( 1 3 ) .
To compute s e n s o r i n p u t s and e r r o r s , t h e nominal p a t h must be s t o r e d or computed from
g i v e n p a r a m e t e r s . T a b l e 1 shows t h e d a t a f o r t h e s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d h e r e .
I n f i g u r e 4 - 8 r e s u l t s o f a t y p i c a l computer-run a r e shown i n comparison w i t h t h e p u r e
i n e r t i a l Bystem.
The improvement by t h e o p t i m a l l y u p d a t e d s y s t e m i s e v i d e n t a f t e r a few e s t i m a t i o n -
correction cycles.
Compared w i t h t h e rms e r r o r o f t h e LORAN s y s t e m , t h e u p d a t e d s y s t e m w i l l y i e l d an
improvement o f a b o u t 4 0 % f o r t h e s t e a d y s t a t e rms p o s i t i o n e r r o r .
8. C o n c l u s i o n
A concept t o o p t i m a l l y update a p u r e i n e r t i a l system w i t h a d d i t i o n a l n o i s y p o s i t i o n
measurements h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d . The models a s c o n s i d e r e d f o r e r r o r p r o p a g a t i o n and
e r r o r s o u r c e s have been s i m p l i f i e d ( e . g . i n n e g l e c t i n g a d d i t i o n a l e r r o r s o u r c e s , or
c o u p l i n g and c o r r e l a t i o n of s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s ) . But t h e p r i n c i p a l b e h a v i o r o f t h i s
h y b r i d s y s t e m w i l l o u t l i n e t h e more complex s y s t e m b e h a v i o r . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h s h o u l d
n o t c o n c e n t r a t e so h e a v i l y upon more complex e r r o r - m o d e l s and s t a t i s t i c s , b u t upon
s i m p l i f y i n g t h e u p d a t i n g p r o c e s s t o t a k e t h e b e s t a d v a n t a g e o f t h e amount o f s o f t w a r e
and t h e a v a i l a b l e hardware t o p r o d u c e a s y s t e m w i t h o p t i m a l e f f i c i e n c y .
References:
[l] J . C . Pinson:
" I n e r t i a l Guidance f o r C r u i s e V e h i c l e s
i n "Guidance and C o n t r o l o f Aerospace V e h i c l e s "
."
Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1963.
[Z] H. E r z b e r g e r :
"Application o f Kalman-Filtering t o
E r r o r C o r r e c t i o n o f I n e r t i a l Navigators"
NASA TN D-3874.
[3] F. J u r e n k o , C.T. Leondes:
"Optimum Alignment o f an I n e r t i a l A u t o n a v i g a t o r " .
J E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s VOL. .AES-3, NO. 6 , p p . 880-888.

[4] R . Bucy / P. J o s e p h :
" F i l t e r i n g f o r Stochastic Processes with Application
t o Guidance".
Wiley, New York, 1968.
[5] H.W. Sorensen:
" K a l m a n - F i l t e r i n g Techniques"
i n "Advances i n C o n t r o l Systems" Vol. 3.
Academic Press, N e w York, 1966.

Tab. 1: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e s i m u l a t i o n runs shown i n F i g . 4-8.

S t a r t i n g . p o s i t i o n : Oo = 47.5' (north latitude)
A. = -53.0' (west l o n g i t u d e )
A i r c r a f t moving a t c o n s t a n t a l t i t u d e w i t h c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y
velocity: vx = 900 km/h ( e a s t )
v = 159 km/h ( n o r t h )
Y
altitude: h = 10 km
20- 6

Sensor e r r o r s :
Gyro random d r i f t : a d = O.OSO/h w i t h a t i m e - c o n s t a n t of 5 h.
Accelerometer random b i a s : aa = 2*10-4g w i t h a t i m e - c o n s t a n t o f 10 h .
P o s i t i o n measurement: d i s c r e t e measurements w i t h time i n t e r v a l A t - 3 min.
COv a r i an ce mat r ix o f me as ureme n t e r r o r
I 2.5 0
km2
' = I O 2.5

S t a t i s t i c s of the starting point:

Po - diag [ uiz] with

e r r o r component 6wx, 6wy, 6wz 6 a x * 6ay Jlx, Jly

U i
O.OSO/h 2.10-4g 0.05' 0.10 I 1 km/h I 0 . 5 km
 20-7

actual platform orientation

f'p, nominal platform orientation

surface of the earth

actual (nominal) position

Fig. 1 : P o s i t i o n - and angle -errors i n the plane s u r f a c e

( Zfl, + 9, ) d V Y
OZ'VX

corrected
' measured
acceleration g
corrected
aaelemtion a_2 navigation
-
position I

P
p l a t form. -
- -'
computer 1

I I I corrected
Velocity 1

velocity error

I I

acceleration error

error
optima l
filter computation

position
measurement

reference

Fig. 3: Blockdiagram o f updating, mechanism

20-8

n
c
w
t4
0
d
U

t4
0
t4
&I
0)

x
w
.d
U
0
r(

P
..
In

M
.d
L4

0 0 0
P hl
I
m
I
G
I

c
.-
U E
\
c
0 .U
U
n
3
I

20-9

C
2

Q
(\1
.- e,
w
.d
&
0
a
0
7 0
c
0

&
.-
c
i
L
0 E
U 0 CD 0
L a
9
cr:
..
r-

bo
.d
L4

&
0
&
&
a,

51
E
.d
N
td
E
&
0
w
e,
ld
r(

..
\o

bo
.d
L4

8 2 3
0-
I
0-
I
8
0-
I
8
0-
I
--
0
I
20- 10

~ u r ei n e r t i a l .I

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 t/min

F i g . 8 : Standard d e v i a t i o n o f t h e l a t i t u d e e r r o r
 21

DESIGN OF LOW SENSITIVITY KALMAN FILTERS

FOR HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

C. E. Hutchinson* and J.A. D' Appol i t o t

* U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002

tThe A n a l y t i c Sciences C o r p o r a t i o n
Reading, Massachusetts 01867
21

List of Symbols
A domain of 2
E expectation operator
JO trace of estimation e r r o r covariance matrix
J optimum J

K1 constant f o r units conversion

L 1 a t i tude

Q system noise covariance matrix

R measurement noise covariance matrix

Re radius of earth
s1, s2, s3 s e n s i t i v i t y measures
U19 U 2 white noise
set of unknown Q
vQ
vR s e t of unknown R
w 1 , w2 measurement errors
x, y, z north, e a s t , down coordinate frame
Zlr z2 measurement errors
-a vector of unknown constants
-B adjustable f i l t e r gains
8, 8,s 8Y s 8, inverse correlation times
6R radial position e r r o r
6X, 6Y pos i ti on e r r o r s
E D EX’ 9 E gyro drift rates .
Y Z
A longitude

PE E ’ pw1w2 correlation coefficients

X Y
U standard deviation o f variable i n subscript
b u s UW1, 0 # U€* 0 9 UE 9 U 1
w2 y €Z
n earth r a t e

‘V’ ‘H vertical and horizontal components of n

 21-1

DESIGN OF LOW SENSITIVITY KALMAN FILTERS

FOR HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEMS*

C. E. Hutchinson
U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002

J. A. D'Appolito
The. A n a l y t i c Sciences Corporation
Reading, Massachusetts 01867

Summary
An expressed goal o f any h y b r i d n a v i g a t i o n system i s the d e s i r e t o achieve b e t t e r o v e r a l l performance
f o r the t o t a l system a c t i n g i n concert than would be possible ifeach component system acted independently.
One technique f o r o b t a i n i n g optimum o v e r a l l performance t h a t has been proposed i s the use o f Kalman f i l -
ters. However, the Kalman technique has some very c r u c i a l disadvantages. One s p e c i f i c disadvantage i s
the p r e r e q u i s i t e requirement f o r knowing the exact s t a t i s t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n f o r each random s i g n a l inherent
i n t h e n a v i g a t i o n system. Seldom i s t h i s data known e x a c t l y and i t i s necessary, therefore, t h a t the
Kalman f i l t e r be designed i n the presence o f t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y i n system s p e c i f i c a t i o n knowing i n advance
t h a t t r u e optimum performance w i l l n o t be achieved. This paper presents a design procedure applicable t o
t h i s s i t u a t i o n . A mathematical formulation o f the design procedure using game-theoretic ideas (min-max)
i s given. Several r e s u l t s are presented which g r e a t l y s i m p l i f y some o f the computer algorithms needed
f o r actual design techniques, and an example o f s p e c i f i c n a v i g a t i o n system usage i s presented.

Introduction
The Kalman f i l t e r i s being extensively proposed as a p r a c t i c a l estimator f o r the s t a t e o f a l i n e a r
dynamical system e x c i t e d by random inputs. Two s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s being considered i n v o l v e the i n t e g r a -
l
t i o n o f n a v i g a t i o n systems, f o r a i r c r a f t and space missions, and m i s s i l e guidance system alignment. I n any
a p p l i c a t i o n o f the Kalman f i l t e r i t i s mandatory t h a t t h e system dynamics and noise s t a t i s t i c a l parameters
be known. However, i n " r e a l " problems t h i s i s n o t the case; rather, one knows o n l y the "range" o f possi-
b i l i t i e s f o r these parameters. The goal o f the research reported herein was t o develop a systematic design
technique f o r the implementation o f the Kalman f i l t e r i n the presence o f t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y i n system s p e c i f i -
cation. A basic ground r u l e f o r t h i s research was t h a t a l l design techniques must be " p r a c t i c a l " ; meaning
t h a t they are r e a d i l y a p p l i c a b l e and do n o t increase the complexity o f the f i l t e r mechanization.

Problem Formulation and Results

I n recent years the Kalman (1) o r Kalman-Bucy (2) f i l t e r has gained wide acceptance as an estimator
for the s t a t e vector of a l i n e a r dynamical system e x c i t e d by random inputs. This f i l t e r i s optimum i n the
sense t h a t i t generates t h e minimum variance unbiased estimate o f the system s t a t e vector from noisy meas-
urements o f the output. The a b i l i t y o f t h i s f i l t e r t o handle time-varying systems and i t s ready r e a l i z a -
t i o n on a d i g i t a l computer have contributed g r e a t l y t o i t s p o p u l a r i t y . A major drawback t o the use o f the
Kalman f i l t e r , however, l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t i t s r e a l i z a t i o n requires exact knowledge o f the system dynam-
i c s and the covariance matrices o f the system i n p u t and measurement noises. These parameters are r a r e l y
known exactly. Usually they are known o n l y approximately, o r e q u i v a l e n t l y , one can s t a t e o n l y the probable
range i n which they l i e . The question o f how t o design a f i l t e r i n the face o f these u n c e r t a i n t i e s imne-
d i a t e l y arises.
To date, two approaches t o t h i s problem have received serious a t t e n t i o n i n the l i t e r a t u r e . I n the
f i r s t (31, one attempts t o estimate the unknown parameters along w i t h the s t a t e vector. I n the case o f
unknown dynamic parameters t h i s i s u s u a l l y accomplished by assuming t h a t t h e unknown parameters s a t i s f y
some s e t o f d i f f e r e n t i a l equations and appending these equations t o the p l a n t equations. Unfortunately,
the assumed parameter dynamics can r a r e l y be j u s t i f i e d . Furthermore, the augmented system o f equations i's
I i n v a r i a b l y nonlinear. Thus n o t o n l y i s one forced t o estimate a d d i t i o n a l variables, b u t unless s u i t a b l e
l i n e a r i z a t i o n s are made, the Kalman f i l t e r i s no longer even applicable. These l i n e a r i z a t i o n s u s u a l l y
place serious l i m i t a t i o n s on the convergence o f the estimator. Maximum l i k e l i h o o d techniques have been
developed f o r estimating both dynamic and s t a t i s t i c a l parameters (4), (5), (6), b u t these estimators are
nonlinear, and more importantly, non-recursive i n s t r u c t u r e . This l a t t e r property makes the p r a c t i c a l
a p p l i c a t i o n o f these estimators t o systems o f any reasonable s i z e computationally p r o h i b i t i v e . Further-
more, t h e e r r o r performance o f these estimators on f i n i t e data records i s unknown. F i n a l l y , as i n a l l
cases o f nonlinear estimation, the question o f whether o r n o t the parameters o f i n t e r e s t are even observ-
able i s l a r g e l y unanswered.
I n the second approach (7), one designs a Kalman f i l t e r f o r some nominal value o f the unknown para-
meters. The e r r o r performance o f t h i s nominal f i l t e r i s then compared w i t h the optimal e r r o r over the
e n t i r e assumed range o f the unknown parameters. This procedure i s repeated f o r several nominal values
u n t i l a f i l t e r i s obtained i n which the departure from o p t i m a l i t y i s acceptable. Though t h i s approach
o f t e n leads t o an engineeringly useful f i l t e r , i t requires extensive computer s i m u l a t i o n and i n the end
one i s never c e r t a i n t h a t a b e t t e r f i l t e r does n o t e x i s t . I ^

,
I n the second approach, one compares the e r r o r performance o f a nominal f i l t e r w i t h t h a t o f the
optimal f i l t e r . Now, however, one i s i n h e r e n t l y invoking the concept o f s e n s i t i v i t y . The procedure as i t
stands i s b a s i c a l l y a n a l y t i c a l , although the concept o f s e n s i t i v i t y i s o n l y q u a l i t a t i v e l y defined. A pro-
cedure f o r d i r e c t l y synthesizing low s e n s i t i v i t y f i l t e r s i s c l e a r l y desirable. I n order t o accomplish
t h i s , one must f i r s t q u a n t i f y the concept o f s e n s i t i v i t y i n a manner appropriate t o the f i l t e r i n g problem
and then d e r i v e algorithms f o r o p t i m i z i n g the s e n s i t i v i t y measure, thereby r e a l i z i n g the design o f the
o p t i m a l l y i n s e n s i t i v e f i l t e r . This i n general terms was the goal o f the research reported herein.
The research t o date has considered the steady s t a t e design o f a f i l t e r f o r estimating the s t a t e o f
a l i n e a r time i n v a r i a n t system from noisy measurements o f the output when c e r t a i n dynamical and/or
*
This research was p a r t i a l l y supported by NASA under Grant NGR 22-010-12.
21-2

s t a t i s t i c a l parameters were on./ p a r t i a l l y known. It was assumed i n t h i s work t h a t the vector o f unknown
parameters a was constant and confined t o a bounded domain A. Ifa were known one would simply b u i l d the
Kalman filtFr f o r t h a t value of Q. As i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r , t h e m a j o r advantages o f the Kalman f i l t e r , aside
from i t s o p t i m a l i t y , are t h a t i t i s r e c u r s i v e and e a s i l y implemented. I t i s d e s i r a b l e t h e r e f o r e t o r e t a i n
these l a t t e r advantages i n any o p t i m a l l y i n s e n s i t i v e f i l t e r . Thus, l a c k i n g exact knowledge o f Q a f i l t e r
i d e n t i c a l i n form t o t h a t of the Kalman f i l t e r was selected. Now, however, t h e feedback and feedforward
gains are adjusted i n a manner t o s a t i s f y an appropriate s e n s i t i v i t y c r i t e r i o n as s h a l l be discussed.
These adjustable gains, denoted here by the vector &, belong t o a bounded domain B o f s u f f i c i e n t range and
dimensionality t o generate the Kalman f i l t e r f o r every value o f Q e A.
The t r a c e o f the e s t i m a t i o n e r r o r covariance m a t r i x was chosen as the measure o f f i l t e r e r r o r p e r f o r -
mance. I t i s w e l l known t h a t t h e Kalman f i l t e r minimizes the t r a c e o f t h i s matrix. I n general, t h i s
e r r o r measure i s a f u n c t i o n of both a and B, and i s denoted here by J(a, 8 ) . For a given a the minimum
value o f J , a t t a i n e d by the Kalman f i l t e r i s Jo(a). C l e a r l y J(Q, d.2 JOT')
f o r a l l Q e A-and a l l & e B .
Since 0 i s unknown and 8 alone i s a v a i l a b l e f o r s e l e c t i o n by the designer, i t seems most n a t u r a l t o view
a and & as adversaries i n the game-theoretic sense. With t h i s i n mind, three s e n s i t i v i t y measures and
f i e i r associated r u l e s o f synthesis seem appropriate. They are:
SI = min max J(a, &)
-
g e B a e A

S2 = min
-g e
MX
B a e A
(J(u, E) - Jo(dI
&) - Jo(a)
S, = min max {J(Q, 1
-8 e B Q ~ A (E)
J0

The SI design simply minimizes the maximum value o f J over the unknown parameter s e t 5. This places an
upper bound on the estimation e r r o r and might be i n t e r p r e t e d as a "worst case" design. The second and
t h i r d c r i t e r i a minimize the maximum absolute and r e l a t i v e d e v i a t i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y o f the f i l t e r e r r o r from
optimum over the unknown parameter s e t Q. Thus the S2 and S3 c r i t e r i a f o r c e the' f i l t e r e r r o r t o t r a c k
the optimum e r r o r w i t h i n some tolerance over the e n t i r e s e t a e A. I n each case t h e above procedures
y i e l d a f i x e d value o f & and t h e r e f o r e a f i x e d f i l t e r design good f o r a l l values o f Q.
Research t o date has concentrated on the design o f o p t i m a l l y i n s e n s i t i v e f i l t e r s i n the presence o f
uncertain system and measurement noise s t a t i s t i c s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t was assumed t h a t elements o f the
system and measurement noise covariance matrices, Q and R respectively, were unknown. These unknown e l e -
ments then c o n s t i t u t e the vector 0.
I n the case o f the S1 f i l t e r , several i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s are available. F i r s t and foremost i s t h a t
SI = min
g e B Q ~ A
max J(a, &) = amax
-
e A k;nB J(a, &)I
= max Jo(E)
-
a e A
since by d e f i n i t i o n
min J(0, &I = Jo(g)
BeB -
This r e s u l t i s c r u c i a l because i t replaces the very d i f f i c u l t min-max problem w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y simple
maximization o f the optimal r e t u r n s over a l l unknown a e A.
The above r e s u l t i m p l i e s t h a t the S1 f i l t e r i s unique, a h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e r e s u l t . I t has a l s o been
shown t h a t Jo(a) i s concave i n A and has continuous f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e s everywhere i n A. Thus r e l a t i v e l y
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r a maximizing algorithms such as "steepest ascent" techniques w i l l y i e l d the maximizing
value o f 5. The vector &may then be computed from Q y i e l d i n g the S1 f i l t e r .
It i s a l s o possible t o show t h a t f o r diagonal elements o f Q and R the appropriate value f o r min-max
i s the maximal one. Thus design f o r SI f i l t e r s i n the presence o f unknown Q and R w i t h o n l y diagonal
elements i s t r i v i a l .
I n the case o f S2 and S3 f i l t e r s , e q u a l l y g r a t i f y i n g t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s are a v a i l a b l e . F i r s t o f a l l ,
the S2 and S3 f i l t e r s are known t o be unique. Furthermore, i t has been shown t h a t the value o f & y i e l d i n g
the min-max i s a c t u a l l y optimal f o r a t l e a s t one Q e A. This i s i n t u i t i v e l y appealing and lends v a l i d i t y
t o the e m p i r i c a l approach discussed i n the introduction. Unfortunately, min-max does no equal max-min f o r
the So and Sq f i l t e r s and one i s thus forced t o solve the comolete min-max oroblem. It has been shown.
however, t h a t the maximum o f S2 and S3 i s a t t a i n e d over a f i n i t e s e t o f p o i i t s i n A c a l l e d the extreme-
p o i n t s o f A, thereby g r e a t l y reducing the search problem i n t h a t domain.
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f the above r e s u l t s t o the design o f a s p e c i f i c f i l t e r o f s i g n i f i c a n c e t o h y b r i d
navigation i s presented i n t h e n e x t section.

Example
I n many instances the p o s i t i o n e r r o r o f an i n e r t i a l navigator mechanized i n l o c a l geographic coord
nates i s adequately described by a three-degree-of-freedom o s c i l l a t o r c a l l e d t h e e a r t h r a t e loop (ERL)
model because i t has a twenty-four hour p e r i o d induced by the e a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n . The t h r e e s t a t e s o f t h S
o s c i l l a t o r , 9,
' $Y and 9, represent the angular misalignment o f the i n e r t i a l p l a t f o r m about t h e l o c a l
coordinate system (see Fig. 1). Inputs t o the ERL e r r o r model are the x, y, and z gyro random d r i f t
r a t e s which are assumed t o be f i r s t - o r d e r continuous Markov processes. This process i s generated i n t h e
model by a shaping f i l t e r a p p r o p r i a t e l y e x c i t e d by white noise. I f E represents a gyro d r i f t r a t e then
E = 'BE + U

The variance of U i s r e l a t e d t o the steady-state variance o f E by

U
U2 = 2BUZ

The mean square values o f the gyro d r i f t r a t e s are f a i r l y w e l l known. The x and y gyro d r i f t r a t e s are
a l s o known t o be correlated, b u t the amount o f c o r r e l a t i o n i s uncertain.
 21-3

P o s i t i o n e r r o r i s r e l a t e d t o the $x and $ t i l t angles through the e a r t h ' s radius. Re as follows:

Y
6X = Re$y

S Y = -Re$,

where SX and S Y are the X and Y p o s i t i o n errors. A f i g u r e o f m e r i t (FOM) f o r the navigator i s i t s t o t a l

rms r a d i a l p o s i t i o n e r r o r
SR = Re(EI$; + $1) 1/2
Noisy measurements o f p o s i t i o n are available. The rms magnitude o f each measurement noise and the
c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n between them i s uncertain.
A complete s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p o s i t i o n e r r o r problem i s given below.

[O -%
Navigator E r r o r State Equations
0 K1 0 0'
-O O d
bx-
RV 0 R,, 0 K1 0 0 0 0
$Y $Y
d 0 0 0 0 K1 0 0 0
aT
$2 = $2 +
EX
0 0 o - B x 0 0 1 0 0
EX
E 0 0 0 0 -By 0 0 1 0
Y EY
E
z- -0 0 0 0 0-8,
€2- -0 0 1,

Measurement Equations
R e o
0 0
0

0
0
0 1 63
0
0 xi$Y
-

$2
+

EX

EY
EZ
where ,$, $ , $, = Platform misalignment (radians) U = U = .0014 deg/hr
Y
Ex EY
E ~ .E ~ . = Gyro d r i f t r a t e s (deg/hr) 8, = 8 = l/hr
Y
n = Earth r a t e = .262 r a d / h r
' E E
X Y
-< .75
nV = n s i n L U = .003 deg/hr
€Z
nH = n cos L 8, = .l/hr

L = L a t i t u d e (deg) .1 5 owl 5 .25 NM

K1 = .01734 rad/deg .1 ~u < .25 NM
w2 -
Re = 3437 n a u t i c a l m i l e s (NM) < .8
pw1w2 -
The diagonal elements o f Q and R and the range of the uncertain off-diagonal elements are computed as
i n d i c a t e d above. The sets V and VR f o r t h i s problem are:
Q
0 -

R' = [.0625
t.05 T.Oj
.0625
where the maximal values are u t i l i z e d f o r the diagonal elements o f VR. A minimax r a d i a l e r r o r o f .269
n a u t i c a l m i l e s was a t t a i n e d a t the p o i n t
q12 = -.3~10- 6
r12= .0234

The S2 f i l t e r was a l s o found f o r t h i s example using an ad hoc procedure. The design p o i n t f o r t h i s

filter is
q12 = - . 1 5 ~ 1 0 - ~
21-4

r12= -.03
where i t was assumed t h a t the diagonal elements o f VR were again maximum.
The e r r o r performance of both f i l t e r s i s shown i n Table 1. The W1 and "-" signs i n the f i r s t column

912' r12
+, t
OPT

.258
S1
.269
s2

.284
A1

.011
- A2

,026
+, - .221 ,269 .247 .038 .026
-9 + .262 .269 .283 .007 .021
-* - .220 .269 .246 .039 .026
origin ,265 .269 .265 .004 SO
MAX ERROR .269 .269 .284
MAX A ---- .039 .026

TABLE 1. POSITION FOM (NM) FOR EXAMPLE

o f t h i s t a b l e r e f e r t o the extreme values of the unknown off-diagonal terms. Notice t h a t t h e Sl f i l t e r

e r r o r i s i n s e n s i t i v e t o the value o f the off-diagonal terms since i t i s designed f o r the p o i n t where the
gradient w i t h respect t o these terms i s zero.
The lower h a l f o f Table 1 sumnarizes the S,, S, comparison. The Si f i l t e r provides a l e a s t upper
bound on r a d i a l p o s i t i o n e r r o r a t t h e expense o f greater maximum d e v i a t i o n from o p t i m a l i t y . The S2 f i l t e r
t o the c o n t r a r y minimizes t h e maximum d e v i a t i o n from o p t i m a l i t y a t the expense o f g r e a t e r absolute e r r o r .
System s p e c i f i c a t i o n s would d i c t a t e which o f the two f i l t e r s would be p r e f e r a b l e i n a given a p p l i c a t i o n .
These r e s u l t s are v a l i d f o r 45" l a t i t u d e only; however, they change r a t h e r s l o w l y w i t h l a t i t u d e . I n
actual p r a c t i c e the minimax f i l t e r could be found f o r l a t i t u d e increments o f , say 5". One would then use
the S1 f i l t e r designed f o r a l a t i t u d e c l o s e s t t o h i s i n d i c a t e d l a t i t u d e .

Conclusions
The problem o f designing Kalman f i l t e r mechanizations f o r h y b r i d n a v i g a t i o n systems has been
approached using q u a l i t a t i v e concepts f o r low s e n s i t i v i t y . That i s , a design technique f o r Kalman f i l t e r s
i n the presence o f imperfect s p e c i f i c a t i o n s has been resented. A more d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n o f many o f the
r e s u l t s p e r t i n e n t t o t h i s problem a r e contained i n (87.

References
1. R. E. Kalman, "A New Approach t o Linear F i l t e r i n g and P r e d i c t i o n Theory," J. o f Basic Engineering,
Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 82, March 1960, pp. 35-45.
2. R. E. Kalman and R. S. Bucy, "New Results i n Linear F i l t e r i n g and P r e d i c t i o n Theory," J. o f Basic
Engineering, Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 83, March 1961, pp. 95-108.
3. Kumar, K. S. and Sridhar, R., "On the I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Linear Systems," Proceedings o f 1964 J o i n t
Automatic Control Conference, pp. 361-365.
4. Shellenbarger, J. C., "Estimation o f Covariance Parameters f o r an Adaptive Kalman F i l t e r , " Proceedings
o f National E l e c t r o n i c s Conference 1966, Vol. 22, pp. 698-702.
5. Abramson, P. D., Jr., "Simultaneous Estimation o f S t a t e and Noise S t a t i s t i c s i n L i n e a r Dynamical
Systems," (Sc.D. Thesis), Department o f Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e o f
Technology, 1968.
6. Carny, T. M. and Goldwyn, R. M., "Numerical Experiments w i t h Various Optimal Estimators," Journal o f
Optimization Theory and Applications, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1967.
7. Nishimura, T., " E r r o r Bounds on Continuous Kalman F i l t e r s and the A p p l i c a t i o n t o O r b i t Determination
Problems," IEEE Trans. on Automatic Control, Vol. AC-12, No. 3, June 1967.
8. D'Appolito, J. A., "Design o f Low S e n s i t i v i t y F i l t e r s f o r State Estimation," Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002, September 1969. Also t o be
published as Technical Report No. 4, P r o j e c t NGR 22-010-012.
 t

21-5

T"

FIG. 1. NORTH-VERTICAL COORDINATES

 This AGARD P u b l i c a t i o n can be obtained from:

Clearinghouse f o r Federal S c i e n t i f i c and

Technical Information (CFSTI),
S p r i n g f i e l d . Virginia 22151. USA.

The unit m i c e f o r a hard CODY is $3.00. The unit price for

a microfiche copy is $0.65. Pagment should be by check o r money
o r d e r add must accompany t h e order. Remittances from foreign
c o u n t r i e s should be made by international money order or d r a f t
on on American bank, payable t o CFSTI. The r a w e s t for 8' docu-
ment should include t h e AGARD Report Number. t i t l e . author and
publication date.

If you are i n t e r e s t e d i n obtaining o t h e r AGARD publication8

-
consult e i t h e r t h e

S c i e n t i f i c and Technical Aerospace Reports

(STAR) published by t h e Office of Technolow
Utilization, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. United States Government.

or the -
r
United'States Government Research and Derek@-
ment Reports Index (USGkDRI) 'published by
t h e Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and
Technical I n f o r m a t i o n , US Department of
Commerce.

P r r n t e d by Tedhnrcal E d s t r n g and Refwoductron Ltd

Rarford House, 7-9 C h a r l o t t e St. London. WIP 18D
 Microfiche Appei

Microfiche Appendix containing the Register