ASHRAE Fundamentals of Thermodynamics PDF

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ASHRAE Continuing Education
Fundamentals of
Thernlodynamics
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& Psychrometries
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For Professional Development
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Prepared by
Richard R. Johnson, Ph.D.

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North Carolina State University

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American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc.
1791 Tullie Circle NE • Atlanta, GA 30329
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Copyright © 1997 by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE). All rights reserved.
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No part ofthis book may be reproduced without written permission from ASHRAE, except
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by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with
appropriate credit; nor may any part of this book be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording or other)
without written permission from ASHRAE.
ASHRAE has compiled this publication with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated, and
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ASHRAE expressly disclaims any duty to investigate, any product, service, process, proce-
dure, design or the like that may be described herein. The appearance of any technical data
or editorial material in this publication does not constitute endorsement, warranty or guar-
anty by ASHRAE of any product, service, process, procedure, design or the like. ASHRAE
does not warrant that the information in this publication is free of errors. The entire risk of
the use of any information in this publication is assumed by the user.
Comments, criticism and suggestions regarding the subject matter are invited. Any errors or
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omissions in the data should be brought to the attention of Martin Kraft, Continuing Educa-
tion Course Editor.
ASHRAE Education Department:

Anne Spengler, Director of Education
Martin Kraft, Continuing Education Course Editor
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Laura Tracy, Education Coordinator

Marietta Henry, Secretary
F or course information or to order additional materials, please contact:

Education Department
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ASHRAElnc.
1791 Tullie Circle NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
Telephone: 404/636-8400
Fax: 404/321-5478
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

• Instructions
• Study Objectives of Chapter 1
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• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 HV AC: Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning
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• 1.3 The Major Processes of Air-Conditioning
• 1.4 Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
• Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1
Chapter 2
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• Instructions
• 2.2 Closed and Open Systems in Thermodynamics
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• 2.3 Forms of Energy
• 2.4 Properties of a System
• 2.5 Equilibrium States
• 2.6 Processes and Cycles
• The Next Step
• Summary
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Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances

• Instructions
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• 3.1 The State Postulate
• 3.2 Properties
• 3.3 Phases and Phase Changes for Pure Substances
• 3.4 Property Diagrams
• The Next Step
• Summary
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Table of Contents

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Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

• Instructions
• 4.2 Tables for Saturated Liquid and Vapor
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• 4.3 Tables for Superheated Vapor and Compressed Liquid
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• 4.4 Thermodynamic LiquidlVapor Charts
• The Next Step
• Summary
Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables

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5.2
5.3
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Instructions
Study Objectives of Chapter 5
5.1 Ideal Gas and the Ideal Gas Law
The Ideal Gas Law as an Equation of State
Constant Specific Heat
• 5.4 Air Tables
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• The Next Step
• Summary
Chapter 6 Heat and Work

• Instructions
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• 6.2 Heat
• 6.3 Work
• 6.4 Flow Work
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• The Next Step

• Summary
Table of Contents Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

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Chapter 7 First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Closed Systems

• Instructions
• 7.1 Introduction to Controlled Mass Approach
• 7.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System
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• 7.3 Conservation of Energy
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• 7.4 First Law Applied in Example Cases
• The Next Step
• Summary
Chapter 8 First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Open Systems

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Instructions
8.1
8.2
8.3
Introduction to the Control Volume Approach
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Energy and the First Law for Open Systems
• 8.4 Steady-Flow Processes
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• 8.S First Law Applied in Examples of Steady-Flow Processes
• The Next Step
• Summary
Chapter 9 Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics

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• Instructions
• 9.1 Compressors, Turbines, Pumps and Fans
• 9.2 Throttling Valves and Metering Devices
• 9.3 Heat Exchangers, Condensers and Evaporators
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• The Next Step

• Summary
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Table of Contents

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Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

• Instructions
• 10.1 The Second Law of Thennodynamics
Heat Engines, Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
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• 10.2
• 10.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
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• 10.4 The Camot Cycle and the Reversed Camot Cycle
• The Next Step
• Summary
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

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11.1
11.2
• 11.3
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Instructions
Refrigeration Equipment
The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Analysis of the Components and Cycle
• 11.4 Perfonnance of Ideal Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
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• 11.5 The Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
·11.6 Absorption Refrigeration System
• 11.7 Gas Refrigeration System
• The Next Step
• Summary
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Chapter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture of Ideal Gases

• Instructions
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• 12.2 Mixtures ofIdeal Gases

• 12.3 Mixture of Dry Air and Water Vapor
• 12.4 Moist Air Tables
• The Next Step
• Summary

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Chapter 13 Properties of Moist Air

• Instructions
• 13.1 Humidity Ratio and Relative Humidity
• 13.2 Dewpoint Temperature
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• 13.3 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
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• The Next Step
• Summary
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart

• Instructions
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14.1
14.2
• 14.3
• 14.4
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Introduction
Description ofthe Axes and Lines of the Chart
Finding Property Values on the Psychrometric Chart
Human Comfort and the Psychrometric Chart
• The Next Step
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• Summary
Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes on the Psychrometric Chart

• Instructions
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• 15.1 Simple Heating or Cooling at Constant Humidity Ratio

• 15.2 Heating with Humidification
• 15.3 Cooling Coil Dehumidification
• 15.4 Evaporative Cooling
• 15.5 Adiabatic Mixing
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• 15.6 Sensible Heat Ratio

• Summary
Table of Contents
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics
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Appendices
• Appendix A-I Dimensions and Units Used in Air-Conditioning Applications
• Appendix A-2 Unit Conversion Factors
• Appendix B-1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation
R-22 Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
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• Appendix C-l
• Appendix C-2 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for R-22
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• Appendix C-3 R-134a Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
• Appendix C-4 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for R-134a
• Appendix D-l Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at 14.696 psia
• Appendix E-l ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart
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Chapter 1
Introduction to HVAC
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Contents of Chapter 1
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• Instructions
• 1.2 HV AC: Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning
• 1.3 The Major Processes of Air-Conditioning
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• 1.4 Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics
• The Next Step
• Summary
• Bibliography
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Instructions
Read the material of Chapter 1. Re-read the parts of the chapter that are emphasized in the
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end of the chapter, complete all of the
skill development exercises without consulting the text.
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Study Objectives of Chapter I

Chapter 1 is intended to introduce the processes of HVAC and provide substance to the
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assertion that it is important to study thermodynamics to gain a better understanding of

HVAC. Chapter 1 concludes with a definition of thermodynamics and psychrometrics. Af-
ter studying the chapter, you should be able to:
• Define air-conditioning;
• Name and describe seven major air-conditioning processes;
• Provide a description of thermodynamics as the science of energy; and
• List HVAC applications where knowledge of basic thermodynamics is essential.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

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1.1 Introduction
Modem air-conditioning systems are part of our everyday life. Whether it is the comfort
enjoyed while relaxing at home, or the freedom from discomfort that allows concentration
on activities at work, we can appreciate air-conditioning for making our lives healthier,
more enjoyable and more productive. The benefits of air-conditioning are also apparent in
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the wide range of high quality products that are available in the marketplace. Many prod-
ucts and manufacturing processes are improved by air-conditioning because many goods
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can be produced better, faster and more economically in a properly controlled environment.
Air-conditioning allows for the creation of a comfortable environment indoors no matter

what the weather is like outdoors. Whether it's a sweltering hot day in August or a bitterly
cold night in January, air-conditioning can be a boon. However, there is a cost to air-condi-
tioning, which appears in the form of energy consumption. Systems installed in the United
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States prior to the energy scare of 1973 were generally designed with little attention to
energy conservation because energy was perceived to be plentiful and inexpensive. There
was less concern then of the potentially negative environmental impact of energy consump-
tion on a wide scale.
Times have changed. Today, energy conservation is a key component in air-conditioning

design. Efficiency is the watchword. The results of energy conservation efforts have led to
some interesting shifts in the air-conditioning marketplace. There are many more system
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configurations than ever before as designers try to take advantage of any opportunity to
save energy, and there are tradeoffs to be made between energy conservation and perfor-
mance. This means that it is important to know and understand how to best select compo-
nents for an HVAC system.
Besides the actual redesign of components such as compressors, furnaces, refrigerators and
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heat exchangers for better efficiency, there has also been a dramatic expansion in the logic
and sophistication of electronic controllers used in air-conditioning systems. Properly imple-
mented changes in system control have the potential to lead to significant improvements in
performance. Today, buildings often have an energy management system.
Besides energy conservation, the issues of health and air quality have drawn a lot of recent
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attention in air-conditioning systems. For instance, there is a current controversy about the
question of ventilation rates and air quality on board large passenger airplanes. Energy
considerations call for minimizing the ratio of outside air to recirculated air. In contrast, the
ventilation need is for plenty offresh outside air to avoid the build-up of contaminant gases
such as carbon dioxide. What constitutes the right balance? There are standards and guide-
lines for such ventilation requirements, but they must be continually reviewed because of
new situations and revised health evidence.
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To study the historical record of air-conditioning is to take a fascinating trip through the
tremendous technical and scientific record of our society. There are the pioneers such as
Robert Boyle, Sadi Carnot, John Dalton, James Watt, Benjamin Franklin, John Gorrie,
Lord Kelvin, Ferdinand Carre', Willis Carrier, Thomas Midgley and many others who have
brought us to our current state. We can expect that there is further history still to be written.
Air-conditioning could not have developed the way it has were it not for all of the accom-
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plishments of science and engineering in this century. Advances in thermodynamics, fluid
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mechanics, electricity, electronics, construction, materials, medicine, controls and social
behavior are the building blocks to better engineered products of air-conditioning.
Many of these famous names are connected to the study of thermodynamics. The term
thermodynamics was first used by Lord Kelvin in 1849, and the first textbook on thermody-
namics was written by William Rankine in 1859. Thermodynamics is the cornerstone to
understanding the processes of air-conditioning.
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HVAC: Heating, Ventilating andAir-Conditioning
For a long time, the term air-conditioning was associated with the act of air cooling only.
This has changed and the definition of air-conditioning has been broadened to include all of
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HV AC. HVAC stands for Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning (cooling). This dual
meaning of air-conditioning may seem confusing but, when air-conditioning is mentioned
by itself in this course, it will stand for both heating and cooling, and when it is used in the
context of HVAC, it will mean only cooling. The use of HV AC as a descriptive term con-
tinues because of its historical roots.
In its modem sense, air-conditioning is the control of temperature, moisture content, clean-
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liness, air quality and air circulation as required by occupants, a process or a product in the
space. This is a definition given by Willis Carrier (1876-1950) in the book, Father ofAir-
Conditioning.! Imbedded in this definition of air-conditioning are many ideas that have
been shaped over time about our perceived need for air-conditioning and the changing tech-
nology that makes air-conditioning possible. This is a wide ranging definition that gives
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interpretation to the idea of conditioning the air in a given space for some specific purpose.
Air-conditioning is more than an occasional luxury. It is important to our everyday comfort,

health and well-being whether we are at home, in the workplace, out shopping or travelling
from one place to another. It includes heating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying, venti-
lating and control of air quality year-round. Besides being important for humans and ani-
mals, air-conditioning is also essential to many manufacturing processes. For example, pre-
cision-engineered products are often made under closely controlled conditions that can only
be produced in an air-conditioned environment.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

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1.3 The Major Processes ofAir-Conditioning
The seven major processes of air-conditioning are heating, cooling, humidifying, dehu-
midifying, cleaning, ventilating and air movement.
• Heating is the process of adding thermal energy (heat) to the air in the condi-
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tioned space for the purposes of raising or maintaining the temperature of the
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aIr.
• Cooling is the process of removing thermal energy (heat) from the air in the
conditioned space for the purposes of lowering or maintaining the temperature
of the air.
• Humidifying is the process of adding water vapor (moisture) to the air in the
conditioned space for the purposes of raising or maintaining the moisture con-
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tent of the air.
• Dehumidifying is the process of removing water vapor (moisture) from the air
in the conditioned space for the purposes of lowering or maintaining the mois-
ture content of the air.
• Cleaning is the process of removing particulate, chemical and biological con-
taminants from the air in the conditioned space for the purposes of improving or
maintaining the air quality.
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• Ventilating is the process of exchanging air between the outdoors and the con-
ditioned space for the purposes of diluting the gaseous contaminants in the air
and improving or maintaining air quality, composition and freshness.
• Air Movement (circulation and mixing) is the process of moving air through
conditioned spaces in the building for the purposes of achieving the proper ven-
tilation and facilitating the thermal energy transfer, humidification (or dehu-
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midification) and cleaning processes outlined above.
These are the seven major air-conditioning processes used in HVAC systems. Heating and
cooling are the most basic and probably the most recognized. If the space is too hot or too
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cold, then the occupants are unlikely to be comfortable or productive and there is a need to
adjust the temperature by adding or removing thermal energy. Heating has been around for
a long time and may utilize a variety of heat sources such as the burning of a fuel, electricity
or chemical reaction to supply the heat. Cooling is more complicated. It requires a means
for removing energy from the air and usually involves a refrigeration cycle or evaporative
cooling technique. It takes energy work to drive the refrigeration cycle.
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The term air is used to mean a mixture of dry air and water vapor. Strictly speaking, the
term moist air should be used, but it is common in air-conditioning terminology to use air
when referring to moist air. There are several standard measures used to describe the pro-
portions of this mixture such as relative humidity, humidity ratio and moisture content. It is
important to understand that there is only a limited range of mixture proportions that are
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considered to be comfortable by humans. The range is also dependent on temperature. The
proportion of water vapor to dry air in the mixture is changed by adding water vapor
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(humidification) or removing water vapor (dehumidification). The study of the properties
and processes of moist air at atmospheric pressures is known as psychrometrics and will be
discussed in later chapters.
Humidification may be accomplished by allowing the air to blow over water on a wet po-
rous surface, by spraying small droplets into the air stream, by misting with an ultrasonic
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mister, or by steam injection. On the other hand, dehumidification is mostly commonly
accomplished by cooling. Cooling removes the energy from the water vapor to convert it to
liquid water. There is a limit to the amount of water vapor that can be held by the air. This
limit is known as the saturation condition and it decreases with decreasing temperature. If
the temperature of saturated air is decreased, then the vapor condenses into water droplets
and drips (or rains) out of the mixture. The result is that the air contains less water vapor.
The change of state from water vapor to liquid water (condensation) or from liquid water to
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water vapor (evaporation) involves transfer of substantial amounts of thermal energy known
as latent heat. Because heating and cooling are about the management of thermal energy to
control temperature, it is clear that the effects of humidification and dehumidification will
be interrelated with heating and cooling in air-conditioning.
There are many types of airborne pollutants. Particulates such as pollen, dust and smoke are
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common items that must be removed from a typical conditioned space. Microscopic organ-
isms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses may be important because of health reasons. Some
of these pollutants are just irritating, but others may be deadly. The removal of these pollut-
ants is often achieved by filtering or treating the air stream. Heating and dehumidification
are powerful deterrents to many small organisms.
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Air exchange between outdoors and the conditioned space is either by ventilation (inten-
tional) or by infiltration (unintentional). It is important because the outdoor air is often used
to dilute pollutants (such as carbon dioxide) and replenish oxygen to the indoor air. Forced
ventilation provides for the best control of air exchange rate and air distribution in a build-
ing and is usually mandatory in larger buildings where a minimum air exchange rate is
required. On the other hand, natural ventilation is driven by wind pressure, indoor-outdoor
temperature differences or the opening of a window, and it is not closely controlled. Infil-
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tration refers to air that leaks in through cracks, incomplete seals and unintentional open-
ings. Most residential homes depend on infiltration for an adequate air exchange rate. How-
ever, this has become a concern in many modem houses which are purposefully tightly
sealed as an energy conservation measure.
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Air movement, circulation and mixing are all fluid mechanics processes that involve mov-
ing the air between and through the conditioned spaces and to places where the other pro-
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cesses of heating, cooling, humidifying, cleaning and ventilating can occur. Air movement
may be forced or free. Forced air movement as produced by fans may be carefully con-
trolled. However, free air movement is often driven by temperature gradients in the condi-
tioned space and occurs naturally. Mixing is an important process that occurs when outdoor
air is mixed with indoor air as part of ventilation or when newly conditioned air mixes with
air already in the conditioned space.
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Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
To better understand and analyze each of the HVAC processes, it is essential to study and
develop an appreciation of thermodynamics and psychrometrics. The terms thermodynam-
ics and psychrometries may sound quite formidable at first, but as we shall see, they are
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descriptive terms for some common-sense ideas. Studying thermodynamics will provide
the tools for quantifying, analyzing and interpreting the very practical matters of HV AC.
Studying psychrometrics will provide the understanding needed for controlling humidity.
Thermodynamics may be defined as the science of energy. Everybody has some feeling for
what is generally meant by energy, but a precise definition takes some development. In the
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next chapter, some specific definitions and derivations will make it clear how thermody-
namics describes the relationships between the different forms of energy and the conver-
sion of one form of energy to another. These relationships occur in almost every aspect of
our daily lives. For example, how is it possible to convert the electrical energy ofthe power
supply into a cooling effect in an air-conditioned room? How can solar energy be effec-
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tively captured and put to good use? How are the heating needs for a house calculated for
the middle of winter? These and many other questions may be answered by conducting an
energy, or thermodynamic, analysis.
You may be familiar with the conservation of energy principle. It states that, during an
interaction, energy can change from one form to another, but that the total amount of energy
remains constant. Said another way, it means that energy is neither destroyed nor created,.
but only changes from one form to another. Forms of energy include internal (such as chemi-
cal, thermal, nuclear and electrical), potential and kinetic. To effectively use this principle,
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it is essential to understand the different forms of energy, the conversion of one energy form
to another, the flow of energy across boundaries, and the ability to store energy.
Thermodynamics is about the conversion of one form of energy to another. Energy conver-
sions are described in terms of the various properties of substances and the changes of the
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properties that occur as a result of energy transformations. Thermodynamics is based on
experimental observations. The observations are then expressed in terms of some basic
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laws. For example, the First Law of Thermodynamics is an expression of the conservation
of energy principle. The observation that some processes occur in one direction, but not the
reverse (for example, the flow of heat from a hot object to a cold one, or the generation of
heat by friction) is embodied in the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
On the other hand, psychrometrics is the branch of thermodynamics that deals with the
thermodynamic properties and processes of moist air. The term humidity is used in connec-
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tion with the proportion of water vapor in the mixture. It is important to study psychrometrics
because, in HVAC, we are interested in controlling humidity as well as temperature. There
is a comfort envelope that is framed by temperature and humidity constraints. The study of
psychrometrics will be aided by a chart of moist air properties known as the psychrometric
chart. We will learn how to plot thermodynamic processes of moist air on the chart.
The applications for thermodynamics are numerous. In HVAC, the study of thermodynam-
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ics is particularly applied to:
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
• Heat exchangers
• Cooling and heating coils
• Radiators
• Furnaces
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• Fans
• Pumps
• Water and air distribution systems
• Building load calculations
• Human occupation and activity levels
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Both thermodynamic and psychrometric principles are applied to these processes:

• Air flow over cooling and heating coils
• Humidifiers and dehumidifiers
• Outdoor weather conditions
• Air in conditioned space (with interest in the comfort envelope)
• Breathing by humans and animals
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

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The following chapters of this course will explain the basics of thermodynamics and
psychrometries, and then consider the practical applications to many of the areas listed
above.
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The Next Step
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This first chapter provided an introduction to HVAC and the importance ofthermodynam-
ics. In the next chapter, we will begin to build an understanding of thermodynamics by
starting with the basics. In Chapter 2, we will introduce the concepts of open and closed
systems, forms of energy, equilibrium and property definition. Chapter 2 will also include
explanations of the state of a substance, and the process of state change shown on a property
diagram.
Summary
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Chapter 1 has been an introductory chapter. Following an introduction and a definition of
air-conditioning, the seven main processes of HVAC were listed as heating, cooling, hu-
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midifying, dehumidifying, cleaning, ventilating and air movement. Each of these processes
involves equipment for implementation and deals in different forms of energy. The study of
thermodynamics (or the science of energy) is all about the relationship between different
forms of energy, and is essential to fully understand the processes ofHVAC. The First Law
of Thermodynamics was introduced as a statement of the conservation of energy principle.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics was said to embody the idea of irreversibility of some
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naturally occurring events. Psychrometries was introduced as the science of an air and wa-
ter vapor mixture. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define air-conditioning;
• Name and describe the seven major air-conditioning processes;
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• Provide a description of thermodynamics as the science of energy; and

• List HVAC applications where knowledge of basic thermodynamics is essential.
Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

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Bibliography
1. Carrier, W. 1990. Father ofAir-Conditioning. Louisville, KY: Fetter Printing Co.
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Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1
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Complete these questions by writing your answers on the worksheets at the back of this
book. Be sure to include your name and address. Send your completed questions to the
ASBRAE Education Department.
1-01. List the seven main air-conditioning processes, give a one-sentence description of
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each process, and give another one-sentence reason why the process is likely to be
found in a hospital.
1-02. Define what is meant by air-conditioning.

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1-03. Name five pieces of normal BVAC equipment for which the application ofthermo-
dynamic principles is essential to predict performance.
1-04. In your own words, state what is meant by the conservation of energy principle.
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1-05. Provide two examples of a process that goes in one direction but will not go in the
reverse direction without applying an external energy source.
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1-06. What is the difference between dry air and moist air?
Fundamentals ofThernwdynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

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Chapter 2
Systems, Properties, States and Processes
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• Instructions
• 2.2 Closed and Open Systems in Thermodynamics
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• 2.3
• 2.4
• 2.5
• 2.6
Forms of Energy
Properties of a System
Equilibrium States
Processes and Cycles
• The Next Step
• Summary
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Instructions
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The building blocks of thermodynamics (such as system, properties, states, processes and
cycles) will be introduced in this chapter. Many new terms will be introduced and defined.
The definitions may seem far removed from the applications of interest, but this develop-
ment of a terminology and logic is essential to understanding how to apply the laws of
thermodynamics.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes
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After studying Chapter 2 you will be able to:
• Define and describe open and closed systems;

• Define and describe the different forms of energy;
• Define and describe properties and states; and
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• Define and describe processes and cycles.
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Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
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2.1 Introduction
Thermodynamics is about the conversion of one form of energy to another. Energy co.nver-
sions, in tum, are described in terms of the various properties of substances and the changes
of the properties that occur as a result of energy transformations. Thermodynamics is based
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on experimental observations. The observations are then expressed in terms of basic laws.
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For example, the First Law of Thermodynamics is an expression of the conservation of
energy principle. The observation that some processes occur in one direction, but not in the
reverse direction (for example, the flow of heat from a hot object to a cold one, or the
generation of heat by friction) is embodied in the Second Law of Thermodynamics. How-
ever, before we can apply these laws as analysis tools to solve practical applications, we
must develop a methodology of analysis. This methodology starts with the definitions of
systems, properties, states, processes and cycles.
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The study of thermodynamics is framed around a system identified for analysis, and the
interactions between that system and its surroundings. The condition, or equilibrium state,
of a system is defined in terms of the values of the system's properties when at that condi-
tion. Properties are any characteristics of the system. The dynamics part of thermodynamics
suggests the idea of change, and so changes of state are described in terms of processes and
paths. Each of these ideas will be more fully explained.
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2.2 Closed and Open Systems in Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, the first step in finding a solution is identifying the system to be ana-
lyzed. The term thermodynamic system has a special meaning in this context as any quan-
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tity of matter, or any region in space, selected for study. The system is contained within an
imagined system boundary, and everything outside the boundary is known as the surround-
ings. Heat and work (to be defined later) can cross the boundary in a form of interaction
between the system and its surroundings, but it depends on the type of system as to whether
mass can cross the boundary. There are two types of systems: closed and open.
G
A closed system is one in which a quantity of matter is identified for study. A closed system
definition is often called the control mass approach. A quantity of matter means that the
mass to be studied will remain the same throughout the analysis. The matter in the system
may change form, phase or location in space, but the system is identified as that matter that
was originally targeted for study. There is an imaginary boundary drawn to contain the
matter. The location of the matter, and therefore the shape of the boundary, may change
with time; but to remain a closed system, no mass enters or leaves the system through the
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter:1 Systems, Properties, States and Processes
2:4
boundary. Everything outside the boundary is known as the surroundings. Although there is
no mass exchange across the boundary in closed systems, there may still be work and heat
crossing the boundary as the system interacts with its surroundings.
The other type of system is the open system. An open system is one in which a region in
t
space is identified for study rather than a quantity of matter. An open system definition is
often called the control volume approach. In an open system, mass can cross the imaginary
pe
boundary between the system and its surroundings. This is important because, as we shall
see later, the mass crossing the boundary can also be a vehicle for carrying energy across
the boundary. The region in space does not have to be fixed in time, although it is often
chosen that way for convenience. In a way, the closed system is a special case of an open
system, for which there is no mass flow across the boundary.
An example of a closed system is shown in Figure 2-1. The object chosen for demonstra-
Eg
tion is a piston and cylinder combination with air in the cylinder. The air is trapped in the
cylinder and there is no way for the air to escape, or for new air to come into the cylinder.
The system is chosen to be the matter (mass of air) that is trapped in the cylinder. The
system boundary is shown by the dotted line. The surroundings are then the piston itself, the
cylinder wall, the cylinder head and everything else outside the dotted line. As weights are
added to the piston and the piston moves to reduce the volume in the cylinder, the system
(air in the cylinder) is compressed and changes shape, but it still maintains the same air that
up
was originally targeted as the system.
ro
Piston
I Weight I
Air Piston
System
G
, - - - -- -- -- --I
1
1
Ai r 1
1
:I ___________
System J
1
Before Adding Weight After Adding Weight
Figure 2-1. Closed System
Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermotlynamies and Psychrometries
2: 5
Open systems are shown in Figures 2-2 and 2-3. Figure 2-2 shows a piston and cylinder
arrangement like before, only now there is an open valve connecting the cylinder head to a
storage tank. Once again, the system is identified as the matter (mass of air) that is in the
cylinder at any instant in time. However, with the open system, the amount of air in the
cylinder will change when a weight is placed on the piston and the piston moves. Some of
t
the mass initially in the system is pushed across the system boundary and into the storage
tank that is part of the surroundings. There is mass flow across the boundary. Although the
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open system analysis is also called a control volume analysis, the volume does not have to
remain fixed in time or space. As can be seen in this case, the control volume changes shape
and size during the change.
Before leaving Figure 2-2, it is worthwhile to note that the case of the cylinder and the
storage tank could have been treated as a closed system if the matter in the system had
Eg
included both the air in the cylinder and the air in the storage tank. It may also be noted that
a different choice of open system could have been to draw a boundary to include the piston
and the weights in addition to the air. Which boundary is better depends on what is known,
what is sought and what processes are occurring during the change.
up
Piston
------------
I Weight
I
Air Piston
System
r- - - - - - - - - - - -,
ro
1 1
1 Air I
1
1
System I
1 ______ - - - - _ ...I
------------
- -
1
G
Storage Tank Storage Tank

Figure 2-2. Open System
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes
2:6
Figure 2-3 depicts another example of an open system; in this case, a reciprocating com-
pressor. The system boundary is drawn to include both the compressor and the air inside the
compressor. Mass flows in across the boundary at the inlet, and out across the boundary at
the outlet. In this open system, the control volume remains the same in time and space.
t
There are many choices when it comes to selecting the system and system boundary. The
skill is in choosing a system that allows the most convenient analysis and calculation of the
pe
unknowns. We will return to the topic of system selection once we have introduced the First
Law of Thermodynamics.
The conceptual model of system, system boundary and surroundings will be used later to
apply the laws of thermodynamics in a way that will permit calculation of practical and
useful results. There is only one set of laws, but the thermodynamic relations (equations)
that are applicable to closed and open systems are different, making it important to be able
Eg
to recognize the type of system before starting the analysis. Before applying laws (such as
the conservation of energy), we must be able to describe the condition of the system, and
define what we mean by energy.
up
Inlet -i---------------+ Outlet
-
ro
G
.. _--------------
Figure 2-3. Open System Reciprocating Compressor
Chapter 2 Systems. Properties. States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
2: 7
2.3 Forms ofEnergy
The different forms of energy (such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical and nuclear) add together to give the total energy of a system, E. The
total energy on a unit mass basis, e, is defined as:
t
e=Elm
pe
In thermodynamic analysis, it is common to group the forms of energy into two broad
categories: macroscopic and microscopic. The macroscopic forms of energy are those that a
system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame. Kinetic and
potential energies are examples of macroscopic forms of energy because, as we shall see
later, they are defined in terms of an outside reference frame. The microscopic forms of
Eg
energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of molecular
activity. Microscopic forms are independent of an outside reference frame. The sum of all
microscopic forms of energy is known as the internal energy of the system, U. On a unit
mass basis, the specific internal energy is:
u=Ulm
up
Internal energy is measured at the molecular level. The individual molecules of a system are
in continuous motion and the motion contributes to translational, rotational and vibrational
molecular energy. The portion of the internal energy associated with this molecular motion
is known as sensible energy. The degree of molecular activity increases with temperature;
therefore, the sensible energy is higher at higher temperatures.
ro
The internal energy is also related to the intermolecular forces between molecules of the
system. The forces that bind molecules are strongest in solids and weakest in gases. If
sufficient energy is added to a solid or liquid, it will change phase and become a gas. The
energy added to make the change is known as latent energy. Latent energy is part of internal
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energy. Sensible and latent energy changes involve no chemical change in the substance of
the system.
Chemical energy is part of internal energy. Chemical energy is associated with the chemical
bonds between different substances. In cases of chemical change (such as occur in combus-
tion or chemical reaction), there is breaking of some bonds and formation of new bonds,
resulting in a change in chemical energy of the system.
2: 8
Within the nucleus of an atom are strong binding forces that also contribute to the internal
energy of a system. These nuclear bonds, and therefore the nuclear energy, are changed
only during fission or fusion reactions. Because thermodynamics is about change in energy
forms and because HVAC&R does not commonly include nuclear fission or fusion, nuclear
energy will not appear in the energy change relations.
t
The macroscopic energy that a system possesses by virtue of its elevation in a gravitational
pe
field is called the potential energy. The potential energy, PE, and the potential energy on a
unit mass basis,pe, are:
PE=mgz
pe=gz
where g is the gravitational acceleration (g = 32.2 ftls 2 on earth at sea level), m is the mass
Eg
in Ibm' and z is the elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative to some arbitrarily
chosen reference frame, in ft. There is often a unit conversion required to express the poten-
tial energy in the common unit offt·lbj known as gc' The parameter gc is a unit conversion
constant, whose value depends on what units are used for mass. When using the units of
mass as Ibm' the value is gc = 32.2 (Ibm ·ftls2)/lbj . The use of g and gc with apparently the
same numerical value may seem odd, but it is a result of the fact that one lbj will accelerate
up
one Ibm at 32.2 ftls2. To convert ft'lbj to Btu, the conversion factor is 1 Btu = 778 ft·lbj .
Thermodynamics is the study of energy change rather than the study in absolute values of
energy, and the use of an arbitrary reference, or datum, is acceptable. An example can be
seen in analyzing the increase in potential energy when lifting a weight from a chair on to
the top of a table. It is only the height difference between the chair and tabletop that matters,
and not how high the table and chair are above the floor. In thermodynamics, it is change of
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energy that is important and the reference level of absolute total energy is chosen at some
convenient datum level. As an example of the change of potential energy and the units of
energy, consider a mass of214 Ibm lifted 2 ft from the chair to the table:
PE increase mgz
G
(214 Ibm )(32.2 ftls 2)(2 ft)/ {32.2 (Ibm ·ftls2)/lbj }
= 428 ft·lbj
= 0.55 Btu
pe Increase = 2 ft·lbj/lb m = 0.0026 Btullbm
Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermot/ynamics and Psychrometries
2: 9
The macroscopic energy that a system possesses by virtue of its motion relative to some
reference frame is known as the kinetic energy. When all parts of the system move with the
same velocity, V (ft/s), then the kinetic energy, KE, and the kinetic energy on a unit mass
basis, ke, are:
t
pe
The units of kinetic energy are handled similarly to those of potential energy and include
the unit conversion constant gc' and often the energy conversion factor I Btu = 778 ft·lb!.
The magnetic, electric, nuclear and surface tension effects are important in some cases, but
are usually not significant in HVAC&R problems and will not be dealt with here. The total
energy, E, and the total energy per unit mass, e, may be written as the sum ofthe internal,
Eg
potential and kinetic energies:
E = U + PE + KE = U + mgz + m V2 /2
e = u + pe + ke = u + gz + V /2
2
You must be careful about units when doing a calculation involving potential, kinetic and
up
internal energy so as to be sure that they are each in compatible units.
2.4 Properties ofa System
A property of a system is any observable characteristic of the system. Common properties

ro
are mass m, temperature t, pressure p, volume V, specific volume v, density p, specific

heats Cp and C", internal energy U, enthalpy H, and entropy S. Some of the terms you will
immediately recognize, but others we will have to discuss in more detail in the next chapter
on properties.
G
Properties that are independent of the size of the system (such as pressure, temperature and
density) are known as intensive properties. Properties that vary with the size, or extent of
the system (such as mass, volume and total energy) are known as extensive properties.
When extensive properties are expressed per unit mass, they become intensive properties
and are known as specific properties, such as specific total energy (e = Elm), specific inter-
nal energy (u = Ulm), and specific enthalpy (h = Him).
Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes
2: 10
Common properties will be more fully defined and described in the next chapter. Properties
playa key role in conducting a thermodynamic analysis because of the following postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties. To fully understand the impact of this postulate, we must further de-
fine what is meant by a thermodynamic state, and then elaborate on properties and indepen-
t
dent properties.
pe
2.5 Equilibrium States
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. It is possible to calculate all the
properties of the system. This set of properties then completely determines the condition, or
Eg
state, of the system. Said another way, the thermodynamic state is the condition of a system
in which all the properties have a fixed value. If the value of anyone property changes, then
the system will be in a different state.
The previous paragraph started with the reference to a system not undergoing change. In
thermodynamics, this is known as an equilibrium state. Equilibrium conveys a sense of
balance. For a system in an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced driving forces within
the system. For thermal equilibrium, there are no internal temperature gradients that will
up
cause heat flow within the system. For mechanical equilibrium, there is no change of pres-
sure in time to cause mass flow. The static pressure distribution does not violate equilib-
rium conditions because it does not induce an internal mass flow. For phase equilibrium,
there is no relative change in the mass of each phase present in the system. For chemical
equilibrium, there are no chemical reactions occurring.
ro
The equilibrium state of a system is entirely specified by giving the property values of that
state, or conversely, the set of values of the properties is entirely set by identifying the state.
Properties are independent of the path followed by the system in coming to a given state. In
fact, a property can be defined as any quantity that depends on the state of the system and is
independent of the prior history by which the system arrived at the given state.
G
Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries
2: 11
2.6 Processes and Cycles
A change in equilibrium state, as defined by a change in properties, is known as a process.

The series of states passed through by the system during a process is known as the path.
The description of a process involves specifying the initial and final equilibrium states, the
t
path, and any interactions that occur between the system and the surroundings at the system
boundaries during the process.
pe
When a system is undergoing change, it is by definition not in equilibrium. However, when
the process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to
equilibrium state at all times, then the process is called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium,
process. A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealization of real processes, but it can be a very
powerful tool in helping to analyze systems. Most of the systems in HVAC&R that we want
to analyze are reasonably described by this idealization, and are adequately analyzed in this
Eg
way. A quasi-equilibrium process can be thought of as a process that proceeds slowly enough
that the system can adjust internally so that the properties in one part of the system do not
change significantly faster than the properties in another part of the system.
Figure 2-4 depicts a quasi-equilibrium process of air being compressed in a cylinder. The
piston and cylinder are shown horizontally at the bottom of the diagram. The closed system
is the air trapped in
up
the cylinder at any
Pressure ®Final
time. The piston is ________ State
initially in Position ,
,
1. With the piston in
, ,
Position 1, the prop- ,,,
erties of the system p ......, G) State
Initial
,,
ro
(air in cylinder) are

,,,
I
mass m l , pressure
PI' temperature tl'
' - - - - - - - I . - : - 7 ' " - - - - - - - - - ! - : - 7 " " " - -.. Volume V
V2
volume VI' specific ,,: V1
volume vI' internal
,-------,
G
energy VI' specific

,, A',r ,,
internal energy up
,,, System ,,,
entropy S I and spe-
cific entropy S I'
,--------,
These property val- t t
ues determine the ® CD
initial state as State Figure 2-4. Change of State for a Closed System
1. The piston is
2: 12
slowly moved to the left. After some time, it comes to the final Position 2. The properties
have changed. We can see that the volume has changed to a new, smaller volume V2• Be-
cause this is a closed system and the mass has not changed (m2 = ml ), the specific volume
will have changed to v 2• The pressure may have increased to P2.1t is not known if the other
properties have changed values, but it is clear the system has gone to State 2 and so the
t
properties are labeled as (2' U2, u2, S2 and S2' Also shown in Figure 2-4 is the property
diagram of pressure plotted against volume. The Initial and Final States (1 and 2) are shown
pe
as points on the p-V diagram. The process path is shown as the path taken in going from
State 1 to State 2.
The pressure-specific volume (p-v) diagram for an open system (axial flow fan) is shown in
Figure 2-5. The p-v diagram looks very similar to that for the closed system described
earlier, but the States 1 and 2 here refer to the inlet and outlet states of the air blowing
Eg
through the fan. Many of the practical situations we will want to analyze take the form of
the open system shown in Figure 2-5. However, there are often multiple inlets and outlets.
We will deal with them when we come to applying the mass and energy conservation laws.
Pressure p ®
up
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
- - - - +- - -- -- - -- - - ---- - ::--=-:-::-=-----0
I
I
I
I
ro
I
I
I
:V1 Specific Volume V

I
I
G
®
Figure 2-5. Change of State for an Open System
Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometrics
2: 13
There are many different possible process paths depending on the nature of the interaction
between the system and its surroundings and the physical make-up of the system. For ex-
ample, if a container of fixed volume is heated as shown in Figure 2-6, then the temperature
and pressure would increase, but the volume would remain constant. Or, if the constant
weight piston of Figure 2-7 is allowed to drop as the air is let out of the cylinder, then the
t
pressure would remain constant, even though the volume changes. There are sets of such
processes in which one of the properties remains constant that are very useful for approxi-
pe
mating actual situations. They are:
• Isobaric process: Constant pressure process, p = constant

• Isothermal process: Constant temperature process, t = constant
• Isometric process: Constant volume process, V = constant
• Isochoric process: Constant specific volume process, v = constant
Eg
• Isentropic process:
• Adiabatic process:
Constant entropy process, S = constant
No heat exchange between system and surroundings
The last of the process descriptions given above, the adiabatic process, is different from the
others because it does not refer to a property, but instead refers to heat exchange between
the system and its surroundings. Heat is not a property, and we will provide a very detailed
up
description of what is meant by heat in a later chapter.
,------1 .------1
1 V2 1 I I
ro
I 1 I 1
I P2 I I 1
1 I I I
lI ______
t2 JI I ______ JI
1
State 1 State 2
L I
G
Figure 2-6. Constant Volume Process
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 2 Systems. Properties. States and Processes
2: 14
I weight I
piston
,------
I
I
weight
I weight I
I piston
V1 r------ .. piston
t
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,------
I V2
. I
P1
pe
I I I I I
I I I I I
I t1 I I I
P2= P1 I
I I I I I
L
I _______ I I I t 2 I
-------.1 -------..1
Closed Open 18 Closed
!
Valve Valve Valve
State 1 State 2
Eg Figure 2-7. Constant Pressure Process
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if, after having been through a series of pro-
up
cesses, the final state is identical to the starting state. The initial and final states for a cycle
are identical, which means that the initial and final properties are also identical. Examples
of two-process and four-process cycles are shown on the p-V diagrams in Figure 2-8. The
four-process cycle is an idealization of the thermodynamics that occur in a gasoline engine.
ro
G
Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
2: 15
Pressure p
t
pe
Volume V
Eg Two-Process Cycle
up
Pressure p
® 0---+® Isentropic Compression
®---+@) Constant Volume
@)---+(D Isentropic Expansion
0---+0 Constant Volume
ro
G
Volume V
Four-Process Cycle
Figure 2-8. Property Diagrams for Two- and Four-Process Cycles
2: 16
The Next Step
In the next chapter, we will further develop the definition and description of the common
properties in the thermodynamics of HVAC&R. The properties to be considered are pres-
sure, temperature, specific volume and density, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. Also,
t
the idea of a pure substance and the phases of a pure substance will be introduced.
pe
Summary
The starting point of a thermodynamic analysis is the identification of a system. The defini-
tion of a thermodynamic system and the ideas of system boundaries and the surroundings
were introduced for both open and closed systems. Total system energy was introduced as
Eg
the sum of the macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy. Macroscopic forms (such as
potential and kinetic energies) and microscopic forms of internal energy (such as thermal,
phase and chemical energies) add together to make the total energy.
A property of a system was described as an observable characteristic of the system. There

are intensive and extensive properties. Properties that are independent of the size of the
system (such as pressure, temperature and density) are known as intensive properties. Prop-
up
erties that vary with the size or extent of the system (such as mass, volume and total energy)
are known as extensive properties. When extensive properties are expressed per unit mass,
they become intensive properties and are known as specific properties. A set of property
values determines the condition, or state, of a system in equilibrium.
A process was defined in terms of the path by which a system changes from one state to a
different state. Several idealized processes were described. A cycle is a series of processes
ro
linked together so that the initial state is identical to the final state. After studying Chapter
2, you should be able to:
• Define and describe open and closed systems;

• Define and describe the different forms of energy;
G
• Define and describe properties and states; and

• Defme and describe processes and cycles.
Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries
2: 17
ASHRAE Education Department.
t
pe
2-01. Using examples, explain the main difference between open and closed systems.
2-02. Automobile engines are usually cooled by antifreeze that is circulated between the
engine and the radiator by a centrifugal pump. Air is blown over the radiator to cool
the antifreeze. Sketch the following systems and state whether they are open or
closed:
Eg • Antifreeze in the pump

• Antifreeze in the radiator
• Antifreeze in the pump, radiator and engine water jacket
• Antifreeze in the radiator and air in the fan
2-03. Describe the differences between thermal, phase, chemical and nuclear energies.
up
2-04. Give an expression for the specific total energy of a system in terms of the internal,
potential and kinetic energies.
2-05. Sketch on a p- V diagram what happens when trapped air expands in a closed cylin-
der with a piston. Be sure to label the initial and final states, the path and the major
properties.
ro
2-06. Sketch on a p- V diagram a four-process cycle that has process 1 to 2 as an isobaric

decrease in volume, 2 to 3 as an isometric increase in pressure, 3 to 4 as an isobaric
increase in volume, and 4 to 1 as an isometric decrease in pressure.
2-07. Sketch on a t-p diagram the following four-process cycle: 1 to 2 isothermal; 2 to 3

G
isobaric; 3 to 4 isothermal; and 4 to 1 isobaric.
G
ro
up
Eg
pe
t
3: 1
Chapter 3
Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
t
pe
• Instructions
• 3.1 The State Postulate
• 3.2 Properties
• 3.3 Phases and Phase Changes for Pure Substances
• 3.4 Property Diagrams
Eg
• The Next Step
• Summary
Instructions
up
ro
Chapter 3 begins with a description of the state postulate and then defines the properties
first introduced in the previous chapter. There are descriptions of pressure, specific volume,
temperature, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. The solid, liquid and vapor phases of a
pure substance are introduced, including the ideas of phase equilibrium, independent prop-
G
erties, and saturated conditions for liquids and vapors. States and state changes are dis-
played on property diagrams. After studying Chapter 3, you should be able to:
• Describe those properties common to analysis in thermodynamics;

• Define a pure substance;
• Describe the phases and phase change characteristics of pure substances; and
• Explain and give examples of the value of property diagrams in describing the
state and state change of a pure substance.
Fundamentals ofThernwdynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances

3:2
3.1 The State Postulate
A property of a system is any observable characteristic of the system. Common properties

are mass m, temperature t, pressure p, volume V, specific volume v, density p, specific
heats Cp and C", internal energy U, enthalpy H, and entropy S. Properties that are indepen-
t
dent of the size of the system (such as pressure, temperature and density) are known as
intensive properties. Properties that vary with the size or extent of the system (such as mass,
pe
volume and total energy) are known as extensive properties. When extensive properties are
expressed per unit mass, they become intensive properties and are known as specific prop-
erties, such as specific total energy (e = Elm), specific internal energy (u = Ulm), and spe-
cific enthalpy (h = Him).
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. It is possible to calculate all the
properties of the system. This set of properties then completely determines the condition, or
Eg
state, of the system. Said another way, the thermodynamic state is the condition of a system
in which all the properties have a fixed value. If the value of anyone property changes, then
the system will be in a different state.
The equilibrium state of a system is entirely specified by giving the property values of that
state or, conversely, the property values are entirely set by identifying the state. Properties
are independent of the path followed by the system in coming to a given state. In fact, a
up
property can be defined as any quantity that depends on the state of the system and is
independent of the prior history by which the system arrived at the given state.
There are many different properties of a system, but not all of the properties are independent
in value of one another. For example, consider air at a given pressure p and absolute tem-
perature T. From the ideal gas law (to be introduced later), the specific volume v is given by
v = RT/p. R is the gas constant for air. Because of this interdependence between some
ro
properties, it raises the question of how many properties must be specified before the state
of a system is completely specified. Fortunately, for most of the applications we want to
consider, the question is reasonably answered by the following state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two inde-
G
pendent, intensive properties.
There are several terms in this postulate that require careful attention. A simple compress-
ible system is one in which there are no electrical, chemical, magnetic, gravitational or
surface tension effects. Often these effects, which are produced by external fields, are not
significant to the calculation. However, if they are, then an additional property must be
specified for each effect. For example, if gravitational effects are important, it will be nec-
essary to specify an elevation and the two thermodynamic properties to specify the state.
Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

3: 3
An intensive property has already been defined as a property that is independent of the size
of the system (such as pressure, temperature and density) or a property that is expressed per
unit mass, such as specific total energy (e = Elm), specific internal energy (u = Vim) and
specific enthalpy (h = Him). Intensive properties are independent if one property can be
varied while the other is held constant. We will examine more closely the question of inde-
t
pendence when we discuss phase change in a later section.
pe
3.2 Properties
Pressure. In solid mechanics, force per unit area is known as stress. If the direction of the
force is perpendicular to the plane of the area it acts on, it is known as a normal stress. If the
force is tangential to the plane ofthe area, it is known as shear stress. In fluids (liquids and
Eg
gases), there are similar stresses. The normal stress in a fluid is called pressure, and the
tangential stress is called shear stress. Pressure is the normal force per unit area in a fluid
and is positive when the stress is compressive. For a fluid at rest, the pressure at a given
point is equal in all directions. However, the pressure increases with depth because of the
weight of the fluid. This is known as the change in hydrostatic pressure. The variation of
pressure with depth, while being equal in all directions, is shown in Figure 3.1. When the
up
fluid is in motion, the pressure may vary from point to point anywhere in the fluid .
.
........ - . . - - - - - - -........- - - - - " - - " ' - - - - - - -..... Water Level
-. ..-
t
ro
j
G
---........---
1
Figure 3-1. Hydrostatic Pressure Variation With Depth
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances

3:4
The units of pressure are force per unit area. In the inch-pound (IP) system of units, the
pressure is usually given as pound-force per square inch (lb/in2, or psi). In the SI system of
units, the unit of pressure is a Pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2• Because a Pascal is a small unit,
pressure is often expressed in kilopascals (kPa = 103 Pa), or megapascals (MPa = 106 Pa).
Typical units and unit conversions are given in Appendix A.
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The units of pressure are'often quoted in terms of the equivalent height of fluid that may be
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supported by that pressure. In fluids at rest, the hydrostatic pressure varies as the depth
according to the relation!J.p = pg!J.z where !J.p is the pressure change corresponding to an
elevation change of!J.z. The fluid density is p. For example, consider standard atmospheric
pressure of29.921 in. mercury (Hg). The ratio ofthe density of mercury to that of water is
13.6 (known as specific gravity, SG). The density of water is 62.4 Ibm Ift3. A unit conversion
factor of 32.2 Ibm·ftI(lbj ·S2) is required. The pressure difference between atmospheric and
!J.p Eg
zero pressure is then:
=
=
pg!J.z
(13.6 )(62.4lb)ft3)(32.2 ftls 2)(29.921 in.)(ftl12 in.)/{32.2lbm·ftI(lbjs2)}
2,1161bj lft2
= 14.7 psi
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Similarly, the equivalent height of fluid can be calculated for a given pressure difference.
Expressing 14.7 psi in feet of water yields:
!J.z = !J.pl(pg)
= (14.7 lbj lin. 2)(144 in. 2/ft2)(32.2 Ibm·ftI(lbj ·S2) )1 {(62.4 Ib)ft3)(32.2 ftls2)}
= 33.9 ft water
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Absolute pressure is usually used in thermodynamics. However, the pressure is often mea-
sured by instruments that give the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. These instru-
ments read zero when the pressure is atmospheric. To distinguish such pressure from abso-
lute pressure, the measurement is known as gage pressure, and the units are Ibj lin. 2 gage, or
psig. Sometimes absolute pressure is given as psia to emphasize the absolute. Figure 3-2
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depicts the different terms of pressure measurement to provide a picture of the relationships
between absolute, gage and vacuum measures of pressure. Pressure measurements below
atmospheric pressure are called vacuum measurements. A standard atmosphere is taken as:
1 atm = 14.696 psi = zero psig = 101.325 kPa = 29.921 in. Hg
Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

3: 5
pressure
t
P gage P absolute
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P atmos
--------- ------------- fo------- ---
P vacuum
P atmos
P absolute
Eg Figure 3-2. Terms of Pressure Measurement
Temperature. Temperature is not an easy property to define. We have a feeling for tempera-
ture because we are used to expressing whether something is hot or cold. It is perhaps easier
to define the equality of temperature as: Two bodies have equal temperatures when no
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change in any observable property occurs when they are in thermal communication. This is
the same as saying that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. In the case where a thermometer is used to
measure the temperature, this may be further simplified to say that two bodies are in ther-
mal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
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This principle is the basis for establishing a temperature scale. By examining materials that
have temperature-dependent characteristics, we can assign an arbitrary temperature scale to
the observed effect. The mercury thermometer is such a device. Mercury expands with
temperature. By observing the densities of mercury at the freezing and boiling points of
water at atmospheric pressure (known as the ice point and steam point, respectively), it is
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possible to construct a temperature scale by assigning a temperature change proportional to

the density change. Two such scales are the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
For the Fahrenheit scale, the ice and steam points were assigned values of 32°F and 212°F,
respectively. On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were assigned values ofO°C and
100°C. There has been a slight revision to the Celsius scale by identifying the triple point of
water to be O.Ol°C rather than the ice point. The triple point is the state in which all three
phases of water coexist in equilibrium with each other.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
3:6
A more useful scale for thermodynamics is the absolute temperature scale. For the absolute
scale, the temperature is always positive. It is based on the concept that for an ideal gas at
constant volume, the temperature is proportional to the pressure. This means that as the
pressure approaches zero, the temperature also approaches zero. On the absolute scale, tem-
peratures are measured in degrees Rankine, R, for the IP unit system, and degrees Kelvin,
t
K, for the 81 unit system. Temperatures on the absolute scale are referred to with an upper
case T. The relationships between these scales can be summarized as:
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t (OF) 1.8 t(OC) + 32 and t(OC) = [t(OF) - 32]/1.8
T(R) = t(OF) +459.17 and T(K) = t(OC) + 273.15
T(R) = 1.8 T(K) and T(K) = T(R)I1.8
= and = M(OC)
Eg
Temperature is an intensive property.
Specific volume. The specific volume of a substance v is the volume per unit mass. The
specific volume is an intensive property and has the unit of ft3/lbm . The inverse of the
specific volume is the density p (Ibm Ift3 ). In fluid mechanics, it is common to use density,
but in thermodynamics, it is just as common to use specific volume.
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Internal energy. In thermodynamic analysis, it is common to group the forms of energy into
two broad categories: macroscopic and microscopic. The microscopic forms of energy are
those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of molecular activity.
Microscopic forms are independent of an outside reference frame. The sum of all micro-
scopic forms of energy is known as the internal energy of the system, U. On a unit mass
basis, the specific internal energy is:
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u=Ulm
Internal energy is measured at the molecular level. The individual molecules of a system are
in continuous motion and this motion contributes to translational, rotational and vibrational
molecular energy. The portion of the internal energy associated with this molecular motion
is known as sensible energy. The degree of molecular activity increases with temperature;
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therefore, the sensible energy is higher at higher temperatures.
The internal energy is also related to the intermolecular forces between molecules of the
system. The forces that bind molecules are strongest in solids and weakest in gases. If
sufficient energy is added to a solid or liquid, it will change phase and become a gas. The
energy added to make the change is known as latent heat. Latent heat is part of internal
energy. Changes in sensible and latent energy involve no chemical change.

3: 7
Chemical energy is part of internal energy. Chemical energy is associated with the chemical
bonds between different substances. In cases of chemical change (such as occur in combus-
tion or chemical reactions), there is breaking of some bonds and formation of new bonds,
resulting in a change in chemical energy of the system.
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Within the nucleus of an atom are strong binding forces that also contribute to the internal
energy of a system. These nuclear bonds, and therefore the nuclear energy, are changed
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only during fission or fusion reactions. Because thermodynamics is about change in energy
forms, and because HV AC&R does not commonly include nuclear fission or fusion, nuclear
energy will not appear in the energy change relations.
Enthalpy. Enthalpy is the name given to the combination of internal energy, pressure and
volume. Because it is a combination of properties, enthalpy is a property itself. It is a par-
ticularly useful combination, as will be shown when applying the First Law of Thermody-
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namics to open systems. The enthalpy H, and the specific enthalpy h, are given by the
following two expressions:
H=U+pV
h=u+ pv
The units of specific enthalpy are the same as those of internal energy. If common units of
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psi and ft3/lb m are used for p and v, then the product pv has to be converted to produce
Btu/Ibm as shown by the following:
h = u (Btu/Ibm) + p (lbj /in. 2) v (ft3/Ib n)(144 in. 2/ft2)(Btu/(778 ft·lbj ))
Enthalpy will become a very convenient property when we apply the First Law of Thermo-
dynamics to open systems. In open systems, enthalpy is a useful descriptor for the internal
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energy and flow work done by a flow of mass across the system boundary.
Entropy. Entropy is another new property that is not easily measurable or obvious. It is a
property that is linked with the Second Law of Thermodynamics. We will not derive the
basis for entropy, but we will make use of the tabulated values of entropy to describe certain
types of ideal processes.
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The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the fact that many processes proceed in
only one direction. For example, hot coffee left out in a cool room will cool to the tempera-
ture of the room, but the coffee will not, by itself, become hotter. In another example, when
two pieces of wood are rubbed together, there can be enough frictional heating to start a fire,
but a hot spot, by itself, will not cause the two pieces of wood to start rubbing against each
other. These processes are known as irreversible.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
3: 8
In contrast, reversible processes can only be imagined (such as frictionless pistons or heat
transfer between objects at the same temperature). Although a frictionless piston does not
exist, it is useful to consider it as an ideal, and then compare real behavior to the ideal.
Similarly, in thermodynamics, it will prove to be very useful to consider ideal reversible
processes, and then compare actual, irreversible processes to the reversible idealizations.
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Entropy is a convenient property for tracking ideal processes, and also for identifying the
degree of irreversibility of real processes.
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The symbols for entropy and specific entropy are Sand s. The units of entropy are energy
over absolute temperature. The units of S are BtuIR, and of s are Btu/(lbm R).
3.3
Eg
Phases and Phase Changes for Pure Substances
A pure substance is characterized by the requirements that it be homogeneous and of invari-

able chemical composition. A pure substance can be a single chemical element, a com-
pound, or a mixture of elements and compounds. Water is a pure substance because it al-
ways has the composition of H20, although it may have different phases: solid (ice), liquid
(water) or gaseous (steam or water vapor). Air in the gas phase is considered a pure sub-
stance even though it is made up of several gases. But air will not be considered as a pure
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substance if it mixed with liquid air because the composition of the gaseous air and liquid
air is different when they are in equilibrium with each other. Similarly, the air of combus-
tion is not a pure substance because it is chemically reacting with the burning fuel. We will
start our thermodynamics with the discussion of pure substances. The basic laws and prin-
ciples of thermodynamics do apply to other than pure substances, but it takes more ad-
vanced study.
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The three principle phases of a pure substance are solid, liquid and gas. As we study phase
change in thermodynamics, we do not deal with issues of molecular structure, but some
description of molecular structure can provide insight into the nature of the three phases.
Solids have a crystalline structure. In solids, the molecular bonds are strong and the mol-
ecules are fixed in a three-dimensional lattice. Although the molecules do not change loca-
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tion with respect to each other in the lattice, they continually oscillate about their equilib-
rium position. The oscillation intensity depends on the temperature. If the temperature is
raised high enough, the molecules develop enough oscillation energy to overcome the mo-
lecular bonds that keep them fixed in the lattice.
With additional energy, the solid melts and becomes a liquid. There are still strong intermo-
lecular bonds and neighboring molecules exert a significant influence over each other, but
the molecules can move relative to each other. At a higher temperature, the molecules ab-
Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances Fundamentals ofTI,ermot/ynamics and Psychrometries

3: 9
sorb energy, the distances between molecules increase and the molecular order breaks down.
The liquid evaporates and changes phase to become a vapor (gas phase). In the gas phase,
molecules are far apart and move around at random, colliding into each other and the con-
tainer walls. Under certain circumstances, a solid may sublimate and go directly from the
solid to vapor phase when heated.
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The phases and phase change processes in pure substances are important in thermodynam-
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ics. To illustrate the basics of phases and phase changes of a pure substance, we will de-
scribe the behavior of water changing from liquid to vapor. Although the example is water,
it should remembered that the same basic explanation applies to all pure substances, and
there are similar changes between solid-to-liquid and solid-to-vapor.
Consider as a system the water in a piston-cylinder arrangement shown in Figure 3-3. Imagine
that the piston has no weight so that, although the piston can travel up and down, the pres-
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sure in the system remains constant at 14.7 psia (atmospheric pressure) throughout the
series of steps described below. The water is initially all liquid at 60 oP. In this state, the
water is known as a sub-cooled, or compressed, liquid.
Piston
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Vapor
Piston Piston
Liquid Liquid Liquid
State 1 State 2 State 3

compressed liquid saturated liquid saturated
t<1sat =
1 lsat (liquid + vapor)
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=
t lsat
Piston
Piston
Piston
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Vapor Vapor Vapor
State 4 State 5 State 6

saturated vapor superheated vapor gas
=
t 1sat t> lsat 1»1sat
Figure 3-3. Stages in the Constant Pressure Change of Phase of Water
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances

3: 10
The water in the cylinder is then heated so that the temperature rises. The water expands
slightly as the specific volume increases, causing the piston to rise slightly (State 2). The
pressure remains constant at 14.7 psia because of the weightless piston and no constraint on
piston movement. When the temperature first reaches 212°F, the water is still all liquid and
remains liquid unless further heat is added. If further heat is added, then the liquid progres-
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sively changes phase from liquid to water vapor or steam (States 3 and 4). The temperature
and pressure throughout the whole phase change process remain constant at 212°F and 14.7
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psia respectively, but the specific volume increases from 0.0167 ft 3/lb to 27.82 ft3/lb m •
lll
The conditions during the phase change are called saturated conditions and the temperature
and pressure are known as saturated pressure Psat and saturated temperature tsat •
Ifheating continues after the liquid is all converted to vapor, the temperature will rise above
tsat" In this case, imagine the temperature to be 250°F and the pressure still 14.7 psia (State
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5). The vapor in the system is described as superheated vapor when t> tsat" If the tempera-
ture is much greater than the saturated temperature, t >> tsat ' then the vapor is said to behave
as a gas (State 6). We will explain this in a later chapter.
When the temperature first reached 212°F and the water was all liquid, but before the phase
change started to take place, the state of the water is described as saturated liquid (t = 212 of,
P = 14.7 psia, and all liquid). When the liquid had just been fully converted to vapor, the
state is known as saturated vapor (t = 212°F, P = 14.7 psia, all vapor).
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Between the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states, both liquid and vapor are in equi-
librium with each other. The temperature and pressure are 212 OF and 14.7 psia respectively,
but to determine where we are in the phase change, we introduce a new property called the
quality. The quality, x, of a pure substance only has meaning during a phase change. The
quality during the phase change from liquid to vapor is the ratio of mass of vapor to total
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mass in the system:

x = mvapor 1m
(1- x) = mliquid 1m
That means that x is zero when there is only saturated liquid, and 1 when there is only
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saturated vapor. The quality can easily be related to the specific volumes of saturated liquid
and vapor. Let be the volume and Vj be the specific volume of the saturated liquid. Let Vg
be the volume and vg be the specific volume of the saturated vapor. The volume of vapor is
V g = vg m vapor . The volume of liquid is Vj = Vj mi·IqUi·d'
Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances Fundamentals ofTI,ermot/ynamics and Psychrometries

3: 11
The mass is made up of the sum of the liquid and vapor masses, m = m vapor + m."qUid. :
= mliquid V j + mvapor V g
=(l-x)mVj +xmVg
t
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Divide through by m and get:
V = (l-x)vj +XVg
This is a useful relationship because it determines the specific volume for a mixture of the
two phases. Often the difference between the specific volumes of saturated vapor and liquid
Eg
is given the designation Vjg = (Vg - Vj)' and the above expression can be rewritten as:
Again, this refers to the property called quality, which has meaning for cases where there is
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a mixture of two phases of a pure substance. During phase change, we have seen that the
temperature and pressure are not independent properties. That means that if the mixture is
saturated, then setting either the pressure or temperature will fix the other. It is under these
saturated mixture conditions that quality can serve as an independent intensive property.
The above discussion used water as an example of a pure substance. All pure substances
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exhibit similar behavior, but at different values of temperature and pressure. Also, there is
not only the phase change between liquid and vapor to be considered. There are also phase
changes between solid and liquid, and solid and vapor. These issues will be elaborated in
the next section, with the help of property diagrams.
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Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Properly Diagrams for Pure Substances
3: 12
3.4 Property Diagrams
A two-dimensional property diagram is a plot of one property against another. Because the
state postulate asserts that it takes only two independent, intensive properties to determine
the state of a pure substance, such diagrams are very useful for visualizing states and changes
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of state. We will start in this section with a temperature versus specific volume (T-v) dia-
gram to illustrate the constant pressure process that was described earlier for water in a
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cylinder that was heated and changed from compressed liquid to superheated vapor.
The process is shown in Figure 3-4. The States 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 correspond to those first
depicted in Figure 3-3. State 2 is saturated liquid, State 4 is saturated vapor, and in between
are saturated mixtures of vapor and liquid where the state is determined by the quality.
The question arises as to what happens if we follow the same process, but at a higher pres-
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sure (we can add a weight to the piston in Figure 3-3). The answer is shown in a more
general T-v diagram in Figure 3-5. The constant pressure changes of state are shown as
dashed lines for two different pressures PI and P 2 ' for a pure substance being heated from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. The conditions that represent the points of satu-
rated liquid can be joined to draw the saturated liquid line that separates the compressed
liquid region from the saturated (liquid + vapor) region. Similarly, the conditions that repre-
up
Temperature
tOF
CD Gas
ro
400
Saturated
Liquid
®
200
G
Saturated
Mixture
Specific Volume V
Figure 3-4. Constant Pressure Boiling of Water on a T-v Diagram
Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
3: 13
sent the points of saturated vapor may be joined to draw the saturated vapor line. The satu-
rated liquid and vapor lines converge at the top of the curve at the critical point. The critical
point has special significance because it characterizes the pure substance. It also represents
a temperature/pressure combination above which the transition from liquid to vapor hap-
pens without a clear distinction between saturated liquid and vapor.
t
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Temperature
tOF
Critical
Point ,s.0
Compressed
Eg Liquid
Region
/
/
/
/.s
-'
::;;,
(l)
li----------- /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Superheated
Vapor
Region
/ I -'
/1 j Saturated
up
/ I e (Liquid & Vapor)
I I .a Region
/ I c3
Specific Volume V
Figure 3-5. The T-v Diagram

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We will become very familiar with diagrams such as the T- v diagram in Figure 3-5, and the
p-v diagram in Figure 3-6. In the p-v diagram, lines of constant temperature are shown as
dashed lines for the temperatures TJ and T2 • The saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines,
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and the critical point, look very similar to those of the T- v diagram. Again as a reminder, the
real power of these diagrams is that the state of a system is easily represented as a point on
the diagram.
There is more to property diagrams than the two shown in Figures 3-5 and 3-6. We might
plot other property combinations. It will later be useful to plot temperature against entropy
and temperature against enthalpy. There is also the extension of the diagram to include
phase changes between solid, liquid and vapor.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
3: 14
pressure
p
Critical
t
I Point
I I
pe
I I
I I Superheated
Compressep I
Vapor
Liquid I ' Region
Region I "'"
- ____ - - - - - -
,
"
,
'.
.S!" ' , 'lJe/"qfl '
-..J , , ';/"e .,.
Eg N
.a
1:)
ciJ
Saturated
(Liquid & Vapor)
Region Q' U
'
q..oo
1"1..'IfJe
'<
e/"qfll.
Specific Volume V
l:
1
up
Figure 3-6. The p-v Diagram
The p- T, or phase, diagram is shown in Figure 3-7, where three lines all converge at one
point. This point is known as the triple point because the solid, liquid and vapor phases all
co-exist in equilibrium with each other at this state. The three lines that separate the solid,
liquid and vapor regions on the diagram are known as the fusion line, vaporization line and
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sublimation line. The vaporization line is also known as the condensation line, depending
on whether the change is from liquid to vapor, or vapor to liquid. The vaporization line
represents an edge view of the saturated liquid and vapor lines that were presented in the T-
v and p-v diagrams. The fusion, or melting, line separates the solid and liquid regions. The
sublimation line separates the solid and vapor regions.
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To fully illustrate the relationship between the properties of pressure, temperature and spe-
cific volume, it is possible to construct the p-v-T surface in a three-dimensional picture.
The picture helps to visualize the various phases.

3: 15
pressure
p
Liquid
Phase
t
Critical
Point
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Solid
Phase
Eg Vapor
Phase
Temperature T
Figure 3-7. Phase Diagram of a Pure Substance

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Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances

3: 16
The Next Step
In the next chapter, we will discuss the properties of the common pure substance, water, in
more detail. We will examine the thermodynamic tables and charts that give values for the
properties over a wide range of conditions.
t
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Summary
The state postulate established that the state of a simple compressible system is completely
specified by two independent, intensive properties. Descriptions were provided for pres-
sure, temperature, volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy, including explanations of
the common units of these properties. Enthalpy was introduced as a property equal to the
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sum of internal energy and the pressure-volume product. Enthalpy will be very useful when
applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to an open system. Entropy was introduced as a
property of particular significance when dealing with the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
and constructing ideal, reversible processes and cycles.
The solid, liquid and vapor phases of a pure substance were introduced, including the ideas
of phase equilibrium, independent properties and saturated conditions for liquids and va-
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pors. The quality is introduced as an intensive, independent property relating the mass of
vapor to total mass of a system when saturated liquid and vapor exist simultaneously in
equilibrium with each other. An expression was developed relating the specific volume of a
saturated mixture of liquid and vapor to the quality and the specific volumes of the liquid
and vapor. States and state changes are displayed on the T-v and p-v property diagrams. The
diagrams are used to introduce the ideas of the saturated liquid line, saturated vapor line and
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the critical point.
After studying Chapter 3, you should be able to:
• Describe those properties common to analysis in thermodynamics;

• Define a pure substance;
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• Describe the phases and phase change characteristics of pure substances; and
• Explain and give examples of the value of property diagrams in describing the
state and state change of a pure substance.
Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

3: 17
t
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3-01. Give the state postulate and explain what a simple compressive substance is.
3-02. Explain the differences between absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.
3-03. Give the typical units for the following properties, and indicate which properties
are intensive and which are extensive: specific enthalpy, total volume, pressure,
temperature, specific entropy, mass and quality.
3-04.
Eg
Give the temperature of212 cP in units of degrees Rankine, degrees Kelvin and cC.
3-05. Sketch a T-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant pressure process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant temperature line.
3-06. Sketch a p-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
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saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant temperature process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant pressure line.
3-07. A saturated mixture of water is at 230 cP and 103 psia. The specific volume of the
liquid is vj = 0.0178 ft3/lb11/ and the specific volume ofthe vapor is vg = 4.312 ft3/lb11/ .
If the quality is x = 0.5, what is the specific volume of the mixture?
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3-08. A fixed volume container initially contains a pure substance in superheated form.
The container is cooled until there is a mixture ofliquid and vapor inside. Using T-v
and p-v diagrams, describe the changes taking place in this constant volume process
as the contents are cooled.
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Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
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up
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4: 1
Chapter 4
Thermodynamic Tables and Charts
t
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• Instructions
• 4.2 Tables for Saturated Liquid and Vapor
• 4.3 Tables for Superheated Vapor and Compressed Liquid
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• 4.4 Thermodynamic LiquidN apor Charts
• The Next Step
• Summary
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Instructions
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In Chapter 4, you will develop the skill of looking up properties in tables and charts for
water (steam) and refrigerants. You willieam how to select the right table, interpolate be-
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tween entries in the table, and understand the properties normally given in such tables.
There are tables for the different phases of a pure substance, and the table format is different
for each phase. After studying Chapter 4, you should be able to:
• Understand the format and content of the different tables and charts;
• Find the values of common properties in the tables;
• Interpolate to determine values between the entries in the tables; and
• Determine the property values of liquid-vapor mixtures.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

4:2
4.1 Introduction
Tables list values of the thermodynamic properties of a pure substance. Charts are property
diagrams that have lines of constant property value mapped in on the diagram. The tables
and charts for water and refrigerant R-22 will be used in this chapter as the basis for study-
t
ing how to use tables and charts. Water tables are sometimes referred to as steam tables
because of the early development of the science of thermodynamics for steam boilers and
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steam engines. The tables and charts for water, refrigerants R-22 and R-134a, and moist air
are given in Appendices B, C and D at the end of this book. Extracts from these tables will
be used extensively in this chapter to illustrate the different operations involving these tables
and charts. The tables and charts of Appendices B and C, and thermodynamic tables and
charts for many other substances (including many well known refrigerants), are found in
the ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals, Chapters 6 and 17.
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R-22 is a cornmon refrigerant used in many appliances, such as horne refrigerators, air-
conditioners and chillers. Its technical composition is chlorodifluoromethane, and it is one
of the CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). The CFCs have been the subject of extensive discus-
sion in recent years because of the effect that they may have on the ozone layer, high in the
earth's atmosphere. The primary refrigerant of concern has been R-12, the CFC that first
achieved widespread use and, until recently, was found in applications such as automobile
air-conditioning. Production ofR-12 has been discontinued. R-22 is not as potent as R-12
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with respect to the ozone question, but even so, there is a proposed agenda to phase out
R-22.
The CFCs are not naturally occurring substances. As a class of refrigerants, they have been
spectacularly successful because of their attractive thermodynamic properties. The concern
about the ozone layer has driven a search for non-CFC alternatives. The other older refrig-
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erants (such as ammonia) have important applications, but do not have the full range of
attractive properties that were the hallmark of the CFCs. The search has produced some
new non-CFC alternatives (such as R-134a) that are very promising. However, of the new
alternatives, it is not yet clear as to which ones will be widely adopted by industry as re-
placements for R-22. In the meantime, R-22 is used in many existing pieces of equipment.
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Chapter 4 will deal only with property values in the liquid/vapor part of the property dia-
grams for water and R-22. However, it should be understood that there are also similar
tables and charts for the liquid/solid and solid/vapor regions of the property diagram. Ex-
cept for a short discussion about ice, the tables for solid/liquid and solid/vapor will be left
for further study.
Chapter" Thermodynamic Tables and Charts Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

4: 3
Recalling the introduction of property diagrams in the previous chapter, there are basically
three regions of interest for a pure substance undergoing a change from liquid to vapor.
These are the compressed liquid, the saturated mixture of liquid and vapor, and the super-
heated vapor regions as shown in the t-v diagram of Figure 4-1. The regions are separated
by the saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines. Each of the three regions is assigned a
t
different table because of the special nature of the three regions. It would seem logical to
draw a rectangular grid on the property diagram in Figure 4-1 and then tabulate the values
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of all properties at each of the grid line intersections. This is what is done for the com-
pressed liquid and superheated vapor tables, except that the grid is drawn on the p-T dia-
gram. However, the technique is different for the mixed liquid/vapor region because the
grid is not necessary. The values everywhere in the mixture region can be determined by
knowing only the values along the saturated lines.
Eg
The discussion of tables and charts will be presented in the following order: saturated liq-
uid/vapor tables, superheated vapor and compressed liquid tables, and charts. We will in-
troduce the property values of most interest, and explain how the tables can be used to
obtain values for many properties when the state is known. It takes any two independent,
intensive, properties to determine the state.
Temperature
up
Critical
Point
Compressed
Liquid
Region , Superheated
ro
e«'" Vapor
, Region
" .scv et!O,
T I
, .1:! ••••••••••••••
I ,
I
I,. .S!
I ;:,
, I "0 Saturated
I
I
I
' cv
..... (Liquid + Vapor)
G
I I EE Region
I
" I
.a
Specific Volume V
Figure 4-1. Typical t-v Diagram
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

4:4
4.2 Tables for Saturated Liquid and Vapor
Along either the saturated liquid or saturated vapor lines, and for the region in between, the
pressure and temperature are not independent from one another. That means that if we
specify the pressure, then the temperature is automatically known. An example was given
t
earlier when we examined boiling water. If the pressure is 14.7 psia, then the water would
boil (change phase from liquid to vapor) at a temperature of212°P. The 212°P temperature
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applies for saturated liquid, saturated vapor and any mixture of saturated liquid and vapor in
equilibrium with each other at the 14.7 psia. A similar argument applies for other pressures,
and there is a unique temperature corresponding to each pressure at which water will boil.
These are known as the saturated valuespsat and t sat. The relationship betweenpsat and t sat
can be expressed in mathematical terms by saying that, for a given pure substance, saturated
pressure is a function of temperature only:
Psat
Eg=/ (tsat)
The question here is what is the function /? Experiments show the function is not a simple
function. Mathematical equations for the function/are available, such as those given in the
ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals (Chapter 6), but the equations are complicated. There-
fore, instead of giving the function in mathematical form, the relationship between pressure
and temperature is also given in tabulated form. Selected values are taken from the water
up
table of Appendix B and from the R-22 table of Appendix C, and presented in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1. Saturated Pressure and Temperature for Water and R-22
Saturated Water Saturated R-22
tsat (OF) Psat (psia) (OF)
tsat Psat (psia)
32 0.08865 -50.00 11.696
62 0.27519 0.00 38.726
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92 0.74394 50.00 98.799

122 1.79117 100.00 210.69
152 3.91101 150.00 396.32
182 7.8589 200.00 686.11
212 14.7096 205.06c 723.74c
242 25.9028
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The values given in Table 4-1 highlight some features that are common to all saturated
property tables. There is usually an entry value and then a value to be found. In this case, the
entry value is the temperature and the value to be found is the pressure. The saturated table
is sometimes given the other way around, where the temperature is listed for set values of
pressure. Whichever way, the basic relationship is the same, and it is only a matter of con-
venience in which order they appear. Later we will examine the issue of when you wish to
find a value that does not correspond exactly to one of the entry values.
Chapter" Thermodynamic Tables and Charts Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

4: 5
The values in the table are usually given to at least five-digit accuracy. Because we are
relying on the values to describe the functional relationship, they must be accurate. Al-
though the temperature in the water table appears to be only given to a degree, it is also
understood to be accurate to five-digit accuracy. The critical value is the last entry in the
saturated R-22 table. The critical values for R-22 are 205.06°F and 723.74 psia. The critical
t
values are the property values where the saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines join. For
water, the critical values are 705.44°F and 3,204 psia.
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The values for saturated water given in Table 4-1 include the 212°F, 14.7 psia combination
that we have been using as an example. What happens if we need a value between two table
entries? Actually, as can be seen from Appendices B and C, the values in the table are given
at a much smaller interval, and usually include a full range of useful values. Even so, the
question still remains as to how to compute values that are between entries. Usually it is
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assumed that linear interpolation between entries in the table provides an accurate enough
value of the property. Linear interpolation means that iftwo data entries were plotted on a
graph, then a straight line joining the two points would reasonably describe the values be-
tween the two points. The closer together the data entries, the better the linear approxima-
tion. As an example of linear interpolation, consider the values in Table 4-1 and the need to
know the saturation pressure when the saturation temperature is 200.5°F. The 200.5°F lies
between the temperature entries 182°F and 212°F and between pressure values of 7.8589
up
psia and 14.7096 psia. These values are shown in Table 4-2 and in the graph in Figure 4-2
along with a notation of PJ'tl and P2' t2 for the known points and p, t for the desired pair.
Table 4-2. Steps to Interpolate Between Two Pressures

Saturated Water
tsat COF) Psat (psia)
PI-7.8589
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tl = 182
t= 200.5 p = pI + {(t - 11)/(t2 -tl)x(P2 - pI)
= 7.8589 + {(200.5 - 182)/(212 -182)} x
(14.7096 - 7.8589)
= 12.0835
t2 = 212 P2 -14.7096
G
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

4: 6
pressure
P2 = 14.7096 psia
t
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p=?
P1
Eg
=7.8589 psia
t1 =182°F t =200.5°F t2 =212°F Temperature
Figure 4-2. Linear Interpolation Between Two Temperatures in Saturation Table

up
From the graph, it can be seen that there are similar triangles in which:
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This can be solved for an unknown p as in Table 4-2 as:
or for an unknown t as:

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These are two useful expressions that will be applied over and over again as we find values
in tables. The linear interpolation technique will be applied to many different variables, not
only pressure and temperature.
Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

4: 7
The value obtained for PSal at tsal = 200.5°F, when using values in Table 4-1, is 12.0835
psia. If instead the values in the table given in Appendix B are used, then the linear interpo-
lation gives a more accurate value ofpsal as:
p = P1 + {(t - t1) / (t2 - t1)} X (P2 - PI)
t
= 11.5374 + {(200.5 - 200) / (201- 200)} X (11.7779 -11.5374)
= 11.6577 psia
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These numbers suggest an error of e% = {(12.0835 - 11.6577)/11.6577) x 100 = 3.6% in
the linear interpolation from Table 4-1. This is just an example to demonstrate that the
closer the entries are in the table, the more accurate the linear interpolation. If the error is
deemed too large, the alternative is to use one of the mathematical equations.
Eg
For water, find the saturated temperature for a saturated pressure of 5 psia. In Table 4-3, it
can be seen that tsal = 160.28°F atPsal = 5 psia.
Table 4-3. Steps to Interpolate Between Two Temperatures
tsat (OF)
Saturated Water
Psat (psia)
. t} = 152 p}- 3.91101
t = t} + {(P - P/)!(P2 - Pi)} X (t2 - t]) p-5
up
= 152 + {(5 - 3.91101)/(7.8589 - 3.91101)}
x (182 - 152)
= 160.28
t2 = 182 P2 -7.8589
The interpolation relations for P and t are two useful expressions that will be applied over
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and over again as we look up values in tables. The linear interpolation technique will be
applied to many different variables, not only pressure and temperature.
The tabulated pressure and temperature values are exactly the same for both the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor lines. What then is the difference between the saturated liquid
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and saturated vapor lines? The difference is that the saturated liquid line represents a quality
x = 0 (all liquid) and the saturated vapor line represents a quality of x = 1 (all vapor).
Quality, x, is the mass proportion of vapor in a mixture of liquid and vapor. All properties,
other than pressure and temperature, have different values for saturated liquid and saturated
vapor. It is easy to picture that there is a big difference between specific volume; the liquid
is heavy while the vapor is light. To draw the distinction between the specific volume of a
saturated liquid and the specific volume of a saturated vapor, we use the subscripts offand
g respectively (they are the first letters of the German words for liquid and vapor). There-
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometrics Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

4: 8
fore, the variable Vj is reserved for the specific volume of a substance that is atpsat ,{sat and
has a quality x = 0, and vg is reserved for the specific volume of a substance that is at p t' {
and has a quality of x = 1. For a quality of x, the specific volume v of a saturated mixture is
given in terms ofvj' Vg and specific volume difference, Vjg = (Vg - Vj j, (see explanation in
the previous chapter) as:
t
v=vj+XV jg
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Values of v j ' Vg and Vjg are given in the saturation table for water as shown in the small
subset of Appendix B reproduced in Figure 4-3. Figure 4-3 has column headings that in-
clude temperature {sal' pressure Psal' specific volume v j ' Vg and Vjg ' specific enthalpy hj' hg'
and h jg , and specific entropy Sj' Sg and Sjg' Enthalpy is a property that will become very
useful when applying the the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems. The enthalpy
for any saturated condition can be calculated from:
h = Egh j +xhjg
Table 3 Tbermodynamic: Properties of Water at Saturation,

Specific
SaL
Volume, ft 3 /1b
Sat.
Enthllpy, Btu/lb
Sat. Sit.
Entropy, Btu/lb· of
SaL Sat.
Temp. Absolute Pressure p Uquid Eftp. Vapor Uquid Eftp. Vapor Uquld Eftp. Vapor
I, of psi in.Hg
"l "I, "t hI hl' h, I( 'l' 't
up
189 9.1510 . 18.6316 0.01656 41.7jO 41.746 . m.07 984.32 1141.39 0.2772 1.5174 1.7946
190 9.3493 19.0353 0.01657 40.901 40.918 158.07 983.71 1141.78 0.2787 1.5141 1.7929
191 9.5512 ·19.4464 0.01658 40.092 40.108 159.08 983.10 1142.18 0.2803 1.5109 1.7911
192 9.7567 19.8648 0.01658 39.301 39.317 160.08 982.48 1142.57 0.2818 1.5076 1.7894
193 9.9659 20.2907 0.01659 38.528 38.544 161.09 981.87 1142.95 0.2834 1.5043 1.7877
194 10.1788 20.7242 0.01659 37.774 37.790 162.09 981.25 1143.34 0.2849 1.5011 1.7860
195 10.3955 21.1653 0.01660 37.035 37.052 163.10 980.63 1143.73 0.2864 1.4979 1.7843
196 10.6160 21.6143 0.01661 36.314 36.331 164.10 980.02 1144.12 0.2880 1.4946 1.7826
197 10.8404 22.0712 0.01661 35.611 35.628 165.11 979.40 1144.51 0.2895 1.4914 1.7809
198 11.0687 22.5361 0.01662 34.923 34.940 166.11 978.78 1144.89 0.2910 1.4882 1.7792
199 11.3010 23.0091 0.01663 34.251 34.268 167.12 978.16 1145.28 0.2926 1.4850 1.7776
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Figure 4-3. Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated Water
Enthalpy is an energy-type property with zero value at some chosen reference state. The
reference state can be arbitrarily chosen, so the table is often accompanied by a statement of
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how the reference state was chosen. For the water table in Appendix B, the reference state is
set such that the enthalpy is zero at the triple point of water (32.018°F). In most of the
thermodynamic expressions that we will be using, it is the enthalpy difference that is impor-
tant and not the absolute value of enthalpy, so the choice of reference state is not critical.
However, the reference state is critical in topics such as combustion where there is a chemi-
cal reaction between components, and enthalpy values have to be brought to a common
reference state. The enthalpy difference between saturated vapor and saturated liquid, hjg =
(hg - hj ), is also known as the heat of vaporization or the latent heat.

4: 9
The tables offer a way of determining the quality if two independent properties are known.
For example, assume that saturated water at 212°F has an enthalpy of h = 800 BtU/Ibm'
From the table in Appendix B, the saturation pressure is 14.7096 psia. From the same table,
hj = 180.20 and hjg = 970.03 Btu/Ibm' Solving the enthalpy equation given earlier for x gives:
t
x = (h-hj )/ hjg
pe
= (800 -180.20) / 970.03
= 0.6389 (or 63.89%)
The column headings from the saturation table for R-22, as given in Appendix C, are repro-
duced in Figure 4-4. The specific volume for liquid is replaced by the density (density is the
inverse of specific volume). The columns for specific volume, enthalpy and entropy do not
list the values of Vjg ' hjg or Sjg' but these values can be derived easily from the differences
Eg
between listed values. There are additional columns. Columns that will be of interest in a
later chapter are those of coefficient of specific heat at constant pressure, Cp , and the ratio of
specific heats, k = Cp / Cv .
Refrigerant 11 (cblorodiDuoromethane)· Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor

Delsity, \bIuIt, EaIUlpy, EaIlOpJ, Specific Heat ep' VelocIty .r Solid, VIscosity, 1\tnuI eold, Sarface
up
TeIIp,* Prasart, IbIrtl rl31U1 BIIIIII IIIIIII'·F Ila/ll,.°F eple. WI 1II./r... Itl/l.. fl,·F Teuioa, Temp,
-lSO.OO 107.37 -63.169 76.604 -0.2191. 0."952 0.1018 1.291. 395. - -2S0.00
-240.00 - 106.41 - n.629 -0.18786 0.42332 0.1033 1.2860 403. - -:MO.OO
-230,00 . - 105.48
-220,00 0.002 IU..58
- -51.569
1680S. -47.705
78.669 -0.16605
79.724 -0.14958
0.40101
0.38211
0.1048 1.2807 411. 36.7S - 230.00
0.1064 1.27504 419. 35.70 -220.00
-lIO.OO 103.70 6982.6 - ".426 80.796 -0.13616 0.36538 0.1080 1.2703 .27. 34.67 - lIO.OO
Figure 4-4. Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated R-22

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4.3 Tablesfor Superheated Vapor and Compressed Liquid

G
Superheated vapor tables cover the region to the right ofthe saturated vapor line on the t-v
diagram shown in Figure 4-1. The term superheated comes from the fact that, for a given
pressure, the temperature is greater than the saturation temperature. In an example of water
at atmospheric pressure, the vapor is superheated if the temperature is greater than the satu-
ration value of 212°F. In the superheated region, the pressure and temperature are indepen-
dent properties. Therefore, the superheated vapor table actually consists of a set of many
tables, each for a different pressure, in which the entries are made according to temperature.

4: 10
The compressed liquid tables cover the region to the left of the saturated liquid line on the
t-v diagram in Figure 4-1. The term compressed comes from the fact that, for a given tem-
perature, the pressure is greater than the saturation pressure for that temperature. Pressure
and temperature are independent properties in the compressed liquid region. The compressed
liquid table is a set of tables, each for a different pressure, in which the entries are made
t
according to temperature. The interval in pressures between tables is usually quite large
because liquid properties vary less with pressure than do vapor properties. Liquids are often
pe
treated as incompressible.
4.4 Thermodynamic Liquid/Vapor Charts
Eg
A chart for R-22 is given in Appendix C. A simplified version of that chart is given in
Figure 4-5. Figure 4.5 is simplified only in the sense that there are a limited number of
constant property lines shown, so that it is easier to explain the chart's complexity. Refer-
ence in the next few paragraphs will be to Figure 4-5, but it is the chart in Appendix C that
should be used to obtain values.
The chart in Figure 4-5 is a plot of pressure against enthalpy. In this case, the pressure is
given a log scale. Lines of constant pressure run horizontally across the chart. Lines of
up
constant enthalpy run vertically up and down the chart. The saturated liquid and saturated
vapor lines outline a fairly characteristic dome shape to the central part of the chart. The
saturated liquid and saturated vapor lines are lines of constant quality (respectively x = 0
and x = 1). Other lines of constant quality can be drawn as shown for x = 0.02 and x = O.S.
Because quality is only defined for equilibrium mixtures of saturated liquid and vapor,
these lines of constant quality do not extend outside the region bounded by the saturated
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liquid and vapor lines.
The lines of constant temperature on the chart in Figure 4-5 have three distinct parts. Por
example, the line for Soop falls steeply in the compressed liquid region until it reaches the
saturated liquid line. It then extends horizontally across from the liquid to the vapor line,
following the constant pressure line ofPSOI = 15S.40 psia for tsol = SooP. After reaching the
G
saturated vapor line, the line for Soop once again falls very steeply. The line for 200 0 P
follows a similar path, but because it is close to the critical temperature of 205.06°P, it
seems to barely enter the dome near the critical point. Lines of constant density (inverse of
specific volume) are shown for values of 1.0 Ibm /ft3, 15 Ibm /ft3 and 65 lb m /ft3. Lines of
constant entropy are shown for 0.3 Btullbm ·R and 0.16 Btullbm .R.
Chapter" Thermodynamic Tables and Charts Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

4: 11
Enthalpy (Btu/Ibm)
2000.25 0 25 50 100 125 150 175 200
2000
'\5 \'oJtt'
1000
u.
0 :£ oensi\.'i :; 1000
t
0
-
GO
II
'b
pe
400 /ft::::.. 400
II)
:i?
II)
0..
-9: 100 / .Ift3
:J
Density ='I Ib 100 -;-
....
:J
II) II)
II) II)
40 ....
Q)
e.. 40 e..
10
4
Eg u.
o
o
o
10
1 __ ______________ _ _ _ _2 -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ J 1
-25 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
up
Enthalpy (Btu/Ibm)
Figure 4-5. Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for R-12
There are many alternative charts because it is choice of convenience as to which properties
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are selected for the axes of the chart. The charts plotting enthalpy against either pressure or
temperature are useful in vapor-compression refrigeration because the constant enthalpy
and constant pressure processes are easily shown. Previously, when introducing property
diagrams, we found it convenient to describe the temperature-volume (t-v) and pressure-
volume (P-v) charts. Another combination that is partiCUlarly convenient when studying
G
compressors and turbines is the temperature-entropy, or t-s, chart. The Mollier chart, widely
used in steam turbine work, is a plot of enthalpy against entropy (h-s) for water.
Charts are difficult to read on the scale that is drawn in this text. Much larger versions of
these charts are usually used to determine specific property values. A more common use of
property charts is to provide a visual map of a sequence of processes, with a clear indication
of the path and end states. Another purpose is to use the chart to determine which table is
appropriate to use: compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor.

4: 12
The Next Step
In this chapter, the emphasis was on finding the property values for substances in a range
that included the phase change from liquid to vapor. In Chapter 5, we will consider what to
do for ideal gases and for substances that act like ideal gases in the pressure and temperature
t
range of interest. Air at moderate temperatures and pressures is taken as an example of a
real gas approximated as an ideal gas.
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Summary
In Chapter 4, we developed the understanding and skill of finding properties in the saturated
tables for water and R-12. The saturated tables are shown to provide a relationship between
Eg
P sat and tsat • Values for properties in the mixed liquid and vapor region can be obtained from
the saturated values. The tables included values for pressure, temperature, specific volume,
specific enthalpy and specific entropy. The linear interpolation technique is used to deter-
mine values between the table entries. A chart ofR-22 is used as an example to demonstrate
the use of charts. After studying Chapter 4, you should be able to:
• Understand the format and content of the different tables and charts;
up
• Find the value of common properties in the tables;
• Interpolate to determine values between the entries in the tables; and
• Determine the property values of liquid-vapor mixtures.
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G

4: 13
t
pe
4-01. The saturated temperature of water is 100°F. What is the pressure? What are the
liquid and vapor values of specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific entropy?
(Use the table in Appendix B.)
4-02. The saturated temperature of water is 100°F and the quality is 50%. What is the
Eg
value of specific volume and specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
4-03. The saturation pressure for R-22 is 50 psia. What is the saturation temperature?
(Use the table in Appendix C)
up
4-04. The saturation temperature for water is 231.5°F and the quality is 0.2. What is the
pressure and the specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
4-05. The enthalpy for R-22 is 50 Btu/Ibm and the pressure is 40 psia. Is the refrigerant in
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the quality?
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(U se the chart in Appendix C)
4-06. The enthalpy for R-22 is 50 Btu/Ibm and the temperature is 100°F. Is the refrigerant
in the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the pressure
G
and the quality? (Use the table in Appendix C)
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the value of the
density? (Use the chart in Appendix C)

G
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up
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pe
t
5: 1
Chapter 5
Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables
t
• Instructions
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• 5.1 Ideal Gas and the Ideal Gas Law
• 5.2 The Ideal Gas Law as an Equation of State
• 5.3 Constant Specific Heat
• 5.4 Air Tables
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• The Next Step
• Summary
Instructions
up
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end of the chapter, complete all ofthe

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The ideal gas law expresses the relationship between pressure, temperature and specific
volume for an idealized model of a gas. The study objective for Chapter 5 is to understand
how the ideal gas law may be used to determine the state properties of pure substances that
can be reasonably assumed to act as an ideal gas. Air at room temperature and pressure can
G
often be treated as an ideal gas. There is an introduction to the use of air tables. After
studying Chapter 5, you should be able to:
• State the ideal gas law;
• Express the limitations to the use of the ideal gas equation;
• Describe the use of the ideal gas law in determining state properties;
• Describe the coefficients of specific heat as properties; and
• Determine the enthalpy for an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables
5:2
5.1 Ideal Gas and the Ideal Gas Law
An ideal gas does not exist in reality. The theoretical construction of an ideal gas is one
where the molecules that make up the gas are so far apart from each other that they have no
influence on each other. It is impossible for molecules to have no influence on each other,
t
but it is possible for a substance oflow enough density to behave approximately as an ideal
gas. In fact, many common substances that we describe as gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen,
pe
carbon dioxide and air) have low enough densities at atmospheric pressures and tempera-
tures to be reasonably described as ideal gases.
This really means they behave as ideal gases to an acceptable limit of error. This does not
imply that they will behave as ideal gases at all pressures and temperatures. To the contrary,
to be reasonably treated as an ideal gas, the state of the substance must be such that the
density is small enough so that individual molecules are far enough apart from each other
Eg
and that they seldom run into each other. The density is the inverse of the specific volume.
Therefore, an ideal gas is a substance in which the specific volume is large enough, and the
individual molecules are far enough apart, that the molecules have negligible effect on each
other.
As described earlier, the specific volume varies depending on the state of the substance.
For all pure substances, there are solid, liquid and vapor phases. A substance will not be-
up
have as an ideal gas in the solid, liquid or much of the vapor phase areas of the phase
diagram. Only in the vapor phase range at low enough pressures and high enough tempera-
tures will the vapor behave as an ideal gas. The vapor behaves less and less like an ideal gas
the closer the state is to the critical point or the saturated vapor line.
For the theoretical ideal gas, the pressure varies proportionally to the absolute temperature
and inversely proportionally to specific volume, leading to the ideal gas law which states:
ro
p=R(Tlv)
pv=RT
The R in this equation is the constant of proportionality in the relationship and is known as
G
the gas constant. It is important that the temperature in the equation is in absolute units
(Rankine or Kelvin). To draw a clear distinction of places where the temperature must be in
absolute units, we will use the upper case T. The value of the gas constantR is different for
every gas and may be determined by dividing the universal gas constant, Ru ' by the molar
mass, M, of the substance (often called molecular weight):
Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
5:3
The units of molar mass are lbmoeI lIb m . The value of the universal gas constant is:
Ru = 10.73 (psia.fe)/(lb mole .R)

= 1.98 Btu I (lb mo1e • R)
= 8.314 kJ I (k mo1e .K)
t
pe
The values for molar mass and gas constants for some common gases are given in Table
5-1.
The ideal gas law may be expressed in several different forms. For example, the specific
volume may be replaced by the total volume divided by the mass of the system. Another
Eg
form is to write the gas equation for a given number, N, oflbmo'es of gas rather than a mass in
lbm . The various forms are summarized below:
pv=RT
pV=mRT
pV = NRuT
up
Table 5-1. Gas Constants for Certain Substances
;
Molar Mass Gas 'Constant

Gas (lb",llb mo1e) , ,
Carbon dioxide , 44.0995 0.2438
Hydrogen 2.01594 5.3224
, , ,
Nitrogen 28.0134 0.3830
ro
Oxygen 3,1.9988 0.3353

Air , 28.9645 0.3704
R-22 102.92 0.1043
,
Water 18.01528 0.5956
G
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables
5:4
5.2 The Ideal Gas Law as an Equation ofState
In the previous chapter, we said that the functional relationships between properties such as
pressure, temperature and specific volume were mathematically complex enough that these
values are tabulated for water and other refrigerants. The tables are cumbersome but neces-
t
sary. However, in areas where the substance behaves as an ideal gas, the ideal gas equation
provides a more convenient alternative. The simple relationship among pressure, tempera-
pe
ture and specific volume in the ideal gas law suggests that given any two properties, we can
calculate the third. The ideal gas law is an example of an equation of state for substances
that obey the ideal gas relationship between pressure, temperature and specific volume.
In HVAC, it is fortunate that air, and the water vapor in air, can be treated as ideal gases for
typical atmospheric conditions. There will be a more careful evaluation of this statement in
the chapters on psychrometrics, but for now, consider some examples applying the ideal
Eg
gas equation of state to air. How would you determine the mass of air in a room of dimen-
sions 10 ft x 20 ft x 8 ft, where the pressure is 14.7 psia and the temperature is 75°P?
m= pV I RT
= (14.7 psia)(10 x 20 x 8 ft3) I {( 0.3704 (psia. ft3))1 (Ibm· R)(75 +460 R)}
= (118.7 Ibm)
up
What pressure is required if air at 32°P is to have a density ofO.15 Ibm/ft3 (density, p, is the
inverse of the specific volume)?
p= RTlv
=pRT
= (0.15 Ibm I ft 3){0.3704(psia. ft3) I (Ibm· R)}(32 +460 R)
ro
= 27.3 psia
The relationship between two states of an ideal gas can be seen by equating the gas constant
when the gas is at State 1 to the same gas constant when the gas is at State 2:
G
p\v\ II; = P2V 2 IT;
Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
5: 5
This relationship holds as long as the gas can be treated as an ideal gas. It does not depend
on the path by which the substance goes from State 1 to State 2. Consider a constant volume
process for which the initial pressure and temperature are PI = 14.7 psia and tl = 72°F. What
is the final pressure if the substance is air, can be treated as an ideal gas and is cooled to
32°F?
t
V2 = VI; PI = 14.7 psia; = (72 +460) = 532 R; Tz = (36+460) = 496 R
pe
From the ideal gas law:
P2 = (VI / v2)(Tz /
=(496/532)(14.7)
Eg = 13.71 psia
It is again worth noting that when working with the ideal gas law, it is important to use
absolute temperatures. In the example above, if absolute temperatures were not used, then
the expression would have incorrectly predicted a final pressure of one-half of the initial
pressure.
up
5.3 Constant Specific Heat
The ideal gas equation of state relates pressure, temperature and specific volume, but what
about the other properties that were listed in the water and refrigerant tables given earlier?
How is the enthalpy, or the entropy, determined for an ideal gas. To answer that, we will
ro
introduce another new property, specific heat, and we will make the observation that it is
the change of enthalpy that interests us more than the absolute value of enthalpy.
The term coefficient ofspecific heat is probably known to you from its application in phys-
ics. The coefficient of specific heat of unity for liquid water means that it takes one Btu to
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heat one lbIII of water by one degree Fahrenheit. For gases, we want to apply a similar idea,
but it takes a more careful definition because there are two coefficients of specific heat.
One is the coefficient of specific heat at constant volume, cv' and the other is the coefficient
of specific heat at constant pressure, cp' Contrary to their names, they are not meant to be
used only in cases of constant volume or constant pressure. Rather, they are defined in
terms oftheir connection to either internal energy, U, or to enthalpy, h.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables
5:6
For an ideal gas, the coefficient of specific heat at constant volume is:
Change of internal energy = cl' times change in temperature
t
pe
and, for an ideal gas, the coefficient of specific heat at constant pressure is:
Change of enthalpy = cp times change in temperature
Eg
Strictly speaking, the expressions above apply for only constant values of specific heat. It is
possible for the specific heat to vary with temperature and, in those cases, the changes have
to be taken over a small temperature range at a time. The distinction between these two
specific heats will be elaborated on later when we have developed the idea of work in
thermodynamics. For ideal gases, the specific heats do not depend on pressure. Therefore,
there is an important deduction that says:
For ideal gases, the internal energy and enthalpy are functions of temperature only_
up
F or the case of constant specific heat, it is straightforward to construct a table of internal
energy or enthalpy values as a function of temperature by applying the relationships given
above.
The coefficients of specific heat can be related to each other. Because enthalpy is related to
ro
to internal energy by h = (u + pV), and because the ideal gas law is pv = RT, we can write:
-UI )+(P2 V 2 - P1V I )
cAt2 - tl ) = Cv (t2 - t l ) + R(t2 - t l )

G
Dividing through by the temperature difference gives the relationship between the specific
heats and the gas constant as:
cp =cl' +R
Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries
5: 7
Another useful property is the ratio of specific heats, k.
t
Typical values of the coefficients of specific heat for air treated as an ideal gas at 80°F are:
C = 0.240 Btullb .OF and C = 0.171 Btullb .oF, which result in a k value of 1.4.
m
pe
p v III
To determine the values of entropy for an ideal gas (comparable to the values found in the
tables for water and refrigerants given earlier), we must have a better understanding of
entropy. We are not going to discuss entropy here, because it first takes the introduction of
the Second Law of Thermodynamics, but below are the expressions that are used to deter-
mine entropy changes for an ideal gas in the cases of constant specific heat:
Eg
(S2 -SI) = cl'
(S2 - SI) = cp
17;)+ R In(v2 Iv l )
17;) + R In(p2 I PI)
For ideal gases, enthalpy is a function of temperature only, but entropy depends on both
pressure and temperature.
up
5.4 Air Tables
The thermodynamic properties for air can be tabulated the same way as they are done for
water and refrigerants. The tabulations take into account the way specific heat changes with
temperature. The values are usually listed as a function of temperature for a given pressure.
An example of a moist air table is given in Appendix D for a pressure of 14.696 psia. The
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moist air table includes dry air as one of the cases. The moist air table will be more fully
explained during the discussion of psychrometrics.
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Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables
5: 8
The Next Step
Now that we have defined a number of useful properties, and learned how to find numbers
for those properties, we are ready to return to the discussion about different forms of en-
ergy. In the next chapter, we will introduce the ideas of work and heat in preparation for
t
describing the First Law of Thermodynamics.
pe
Summary
The ideal gas law expresses the relationship among pressure, temperature and specific vol-
ume for an idealized model of a gas. The relationship is given by pv = RT. The use of the
equation is limited to applications where the behavior of the substance can be reasonably
Eg
approximated by that of an ideal gas. This is usually in the low pressure/high temperature
range of the superheated vapor region. Vapors do not behave like an ideal gas near the
saturated vapor line, or near the critical point.
The use of the ideal gas law as an equation of state permits the determination of the remain-
ing value of the properties pressure, temperature or specific volume, if any two of these
properties are known. The properties of specific heat at constant volume and specific heat at
up
constant pressure are introduced as a means for determining internal energy and enthalpy
for an ideal gas. For many applications, air at room conditions may be treated as an ideal gas
with constant coefficients of specific heat. After studying Chapter 5, you should be able to:
• State the ideal gas law;

• Express the limitations to the use of the ideal gas equation;
• Describe the use of the ideal gas law in determining state properties;
ro
• Describe the coefficients of specific heat as properties; and

• Determine the enthalpy for an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
G
Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables Fundamentals ofThernwdynamics and Psychrometries
5: 9
t
pe
5-01. Air is often treated as an ideal gas. For the conditions of p = 14.696 psia and t =
72°F, find the specific volume for dry air, va' in Appendix D, and compare the value
read in the table to the value calculated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T= t + 459.67
to convert from of to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1. Express
the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being correct.
5-02. Water vapor is sometimes treated as an ideal gas. For the condition ofp = 67.0341
Eg
psia, find the specific volume for saturated vapor, vg , in Appendix B, and compare
the value read in the table to the value caclulated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T=
t + 459.67 to convert from of to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1.
Express the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being cor-
rect.
5-03. Repeat Exercise 5-02 except for conditions of saturated vapor at p = 0.3628 psia.
up
Compare the error found with the error determined in Exercise 5-02 and comment
on the difference.
5-04. A room of dimensions 10ft x 20 ft x 8 ft at atmospheric pressure contains 120 Ibm of

air. Assume an ideal gas and estimate the temperature in the room in of.
5-05. Consider the constant pressure heating of air from 70°F to 200°F. If the pressure is
ro
14.7 psia, what is the ratio of specific volumes before and after the heating?
5-06. Make a table listing the values of internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for air at
14.696 psia, with temperatures ranging from O°F to lOO°F in steps of lOoF, using
the coefficients of specific heat suggested for air at 80°F in the text. Use reference
values of zero internal energy, zero enthalpy and zero entropy at O°F.
G
5-07. Find the values of enthalpy for dry air in the table in Appendix D, at the same tem-
perature entries used in the table created in Exercise 5-06 and compare calculated
and look-up values. Calculate percent error assuming the tabulated values to be
correct.
Fundamentals ofThermotlynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables
G
ro
up
Eg
pe
t
6: 1
Chapter 6
Heat and Work
t
• Instructions
pe
• 6.2 Heat
• 6.3 Work
• 6.4 Flow Work
Eg
• The Next Step
• Summary
Instructions
up
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end ofthe chapter, complete all ofthe
ro
There are three ways in which energy can cross a system boundary. It can cross the bound-
ary as heat, as work, or (in the case of an open system) as an item carried by mass flow. The
energy forms of heat and work are the topics of study in this chapter. Heat is an expression
G
of the flow of thermal energy. Work may appear as moving boundary work, shaft work,
electrical work, gravitational work, acceleration work or flow work. After studying Chapter
6, you should be able to:
• Describe the concept of heat as an energy form crossing a system boundary;

• Describe the concept of work as an energy form crossing a system boundary;
• Describe the different types of mechanical work; and
• Understand the termflow work and relate it to enthalpy.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 6 Heat and Work

6:2
6.1 Introduction
There are three important ways in which energy can be exchanged between a system and its
surroundings that warrant special description in thermodynamics. Energy can cross a sys-
tem boundary as heat or work, or it can be transported by a flow of mass. Earlier, we intro-
duced the concept of internal energy as a property of a system that could be used to help
t
determine the state of the system. Heat and work are different. They are forms of energy
that are not properties of the system and, therefore, do not determine the state of the system.
pe
Heat and work can cause the state of a system to be changed (as we shall see later), but they
cannot define the state of the system.
Heat and work are associated with the mechanisms of energy exchange between the system
and its surroundings. They are known as transient forms of energy because they only have
meaning as the action of energy exchange is taking place. Another way of stating the differ-
Eg
ence is to say that although a system may contain a certain amount of energy at a given state
(internal energy, potential energy or kinetic energy), the system never contains heat or work.
The system gains or loses energy by heat and work as it changes from one state to another.
Besides the exchange of energy by work or heat, energy can also be carried in or out of an
open system when there is mass flow across the system's boundary. Mass flow at the bound-
ary, and its resulting effect on the energy balance of the system, will be discussed when
applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems.
up
Heat and work are both
forms of energy, but they dif-
fer in their driving mecha-
nisms. Heat exchange occurs Surroundings Work, W
because of a difference in
r---------------
ro
temperature between the sys-

tem and its surroundings. In
contrast, work has several
manifestations such as System
boundary work, shaft work,
G
electrical work, gravitational

work, acceleration work and
flow work, which generally
occur because of a difference Heat, Q
in forces.
Figure 6.1 shows a closed Figure 6-1. Closed System With

system with energy exchange Sign Convention for Heat and Work
with the surroundings in the
Chapter 6 Heat and Work Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

6: 3
form of heat, Q, and work, W. Heat and work can cross the boundary in either direction, in
or out, but the sign conventions for the two are different. Heat is positive when it is directed
into the system. Work is positive when it is directed out of the system, or when the system
is said to do work on the surroundings. The sign convention originates with the idea of a
heat engine in which heat is supplied to the system so that it can do work as an output. An
automobile is an example of a heat engine because the energy from burning fuel is con-
t
verted into shaft work to tum the wheels. Heat and work are the topics of the next two
pe
sections.
6.2 Heat
Consider a hot potato that has just been taken from the oven. With time, the potato will cool
Eg
as energy is transferred from it to the surrounding air. The temperature difference between
the potato and the air causes the exchange of energy, and when the temperature between the
potato and the air becomes negligibly small, the exchange of energy will cease. The direc-
tion of the energy exchange is always from the higher temperature body to the one at a
lower temperature.
Heat is the name given to the transitory form of energy as it crosses a boundary separating
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in temperature. For the
up
potato example, heat is the energy that passes from the potato to the air. This means that
some of the potato's internal energy is converted to heat as it flows across the boundary, and
then is converted back to become part of the air's internal energy.
We do not speak of either the potato or the air as containing heat. In this sense, the use of the
term heat is quite specific in thermodynamics and does not include many everyday refer-
ro
ences that actually more correctly identify internal energy rather than heat. The expressions
heat content offuel and body heat are examples of situations where it is really the internal
energy that is referred to. Why make such a strong distinction between heat and internal
energy? It is important because internal energy is a property and heat is not. Whereas prop-
erties are used to identify states, only help determine the process between states.
G
Heat has the units of energy and is usually given the symbol Q. Because heat is a transitory
energy form that often occurs as a system goes from one state to another, the states are
added to the symbol designation as JQ2, meaning the heat in going from State 1 to State 2.
The heat symbol Q is never given a single state designation, such as QJ' to emphasize that
heat is not a property associated with any particular state. The direction of flow of energy
across the boundary is important. The sign convention is that a positive value of Q means
flow of energy from the surroundings into the system. A negative value of Q means a flow
of energy out of the system.
Fundamentals ofTilermotiynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 6 Heat and Work

6:4
This sign convention originates from the idea of a heat engine where heat is added to the
system to make the system do work, as with an automobile. Sometimes it is inconvenient to
keep up with the positives and negatives, and the alternative is to subscript Q with the labels
in or out to indicate the direction of energy flow, and then remember to place the appropri-
ate sign when doing an energy balance. We shall see many examples of energy balances
t
when we discuss the First Law of Thermodynamics in the next chapters. The energy flow as
heat into the system is referred to as heat addition, while the energy flow as heat out of the
pe
system is known as heat rejection.
There are two other ways in which the heat term will commonly appear in thermodynamics
equations. There is the heat per unit mass, known as q (Btu/Ibm)' and the heat per unit time,
known as Q(Btu/h).
Eg
Consider again the potato taken from the oven (as shown in Figure 6-2). The potato is
initially at 260°F and the surrounding air is at 76°F. From our discussions about internal
energy and the coefficient of specific heat for solids in Chapter 5, we can estimate the
energy content of the potato at any time. Assume a reference datum for internal energy as
zero at 32°F (arbitrary choice), amass ofm = 0.5 Ibm ,and a coefficient of specific heat of cp
= 1 Btu/Ibm .0F, then the internal energy when the potato is first taken from the oven (State
1), and the internal energy after a long time when the potato has come to equilibrium with
up
the room air (State 2), are respectively:
U\ =mcAt\ -tref )
= (0.5 lbm)(l Btu /lb m •o F)(260 - 32° F)
= 114 Btu
U 2 =mcAt2 -tref )
ro
= (0.5 lbm)(l Btu /lb m·o F)(76 - 32° F)

=22 Btu
The heat crossing the boundary, JQ2 , is:

G
\Q2 =(U2 -U\)

= -92 Btu
Chapter 6 Heat and Work Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

6: 5
t
,'"
pe
_....
\\
>. \. ..I Alternative

.. Qout = 92 Btu
State 1 Process 1- 2 State 2
Figure 6-2. Potato (Closed System) Cooling From 260°F to 76°F
Eg
Note that this is a special form of the First Law of Thermodynamics in which the work is
zero because there is no change in volume of the potato. Descriptions of work appear in the
next section, and the First Law is in Chapter 7. The minus sign means that the heat is being
rejected. The arrow is shown in Figure 6-2 flowing into the potato, but the negative value
up
means that it really is in the opposite direction. Alternatively, this could be described as 92
Btu rejected from the system, and be expressed as:
IQ2 oul = 92 Btu
The arrow pointing out of the system with the positive value of 92 Btu is shown as an
ro
alternative (dashed) in Figure 6-2.
A process in which there is no heat is known as an adiabatic process. There are two circum-
stances under which a process may be adiabatic. The system may be well insulated, result-
ing in negligible energy flow even if there is a temperature difference, or there may be no
G
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. The temperature in an
adiabatic process may, or may not, remain constant, depending on other energy flows tak-
ing place, such as work. Therefore, an adiabatic process is not the same as an isothermal
process. In an isothermal process, the temperature of the system does not change while
going from one state to the next, but there mayor may not be heat transferred.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries Chapter 6 Heat and Work

6:6
6.3 Work
Work is the name given to the transitory fonn of energy as it crosses a boundary separating
systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in pressure or force of
any kind. Like heat, work is not a property, and is only defined while the energy interchange
t
is occurring across the system boundary. Work has units of energy and is assigned the
symbol W. When the work occurs while going from State 1 to State 2, then the work is
pe
specified as 1 W2 • The work per unit mass is w Btu/Ibm' The rate of doing work, W Btu/h, is
also known as power, P. Power appears in many different units, and may be given as Btu/h,
ft-Ib/s, horsepower hp, or kW.
There are many different fonns of mechanical work, each in some way connected to a force
being moved over some distance. From physics, work is defined as the product of force and
Eg
displacement (in the direction of the force). We will use that basic definition and develop
the expressions for some common fonns of work.
Moving boundary work. Consider a piston-cylinder arrangement as shown in Figure 6-3.

The pressure in the cylinder is p, the piston area is A, and the volume of the air in the
cylinder is V. The piston is weightless and frictionless and it takes a force of F = pA to keep
the piston in place. If the
up
piston (and therefore the
system boundary) moves a
small distance f:ls, and the
system volume increases by
a small amount from V to
(V + then the small
amount of work done by the
ro
force F moving through

distance f:ls is:
,-
, __...>1
= F·f:ls
G
= (pA)f:ls
=p(Af:ls)
Pressure p
Volume V
Figure 6-3. Boundary Work by a Piston in a Cylinder

6: 7
The work is given as the product of the pressure and the small change of volume. The small
change in volume is emphasized here because to get this result, we actually assumed that
the pressure remained constant while the volume was changing. Constant pressure repre-
sents only a special case of the more general situation where pressure can vary in a variety
of different ways with volume change. A case of air expanding in a cylinder is shown in the
t
p- V diagram of Figure 6-4, where the air is shown starting at State 1 and expanding to a
lower pressure at State 2. The path between States 1 and 2 is drawn as an arbitrarily shaped
pe
curve. The expression developed above for work as p!1Vapplies for the thin slice shown in
Figure 6-4 and is the area of that slice on the p- V diagram. To find the work done in going
from State 1 to State 2, it would be necessary to add up the areas of many thin slices from
the p- V diagram:
I = Area under the p - V diagram
Eg =LP!1V
The symbol sigma, is used to indicate the sum of all the small areas p!1V. The boundary
work is the area under the p- V curve. In evaluating moving boundary work of a closed
system, it is very useful to sketch the p- V diagram to obtain a visual picture of the work
done.
The results to the example of a piston in a cylinder can be stated more carefully and gener-
up
ally. Moving boundary work for the quasi-equilibrium and reversible movement of the
boundary of a closed system can be estimated from the area under the p- V diagram. Quasi-
equilibrium change was described in Chapter 2 as a change that proceeds in such a manner
that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times. A quasi-
equilibrium process is an idealization of a real process.
ro
Reversibilty is a concept yet to be introduced and will be an important part of a later chap-
ter. A process is said to be reversible ifboth the system and its surroundings can be restored
to their original condition. Effects such as friction, non-quasi-equlibrium or heat transfer
through a finite temperature difference render a process irreversible. Therefore, reversibility
is also an idealization of a real process because no process can actually meet all of the
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requirements.
The sign convention for work is that it has a positive value when work is done by the system
on the surroundings. That is the case for the expansion shown in Figure 6-4. If the piston
moved in the opposite direction so as to decrease the volume (as in compression), then work
would be done on the system, and the sign would be negative. This is the opposite sign
convention to that applied to heat.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 6 Heat and Work

6: 8
Pressure
t
I
I
I
pe
I
I ____ _
- __ 1-
P
I
I
--- ---- - - - - - - - -=--....-.... ®

:
1
Eg AV=AAS
AS
l+-
I
V2 Volume
f 1
I
I
up
l}
I
I
.I
I
Figure 6-4. Boundary Work as the Area Under the p-V Curve
ro
There are many different paths by which the pressure can change as a system goes from
State 1 to State 2. The work done by the moving boundary (area under the p- V curve) for a
closed system is given for a list of specific processes below and shown in the p-V diagrams
in Figure 6-5:
G
Constant pressure process,p] = P2 ' any substance:

IT¥; = PI(V2 - v;) = P2(V2 - v;)
Constant volume process, = V2 ' any substance:
IT¥; = zero
Chapter 6 Heat and Work Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometries

6: 9
Isothermal process, T] = T2 ' ideal gas only P V = constant:
1 = In(V2 = P2 V2
Isentropic process, s] = S2 ,P V" = constant, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
1(1- k) = mR( 1; - 7;) 1(1 - k)
t
I = (P2 - PI
Polytropic process, P vn = constant, n * 1, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
pe
1 = - (1- n) = mR(1; - 7;)1 (1- n)
Pressure Pressure
Eg Constant Pressure Constant Pressure
CD
®
up
Volume Volume
Pressure Pressure
Isentropic,
ro
Ideal Gas
Isothermal,
Ideal Gas CD
pV = constant
G
V2 Volume V2 Volume
Figure 6-5. Work as Area Under the p-V Curve

for Closed Systems and Different Processes

6: 10
This may seem a formidable list, but you do not need to memorize all these expressions.
They are given to emphasize that the work is a path-dependent function and that the moving
boundary work may be calculated when needed. The above expressions apply to closed
systems. The derivations of the above expressions are not shown, but it can be seen that
they depend on the type of process and the substance. In the case of an isentropic process
t
with ideal gas, it can be shown that the process is given as p V" = constant, where k is the
ratio of specific heats. Often, it is experimentally seen that the compression or expansion
pe
follows a process that is not quite isentropic, but where the process can be described with an
expression p V" = constant. This is called a polytropic process, and n is the polytropic expo-
nent.
Example 6-1. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 10 Ibm of saturated

liquid water at 212°F. The fixed weight piston is not attached to a shaft. Heat is
Eg
added to the water until it is all saturated vapor. Calculate the work done by the
system.
Solution. The piston-cylinder and p-V diagram are shown in Figure 6-6. Because
of the fixed weight piston with no shaft, the pressure remains constant. The
pressure may be found for saturated water at 212°F from the saturated water
tables in Appendix B-1 as 14.7096 psia. From the same table, the specific vol-
ume of saturated water is vj = v J = 0.01671 ft3/lb m and the specific volume for
up
saturated vapor is Vg = v2 = 26.780 ft 3/lb m• The volume is the mass times the
specific volume. The rectangular area under the curve gives the work as:
= Pl m(v2 -VI)
= (14.7096 psia)(10 lb m )[ (26.780- 0.01671) ft3 /lb m ][ (1 Btu) I (5.404 psia· ft3)]
= 728.3 Btu
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The work is positive because the system does work on the surroundings.
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Chapter 6 Heat and Work Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

6: 11
Pressure
t
p=
r- - - ---- -- 14.7096 pSia
Saturated
pe
,-f,-fl-- /VaporLine
Vapor
ttttt
Liquid
Eg Vt
=0.0167116 ft3
Vg
ft3
=26. 780 16
Figure 6-6. p-v Diagram for Constant Pressure Process
Specific
Volume V
ft3
up
Example 6-2. A piston-cylinder device initially contains 1.0 of air at 20 psia
and 76°P. The air is compressed to 0.1 ft3
in such a way that the temperature
remains constant. Calculate the work done by the system.
Solution. The piston-cylinder andp-v diagram are shown in Figure 6-7. Assume
that air can be treated as an ideal gas, then the relationship PV = mRT = constant
applies. The area under the curve gives the work as:
ro
IUS = PIV; IV;)

= (20 psia)( 1.0 ft3) In( 0.1 11.0)[(1 Btu) I (5.404 psia· ft3)]
= -8.52 Btu
The negative sign indicates that, for compression, work is done on the system.
G

6: 12
P2 = 200 psi a
t
pe
P1 = 20 psia --- -
Eg
IJ V
up
Figure 6-7. p-VDiagram for Constant Temperature Process of Ideal Gas
In the situation given in Example 6-2, it is also possible to calculate the pressure at the end
ro
of the process and the mass in the system. Because it is an ideal gas at constant temperature:
P2 = PI (V; IV;)
G
= (20 psia)[ (1.0 fe I (0.1 fe))]

= 200 psia
m=
= (20 psia)(1.0 fe)1 {[0.3704 (psia.fe)/(lb m. R)][(76 + 460)R]}
= 0.101 Ibm

6: 13
The moving boundary work for a closed system process is represented by the area under the
process curve on the pressure-volume diagram. The sign of the work depends on whether
the volume increases or decreases. A cycle is formed by a sequence of processes such that
the final state of the final process is the same as the initial state of the initial process. This
means that the moving boundary work of the cycle is the net area enclosed within the pro-
t
cess curves on the p-V diagram, as shown in Figure 6-8.
pe
Shaft work. Shaft work usually refers to the energy transmission by a rotating shaft. If the
torque on the shaft is T, and the shaft rotates through an angle q, then the shaft work is:
W=Te
s
The angle of rotation is often re-expressed in terms of the number of revolutions as 8 = 2 nN
Eg
and the work is then:
Ws = 2nNT
Pressure p
up
®
®:1
ro
1
1
1
---t------
1
1
1
1 leD
G
1 I
I I
1 I
I I
"---.......1--------------.....,1--... Volume V
Figure 6-8. Boundary Work for a Cycle as the Net Area Under the p-V Curve

6: 14
The rate of doing work is:
Ws = (27tnT) / 60 ft ·lbf / s
= (27tnT) / 12.97 Btu / h
=(27tnT) /33,000 hp
t
=(27tnT) / 44,248 kW
pe
where n is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute and T is the torque in ft.lbr
Often the shaft work is not given in terms of the torque and speed, but is specified either as
a desired output of an engine or the needed power input to run a compressor or chiller.
Electrical work. Electrical work appears in two forms in thermodynamics. The first form
Eg
results from the electrons flowing through a resistance element and doing work at a rate of:
We = VI = 12 R =V2 / R
The electrical current is I, the voltage across the element is V, and the resistance of the
up
element is R. If I is in amps, V is in volts and R is in ohms, then the units of W are watts.
The other common way of encountering electrical work is through an electrical motor,
generator or alternator. The conversion between electrical work and mechanical work is
done internally to the device and the result often shows up as shaft work.
ro
6.4 Flow Work
F or open systems, there is also the possibility of mass flow across the boundary. That flow
carries a certain amount of internal energy with it as it crosses the boundary, but in addition,
the mass flow has to do work at the boundary to either enter or leave the system. A flow
G
stream entering a system has to push its way into the system. This is known as the flow
work.
The rate of flow work W can be expressed very much as boundary work because it amounts
to the boundary being pushed by a force F= pA at a velocity V The pressure,p, is constant
at the location where the flow enters the system. The flow work is usually expressed as
specific work (work per unit mass flow) so that the work can be identified with the flow

6: 15
stream entering or leaving the system. If the mass flow rate across the boundary is =
VA/v, then the specific flow work is:
Wflow = WI m
t
= (pA)(V)I (VA I v)
pe
=pv
The flow work is pv. However, in most cases, the flow work is not identified in a category
by itself. It is usually taken care of by considering the enthalpy, instead of the internal
energy, that is carried into, or out of, the system by the mass flow. The enthalpy of the
system is defined as:
h = u+ pv
Eg
The enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and the flow work. The units of internal
3
energy and enthalpy are usually given as Btu/Ibm. When p is in psia and v is in ft /lb m, it is
necessary to apply the conversion factor 1 Btu = 5.404 psia·ft3/lb mto the pv term. We will
see another derivation of the flow work and the enthalpy when we consider the First Law of
Thermodynamics for open systems in Chapter 8.
up
ro
G

6: 16
The Next Step
Now the pieces are in place to discuss the First Law of Thermodynamics. In the next chap-
ter, we will analyze the First Law as applied to closed systems.
t
pe
Summary
Heat and work are transitory forms of energy that exist when energy is crossing a system
boundary. Heat is the name given to the transitory form of energy as it crosses a boundary
separating systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in tempera-
ture. Work is the name given to the transitory form of energy as it crosses a boundary
separating systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a difference in pressure or
state.
Eg
force of any kind. Heat and work have many similarities:
• Heat and work are not properties; they are associated with a process and not a
• Heat and work are recognized only at the boundaries of the system as they cross
that boundary.
• Systems contain energy, but they do not contain heat or work.
up
• Heat and work are path functions because their values depend on the process
path as well as the end-states.
• Heat and work have direction. The sign convention for heat is that energy addi-
tion is positive and the sign convention for work is that work done by the system
is positive.
Boundary, gravitational and acceleration work may be expressed as:
ro
Boundary work for a closed system, ] W2 = Area under the P-V diagram
Constant pressure process,p] = P2' any substance:
G
Constant volume process, V] = V2 ' any substance:
lU;; = zero
Isothermal process, T] = T2 ' ideal gas only P V = constant:
1U;; = PI V; / V;) = P2 / V;)
Chapter 6 Heat and Work Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

6: 17
Isentropic process, s 1 = S2 ,p JIk = constant, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
I W; = (P2 V2 - PI / (1 - k) = mR(1; - I;) / (1- k)
Polytropic process, P vn = constant, nil, ideal gas only, P V = mRT:
t
pe
Also important are shaft work and electrical work. For open systems where there is mass
flow into or out of the system, there is work associated with the flow called flow work.
Flow work is the product of the pressure and the specific volume and is accounted for in
open systems by adding the flow work to the internal energy that is carried across the boundary
by the flow. The combination of the internal energy and the flow work is the enthalpy:
Eg
h = u+ pv
• Describe the concept of heat as an energy form crossing a system boundary;

up
• Describe the concept of work as an energy form crossing a system boundary;
• Describe the different types of mechanical work; and
• Understand the termflow work and relate it to enthalpy.
ro
G

6: 18
t
pe
6-01. Provide a description of heat, and describe how it is different from internal energy.
6-02. A 0.35 Ibm potato at 70°F is placed in an oven at 350°F. After 45 minutes, the potato
temperature is 350°F. Assume the coefficient of specific heat for the potato is cp =
1.0 Btu/lbm·oF. If the reference datum for internal energy is U = 0 at t = OaF, then
estimate the internal energy content of the potato at the beginning and end ofthe 45
6-03.
Eg
minutes. What has been the heat during the 45 minutes and is it positive or negative?
What was the average rate of heat transfer?
Provide a description of work in general, and then give short (one- or two-sentence)
descriptions of boundary work and shaft work.
up
6-04. Provide a description of flow work, and say how it is included in enthalpy.
6-05. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 2 Ibm ofwater at 212°F and quality x =
0.4. The fixed weight piston is not attached to a shaft. Heat is added to the water
until it is all saturated vapor. Calculate the work done by the system.
ro
6-06. A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.2 ft3 of air at 80 psia and 76°F. The air
is expanded to 0.9 ft3 in such a way that the temperature remains constant. Calculate
the work done by the system, the final pressure and the mass of air.
G
6-07. In the isentropic compression of air in a cylinder, the volume is reduced from 1.5 ft3
to 0.5 ft3. The ratio of specific heats for air is k = 1.4. The initial pressure is 14.7 psia
and the initial temperature is 45°F. Assume the air acts as an ideal gas. Estimate the
final pressure, the final temperature and the work done.

7: 1
Chapter 7
First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Closed Systems
t
pe
• Instructions
• 7.1 Introduction to Controlled Mass Approach
• 7.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System
• 7.3 Conservation of Energy
Eg
• 7.4 First Law Applied in Example Cases
• The Next Step
• Summary
up
Instructions
ro
The objective of Chapter 7 is to develop an understanding of the First Law of Thermody-

namics as applied to closed systems. So far, we have developed the ideas and definitions of
G
properties, states, change of states and cycles, and introduced the concepts of heat and
work. It is now time to consider the relationship between work, heat and change of energy
as we change from one state to another. The relationship is expressed as the principle of
energy conservation (or the First Law of Thermodynamics).
Initially, the First Law is applied to a closed system (a system for which no mass crosses the
system boundary) because the resulting equations are simpler than for an open system.
Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems
7:2
However, the principle to be applied is the same for closed and open systems. After study-
ing Chapter 7, you should be able to:
• Understand the First Law as an expression of the conservation of energy prin-

ciple;
t
• Write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to a closed
system; and
pe
• Apply the First Law to simple cases of closed systems.
Eg
up
ro
G
Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
7: 3
7.1 Introduction to Controlled Mass Approach
In an earlier chapter, it was stated that the first step in finding a solution to a thermodynam-
ics problem is to identify the system to be analyzed. A closed system is one in which a
quantity of matter is identified for study. A closed system definition is often called the
t
control mass approach. A quantity of matter means that the mass to be studied will remain
the same mass throughout the analysis. The matter in the system may change form, phase or
pe
location in space, but the system is identified as that matter that originally was targeted for
study.
There is an imaginary boundary drawn to contain the matter. The location of the matter and,
therefore the shape of the boundary, may change with time, but to remain a closed system,
no mass enters or leaves the system through the boundary. Everything outside the boundary
is known as the surroundings. Although there is no mass exchange across the boundary in
Eg
closed systems, there may still be work and heat crossing the boundary as the system inter-
acts with its surroundings.
An example of closed system is shown in Figure 7-1. The object chosen for demonstration
is a piston-and-cylinder combination with air in the cylinder. The air is trapped in the cylin-
der and there is no way for the air to escape, or for new air to come into the cylinder. The
system is chosen to be the matter (mass of air) that is trapped in the cylinder. The system
up
boundary is shown by the dotted line. The surroundings are then the piston, the cylinder
ro
Piston
r----------------'
I Weight
I
Closed Piston
System
r----------------j
G
I
I
Closed I
I
I System I
I I

Figure 7-1. Closed System
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems
7:4
wall, the cylinder head and everything else outside the dotted line. As weights are added to
the piston and the piston moves to reduce the volume in the cylinder, the system (air in the
cylinder) is compressed and changes shape, but still maintains the same air that was origi-
nally targeted as the system.
t
A closed system analysis is one in which the mass does not change. The analysis is known
as the controlled mass approach, and it is characterized by the absence of mass entering or
pe
leaving the system, and no change of mass inside the system.
7.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Closed System
F or a closed system undergoing a small change of state, the increase of total energy of the
Eg
system is equal to the difference between the heat added to the system and the amount of
work done by the system on the surroundings:
11£=oQ-oW
Here 11£ is the increase in total energy of the system due to heat transfer into the system oQ
and work going out of the system 0 W. The 11 indicates a small change inside the system
while the 0 indicates a small flow across the system boundary. 11 and 0 are both said as
up
delta. A negative change in energy would indicate a decrease of energy while negative flow
of heat or work would mean they were in the opposite direction to the above conventions.
7.3 Conservation ofEnergy

ro
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
it can only change form. In terms of the universe, this may be difficult to see, but if the
universe is divided into two parts (a closed system and its surroundings), then it is possible
to consider the implications of the First Law by examining the energy associated with the
system and the exchange of energy between the system and its surroundings. Because the
G
system is a well defined mass, m, we can talk about the total energy of the system E as being
made up of the sum of the microscopic energy (internal energy U) and the macroscopic
energy (potential energy PE and kinetic energy KE):
E=U+PE+KE
=m(u+ pe+ke)
Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems Fundamentals ofTI,ermodynamics and Psychrometries
7: 5
There are two ways that energy can cross the system boundary when there is no mass ex-
change between the system and its surroundings. Energy can cross the boundary as heat (Q,
positive when entering system) and work (W, positive when done by the system on the
surroundings). If energy can neither be created nor destroyed, then an energy account for
system states that:
t
Net energy transfer to (or from) the system as heat or work =
pe
Net increase (or decrease) in the total energy of the system
or
where
I
Q2
Eg = net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
= L 1Q2 in - L 1 Q2 out
= net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
up
!:!ill = net change in total energy of system between states 1 and 2
= E2 -E)
=!::,U+ME+11KE
=m(u2 -ul )+mg(Z2 -z))+m(V;2 -Vn12
ro
and L = the sum of all components
Therefore the First Law of Thermodynamics (or conservation of energy) for a closed sys-
tem undergoing a process from State 1 to State 2 may be stated as:
G
For negligible change in the kinetic and potential energy terms, the equation is:
7:6
7.4 First Law Applied in Example Cases
To develop an understanding of how the First Law of Thermodynamics may be applied to

closed systems, we will consider a series of simplified applications in which it will be
assumed that the changes in potential and kinetic energy are negligible. These applications
t
are based on two configurations: a rigid tank in which the volume remains unchanged dur-
ing the process; and a piston-cylinder configuration in which the volume may change as the
pe
piston moves. For each configuration, there will be examples of the working fluid being an
ideal gas (such as air) or a liquid-vapor combination (such as steam or a refrigerant). The
applications will include actual numbers so that the values of properties can be calculated,
or read from tables and charts as appropriate, but the solution technique will emphasize the
basic solution in symbols before substituting in for the numbers. For each application, there
will be a sketch of the configuration and a property diagram (usually p-v) to show the
process.
Eg
Application 1. A rigid tank with a volume of 3 ft3 is initially filled with air at 352.07 psia
and 140°F. The air is cooled to 20°F. Treat the air as an ideal gas. Apply the Ideal Gas Law
to determine the mass of air in the tank. Apply the continuity equation to determine the final
pressure in the tank. Assuming the air in the tank constitutes a closed system, apply the First
Law of Thermodynamics to determine the heat transferred during the process.
up
Solution. The air in the tank is taken as the system. The process is assumed to start when the
tank is already full of air at p = 352.07 psi a and t1 = 140°F (State 1). The process ends when
the air in the tank is cooled to t2 = 20°F,P2 =? Because no mass enters or leaves the tank
during the process, this is a closed system. Because it is a rigid tank, the volume remains
constant. The configuration is shown in Figure 7-2 along with the p-v diagram showing the
constant volume process from State 1 to State 2.
ro
The mass in the tank may be calculated by applying the Ideal Gas Law to the air at State 1:
m= / RT;
ForP1 = 352.07 psia; V1= 3 ft3; R = 0.3704 (psia·ft3)/(lbm·R) (see Table 5-1); and T1 = (140
+ 460)R, the mass is:
G
m = (352.07 psia)(3 fe) / ([ 0.3704(psia. ft3) / (Ibm' R)]( 600 R)}

=4.75 Ibm
The mass of a closed system remains unchanged. The Ideal Gas Law is applied to State 2 to
determine the unknown pressure:
P2 = mRT;
Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
7: 7
For m = 4.75 Ibm; V2 = VI = 3 ft3 (rigid tank); and T2 = (20 + 460)R, the pressure is:
pz = (4.75 lb n,)[ 0.3704(psia. ft3) / (Ibm' R)](480 R) / (3 ft3)

= 281.7 psia
t
The calculation to find the final pressure could also have been done without finding the
mass. Consider equating the mass from the Ideal Gas Law applied at States 1 and 2, equat-
pe
ing volumes, and canceling the gas constant to get:
P2 = (1; / I;)PI
= (480/600)(352.07)
= 281.7 psia
Eg
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the process from State 1 to State 2 is:
CQ2 - I Tfi)=m(u2 -u1)

There is no change of either potential energy (Z2 - zJ = 0) or kinetic energy (velocity V =0) in
this application, and the equation may be solved for the heat transferred as:
I Q2 =1 Tfi + m(u2 - U1)

up
ro
r----------, t
PI
= 140°F
I
I
I
I
I
AIR
I
I
I
Pressure
CD] = 352.07 psia
p
G
I I
: V=3ft'l :
®
I I
I I
I I
-----------..1
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-2. Rigid Tank and p-v Diagram for Application 1
7:8
There is no shaft work. The boundary work is also zero because there is no change in
volume. Recall that the boundary work could be expressed as the area under the curve on
the p-V diagram. Because the curve is a vertical straight line, as shown in Figure 7-2, there
is no area under the curve and the boundary work is zero:
°
U;; = (constant volume process)
t
I
I Q2 = m(U2 - ul )
pe
The change of specific internal energy for an ideal gas can be expressed as the product of
the specific heat at constant volume and the change in temperature, so that:
IQ2 = mc.(t2 -tl)
Form =4.75Ibm ; cv =0.171 Btu/lbm .oF;t2 =20°F;andtl =140°F,theheattransferis:
Eg
IQ2 =(4.75Ib m)(O.l71 Btu/Ib m·oF)(20-140)o
= -97.5 Btu
The negative sign indicates that the direction of heat flow was out of the system, which
agrees with our sense that cooling the air means to remove heat.
Application 2. A rigid tank with a volume of 3 ft3 is initially filled with R-22 in a saturated
up
vapor state at 140°F. The refrigerant is cooled to 20°F. Use the refrigerant tables (in Appen-
dix C-J) to determine the mass of refrigerant in the tank. Determine the final pressure.
Assuming the refrigerant in the tank to constitute a closed system, apply the First Law of
Thermodynamics and determine the heat transferred during the process.
Solution. The refrigerant in the tank is taken as the system. The process is assumed to start
ro
when the tank is already full atpI = 352.07 psia and tl = 140°F (State 1). The process ends
when the refrigerant in the tank is cooled to t2 = 20°F, P2 = ? Because no mass enters or
leaves the tank during the process, this is a closed system. Because it is a rigid tank, the
volume remains constant. The configuration is shown in Figure 7-3 along with the p-v
diagram showing the constant volume process from State 1 to State 2.
G
From the refrigerant table in Appendix C-J, the properties of saturated R-22 at 140°F are:
PI = 352.07 psia, VI = Vg = 0.1434 ft3/lb m ,and enthalpy hI = hg = 112.784 Btu/Ibm' The mass
IS:
m = V; IVI
=(3 ft3)/(O.l434 ft3 /Ibm)

= 20.9 Ibm
Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems Fundamentals ofThermot/ynamics and Psychrometries
7: 9
r----------
I
t
PI
= 140°F
= 352.07 psia
I
Pressure
: REFRIGERANT p
t
I R-12
I
V=3ft3
®
pe
I
I
I
I
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-3. Rigid Tank and p-v Diagram for Application 2
Eg
From Figure 7-3, it can be seen that State 2 is a saturated mixture of liquid and vapor. At
20°F, the properties as read from Appendix C-J are:
P2 =Pg = 57.083 psia; vg2 = 0.9343 ft3/lb m ; density ofliquid p = 81.411bm/ft3 (note
that density is the inverse of the specific volume and vfl = 0.0122 ft3/Ib m ); en-
up
thalpy of saturated vapor hg2 = 106.434 Btu/Ibm; and enthalpy of saturated liquid
hfl = 16.090 Btu/Ibm
The quality ofthe mixture (ratio of mass vapor to total mass) can be found by recognizing
that for the constant volume process v2 = VI = vfl +X/Vg2 - vfl ). Therefore, the quality is:
ro
x2 =(V2 -v j2 )/(vg2 -v j2 )
= (0.1434 - 0.0122) I (0.9343 - 0.0122)
= 0.1423
With this quality, the specific enthalpy at State 2 is:

G
=hj2 +x2 (hg2 -hj2)

= 16.090 + 0.1423(106.434 -16.090)
= 28.946 Btu I Ibm
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems
7: 10
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the process from State 1 to State 2 is:
CQ2 -, n;) = m(u2 -u,)

The changes in kinetic and potential energy are zero. There is no boundary work because it
is a constant volume process. The heat transfer is:
t
,Q2 = m(u2 -u,)
pe
The tabulated values for internal energy are not given in Appendix C-l, but they can be
calculated from the enthalpy by remembering the relationships:
u, = - p,v,
= 112.784 -(352.07 Ib j I in.2 )(144 in? Ife)( 0.1434 fe /lb m)(Btul 778 ft ·lb j )
u2
Eg
= 103.4 Btu I Ibm
= - P2 V 2
= 27.4 Btullb m
2
=28.946-(57.803Ib j lin?)(144 in.2 /ft )(0.1434 ft3 Ilb m )(Btu/778 ft.lb j )
up
The heat transfer is:
,Q2 = m(u2 -u,)

= 20.9 Ib m(27.4-103.4) Btullb m
= 1,588.4 Btu
As in the previous application, the negative sign is an indication of the heat removed from
ro
the system. The large amount of heat transfer is an indication of the heat released during
change of phase from vapor to liquid (condensation).
Application 3. A piston-cylinder device contains 10 Ibm of air which is maintained at a

constant pressure of 150 psia by a floating piston of constant weight. as shown in Figure
G
7-4. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned on for five minutes and supplies heat at
a rate of 1.5 kW. During those five minutes, a heat loss of 200 Btu occurs through heat
transfer to the surroundings. If the initial temperature is 20°F, determine the temperature
after the five minutes.
7: 11
Solution. The air and the resistance wire are selected as the system. Even though the piston
can move, and the volume can change, there is no mass entering or leaving the closed
system.
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the process from the initial State 1 to final
t
State 2 is:
pe
The changes in kinetic and potential energy are assumed to be negligibly small. Foran ideal
gas, the change in internal energy is expressed as (u 2 - u}) = cv (t2 - t}). There are two forms
of work in this problem. The boundary work for the constant pressure process is mp(v2 - v).
This may also be seen from the area under the curve on the p-v diagram shown in Figure
7-4. Because the air is treated as an ideal gas, the term pv may be replaced by Rt, so that the
Eg
boundary work is mR(t2 - t}). The electrical work is negative because it is work done on the
system and has a magnitude of the power (1.5 kW) times the time it is on (5 minutes);
}W2electrical = - (1.5 kW)(3412 BtuI(hr·kW)(5 minutes)(hr/60 minutes) = 426.5 Btu. The heat
transfer ]Q2 is negative 200 Btu because it is a heat loss from the system.
The First Law equation now reads:
(IQ2 -I W;) = m(u2 -ul )

up
[-200-(-426.5)-mR(t2 -tl )]=mc (t 2 -tl )
V
ro
Constant Pressure
Process
-----------1
:
I
AIR
P = 150 psi a
I
I
Pressure
p ® ...
CD
G
I I
I I
: Electrically :
I Heated
- - - - - ______ 1
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-4. Piston-Cylinder Arrangement andp-v Diagram for Application 3
Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems
7: 12
Solving for t2 :
t2 = t, + (226.5) 1meR + c v )
Since cp = (R + c) = 0.240 Btu/(lbm·oF), the final temperature is:
t
t2 = 20+(226.5)1 [10(0.24)]
= 114.4°F
pe
It may be noted here that the First Law was used to find one of the properties rather than the
heat transfer as in the previous two examples. It all depends on which information and
which is to be determined that dictates what is to be solved for in the First Law equation.
What is important is that it takes knowledge of the First Law along with knowledge of the
equation of state (as given by Ideal Gas Law, or as a set of values in a table or chart) and
Eg
knowledge of the type of process (constant volume, constant pressure, etc.) to solve the
problem.
Application 4. Air is compressed polytropicaUy in a piston-cylinder device, pv" = constant,

where n = 1.2. The initial temperature and pressure are 20°F and 15 psia. The volume ratio
between the beginning and end of the stroke (compression ratio) is 10. Determine the work
and heat transfer per unit mass during the compression stroke.
up
Solution. The air is selected as the system. Even though the piston can move and the volume
can change, there is no mass entering or leaving the closed system. The piston-cylinder
arrangement is shown with the p-v diagram in Figure 7-5.
ro
Polytropic Process
-----------1
I I Pressure
G
I I p P,= 15 psia
I
I AIR
I
I
1, = 20°F
I I
I
I
!....---- ______
I
I
I
<D
Specific Volume, v
Figure 7-5. Piston-Cylinder Arrangement and p-v Diagram for Application 4
7: 13
It was stated in a previous chapter that for a polytropic process pV' = constant. Therefore:
P2 = PI (VI /vJn
= 15(10)1.2
= 237.7 psia
t
pe
For an ideal gas, the temperature ratio can be expressed in terms ofthe volume and pressure
ratios as:
I; = 7; (v, / vI)(Ps / PI)
= (20+460)(0.10)(237.7115)
= 760.7 R
= 300.7°F
Eg
The work of a polytropic process was given in a previous chapter as:
Polytropic process, P Jill = constant, n:f:. 1, ideal gas only, P V = mRT
IW2 = (P2 V2 - PI VI)/(l-n)= R(I; -7;)/(l-n)

up
= [0.411 Btu/ (lbm·oF) ](300.7 - 20)oF / (1-1.2)
= -576.8 Btu / Ibm
The negative sign means that work has to be done on the air during compression.
From the First Law of Thermodynamics:
CQ2 -1 n;)=m(u2 -UI )

ro
For negligible change in kinetic or potential energy of an ideal gas, this equation becomes:
Iq2 =1 W2+C,,(t2 -t I)
= -576.8 + [0.171 Btu/ (lb m·oF)](300.7 - 20)° F
G
= -528.8 Btu / Ibm

The negative sign means that heat is rejected from the air to the surroundings during com-
pression.
7: 14
The Next Step
This chapter introduced the First Law of Thermodynamics as applied to closed systems. For
closed systems, there is no mass flow across the system boundary and, therefore, no need to
keep track of where the mass is going and what energy it carries with it as it crosses a
t
system boundary. In the next chapter, we will introduce the idea of a control volume ap-
proach for the First Law applied to open systems so as to account for mass flow. It will
pe
include a statement of the mass and energy conservation principles, and will show how the
enthalpy is a convenient property to include both internal energy and flow work. Because
many thermodynamic problems are taken as steady state, the rate form of the First Law
equation will be introduced in the next chapter.
Summary
Eg
The First Law of Thermodynamics has been introduced as an energy conservation prin-
ciple. The equation describing the First Law for closed systems is given as:
CQ2 -I Tfi) = m(u2 -u1)+ mg(z2 -ZI)+ m(V;2 - V/)/2
[Heat Transfer In] - [Work Out] = [Increase of Energy of the System]
up
where,
1 Q2 = net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
=L IQ2in -I IQ20ut
ro
1 Tfi = net heat transfer across the system boundary in going from State 1 to State 2
/)ill = net change in total energy of system between States 1 and 2

G
=E2 -EI
=/).U+ME+M(E
=m(u2-ul)+mg(z2 -zl)+m(V; -Vn12
and L = the sum of all components
Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
7: 15
From the sample applications, it can be seen that the First Law may be solved for heat
transfer, work or one of the state properties, but that it is always used in conjunction with
knowledge about the equation of state for the working fluid, and knowledge of the type of
process from State 1 to State 2.
t
pe
ciple .
• Be able to write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to
a closed system.
• Apply the First Law to simple cases of closed systems.
Eg
up
ro
G
7: 16
t
pe
7-01. Give a one-page description of the heat, work and energy change terms in the First
Law equation for a closed system and describe how they relate to each other (a word
description of the conservation of energy principle).
7-02. A rigid tank with a volume of3 ft3 is initially filled with air at 15 psi a and 20°F. The
Eg
air is heated to 200°F. Treat the air as an ideal gas. Apply the Ideal Gas Law to
determine the mass of air in the tank. Apply the continuity equation to determine the
final pressure in the tank. Assuming the air in the tank to constitute a closed system,
apply the First Law to determine the heat transferred during the process.
7-03. A rigid tank with a volume of 1.5 ft3 is initially filled with R-22 in a saturated vapor
state at 140°F. The refrigerant is cooled until the pressure is 57.083 psia. Sketch the
up
process on a p-v diagram. Use the refrigerant tables (in Appendix C-l) to determine
the mass of refrigerant in the tank. Determine the final temperature. Assuming the
refrigerant in the tank to constitute a closed system, apply the First Law and deter-
mine the heat transferred during the process.
7-04. A piston-cylinder device contains 10 Ibm of air which is maintained at a constant

ro
pressure of 150 psia by a floating piston of constant weight. How much heat must be
added to raise the temperature from 20°F to 300°F?
7-05. A piston-cylinder contains 1 Ibm of saturated liquid R-22 at 20°F. The refrigerant is
maintained at constant pressure by a floating piston. Determine the work and heat if
G
the refrigerant is heated until the quality is 50%. Sketch the process on a p-v dia-
gram.
7-06. Describe experiments in which the First Law may be used to determine the specific
heats of an ideal gas of unknown properties placed in a rigid tank, and in a cylinder
in which the pressure is kept constant with a floating, frictionless piston.
Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems Fundamentals ofThermot/ynamics and Psychrometries
8: 1
Chapter 8
First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Open Systems
t
pe
• Instructions
• 8.1 Introduction to the Control Volume Approach
• 8.2 Conservation of Mass
.8.3 Conservation of Energy and the First Law for Open Systems
• 8.4 Steady-Flow Processes
• 8.5
Eg First Law Applied in Examples of Steady-Flow Processes
• The Next Step
• Summary
up
Instructions
ro

The objective of Chapter 8 is to understand the First Law of Thermodynamics as applied to
open systems. To develop that understanding, it will be necessary to first introduce the
G
ideas of a control volume approach and the way to write the equation for the conservation of
mass.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems
8:2
The concept of flow work and enthalpy will be used in the First Law equation, especially
for steady flow problems. After studying Chapter 8, you will be able to:
• Apply the conservation of mass principle to an open system;

t
ciple;
• Write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to an open
pe
system; and
• Use the principles of conservation of mass and energy to solve steady flow prob-
lems of open systems.
Eg
up
ro
G
Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems Fundamentals ofThernwdynamics and Psychrometries
8: 3
8.1 Introduction to the Control Volume Approach
In the last chapter on closed systems, the system boundary was defined as that boundary
that separated the designated mass from its surroundings. For an open system (where mass
can flow across the system boundary), it is convenient to define the boundary in terms of a
t
surface that separates a control volume from its surroundings. The control volume may vary
in time and space. Mass can enter or leave the control volume. An open system is defined as
pe
the mass contained in a control volume at any instant in time. From one instant to another,
the mass of the open system may change. The boundary between the control volume and the
surroundings is known as the control surface.
The selection of an appropriate control volume depends on the problem to be solved. Ifit is
of interest to determine the conditions in a ventilated room, then it would be appropriate to
choose the room's interior as the control volume and examine the flow of air into and out of
Eg
the room, heat conducted through the walls, and heat and moisture generated inside the
room. If it is desired to determine the overall performance of an engine, it may be useful to
select a control volume that has air and fuel entering the control volume and exhaust gas
leaving the control volume. Alternatively, ifthe interest is the thermodynamic performance
of one of the engine cylinders, then it would be appropriate to select a control volume as the
inside of that cylinder.
up
The control surface that defines the control volume can either be a real physical boundary
(such as the cylinder wall) or an imaginary surface (such as a plane across the intake port to
the cylinder). The choices of control volume are infinite, but as we shall see, some choices
are more useful than others. The control volume approach of defining an open system will
prove convenient for applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to open systems.
ro
8.2 Conservation ofMass
Mass is a conserved property. For a closed system, the conservation of mass is automati-
cally satisfied because the system is defined in terms of a set mass. However, for an open
G
system, it is necessary to assert the conservation of mass principle by keeping track of

changes in mass.
Consider an arbitrarily selected control volume, defined by a control surface separating the
volume from its surroundings. The mass inside the control volume at any instant of time is
m ev ' Consider a change of mass inside the control volume over a period of time. If
the amount of mass entering the control volume during that same time period is min and the
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems
8:4
mass leaving is mout ' then the principle of conservation of mass applied to the system is:
(mass entering CV) - (mass leaving CV) = (net increase in mass inside CV)
or,
t
pe
This is not much different than tracking the money in your checking account by monitoring
deposits, withdrawals and the change in the account balance.
The special case where the mass leaving is just balanced by the mass entering an open
system (leading to no change of the mass inside the system) is still different from a closed
system. For an open system to be treated as closed, there must be no mass entering or
leaving the control volume.
8.3
Eg
Conservation ofEnergy and the First Law for Open Systems
The conservation of energy principle (or First Law of Thermodynamics) was introduced in
a previous chapter and applied to a closed system (a system of fixed mass). For a closed
up
system, it was explained how the change of energy of the system was related to the heat and
work that crosses the system boundary. For a closed system, the balance was:
(Q - W) = !1E (closed system)

However, for an open system, there are additional terms to be accounted for in the balance.
The mass flow in or out of the control volume carries with it internal, kinetic and potential
energies. Furthermore, for an open system, the work term also needs to include the flow
ro
work term first described in Chapter 6. The differences between a closed system and an
open system in the ways that energy can be affected by flows across the boundary are
shown in Figure 8-1.
The energy balance applied to a control volume is written as:

G
Energy entering CV + Energy of mass - Energy of mass = Increase of energy

as heat or work entering CV leaving CV inside the CV
or,
Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries
8: 5
t Boundary
Work
Boundary
Work
-----------, -----------,
t
I 1 1
1 1 Electrical 1
pe
I Closed 1 Work 1
1 1 CV 1
Electrical 1 System1 1 1
Mass ----.
'------1---: I
Work :__________ I: 1 1 ----. Mass
Flow In I FlowOu!
Heat a) flow in carrying Heat a) flow out carrying

internal energy, internal energy,
ke and pe ke and pe
b) flow work b) flow work
Eg Figure 8-1. Closed and Open Systems
The signs on Qand W reflect the sign convention that heat transfer is positive for heat added
to the control volume, and work is positive when work is done by the system on the sur-
roundings. As before, the heat transfer is the energy crossing the system boundary by virtue
up
of a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. The work term in-
cludes boundary work, shaft work and flow work. The energy of the mass entering or leav-
ing the control volume may be regarded as the product of the mass entering or leaving and
the energy content per unit of mass entering or leaving (specific internal, kinetic and poten-
tial energy). The change of energy in the control volume is the difference between the final
and initial energy content of the control volume (internal, kinetic and potential energy).
ro
8.4 Steady-Flow Processes
Many applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics for open systems are for situations
G
that can be reasonably described as steady-flow processes. We will examine the First Law
for steady-flow problems in some detail before going back to the more general case, be-
cause there are several concepts that are more easily introduced under the conditions of
steady flow. Steady means unchanging in time. A steady-flow process may be described as
one in which a fluid steadily flows through a control volume such that properties within the
control volume, and the properties of the flow streams entering and leaving the control
volume, remain constant at all times. Properties may vary from point to point in the control
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems
8:6
volume, but do not change in time. Because properties remain constant, there is no change
in the mass, energy or volume of the control volume. This simplifies the conservation of
mass and energy equations by setting f)"m ev ' Mev and the boundary work to zero.
For steady-flow processes, the flows of mass and energy are best expressed as rates. Con-
t
sider the open system pictured in Figure 8-2. Mass enters the control volume at State 1 at a
steady rate of in! .Mass leaves the control volume at State 2 at a steady rate of in2' (The dot
pe
above the variable indicates the rate of change with time of that variable.) This is a single-
stream, steady-flow process. Because /).mev and Mev are zero, the conservation of mass
and energy equations may be written as:
(single-stream, steady flow)
where:
Eg (single-stream, steady flow)
m is the mass flow rate (lbm /h)

up
Q is the heat transfer rate (Btu/h)
TV is the rate of work (same as power) (Btulh, kW, ft·lbj/s, or hp)
E is the rate of energy carried across the boundary by the flow of mass (BtuIh)
The energy carried across the boundary by the flow of mass may be written as the product
ro
of the mass and the specific energy of that mass:
E =m(u+ pe+ke)
= m[u+ gz+ V2 /2]
G
The boundary work for a steady-flow process is zero, therefore the rate of work is a combi-
nation of shaft work and flow work:
TV = + TVjlOW
Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
8: 7
Shaft Work
6
-+-.....,....... Velocity
t
V2
CV
pe
Velocity
datum
Eg Figure 8-2. Single Stream, Steady-Flow Open System
The flow work was shown in Chapter 6 to be Wflow = pv . Applying the expressions for
energy and work to both the incoming mass flow at State 1 (negative flow work) and the
outgoing flow at State 2 (positive flow work), then the conservation of energy equation may
be written as:
up
or, reorganizing terms:
ro
In this equation, we can see how the flow work term (pv) and the internal energy term (u)
come together to give the enthalpy h = u + pv. After moving some terms to the right hand
side of the equation, the first law equation for a single-stream, steady-flow open system is:
G
Q- = m( + pe2 + ke 2 ) - m( + pel + kel )

or,
(rate of heat transfer into CV) - (rate of shaft work by CV) = (rate of flow of
enthalpy, ke, pe, out of CV) - (rate of flow of enthalpy, ke, pe, into CV)
8: 8
Dividing through by m, and setting q = QI m and Ws = WI m, the equation is often written

per unit of mass flow as:
q-ws = - pel) + (ke 2 -kel )
q-ws -ZI)+(V;2 -V;2)/2
t
pe
These expressions are very much like those for a closed system except that the enthalpy is
used in place of the internal energy, and the work is the shaft work.
For many problems, the change in potential energy and the change in kinetic energy are
negligible and the First Law equation may be simplified to:
Eg
(single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change in pe and ke)
q-ws
(single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change inpe and ke)
The result can easily be expanded to steady-state applications with more than one flow by
considering many flow streams in and out. The conservation of mass and energy equations
up
are then:
(steady-flow)
(steady-flow)
ro
where L is the summation symbol to indicate that, for more than one flow stream, the
contributions of the different streams must be added together. In later equations, we will
omit the summation sign out of simplicity, but we will understand that it is there when
needed.
G
8.S First Law Applied in Examples ofSteady-Flow Processes
Many HV AC applications (such as pipe flow, duct flow, nozzles, diffusers, turbines, com-
pressors, fans, throttling valves, heat exchangers, chillers, and heating or cooling systems)
can reasonably be assumed to be undergoing steady-flow processes. Many of these devices
8: 9
will be discussed in detail in Chapter 9. However, to introduce the application of the control
volume approach in applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to steady-flow, open sys-
tems, we will look at a few simple configurations here. As before, we will select some
applications that use air (ideal gas), and some applications that use refrigerant or steam
(property tables).
t
Application 1. The inlet temperature to a centrifugal flow, air compressor is 70°F. The
pe
outlet temperature is 120°F. The steady mass flow rate is 0.04 Ibm/s. If the compressor is
adiabatic, estimate the rate of doing work. Neglect the kinetic and potential energies of the
flow.
Solution. The compressor is pictured in Figure 8-3. The control volume is the inside of the
compressor. The single-stream, steady-flow form of the First Law equation is:
Eg
Q-W:
The heat transfer is zero. The enthalpy change for an ideal gas with constant coefficients of
specific heat is (h2 - h J ) = Cp (t2 - tJ ). Therefore, solving for that work yields:
w: = -mCAt 2 - tl )
= -(0.04)(lbm/ s)(3600 s/ hr)(0.24)(Btu / lb m·o F)(120 -70)° F
up
= -1728 Btu / h
=-0.51 kW
ro
Work done
G
Air Compressor
on compressor
Figure 8-3. Air Compressor of Application 1
8: 10
Application 2. The inlet condition to a centrifugal flow, R-134a compressor is saturated

vapor at 20°F. The steady mass flow rate is 0.04 Ibm Is. If the heat lost from the compressor
is 1000 BtuIh and the work to run the compressor is 1.0 kW, estimate the specific enthalpy
of the refrigerant leaving the compressor. Neglect the kinetic and potential energies of the
flow.
t
Solution. The compressor is pictured in Figure 8-4. The First Law equation is:
pe
The heat transfer is given as 1000 BtuIh. The work is given as -1.0 kW = -3,412 BtuIh. The
flow rate is 0.041bm Is = 144lbm Ih. The enthalpy at inlet is found from the saturated vapor
=
Eg
tables for R-134a in Appendix C-3 to be h J = 105.907 Btu/Ibm' Substituting into the First
Law equation and solving for h2 gIves:
= 105.907 + [-1000-(-3412)]/144
= 122.7 Btullbm
up
r Saturated Vapor
t1 = 20°F
ro
r---_ --- ----

---- ----
Work Refrigerant 134a

G
Compressor
Figure 8-4. R-134a Compressor of Application 2
Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries
8: 11
Application 3. A nozzle is a device for increasing flow from low velocity to high velocity.
The entry conditions of a steady flow of air through a nozzle are 20 ftI s and 70°F. If the flow
is adiabatic and the outlet temperature is observed to be 69°F, estimate the velocity at exit.
Solution. The nozzle and a chosen control volume are shown in Figure 8-5. This is a single-
t
stream, steady-flow problem. The difference in potential energy of the flow in and out is
negligible, but the change in kinetic energy is the function of the nozzle. The First Law
pe
expressed per unit mass is:
q-ws =(h,. -V;2)/2
There is no shaft work. The heat transfer is zero because the flow is adiabatic. The differ-
ence in potential energy of the flow in and out is negligible. For an ideal gas, the enthalpy
change can be written as (h2 - h]) = Cp (t2 - t]). Therefore:
Eg0= CAt2-t,)+(V;2 -V;2)/2
Solving for the outlet velocity:
V2 = {V;2 -CAt2_t,)(2)}"2
= {202( ft2 / S2)_ 0.24(Btu/lb m.oF)(778 ft .lb j /Btu)(69 -70)OF(2)(32.2)(lb m. ft /lb js2)} 112
up
= 108 ft/ s
Note that it is important to develop the correct units for the kinetic energy term. The rela-
tionship between lbjand Ibm is taken from the expression that 1 lbj will accelerate 1 Ibm at
32.2 ftls2.
ro
G
velocity 20 ft/s
Figure 8-5. Nozzle of Application 3
8: 12
Application 4. A mixing tank has two steady inflows and one steady outflow. The condi-
tions of the first inflow is superheated steam at t1 = 400°F, h1 = 1,239 Btu/Ibm' and flow rate
m1 = 20 lbmlh. The second inflow is compressed liquid at t2 = 70°F, h2 = 38 Btullb . If the
rate of heat removal from the tank is 15,000 BtuIh, then estimate the inflow ofwate;needed
to result in the outflow being saturated liquid water at 212 OF. Neglect changes in kinetic and
t
potential energy.
pe
Solution. The tank is pictured in Figure 8-6. There is more than single flow, therefore we
use the conservation of mass and energy conservation equations as:
(steady-flow)
Eg
For this case, the equations become:
(steady-flow)
up
Superheated Vapor
ro
tf
t1 = 400°F
h1 = 1239 Btu/lb
m 1 = 20 Ib/h
I
--------------., I Removal
+
1 I v-
G
Compressed
Liquid
H -
:
:
I
I
Mixing / :
Tank
I '--
:
Ii
.
Saturated
Liquid
t2 =70°F
h2 =38 Btu/lb
I 1______________ 1 ts = 212°F
Figure 8-6. Mixing Tank of Application 4
8: 13
For first inflow hi = 1,239 Btullbm ,and flow rate mJ = 20 lbmIh. For second inflow, h2 = 38
Btu/Ibm. For outflow, the enthalpy can found in Appendix B-1 as h3 = 180.2 Btu/Ibm. There
is no shaft work shown for the tank.
t
pe
-15,000 =
Solving these two equations for and results in:
= 43.4 Ibm Ih
= 63.4 Ibm Ih
Eg
The Next Step
In the next chapter, we will take a closer look at some of the devices commonly used in
up
HVAC applications and see how the First Law of Thermodynamics can help when estimat-
ing the performance of these devices. The applications and devices include pipe flow, duct
flow, nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors, fans, throttling valves, metering valves, heat
exchangers, chillers, and heating or cooling systems. Cycle analysis will not be part of
Chapter 9, but will appear in later chapters.
ro
Summary
The control volume approach is introduced for open systems and the conservation of mass
and First Law of Thermodynamics are written as:
G
(Mass entering CV) - (mass leaving CV) = (net increase in mass inside CV)
or,
8: 14
Energy entering CV + Energy of mass - Energy of mass = Increase of energy

as heat or work entering CV leaving CV inside the CV
or,
t
Particular emphasis is placed on the rate form of the steady-flow mass and energy conserva-
pe
tion equations. The equations for many flows be summarized as follows:
(steady-flow)
(steady-flow)
Eg
For single-flow, steady-flow the First Law equation becomes:
Rate of
heat transfer
into CV
Rate of
shaft work
byCV
Rate of flow of
enthalpy, ke, pe,
outofCV
Rate of flow of
enthalpy, ke, pe,
into CV
or,
up
The equation is often written per unit of mass flow as:
q-ws -ZI)+(V;2 -V/)/2 (single-stream, steady-flow)

ro
For many problems, the change in potential energy and the change in kinetic energy are
negligible and the First Law equation may be simplified to:
Q- Tf: = (single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change inpe and ke)

G
q- Ws = (single-stream, steady-flow, negligible change in pe and ke)
8: 15
After studying Chapter 8, you are now able to:
• Apply the conservation of mass principle to an open system.

ciple.
t
• Write the First Law in equation form by applying an energy balance to an open
pe
system.
• Use the principles of conservation of mass and energy to solve steady flow prob-
lems of open systems.
Eg
up
ro
G
Fundamentals ofTI,ernwdynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems
8: 16
t
pe
8-01. The inlet temperature to a centrifugal flow, 0.8 kWair compressor is 20 o P. The
steady mass flow rate is 0.04 Ibm Is. If the compressor is assumed adiabatic and the
kinetic and potential energies are assumed negligible, then estimate the outlet tem-
perature of the compressor.
8-02. The inlet condition to a centrifugal flow, R-134a compressor is saturated vapor at
20 o P. The steady mass flow rate is 0.08 Ibm Is. If the heat lost from the compressor is
8-03.
Eg
800 BtuIh and the work to run the compressor is 3.0 kW, estimate the specific en-
thalpy of the refrigerant leaving the compressor. Neglect the kinetic and potential
energies of the flow.
Air enters an adiabatic turbine at 300 0 P and with negligible velocity. The rate of
doing work is 2.0 kW. The outlet temperature is 20 o P. If the outlet velocity is 300
ft/s, then calculate the mass flow rate of air.
up
8-04. A mixing tank has two steady inflows and one steady outflow. The conditions of the
first inflow are superheated steam at t1 = 350 oP, h1 = 1,140 Btu/Ibm' and flow rate
m = 30 Ibm Ih. The second inflow is compressed liquid at t2 = 70 oP, h2 = 38 Btu/Ibm'
1
If the rate of heat removal from the tank is 25,000 BtuIh, then estimate the inflow of
water needed to result in the outflow being saturated liquid water at 212 0p. Neglect
ro
changes in kinetic and potential energy.
8-05. Two air streams are mixed together in an adiabatic mixer to produce an output stream
of air at 95°P. If the two incoming streams are at 1200 P and 35°P respectively, find
the ratio of volume flow rates of the hot to cold air to produce the 95°P air.
G
9: 1
Chapter 9
Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
t
pe
• Instructions
.9.1 Compressors, Turbines, Pumps and Fans
• 9.2 Throttling Valves and Metering Devices
• 9.3 Heat Exchangers, Condensers and Evaporators
• The Next Step
Eg
• Summary
Instructions
up

ro
The First Law of Thermodynamics is such an important and useful tool in analyzing prob-
lems that this chapter is devoted to the application of the law to many of the mechanical/
thermal devices commonly found in HVAC systems. The objective of Chapter 9 is to pro-
vide background to the functioning ofthese devices and insight into ways in which the First
G
Law may be employed to conduct practical analyses of these devices. After completing
Chapter 9, you should be able to:
• Understand the functioning of many components of HVAC&R systems; and

• Understand how to apply the First Law of Thermodynamics in a variety of cases.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law

9:2
9.1 Compressors, Turbines, Pumps and Fans

Compressors, pumps and fans are devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid. Although
all three may work in similar ways, the purpose behind each is somewhat different. Com-
pressors are used to achieve high pressures in gases and vapors. In contrast, the important
t
function of fans is to move air around, and the pressure rise is quite small. Pumps handle
liquids, not gases, and are used to raise the pressure and move liquids such as water and oil.
pe
All three devices are driven by an external source, usually by a rotating shaft. Therefore, the
work for these devices is negative.
Compressors are used to raise the pressure of gases and vapors by a significant amount. For
example, air compressors are employed to provide the pressurized air often used in work-
shops to power tools or to operate pneumatic control systems. Refrigerant vapor compres-
sors are an essential part of the refrigeration cycle (as will be discussed in Chapter 11).
Eg
Compressors are often described in terms of the way they work. There are reciprocating,
rotary (vane, scroll and screw), and centrifugal compressors.
In reciprocating compressors, the gas is compressed by a piston in a cylinder. The piston

goes up and down in a reciprocating motion as the gas is alternatively drawn into the cylin-
der on the suction stroke and compressed in the cylinder on the compression stroke. On the
compression stroke, the gas is trapped in the cylinder with both valves closed, and the
up
pressure and temperature increase as the volume decreases. For the compression stroke,
with the air trapped in the cylinder, it seems reasonable to conduct a closed system analysis
of the air in the cylinder.
On the other hand, if we consider the whole compressor over a longer period of time, be-
cause there are often hundreds of compression strokes a minute, it is clear that there is a
general flow of fresh gas into the compressor and a pseudo-steady delivery of gas to a high
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pressure receiver. This view lends itself to an open system analysis, which is often assumed
to be steady-flow. Centrifugal and rotary compressors are also usually treated as open sys-
tems.
Turbines are the opposite of compressors and are intended to convert the energy content of
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high energy fluids into work. As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done on the
blades attached to a rotating shaft. Common applications are found in steam power stations
where high-pressure and -temperature steam is expanded, producing work to drive an elec-
tric generator, or in hydroelectric turbines in which the energy of high-head water or water
at· high velocity is converted into work. Turbines used in refrigeration systems are often
called expanders.
Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

9: 3
F or compressors, fans, pumps and turbines, there are some generalizations of the energy
terms in the steady-state First Law equation:
• The shaft work term is important in all of these devices and Tt: =I:- 0 . For com-
pressors, fans and pumps, work is done on the system to make it function; whereas
t
work is the output of turbines.
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• The heat transfer is often assumed to be negligible compared to the work, Q= 0,
except for cases where there is a specific attempt to cool the compressor, or
when the process is isothermal or polytropic. This is not a valid assumption for
small compressors of any type.
• The change of kinetic energy of the flow stream entering and leaving the device
is usually assumed to be negligible compared to the work and change of en-
Eg
thalpy, !l.ke = O. However, the changes in kinetic energy are important when
analyzing the internal processes of centrifugal compressors and pumps.
• The change of potential energy is usually assumed to be negligible compared to
the work and change of enthalpy, !l.pe = 0, except in the case of water turbines
that are driven by gravitational head.
up
Application 1. Air is compressed reversibly and adiabatically (isentropically) in a compres-
sor at a rate ofO.04Ibm /s from 83.28 psia to 400 psia. The inlet temperature is 40°F. Esti-
mate the rate of work (power) required to keep the compressor running.
Solution. The compressor is pictured in Figure 9-1 along with a p-v diagram. The region
within the compressor is chosen as the control volume and it is treated as an open system.
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The work for an open system is not given as the area under the p-v curve as was used earlier
for a closed system; rather, the work is estimated from the First Law equation. In this case,
the changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible and the equation for a single-
stream can be used:
G
For the adiabatic process, the heat transfer rate is zero. For an ideal gas, the change in
enthalpy can be written as (h2 - hJ ) = Cp (t2 - tJ ). Therefore, it is necessary to find the outlet
temperature. This can be done by using a combination of the ideal gas equation, pv = RT,
and the isentropic process, pv" = constant:
ideal gas PJ vJ / TJ = P2 vi T2 ' and isentropic PJvJ k = P2 v2 k

9:4
t1 = 40°F
P1 = 83.28 psi a
Pressure
t
p
I
pe
I
I
I
I
I
---_L<D
.......... -- ... --
Specific Volume, v
Eg
1; 17; = ( v2 I VI )
Figure 9-1. Air Compressor of Application 1
Combining we get an important result for any ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process:
I-k
= (P2 I PI )(k-I)lk
Therefore:
up
1; = 7;(P2 I PIYk-I)lk
= (40 +460)(400 I 83.28i1.4- I)/1.4
=782.9 R
= 322.9°F
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Then the change in enthalpy is:

= CAt2 -tI )
= (0.24 Btu Ilb m ·oF)(322.9 -40)(° F)
= 67.9 Btullbm
G
The rate of doing work is:
= -(0.04 Ibm I s)(3,600 s/h)(69.22)(Btullb m )

= -9,967 Btu/h
=-2.92 kW
Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

9: 5
Note that in applying the First Law for an open system, we need the difference in enthalpy
as (h2 - h) = Cp (t2 - t 1 ) rather than change of internal energy (u2 - u1 ) = C y (t2 - t) needed in
the closed system problems. Although the coefficients C y and Cp are the specific heats at
constant volume and constant pressure, the appropriate application for each depends more
on whether we are seeking change of internal energy or enthalpy than whether the process is
t
constant volume or constant pressure. In the problem just solved, both the pressure and
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specific volume change through the compressor.
The relationships developed between the absolute temperature ratio, pressure ratio and vol-
ume ratio for an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process are very useful:
1; /7; = ( V2 / VI ) I-k = ( P2 / PI )(k-I)lk

Similarly the expressions can be developed for an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic pro-
cess:
Eg
Application 2. Refrigerant R-22 is compressed isentropically in a compressor from 83.28
psia to 400 psia at a rate of 0.04 lbm/s. The refrigerant is a saturated vapor at the inlet.
Estimate the power required to keep the compressor going.
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Solution. The compressor and the process on the p-h diagram are shown in Figure 9-2. The
kinetic and potential energies are negligible. The single-stream, steady-flow First Law equa-
tion is:
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Saturated Vapor
p, =83.28 psia ®
Pressure
I--
I ................. p
I
G
I
I
I
I
:....................... --
I
Enthalpy. h
Figure 9-2. R-22 Compressor of Application 2

9:6
For reversible isentropic flow, the heat transfer is zero. From the saturated vapor tables in
Appendix C-1 (or the p-h diagram in Appendix C-2), the enthalpy at state 1 is h] = 108.2
Btu/Ibm' To find the enthalpy at State 2, we will use the p-h diagram in Appendix C-2. First
locate State 1 as saturated vapor at 83.28 psia, 40°F. Then follow the constant entropy line
(s] = S2 = 0.22 Btu/lbm·oF) until it intersects P2 = 400 psia. Read from the diagram that h2 =
t
125 Btu/Ibm' t2 = 195°F. The rate of work is then:
pe
= -(0.04 Ibm / s)(3,600 s/ h)(125 -108.2) Btu/ Ibm
= -2,419 Btu/ h
=-0.71 kW
9.2
Eg
Throttling Valves and Metering Devices
A throttling valve is a flow-restricting device that causes a pressure drop without any work.
As we shall see in Chapter 11, the pressure in the refrigerant line of a vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle needs to drop from the pressure of the condenser to the pressure of the
evaporator. Common devices to achieve this are the capillary tube (a small tube with a large
up
frictional pressure drop) and a thermostatic expansion valve. These are sometimes called
metering devices because they also regulate the mass flow of refrigerant.
The process in a throttling valve happens too quickly to allow any heat transfer, there is no
shaft work, and the change in kinetic and potential energies are usually negligible. Consid-
ering the First Law of Thermodynamics, this means that the enthalpy does not change be-
tween the inlet and outlet of a throttling valve. Fluid passing through a throttling valve
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undergoes a constant enthalpy, or isenthalpic, process.
Application 3. Refrigerant R-134a enters a capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated liquid

at 180 psia and is throttled to a pressure of 33.11 psia. Determine the quality of the refriger-
ant at the final state and the temperature drop during this process.
G
Solution. A schematic of the capillary tube is shown in Figure 9-3. At State 1, the condi-
tions of saturated liquid may be found from Appendix C-3. It is necessary to interpolate
between the entries at 173.11 psia and 185.84 psia as shown in Table 9-1.
Throttling is a constant enthalpy device, therefore:

= = 51.338 Btullb m

9: 7
Table 9-1
Temperature, Pressure, Enthalpy (sat. liquid),
of psia Btullb
115.0 173.11 50.343
t= q5.0+ 180.00 h = 50.343 +
({I 80-173.1 1)/(185.84 - 173.11)} {(l80-I73.ll)1l85.84 -I73.ll)}
t
x (120 - 115) x (52.181 - 50.343)
= 117.71 = 51.338
pe
120.0 185.84 52.181
Eg
Saturated Liquid
=
p1 180 psia
I
I
I
I
P2=33.11 psia
Figure 9-3. Capillary Tube of Application 3

up
The temperature at the outlet is found in Appendix C-3. It is the saturated temperature at p 2
= 33.11 psia. We know that the condition of the refrigerant is some mixture of vapor and
liquid because the enthalpy lies between the saturated liquid and saturated vapor values (see
Table 9-2).
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Table 9-2
Temperature, . Pressure, Entbalpy (sat. Iiq..id), Enthalpy (sat. vapor),
of psia Btullb Btullb
20.0 33.11 18.318 105.907
G
The temperature at the outlet is T2 = 20.00 oP, and the temperature drop between the inlet to
the outlet is therefore:
M = 117.71-20.00
= 97.71°P

9: 8
The quality at the outlet is:
X2 = - hj ) 1(hg - hj )
= (51.338 -18.318)1 (105.907 -18.318)
= 0377
t
=37.7%
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9.3 Heat Exchangers, Condensers and Evaporators
The purpose of a heat exchanger is to transfer heat from one flow stream to another. Heat
exchangers come in many different shapes, sizes and flow configurations, but the essence
of the heat exchanger may be captured by examining a pipe within a pipe arrangement, as
Eg
shown in Figure 9-4. Flow stream A enters at State 1 and exits at State 2. Flow stream B
enters at State 3 and exits at State 4. The flow arrangement in Figure 9-4 is known as
counterflow because streams A and B flow in opposite directions. Ifflow streams A and B
were in the same direction, it would be known as parallel flow; and if the flow streams were
perpendicular to each other, it would be cross-flow.
In most heat exchangers, the flow patterns do not neatly fit into one of these categories.
up
However, the simple counterflow model can be used to understand the basic analysis tools
for heat exchangers. The changes in kinetic and potential energy are usually negligible for
heat exchangers, and there is no shaft work. Therefore, the important terms in the First Law
equation are the heat transfer and the enthalpy change.
There are basically three possible choices of control volume for a heat exchanger: flow
stream A, flow stream B, or the total heat exchanger. The First Law applied separately to
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flow streams A and B results in:

QA
QB = mB(h4
G
Heat exchangers are intended to exchange heat between streams but not to lose heat to the
surroundings, and they are usually insulated. Therefore, when applying the First Law to the
total heat exchanger, the net heat transfer is zero. The heat given up by the hot stream Q is
just equal to the heat taken up by the cold stream:
Q= QA =-QB

9: 9
The flow streams may be liquid, gas, vapor or involve change of phase. Shown in Figure
9-4 are the temperature profiles from one end of the exchanger to the other for the cases of
both flow streams being liquid or ideal gas in a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow heat exchanger.
The change of enthalpy can be written as the product of the coefficient of specific heat and
the temperature change from inlet to exit. In addition to being consistent with the First Law
t
of Thermodynamics, the heat transfer between streams depends on the thermal resistance of
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the barrier separating the two streams and the effective temperature difference between the
flows. The temperature difference changes from one end ofthe heat exchanger to the other,
but it can be shown that the effective temperature difference is well represented by the Log
Eg
FIUidA-U
1
I
l::t
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Fluid B
X=O X=L
Fluid B
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G
X=o X=L
Figure 9-4. Pipe-in-Pipe Counterflow Heat Exchanger
Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycllrometrics Cllapter 9 Applications oftile First Law

9: 10
Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD). If the one end of the heat exchanger is identified as
x = 0 and the other end as x = L, then the LMTD is:
LMTD = (!1tX=L - Mx=o) I In{!1tx=L I !1tx=o}

= {(t3 -t2)-(t4 -t1 )}lln{(t3-t2)/(t4 -t1)}
t
pe
You are not expected to remember this expression, but it and the overall heat transfer coef-
ficient, U (Btu/h·ft2 .oF), are important parts of the heat transfer expression:
Q=UA(LMTD)
Eg
The area, A, is the heat transfer area for the heat exchanger. The equations for a heat ex-
changer may be summarized as:
-h4 )
Q=UA(LMTD)
up
Application 4. Consider a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow, water-to-air heat exchanger as shown
in Figure 9-4. The water flow rate (stream B) of 0.2 Ibm Is enters at 180°F and leaves at
lOO°F. The air flow rate (stream A) of 1.2 Ibm Is enters at 55°F. The coefficient of specific
heat of water is Cp = 1.0 Btullbm.oF, and for air is CP = 0.24 Btullbm.oF:
ro
• Determine the outlet temperature of the air

• Determine the LMTD from the expression:
LMTD = (!1tx=L - !1tx=o)/ln{Mx=L IMx=o}
• Determine the UA product for the heat exchanger
G
Solution. Applying the First Law to the water flow stream:
Qwater = mwaterCp(t4 -t3 )

= (0.2 Ibm I s)(3,600 s/h)(l.O Btullb m ·oF)(lOO-180)oF
= -57,600 Btu/h

9: 11
Applying the First Law to the air, Qair = mair CAt2 - tl ) and remembering that Qair = -Qwater
t2 = tl + Qair 1(mairCp )
=55+(57,600)1 {L2lbm 1 s (3,600 s/h)(0.24 Btu Ilb m ·o F)}
t
= 110.5 of
pe
LMTD = (J:::,.tX=L - Mx=o) 1In{J:::,.tx=L 1J:::,.tx=o}
= {(180-110.5) - (100- 55)} Iln{ (180-110.5) 1(100 - 55)}
= 56.4°F
VA = Q/(LMTD)
Eg = 57,600156.4
= 1,021 Btu/h·oF
Condensers and evaporators are special forms of heat exchangers where one of the flow
streams changes phase. The change of phase takes place at constant temperature. The tem-
perature profiles for condensers and evaporators are shown in Figure 9-5.
up
t3
te tc
t2
ro
4
Ie
t1
x=o x=L x=o x=L

G
Condenser Evaporator
Figure 9-5. Temperature Profiles for Condensers and Evaporators
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law

9: 12
Application 5. Refrigerant R-22 enters a condenser at a rate of 0.02 Ibm /s with an enthalpy
of 120 Btu/Ibm and exits as a saturated liquid at 100°F. Airflows over the condenser at a rate
ofO.2lbm Is. If the air enters at 72°F, what is the air exit temperature?
Solution. The condenser is shown in Figure 9-6. The First Law applied to the total heat
t
exchanger may be written as:
pe
-hr)=mair CAt3-t4)
From Appendix C-l, h2 = 39.538 Btu/Ibm. For Cp = 0.24 BtU/lbm·oF, the result is:
t4 = t3 + mR-22 - hr) / mairCp
Eg
= 72+0.02(120-39.538)/ {(0.2)(0.24)}
= 105.5°F
1 1
up
Refrigerant
R-22
ro
1
Air
1
Air Air
G
Figure 9-6. Condenser of Application 5

9: 13'
The Next Step
In the next chapter, we will consider the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Key to under-
standing the Second Law are the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility. These con-
cepts will be introduced along with models for ideal processes. The Carnot cycle will be
t
described and the Carnot heat engine and Carnot refrigerator analyzed.
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Summary
The First Law of Thermodynamics is very useful for analyzing the performance of the
many devices commonly found in HVAC&R systems. The devices considered here in-
cluded compressors, turbines, pumps, fans, throttling valves, heat exchangers, condensers
sions:
Eg
and evaporators.
Some useful expressions were developed. For an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process
(pv" = constant), the properties at State 1 and State 2 are related by the following expres-
I-k ( )(k-I)/k
1; /7; = ( v2 / VI ) = P2 / PI
up
Similarly, the expressions for an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic process (pv" = constant)
are:
I-n
1; -7; = ( v2 / VI ) = ( P2 / PI )(n-I)/1I
For heat exchangers, the main equations are:
Q=mAhz
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Q=UA(LMTD)
where Qis the rate at which heat is transferred from one stream to the other, U is the overall
G
heat transfer coefficient between streams, A is the area of heat transfer, and LMTD is the
Log Mean Temperature Difference between the temperatures in the two flow streams.
After completing Chapter 9, you should be able to:
• Understand the functioning of many components ofHVAC&R systems.

• Understand how to apply the First Law of Thermodynamics in a variety of cases.

9: 14

t
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9-01. Determine the outlet temperature and mass flow rate of a 0.7 k W air compressor that
compresses air from 15 psia to 100 psia. The inlet temperature is 72°P. Assume
isentropic compression of an ideal gas, k= 1.4, Cp = 0.24 Btu/lbm·oP.
compresses air from 15 psia to 150 psia. The inlet temperature is 72°P. Assume
polytropic compression of an ideal gas, n = 1.3, Cp = 0.24 Btu/lbm·oP and a heat loss
rate of 0.1 KW.
Eg
9-03. The inlet condition to a R-22 compressor is saturated vapor at -40oP. If the specific
work for the isentropic compression is 30 Btu/Ibm' then calculate the specific en-
thalpy of the refrigerant at the compressor exit. Sketch the process on the p-h dia-
gram and use Appendix C-2 to estimate the delivery pressure. (The diagram of Ap-
pendix C-2 is not easy to read, so an approximate value is acceptable.)
9-04. The inlet to an adiabatic steam turbine is superheated steam at 1,000oP, 400 psia and
enthalpy of 1,526 Btu/Ibm' The steam leaves the turbine at 150oP, with a quality of
up
0.90. Determine the specific work in Btu/Ibm of the turbine.
9-05. The inlet condition to a throttling valve in a R-134a refrigerator is saturated liquid at
110oP. Determine the outlet condition of the refrigerant (quality) if the outlet pres-
sure is 21.162 psia.
9-06. Consider a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow, water-to-air heat exchanger. The water flow
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rate ofO.1lbm Is enters at 200 0 P and leaves at 1000 P. The air flow rate ofO.9lbm Is
enters at 72°P. The coefficient of specific heat of water is Cp = 1.0 Btu/lbm.op, and
for air C = 0.24 Btu/lbm·oP. Por both water and air, the change in enthalpy can be
expressed as the coefficient of specific heat times the change in temperature. Com-
plete the following:
G
• Sketch the heat exchanger and the temperature profiles of the two streams
through the length of the heat exchanger.
• Determine the outlet temperature of the air.
LMTD (MX=L - t:.tx=o)/ln{t:.tx=LIMx=o}
=
• Determine theUA product for the heat exchanger.

10: t
Chapter 10
The Carnot Cycle
t
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• Instructions
• 10.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
• 10.2 Heat Engines, Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
Eg
• 10.3
• 10.4
• Summary
Reversible and Irreversible Processes
The Carnot Cycle and the Reversed Carnot Cycle
• The Next Step

up
Instructions
ro

In Chapter 10, we will introduce the Second Law of Thermodynamics, reversibility, irre-
G
versibility, ideal processes and the Carnot cycle. The Camot cycle is the ultimate in ideal
cycles. By applying the First Law to the Carnot cycle, we can deduce some basic expecta-
tions and limits on performance of any cycle. The reversed Carnot cycle is introduced be-
cause of its relevance to refrigeration. After studying Chapter 10, you should be able to:
• Describe the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility;
• Describe each of the processes that constitute a Carnot cycle; and
• Analyze the performance of Carnot heat engines and Carnot refrigerators.
Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

10:2
10.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Whereas the First Law of Thermodynamics is a quantitative conservation of energy law

about a system undergoing a process, the Second Law of Thermodynamics is a statement
about the quality of energy, the preferred direction of energy change, and the differences
t
between what is possible and not possible. There are several ways to state the Second Law
of Thermodynamics, but rather than start with a statement of the law, we will make the case
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that there is a need for a Second Law if we are to describe observed behavior. The First Law
of Thermodynamics always applies, but the First Law by itself is not enough.
For example, consider a hot potato sitting on a table in a cool room. The First Law does not
assert the direction of heat flow. We know by observation that the temperature of the potato
will decrease with time, and the heat transfer is from the hot potato to its cool surroundings.
The First Law states that the energy lost from the potato is just equal to the gain in energy by
Eg
the air. Consider the reverse process in which heat flows from the cool room to the hot
potato. We know that this is not possible, but that would not be clear from the First Law
because the First Law would not be violated by a balance that states that the heat gain of the
potato is equal to the energy lost by the air.
There are many examples where a process will proceed in one direction, but not, by itself,
proceed in the reverse direction. The simple action of rubbing two sticks together to pro-
up
duce heat is not reversed if heat is applied to the sticks. Heat applied to a wire does not make
electricity the way that electricity passing along the wire produces heat. Combustion of
gasoline and air together releases heat, but heat applied to the products of combustion will
not produce gasoline. The First Law places no restriction on the direction of the process.
Satisfying the First Law is necessary, but it is not a sufficient condition to ensure that the
process will occur.
ro
The Second Law is introduced to overcome the inadequacy of the First Law. It will be
shown that processes that are not possible violate the Second Law. A process will not occur
unless both the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics are satisfied. The use of the
Second Law is not limited to identifying the direction of a process. It is also used in the
concept of quality of energy, and the degradation of that quality during a process. The
G
formulation of the Second Law will be helped by elaboration on the concepts of thermal
energy reservoirs, heat engines, irreversibility, entropy and the Camot cycle.
. Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

10: 3
10.2 Heat Engines, Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
The conversion of work into heat is as straightforward as rubbing two sticks together. How-
ever, the conversion of heat into work is not so easy, and requires a device called a heat
engine. Without looking at the physical ways in which a heat engine may be constructed,
t
consider the situation in Figure 10-1 where heat is transferred from a high-temperature
energy source to a heat engine, and heat is separately transferred from the heat engine to a
pe
low-temperature energy sink. The First Law applied to the heat engine shows that the net
work output of the heat engine is equal to the difference in magnitude between the heat flow
from the high temperature source and the heat flow to the low-temperature sink:
F or convenience, the sign convention used here regards QHand QL as positive in magnitude,
Eg
and the direction of heat flow is accounted for by the sign in the equation.
QH is the magnitude of the heat transfer between the high-temperature reservoir

and the heat engine.
QL is the magnitude of the heat transfer between the heat engine and the low-
temperature reservoir.
Wnet, out is the magnitude of the work of the heat engine.
up
High-Temperature
The balance is in accor- Heat Source, T H
dance with our sense that
heat flows from high to low
temperature.
ro
Heat
Engine Wnet, out
G
Low-Temperature
Heat Sink, T L
Figure 10-1. Heat Engine Operating Between

High- and Low-Temperature Reservoirs
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometrics Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

10:4
A typical cycle of a heat engine may be found by examining a steam power plant cycle as
shown in Figure 10-2. There are four main components to the cycle: the steam generator,
the steam turbine, the condenser and the pump. Liquid water enters the pump at low pres-
sure and is pumped to the high pressure, requiring some work. The water enters the steam
generator as a liquid at high pressure. Heat is added in the steam generator to convert the
t
liquid to superheated vapor. The heat comes from a high-temperature heat source, such as
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the burning of fuel in a furnace. The superheated vapor is expanded through a steam tur-
bine, where it does work, and then enters the condenser as a low pressure vapor. Heat is
rejected from the condenser as the vapor is converted to liquid. The heat rejection takes
place to a surrounding low-temperature heat sink, such as a lake, river or the atmosphere.
For the cycle to work, the temperature in the steam generator must be less than the tempera-
ture in the furnace, and the temperature in the condenser must be greater than the low-
temperature surroundings.
Eg
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is measured as the fraction of heat input that is
converted to work output. For the heat engines shown in Figures 10-1 and 10-2, the thermal
efficiency is:
11th = (Net work output) I (heat input)

=U:et,out I QH
up
=(QH -QL)I QH
= l-QL I QH
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Steam Generator
Wpump,in Wturbine, out

G
Condenser
Figure 10-2. Typical Heat Engine: Steam Power Plant Cycle
Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

10:5
The efficiency of a heat engine cannot be greater than 100% because both QH and QL are
positive. Furthermore, the Second Law of Thermodynamics asserts that QL cannot be zero
and it is impossible for a heat engine to have a thermal efficiency of 100%. The Kelvin-
Planck statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics is:
t
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce an equivalent amount of work.
pe
This means that the rejection of some heat to the surroundings is an essential ingredient to
any device that converts heat into work. This limitation is not imposed by friction or dissi-
pative effects, but is fundamental to both ideal and actual cycles.
The flow of heat naturally occurs from high to low temperature. However, to transfer heat
from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir takes a device known as a
refrigerator. Consider the refrigerator shown in Figure 10-3 operating between low and
Eg
high-temperature reservoirs. As before, QHis the magnitude of the heat transfer between the
refrigerator and the high-temperature reservoir, and QL is the heat transfer between the low-
temperature reservoir and the refrigerator. QH and QL are positive quantities, but in the
opposite direction from those of the heat engine. The work, Wnet,in is also in the opposite
direction to a heat engine and is regarded as the work required to make the refrigerator
function. The First Law applied to the refrigerator results in: w"et,in = QH - QL
up
High-Temperature
Reservoir, TH
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Wnet, in Refrigerator
G
Low-Temperature
Reservoir, TL
Figure 10-3. Refrigerator Transferring Heat From

Low- to High-Temperature Reservoir

10: 6
A typical example of a refrigeration device is the vapor-compression cycle shown in Figure

10-4. There are four main components to the cycle: the refrigerant compressor, condenser,
metering valve and evaporator. Refrigerant vapor is compressed in the compressor and
enters the condenser as a superheated vapor at high pressure and temperature. The conden-
sation temperature is higher than that of the high-temperature surroundings, and heat is
t
rejected from the condensing refrigerant to the surroundings. The refrigerant liquid then
pe
passes to an expansion valve where the flow is throttled from high to low pressure. The
liquid evaporates in the evaporator at a temperature that is less than that of the surround-
ings, thus absorbing the heat removed from the refrigerated space.
Eg High-Temperature
Surroundings
up
Condenser
Expansion
--... Compressor Valve
ro
Wcompressor, in
Evaporator
G
Refrigerated
Space
Figure 10-4. Refrigeration Device: Vapor Compression Cycle
Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

10:7
The performance measure for a refrigerator is the coefficient of performance (COPR ). The
COPR is the ratio of the cooling effect to the work required to make the cycle function:
COPR = (Cooling Effect) I (Work Required)

=QL I w"et in
t
= QL I(QH-QJ
pe
= 1I (QH I QL -1)
The coefficient of performance is positive and may be greater than unity. In other words,
the heat removed from the refrigerated space may be greater than the work done on the
compressor. Although this may at first sound like getting more than you pay for, it does not
violate the First Law. It should not be viewed as work being converted into heat, but rather
Eg
as heat being pumped from low to high temperature by consuming work. The term heat
pump is commonly used when the effect of interest is heating at the condenser. The coeffi-
cient of performance of a heat pump is:
COPHP = (Heating Effect) I (Work Required)
=QH I w"et in
=QH1(QH-QJ
up
= 1I (1- QL I QH)
The coefficients of performance are related to each other as:

COPHP = COPR + 1
ro
As in the discussion of heat engines, the discussion of refrigerators leads to an alternative

statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the Clausius statement:
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no

other effect than the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to a higher
temperature body.
G
The Clausius statement says that external work is required to drive the cycle ifheat is to be
transferred from low to high temperature. Both the Clausius and Kelvin-Planck statements
are negative statements and therefore do not have a direct proof; but both statements are
such that violating either is the same as violating both.
Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycltrometrics Cllapter 10 Tile Carnot Cycle

10:8
10.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
The Second Law of Thermodynamics asserts that no heat engine can have an efficiency of
100%. What then is the highest possible efficiency? To answer this question, we must first
examine the processes that make up a cycle and, in particular, examine the concept of
t
reversibility. At the beginning of the chapter when introducing the Second Law of Thermo-
dynamics, we cited several cases where a process could be expected to occur in one direc-
pe
tion only. A hot cup of coffee sitting on a table will cool with time and not get hotter. A
block of material will slide down, but not up, an incline. Electricity passing through a con-
ductor will produce heat, but heat applied to the conductor will not make electricity. The
burning of gasoline releases heat and produces exhaust gases, but heating the exhaust gases
does not produce gasoline. These, and all other naturally occurring processes, are irrevers-
ible. Only idealized processes are reversible.
Eg
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving a trace on
either the system or its surroundings. Reversible processes are the idealizations of actual
processes. Work producing devices (such as heat engines) deliver the most work if the
processes are reversible. Work consuming devices (such as refrigerators) use the least amount
of work if the processes are reversible. Why are reversible processes of interest even though
they are not achievable? Reversible processes are easier to analyze than actual processes
and it is therefore possible to establish the theoretical limits to performance. Furthermore, a
up
Second Law efficiency can then be established to compare how irreversible is an irrevers-
ible process. Some processes are more efficient than others.
Phenomena that contribute to the irreversibility of a process are called irreversibilities. The
main irreversibilities that we will explore further are friction, unrestrained expansion, mix-
ing and heat transfer across a finite temperature difference.
ro
Friction is a well-known irreversibility. The friction force between two solid bodies always
acts so as to oppose motion. That means that work is done to overcome friction in both
directions and the process is not reversible because, when the body is returned to its original
position, there has been some net heat transferred to the surroundings. Friction is also part
of fluid flow. The pressure drop along the direction of flow in a pipe because of the viscos-
G
ity always acts so as to oppose the flow. It may be possible to reduce the effects of friction,
but it is never possible to eliminate friction altogether.
Non-quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression is an irreversibility. Earlier, we defined a

quasi-equilibrium process as one in which the system remains infinitesimally close to a
state of equilibrium as the change of state progresses. Quasi-equilibrium can never be fully
achieved, but it may be approached in expansion or compression processes if the process
takes place slowly.

10: 9
Heat transfer can only occur when there is a temperature difference and, by observation, we
see that heat transfer always occurs in the direction from high to low temperature. Concep-
tually, the only reversible heat transfer is between bodies at the same temperature, because
then the direction of heat flow would be reversible. But if there is no temperature differ-
ence, then there is no driving force for heat transfer to take place. Therefore, heat transfer is
t
fundamentally an irreversible process that can only approach reversibility if it takes place
isothermally between bodies of the same temperature.
pe
10.4 The Carnot Cycle and the Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Second Law of Thermodynamics asserts that no heat engine can have an efficiency of
Eg
100%. What then is the theoretical best efficiency? The best efficiency may be expected
from a heat engine cycle that includes only ideal, or reversible, processes. The ideal heat
engine cycle is called the Carnot cycle. The Carnot cycle is made up of four reversible
processes as shown in the schematic and property diagram of Figure 10-5:
• Process 1-2. Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition at Temperature TH' Heat from
the high-temperature reservoir is added to the heat engine at the isothermal tem-
perature. Both the reservoir and inside the heat engine are at temperatureTw
up
The isothermal condition is necessary for reversibility. The amount of heat trans-
ferred is QH'
• Process 2-3. Reversible, Adiabatic Expansion. The temperature drops from TH to
TL as the working fluid expands and the device does work. The process is as-
sumed adiabatic because heat transfer to the surroundings would be considered
a loss. To be reversible, the expansion must be a quasi-equilibrium process at all
ro
times. Earlier, we stated that a reversible, adiabatic process is the same as an

isentropic process.
• Process 3-4. Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection at Temperature TL • Heat is
rejected from the process to the surrounding low-temperature reservoir at con-
stant temperature TL . The amount of heat transferred is QL'
G
• Process 4-1. Reversible, Adiabatic Compression. The temperature is raised from

TL to TH as the working fluid is compressed by the work of compression. The
reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.
The net work of the cycle is the difference in magnitudes of the work of Process 2 to 3 and
Process 4 to 1.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

10: 10
Temperature
t
1 2
TH
pe
----. TL
4
......._ _---1 Wnet, out 3
Entropy S
Eg Figure 10-5. The Carnot Cycle

up
F or a totally reversible heat engine, the ratio of the heat transfers at the high- and low-
temperature reservoirs may be used to define an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale
such that QHIQL = THITL. It is emphasized that this relation is not generally true for all heat
engines, but is applicable only for a reversible heat engine such as the Carnot cycle. The
thermal efficiency of a Carnot heat engine is then:
11 th,Camot = 1- QL I QH
ro
=I-TL ITH
This is theoretically the best efficiency of any heat engine operating between these two
absolute temperatures. Any real effect would cause the efficiency to be less than the Carnot
efficiency. For example, consider an automobile engine. The gasoline burns at a maximum
G
possible temperature of 1,540°F, and the heat is rejected from the engine to the atmosphere
at 70°F:
nth,Camot = 1- TL I TH
= 1- (70 + 460) 1(1,540 + 460)
= 0.735
= 73.5%

10: 11
In reality, the actual thermal efficiency is much less than this because not all of the heat is
added at the highest temperature, the heat transfer is not reversible because it involves finite
temperature differences, and there is friction.
The reverse Carnot cycle is of interest because it forms the theoretical best model for the
t
refrigeration cycle. The Carnot refrigerator is shown in Figure 10-6. There are four compo-
nents to the cycle with the following processes:
pe
• Process 1-2. Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition at Temperature TL (cooling
effect on surroundings).
• Process 2-3. Reversible, Adiabatic Compression (isentropic).
• Process 3-4. Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection at Temperature TH (heating
effect on surroundings).
Eg
• Process 4-1. Reversible, Adiabatic Expansion (isentropic).
up
Temperature
4 3
TH
ro
----. TL
Wnet, in 1 2
G
Entropy S
Figure 10-6. The Reversed Carnot Cycle

10: 12
The coefficients of performance of the Reversed Camot Cycle are:
COPR,Camot = 11 (QH 1QL -1)

= 11(TH 1 - 1)
COPHp,Camot = 11 (1- QL 1QH)
t
= 11 (1- TL 1TH)
pe
For example, consider a household refrigerator. If the freezer temperature is 10°F and the
room temperature is 72°F, then the best possible COP is:
COPR,Camot = 11 (TH 1TL -1)

= 11{(72 + 460) 1(10 + 460) - 1}
Eg = 7.58
This means that the heat removal from the refrigerated space is 7.58 times the amount of
electricity used to drive the refrigerator. An actual refrigerator has a COP of around two.
For example, consider an average house air-conditioning unit that has to provide 50,000
Btu/h of cooling at 45°F. The air-conditioner rejects heat to the outdoors at 95°F. Compare
up
the work required if it was a Camot refrigerator to the work required if it was an actual air-
conditioner with a COP of2.4:
COPR,camot = 1I(TH 1TL -1)

= 11 {(95+ 460)1 (45 + 460)}
= 10.1
ro
W;n,camot = ( Cooling Effect) 1COPR,camot

= (50,000 Btu/h)(1 kW 13,412 Btu 1h) 110.1
= 1.45 kW
W;n,Actual = (Cooling Effect) 1COPR,Actual
G
= (50,000 Btu 1h)(1 kW 13,412 Btu 1h) 12.4

= 6.11 kW
The Camot cycle provides a convenient model of the ideal heat engine. The Second Law
efficiency of any other cycle is taken as the ratio of the thermal efficiency of the cycle
divided by the thermal efficiency of a Camot cycle operating between the same maximum

10: 13
and minimum temperatures. A similar idea applies to the Second Law efficiency of a refrig-
erator:
Second Law efficiency of a heat engine = 11 Ih /11 Ih Carnol

Second Law efficiency of a refrigerator = COPR / COPR Carnol
t
pe
The Second Law efficiency does not estimate the amount of work delivered or required, but
instead it allows comparisons between different cycles about how effectively the quality of
energy is being utilized.
The clear message from the analysis of the Carnot cycle is that, to achieve the highest heat
engine efficiency, the high temperature should be as high as possible and the low tempera-
Eg
ture as low as possible. To achieve the highest COP for a refrigerator, the high temperature
should be as low as possible while the low temperature should be as high as posssible.
The Next Step
This chapter discussed the somewhat abstract conceptual models for reversible Carnot heat
up
engines and refrigerators. In the next chapter, we will examine the vapor-compression re-
frigeration cycle and the heat-driven absorption cycle and discuss the more practical as-
pects of performance of these important cycles used in refrigerators and chillers.
ro
Summary
The Second Law of Thermodynamics was introduced as a needed addition to the First Law
to account for the observation that processes are in general irreversible.
The Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics for heat engines:
G
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce an equivalent amount of work.
This statement may be interpreted to say that the efficiency of even the ideal heat engine
must be less than 100%.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

10: 14
The Clausius Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics for refrigerators:
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no

other effect than the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body to a higher
temperature body.
t
This statement may be interpreted to say that work is required to transfer heat in the direc-
tion of increasing temperature.
pe
For a process to be possible, it must satisfy both the First and Second Laws of Thermody-
namics.
Thermal efficiency is a measure of performance for a heat engine and coefficients of perfor-
mance are the measure of performance of refrigerators and heat pumps:
Eg
11th
COPR
= (Net work output) / (heat input)
=T¥..et ,out / QH
= 1-QL / QH
= (Cooling Effect) / (Work Required)

=QL /T¥..et in
up
COPHP = (Heating Effect)/ (Work Required)
= QH /T¥..et,in
ro
The heat transfer quantities Q and the work quantities W in these relationships may also be
replaced with the heat transfer rate Q and the power ffs respectively when considering a
flow problem.
The ideal heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle and the ideal refrigeration cycle is the re-
G
versed Carnot cycle. The Carnot cycle is made up of the following four reversible pro-
cesses:
• 1-2. Reversible, Isothermal Heat Addition

• 2-3. Reversible, Adiabatic Expansion (isentropic)
• 3-4. Reversible, Isothermal Heat Rejection
• 4-1. Reversible, Adiabatic Compression (isentropic)
Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

10: 15
The thermal efficiency and coefficients of performance of the Carnot heat engine and re-
versed Carnot refrigerator are respectively:
11th,Carnot = 1- / TH
t
COPR,Carnot = 1/ (TH / TL -1)
COPHP,carnot = 1/ (1- TL / TH)
pe
The Carnot cycle efficiency and Carnot COP represent the absolute upper limits on the
thermal efficiency and COP of any cycle. A Second Law efficiency is defined as the ratio of
cycle efficiency to Carnot cycle efficiency, or COP to Carnot COP.
Eg
• Describe the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility;

• Describe each of the processes that constitute a Carnot cycle; and
• Analyze the performance of Carnot heat engines and Carnot refrigerators.
up
ro
G
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

10: 16
t
pe
10-1. A refrigerator with a coefficient of performance of 2.8 provides 120,000 Btu of
cooling. Calculate the net work required to run the refrigerator and the heat to be
rejected to the surroundings.
10.2. Give the Clausius statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and briefly
describe in your own words what the statement means.
10.3.
10.4.
Eg
Describe the four processes of the reversed Carnot cycle and show the cycle on a T-s
diagram.
A Carnot heat engine operates between a source at 2000 R and a sink at 440 R. If the
heat engine is supplied heat at a rate of 800 Btu/min, determine the thermal effi-
ciency and the power output of the engine.
10.5. A heat engine is operating on a Carnot cycle and has a thermal efficiency of 55%.
up
The waste heat from the engine is rejected to a nearby lake at 50 0 P at a rate of 600
Btu/min. Determine the power output of the engine and the temperature ofthe heat
source.
10.6. A refrigerator is required to remove heat from a cooled space at a rate of 200 Btu/
min to maintain a temperature of20oP. If the ambient air surrounding the refrigera-
ro
tor is at 72°P, determine the minimum power input required for the refrigerator.
10.7. An inventor claims to have developed a cooling system that removes heat from a
cooled region at lOoP and transfers it to surrounding air at 75°P while maintaining a
COP of7.5. How do you assess the inventor's claim?
G
10.8. An air-conditioning system is used to maintain a house at 72°P when the tempera-
ture outside is 95°P. The house is gaining heat through the walls and windows at a
rate of 50,000 Btu/h, and the heat generation rate within the house by lights and
appliances is 5,000 Btu/h. Determine the minimum power input required by the air-
conditioning system.
Cllapter 10 Tile Carnot Cycle Fundamentals ofTllermot/ynamics and Psycllrometries

11: 1
Chapter 11
Refrigeration Cycles
t
pe
• Instructions
• 11.1 Refrigeration Equipment
• 11.2 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• 11.3 Analysis of the Components and Cycle
Eg
• 11.4
• 11.5
• 11.6
• 11.7
Performance of Ideal Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
The Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Absorption Refrigeration System
Gas Refrigeration System
• The Next Step
up
• Summary
Instructions
ro
G
Chillers and refrigerators are important in many HVAC&R applications. In Chapter 11, we
will present the processes of several refrigeration cycles and describe in detail the applica-
tion ofthe First Law of Thermodynamics to cycle analysis. The objectives are to understand
the working and performance evaluations ofthe vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the
absorption cycle, and the gas refrigeration cycle.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

11: 2
• Describe the components and processes of a vapor-compression refrigeration

cycle;
• Apply the First Law to cycle analysis of a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle;
t
• Evaluate the performance measures of refrigerators and heat pumps;
pe
• Evaluate the effect of non-ideal processes on the cycle;
• Describe the absorption refrigeration cycle; and
• Describe the gas refrigeration system.
Eg
up
ro
G
CIlapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles Fundamentals ofTIlermodynamics and Psychrometries

11: 3
11.1 Refrigeration Equipment
Refrigeration is the thermodynamic process for producing a cooling effect. There are differ-
ent forms of refrigeration, but the most common is the vapor-compression cycle. It derives
its name from the use of a compressor as the primary driver of the cycle. The refrigeration
t
cycle has four mechanical components through which the refrigerant is circulated in a closed
loop. The refrigerant, or working fluid, is always separated from the air or water to be
pe
chilled.
The refrigerant enters the compressor as a low pressure vapor and is compressed to a high
pressure by the work of the compressor. From the compressor, the high pressure vapor
flows to the condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger where heat is rejected from the
refrigerant so that it is converted to a high pressure liquid. Following the condenser is the
thermal expansion valve, which lowers the pressure of the liquid refrigerant and is often
Eg
used to control the mass flow of refrigerant. After expansion, the low pressure refrigerant
enters the evaporator, which is a heat exchanger where the liquid refrigerant changes to
vapor. To make the change, the refrigerant requires heat (like a low temperature boiler). The
removal of this heat from the surroundings is the refrigeration, or cooling, effect desired.
Exiting from the evaporator, the refrigerant is again at the low pressure vapor state ready to
reenter the compressor for a repeat of the cycle. The four components in the vapor compres-
sion cycle are shown schematically in Figure 11-1.
up
1 q,
ro
Condenser
Expansion
W Valve
G
Evaporator
1 q,
Figure 11-1. Components of the Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometrics Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

11: 4
The compressor is usually driven by an electric motor or other engine. There are several
different types of compressors in common use that are described by their means of com-
pression. Reciprocating, rotating and helical rotating (screw) compressors are known as
positive displacement machines because they work by trapping a volume of vapor at inlet
and then reducing that volume and raising the pressure until delivery. In contrast, centrifu-
t
gal compressors are characterized by continuous exchange of angular momentum between
pe
a rotating impeller and a steadily flowing vapor. High rotational speed and steady flow
contribute to centrifugal compressors having a high volumetric efficiency for their physical
SIze.
The evaporator is the key component when considering cooling. The heat that is removed
from the air or water to evaporate the refrigerant in the evaporator is the cooling effect
desired in a refrigerator. For air-conditioning purposes, this heat removal must be done at a
Eg
low enough temperature to chill the water or air to the desired low temperature. Often the
temperature at the evaporator is selected to be cool enough to also remove some moisture
from the air and provide humidity control. While the evaporator cools, the condenser heats
because, during condensation, energy is released from the refrigerant. This heat rejection
takes place at a temperature above that of the surroundings. Sometimes a cooling tower is
used to help with the heat rejection.
Heat flow from high temperature to low temperature occurs naturally. With a refrigerator,
up
the heat flow is in the other direction. By doing work in the compressor, the heat is made to
flow from the cold side at the evaporator to the hot side at the condenser. Therefore, a
refrigerator is sometimes called a heat pump. This is especially true if the interest is to
supply a heating effect at the condenser rather than the cooling effect at the evaporator.
The efficiency with which a refrigerator or heat pump utilizes electricity to produce either
ro
cooling or heating is known as the coefficient of performance. The cooling coefficient of

performance, COPcool ' is the cooling effect at the evaporator divided by the work done at
the compressor. The heating coefficient of performance, COPheat , is the heating effect at the
condenser divided by the work done at the compressor. The coefficients of performance are
dimensionless and typically larger than one. A dimensional version of the COP is the En-
G
ergy Efficiency Ratio, EER, which is the cooling or heating effect in Btu/h divided by the
work of the compressor in watts.
The refrigerator may either cool the circulated air directly (as in most residential applica-
tions), or it may chill water for distribution to cooling coils located close to the cooled space
(as in most commercial applications). When used to chill water, the refrigerator is called a
chiller. Chiller capacity is measured in refrigeration tons. One ton of refrigeration is equiva-
lent to a rate of cooling of 12,000 Btu/h. Furthermore, one ton of refrigeration will freeze
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

11:5
one physical ton of water to ice per day. This leads to an efficiency term that is commonly
used for chillers which is the work of the compressor expressed in k W over the refrigeration
effect given in tons, or kW/ton. This measure is the inverse of the coefficient of perfor-
mance in different units.
t
pe
11.2 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The most efficient of all possible refrigeration cycles is the reversed Camot cycle, as de-
scribed in the previous chapter. The cycle is made up offour reversible processes. Consider
the reversed Camot cycle shown in Figure 11-2. The T-s property diagram shows the cycle
within the saturated liquid/vapor region of the refrigerant. In this setting, it is reasonable to
Eg
imagine actual evaporators and condensers operating isothermally because of the phase
change. However, actual compressors and turbines cannot be found to closely approximate
the isentropic processes when they have to handle a liquid/vapor mixture.
An alternative is to place the cycle outside the mixed liquid/vapor region, but then it is the
isothermal heat transfer conditions that are difficult to approximate over the full range of
the condenser. The result of this discussion is that even though the reversed Camot cycle is
the most efficient of all cycles, it cannot be reasonably approximated by physical equip-
up
ment, and it does not serve as a realistic model for refrigeration cycles. A more appropriate
model is the ideal vapor-compression cycle.
ro
G
Figure 11-2. The Reversed Carnot Cycle on a T-s Property Diagram

11: 6
The ideal vapor-compression cycle is not as efficient as the reversed Carnot cycle but it
does match well with some idealized physical pieces of equipment. The ideal vapor-com-
pression cycle has four components and the T-s property diagram for the four processes is
shown in Figure 11-3. The processes of an ideal vapor-compression cycle are:
t
• 1-2 - Isentropic compression of the refrigerant vapor in the compressor.
• 2-3 - Constant pressure heat rejection as the refrigerant goes from superheated
pe
vapor to saturated liquid through the condenser.
• 3-4 - Constant enthalpy throttling in an expansion device.
• 4-1 - Constant pressure heat absorption as the refrigerant is evaporated in the
evaporator.
Saturated vapor at a low pressure enters the compressor at State 1 and is compressed isen-
tropically (reversible, adiabatic) in the compressor to State 2. State 2 is a superheated refrig-
Eg
erant vapor that is at the highest temperature in the cycle. The constant pressure process
from State 2 to State 3 takes place in the condenser, although it includes more than just
condensing. The first part of the condenser is actually a desuperheater as the vapor is con-
verted from its superheated state at a very high temperature to a saturated vapor condition at
the same pressure, but at the saturated vapor temperature.
up
Temperature
T
ro
Condenser
Evaporator
G
Entropy,s
Figure 11-3. T-s Property Diagram for an Ideal Vapor-Compression Cycle
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometrics

11:7
The second part of the condenser is where the condensation process occurs. Condensation
occurs at constant pressure and constant temperature because of the phase change. The
condensation temperature must be greater than the surroundings so that heat is rejected
from the condenser. At exit from the condenser, the refrigerant is a saturated liquid. The
saturated liquid at State 3 is throttled from the high condenser pressure to the low pressure
t
evaporator by passing through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The valve is both a
pressure reduction device and a metering device to control flow. The valve is an isenthalpic
pe
device and the refrigerant emerges at State 4 as a liquid/vapor mixture at a temperature that
is below the temperature of the refrigerated space. Process 4-1 occurs in the evaporator as
the refrigerant liquid is converted to vapor. The heat needed to produce the phase change is
removed from the surrounding refrigerated space, thus providing the desired cooling effect.
The T-s diagram in Figure 11-3 is a logical property diagram for this cycle because it shows
Eg
the isentropic assumption of the compression process, and the isothermal nature of the
evaporation, and part of the condensation, processes. Another logical property diagram is
the p-h diagram in Figure 11-4 because it shows the constant pressure processes of the
condenser and evaporator, and the constant enthalpy process of the expansion valve. It is
the data for the p-h diagram that is given for R-22 and R-134a in Appendices C-2 and C-4.
up
Pressure
p
ro
Condenser
Evaporator
G
Enthalpy, h
Figure 11-4. p-h Property Diagram for an Ideal Vapor-Compression Cycle

11: 8
11.3 Analysis ofthe Components and Cycle
First Law analysis can be applied to each of the four components of the ideal vapor-com-
pression cycle, and then to the complete cycle. The kinetic and potential energy terms are
negligible. Therefore, the single-stream, steady-flow form of the First Law can be used on
t
the components. The sign convention used here is that heat transfer and work are given as
the magnitude (always positive) and the direction is taken care of by the sign in the equa-
pe
tion. The components are shown in Figure 11-3.
Compressor: reversible, adiabatic (isentropic S2 = Sl): wcompressor = -

Condenser: no work, constant p (p 3 = P2): qH = -
Expansion valve: no work, no heat transfer (isenthalpic): h4 =
Eg
Evaporator: no work, constant p (p 4
For the cycle:
= PI):
11.4 Performance ofIdeal Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

Wcompressor = qH - qL
The performance measure for a refrigerator is the coefficient of performance, which is de-
up
fined as the cooling effect divided by the work of the compressor. The COPcoo1 for an ideal
vapor compression cycle is:
ro
If the interest in the cycle is not the cooling effect, but the heating effect, then the vapor-
compression cycle is known as a heat pump. Heat pumps have become quite popular in
residential houses because the same equipment may be used as an air-conditioner in sum-
mer and as a heat pump in winter. The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is defined
as the heating effect divided by the compressor work. For the ideal vapor-compression
G
cycle, the COPheal is greater than one, making the heat pump a more efficient use of elec-
tricity for residential heating than just a resistance heater.
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

11: 9
Example 11.1. Consider a 5-ton refrigeration system that operates on an ideal vapor-com-
pression cycle with R-22 as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a
saturated vapor at 83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the coefficient of
performance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor.
t
Solution. The property diagrams are shown schematically in Figures 11-3 and 11-4. Start-
ing with state 1, the conditions at all states may be determined from Appendix C-l and
pe
Appendix C-2 as:
• State 1: Given saturated vapor at 83.28 psia:

Appendix C-l: tl = 40°F, hI = 108.191 Btu/Ibm' SI = 0.22 Btu/lbm·oF
• State 2: GivenP2 = 396.32 psia, S2 = SI = 0.22Btu/lbm·oF
Appendix C-2: t2 = 195°F, h2 = 125 Btu/Ibm
Eg
• State 3: Given saturated liquid atp3
• State 4: GivenP4 =
= P2 = 396.32 psia
Appendix C-l: t3 = 150°F, h3 = 56.37 Btu/Ibm
PI = 83.28 psia, and h4 = h3 = 56.37 Btu/Ibm
Appendix C-l: x4= (h 4- hJ)/(hg - hJ) = (56.37 - 21.688)/(108.191 - 21.688) =
0.40
The coefficient of performance is:
up
= q L 1wcompressor = - h4 ) 1
= (108.191- 56.37) 1(125 -1 08.191)
=3.08
The power of the compressor is:

ro
U:ompressor = QL 1
= (5 tons)(12,000 Btu/h.ton)(kW 13,412 Btu 1 h)1 3.08
=5.71 kW
G
If this had been a Carnot cycle operating between the evaporator temperature of 40°F and
the heat rejection temperature of 150°F, then the Carnot coefficient of performance would
have been:
COPCamo / = 11 (TH 1 TL -1)

= 11 {(150 +460) 1 (40 +460)-1}
= 4.55
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

11: 10
It should be noted that the Carnot coefficient of performance is usually calculated for the
surrounding temperatures rather than the refrigerant temperatures as done here. If surround-
ing temperatures had been used, the Carnot COP would have been higher. Remember that
the Carnot COP is the unattainable ideal.
t
pe
11.5 The Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
There are several reasons why the actual performance of a refrigerator is less than the ideal.
Besides friction, there are issues of heat loss and pressure drop that are not accounted for in
the ideal cycle. Shown in Figure 11-5 is the ideal cycle (solid line) and the more realistic
actual cycle (dotted line) as they appear on a T-s and p-h diagrams.
Eg
The ideal process in the compressor is from State 1 to State 2s. The term 2s for the end of
the compression process is to indicate that the process was isentropic. The actual compres-
sion process from State 1 to State 2a is likely to deviate from isentropic because of two
effects. Heat loss from the compressor decreases the entropy. Irreversible effects, such as
friction, increase entropy. Friction always increases the work required to compress the va-
por from PI to P r If there is no heat loss and the increase in entropy is only due to
irreversibilities, then the ratio of the ideal work to actual work is known as the isentropic
up
efficiency of the compressor:
11 isentropic = wideal / Wactual = - / -

ro
p
T
G
s h
Figure 11-5. Property Diagrams for Vapor-Compression Cycles

With an Adiabatic Compressor
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometrics

11: 11
The ideal processes from State 2 to State 3 and from State 4 back to State 1 are constant
pressure processes. For the actual processes, there is a pressure loss along the length of each
heat exchanger, resulting in the actual States 3a and 4a.
Example 11.2. Consider the same problem as in Example 11.1 but with an isentropic effi-
t
ciency for the adiabatic compressor of 80%, a pressure drop in the condenser of 4.52 psi,
and a pressure drop in the evaporator of7.511 psi. The 5-ton refrigeration system operates
pe
on an actual vapor-compression cycle with R-22 as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters
the compressor as a saturated vapor at 83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the
coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor.
Solution. The property diagrams are shown schematically in Figure 11-5. Starting with
State 1, the conditions at all states may be determined from Appendix C-1 and Appendix C-2
as:
Eg
• State 1: Given saturated vapor at 83.28 psia:
Appendix C-1: t] = 40°F, h] = 108.191 Btu/Ibm's] = 0.22 Btu/lbm·oF
• State 2: GivenP2 = 396.32 psia, S2s = S] = 0.22 Btu/lbn/F
Appendix C-2: t2s = 190°F, h2s = 125 Btu/Ibm
Isentropic efficiency: TJisentropic = wideal 1Wactual = 1

up
Solving for the actual enthalpy:
=
= 108.191 +(125-108.191)1 0.8
ro
= 129.202 Btu/lb m
• State 3: Given saturated liquid at P3a = (P2 - 4.522) = (396.32 - 4.52) = 391.79
psia
Interpolating between values in Appendix C-1:
G
t3a = 145.00+(150.00-145.00)(391.79 - 373.71) 1(396.32 - 373.71)

= 144°F
= 54.553 + (56.370- 54.553)(391.79 - 373.71) 1(396.32 - 373.71)
= 56.00 Btu/lb m

11: 12
• State 4: P4a = Pi + 7.511 = (83.28 + 7.511) = 90.791 psi a, and h4a = h3a = 56.00
Btullbm
From Appendix C-1: t4a = 45.00°F
x4a = (h4a - hj ) 1(hg - hj )
t
= (56.00 - 23.111) 1(108.600 - 23.111)
pe
= 0.385
= q L 1wcompressor = - h4a ) 1
=(108.191-56.00)1 (129.202 -108.191)
=2.48
Eg
= QL 1
= (5 tons)(12,000 Btu/h.ton)(kW 13,412 Btu 1 h) 12.48
=7.09 kW
up
The power required for the actual cycle is greater than for an ideal cycle, and the coefficient
of performance is smaller.
Example 11.3. Re-work the ideal cycle of Example 11.1, except that there is heat removal in
the compressor such that the compressor outlet temperature is 175°F. The 5-ton refrigera-
ro
tion system operates on a vapor-compression cycle with R-22 as the working fluid. The
refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 83.28 psia and is compressed to
396.32 psia. Find the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and the power of the
compressor.
G
Solution. The property diagrams are shown schematically in Figure 11-6. States 1, 3 and 4
are unchanged from Example 11.1. The only difference is in State 2. The conditions at State
2a may be determined from Appendix C-2 as:
• State 2: GivenP2a = 396.32 psia, t2a = 175°F

Appendix C-2: h2 = 124 Btu/Ibm
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles Fundamentals ofThermot/ynamics and Psychrometrics

11: 13
The chart in Appendix C-2 is not easy to read exactly. The value has to be visually interpo-
lated to lie between the lines of temperature of 160°F and 200°F.
= qL / wcompressor = - h4 ) /
t
= (108.191- 56.37) / (124 -108.191)
pe
= 3.28
Ft:ompressor = QL /
= (5 tons)(12,000 Btu/h·ton)(kW / 3,412 Btu/h)/ 3.28
Eg =5.36kW
It is a practical matter that the COP can be improved through heat removal from the com-
pressor. It is standard practice and is also important in multi-staging of compressors. From
a theoretical viewpoint, the process is not ideal, but that is counteracted by the fact that the
heat removed from the compressor is rejected at a lower temperature than the peak super-
heat temperature that occurs after isentropic compression, leading to a higher COP.
up
ro
..--- ..... 25
G
Figure 11-6. Property Diagrams for Vapor-Compression Cycle

With Heat Removal from the Compressor
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

11: 14
11.6 Absorption Refrigeration System
There is another form of refrigeration known as the absorption cycle. This cycle is heat
driven rather than work driven. It involves a mixture of two components that have some
attraction for each other. Common mixtures are ammonia with water, and lithium bromide
t
with water. For discussion purposes, we will use the water/lithium bromide mixture shown
in Figure 11-7 to describe how the cycle works.
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Lithium bromide is a salt that dissolves in water. The water and lithium bromide are in
solution in the generator as heat qgenerator is applied. The heat provides energy to break the
bonds of mixing and the heat of vaporization to boil off some of the water. The lithium
bromide-rich solution left behind goes to the absorber while the water vapor goes to a con-
denser where it is converted to liquid at the high pressure. The water is considered the
refrigerant and is passed through a metering valve to enter the evaporator at a low pressure.
Eg
The water evaporates in the evaporator, providing the cooling effect qcool on the surround-
ings as described before for refrigeration. The vapor leaving the evaporator is at low pres-
sure but needs to be returned to the generator as a high pressure liquid.
High Pressure
Water Vapor
up
Generator Condenser
High Pressure
Water Liquid
Metering
ro
Throttle
Valve Device
Weak
Solution
(Lithium Bromide) Strong Solution Low Pressure
(Lithium Bromide) Water Liquid
G
Absorber Evaporator
Low
Pressure
Pump
Water
Vapor
Figure 11-7. Components of the Absorption Refrigeration System

11: 15
In the vapor-compression cycle, this is achieved with a compressor; whereas in absorption

refrigeration, this is achieved by mixing the low pressure water vapor with the lithium
bromide solution in the absorber. The lithium bromide has a strong attraction for the water
vapor and will convert it to liquid upon mixing. (You can understand this effect if you set
out some dry salt on the counter on a humid day; you will see that the salt is able to pull the
t
moisture out of the air to convert it into a wet drop on the counter.)
pe
During this process, the condensing water vapor will give up heat in the absorber which
must be rejected from the absorber. The low-pressure mixture of water and lithium bromide
is then pumped up to the generator pressure to start the cycle over. The coefficient of perfor-
mance is given as the ratio of the cooling effect to the heat used to drive the cycle, qcooI /
qgenerator . At face value, the COP for the absorption cycle is less than that of the vapor-
compression cycle, but it uses heat instead of work to drive the cycle and therefore avoids a
11. 7
Eg
heat engine to first convert the heat into work.
Gas Refrigeration System
Another refrigeration cycle is shown in Figure 11-8. The gas refrigeration system operates
on the principle of compressing a gas, removing heat, and then expanding the gas to a low
up
temperature. A gas, like air, enters the compressor and is compressed isentropically to a
high pressure and temperature. Heat is removed from the gas in a heat exchanger that fol-
lows a line of constant pressure. The air enters the turbine at high pressure but at moderate
temperature. Through the turbine, the gas is expanded to a low pressure and low tempera-
ro
T
G
Figure 11-8. Components of the Gas Refrigeration System
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

11: 16
ture as energy is removed in the form of work. It is the low temperature gas that provides the
cooling effect in the second heat exchanger. The open cycle form of gas refrigeration is
commonly used on aircraft because of the light weight. The more efficient closed cycle gas
refrigeration cycle includes regeneration whereby some of the warm gas leaving the high
pressure heat exchanger preheats the cold gas entering the compressor.
t
pe
The Next Step
The past chapters have used the thermodynamic properties of single pure substances. The
next step is to explore the thermodynamics of mixtures. In particular, we will be interested
in the mixture of air and moisture vapor, but to build up to that understanding we must first
Eg
understand the rules for a mixture of ideal gases. The topic of the thermodynamics of moist
air is known as psychrometrics.
Summary
The ideal vapor-compression cycle is not as efficient as the reversed Carnot cycle, but it
up
does match well with some idealized physical pieces of equipment. The ideal vapor-com-
pression cycle has four components: compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evapora-
tor. The processes of an ideal vapor-compression cycle are:
• 1-2 - Isentropic compression of the refrigerant vapor in the compressor.

• 2-3 - Constant pressure heat rejection as the refrigerant goes from superheated
vapor to saturated liquid through the condenser.
ro
• 3-4 - Constant enthalpy throttling in an expansion device.

• 4-1 - Constant pressure heat absorption as the refrigerant is evaporated in the
evaporator.
The performance measure for a refrigerator is the coefficient of performance, defined as the
G
cooling effect divided by the work of the compressor. The COPcool for an ideal vapor com-
pression cycle is:
= qL / wcompressor = - h4 ) /
If the interest in the cycle is not the cooling effect, but the heating effect, then the vapor-
compression cycle is known as a heat pump. Heat pumps have become quite popular in
residential houses because the same equipment may be used as an air-conditioner in sum-

11: 17
mer and a heat pump in winter. The coefficient of performance of a heat pump is defined as
the heating effect divided by the compressor work. For the ideal vapor-compression cycle,
the COPheat is greater than one, making the heat pump a more efficient use of electricity for
residential heating than just a resistance heater:
COp"eat = qH / wcompressor =
t
pe
The actual vapor-compression cycle includes irreversible effects such as friction and pres-
sure drop. The isentropic efficiency of an adiabatic compressor is:
11 isentropic = wideal / Wactual = - / -
The performance of a vapor-compression refrigerator can be improved through heat re-

moval during the compression process. The heat removal reduces the amount of work re-
quired in the compressor.
Eg
The absorption refrigeration cycle is a heat-driven cycle that depends on a mixture of two
substances that have an affinity for each other. The condenser, expansion valve and evapo-
rator are similar to the vapor-compression cycle, but the compressor is replaced by a gen-
erator-absorber combination. The COP for the absorption cycle is typically much lower
than for a vapor-compression cycle, but is useful in places where there is a heat source to
drive the cycle.
up
The gas refrigeration cycle operates on the principle of compressing a gas, removing heat
and then expanding the gas to a low temperature. The refrigerant is the gas. Open cycle gas
refrigeration is commonly used on aircraft because of the light weight. The more efficient
closed loop gas refrigeration cycle includes internal regeneration within the cycle.

ro
• Describe the components and processes of a vapor-compression refrigeration

cycle.
• Apply the First Law to cycle analysis of a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
• Evaluate the performance measures of refrigerators and heat pumps.
G
• Evaluate the effect of non-ideal processes on the cycle.

• Describe the absorption refrigeration cycle.
• Describe the gas refrigeration system.

11: 18
t
pe
11-01. Sketch the basic elements of the vapor-compression cycle: compressor, condenser,
expansion valve and evaporator and describe the basic function of each.
11-02. Sketch the T-s and p-h property diagrams of an ideal vapor-compression cycle and
describe the thermodynamic processes of the cycle.
Eg
11-03. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an ideal vapor-compression cycle with
R-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor at 8.577 psia and is compressed to 199.25 psia. Find the coefficient of perfor-
mance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor. Compare the coefficient
of performance with that of a Carnot cycle operating between -35°F and 125°F.
up
11-04. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an actual vapor-compression cycle with
R-134a as the working fluid. The isentropic efficiency of the adiabatic compressor
is 85%. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 8.577 psia and
is compressed to 199.25 psia. The pressure drop in the condenser is 13 Al psi. The
ro
pressure drop in the evaporator is 2.72 psi. Find the coefficient of performance of
the refrigerator and the power of the compressor.
11-05. A 5 kW compressor drives an ideal vapor-compression cycle heat pump with R-22
G
as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at
83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the heating capability ofthe heat
pump and the coefficient of performance.

11: 19
11-06. An ice-making machine operates on a vapor-compression cycle using R-22. The

refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 10°F and leaves the com-
pressor with an enthalpy of 120 Btu/Ibm. The condenser pressure is 210.69 psia.
Water enters the ice-machine at 55°F and leaves as ice at 25°F. For an ice produc-
tion rate of 10 Ibm Ih, estimate the power input to the refrigerator. The heat removed
t
to convert 55°F water to ice at 25°F is 169 Btu/lbm .
pe
11-07. Sketch and describe the operation of an absorption refrigeration cycle that uses a
mixture of ammonia and water. Ammonia serves as the refrigerant.
11-08. Sketch and describe the operation of an open cycle gas refrigeration system.
Eg
up
ro
G
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

G
ro
up
Eg
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t
12: 1
Chapter 12
Moist Air as a Mixture of Ideal Gases
t
pe
• Instructions
• 12.2 Mixtures ofldeal Gases
• 12.3 Mixture of Dry Air and Water Vapor
Eg
• 12.4 Moist Air Tables
• The Next Step
• Summary
up
Instructions
ro
The objective of Chapter 12 is to develop a thermodynamic understanding of the behavior

of mixtures of ideal gases. The topic is important because it serves as the basis upon which
G
we will idealize the behavior of the mixture of dry air and water vapor as found in many
HV AC applications. The mixture properties will be described in terms of the mass and
mole fractions of the components. The conceptual models of Dalton and Amagat will be
introduced and used to develop the idea of partial pressure. Moist air will be considered as
a example of a mixture of ideal gases. The property expressions and moist air tables will be
explained.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 12 MoistAir

12:2
• Understand the Dalton and Amagat models as they apply to the basic description
of a mixture of ideal gases, including the concepts of partial pressure and partial
volume;
t
• Calculate mixture properties given the constituent properties and the composi-
tion of the mixture;
pe
• Describe why the model of a mixture of ideal gases is applicable to moist air; and
• Calculate the properties of moist air as a function of temperature.
Eg
up
ro
G
Chapter 12 MoistAir Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

12: 3
12.1 Introduction
Understanding the thermodynamics of mixtures is very important for many practical appli-
cations. Air is a mixture of many gases. Until now, we have been able to treat air as a pure
substance, even though it is a mixture, because we have not needed to consider the change
t
in the proportions of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other gases that make up air.
pe
However, what happens in thermodynamic calculations in which the moisture content of
the moist air changes from one state to another? Are the components affected differently,
and ifthey are, how is each component to be treated? Air and water are known as a nonreacting
gas mixture. As a different example, consider the reactive process of combustion. During
combustion, a chemical reaction occurs between the fuel and air. How can thermodynamics
be applied to find the heat released and the makeup of the resultant exhaust gases? Combus-
tion is an example of a reactive mixture. In this chapter, we will restrict our studies to the
Eg
non-reactive mixture of ideal gases only.
The general study of the thermodynamics of mixtures can be quite complicated, but we can
gain insight by looking at the basics and studying a mixture of only ideal gases. The ideal
gas model will serve well to describe the thermodynamics of a mixture of air and moisture,
because at the typical room temperatures, and because of the small amount of moisture in
the air, both the air and water vapor can reasonably be approximated as ideal gases.
up
12.2 Mixtures ofIdeal Gases
Ideal gases are special. The kinetic model for an ideal gas is such that the individual mol-
ecules that make up the gas are dispersed so far apart from each other that the number of
ro
direct collisions between molecules is negligible as the molecules move around in some
common space. Descriptively, we can say that any particular molecule in an ideal gas does
not know that it shares common space with any of the other molecules and it behaves as
though it were alone in that space.
G
Consider the molecules of an ideal gas contained within a container of volume V. The
molecules will collide with the walls of the container. The frequency and intensity of the
collisions depend on the type of molecule, number of molecules in the container and the
kinetic energy of each molecule. The kinetic energy of the molecules is a function of the gas
temperature such that the higher the temperature, the more active the molecules. The pres-
sure in the vessel is a manifestation of the collisions with the container wall.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 12 MoistAir

12:4
Keeping in mind that an ideal gas is one in which the molecules are spread far enough apart
so that individual molecules do not collide with each other, consider the following two
ways of how a mixture of ideal gases of volume V, pressure p, and temperature Tmay have
arisen. (Whenever there is no subscript on the symbol, then the symbol represents a prop-
erty of the mixture.)
t
The Dalton model is shown in Figure 12-1. Here, a volume V of ideal gas A at pressure PA
pe
and temperature T is mixed with a volume V of ideal gas B at pressure PB and temperature T
and placed in a container of the same volume Vat the same temperature T. Each molecule
of gas in the mixture, A or B, behaves as though it alone occupies the volume V. The result
is that the pressure of the mixture, or total pressure, is the sum of the pressures PA and PB
because there is a simple additive effect of the molecule collisions with the container walls.
The pressuresPA andpB are known as the partial pressures.
Eg
Dalton's law of additive pressures is:
The pressure of an ideal gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressures each gas
would exert if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume.
up
Gas A GasB Mixture
Pressure PA Pressure Pe Pressure (PA+Pe)
Volume
Mass
V
rnA
+ Volume
Mass
V
me
-----+- Volume
Mass
V
(rnA+rn e)
Moles NA Moles NB Moles (NA+N B)
Figure 12-1. Dalton's Law of Additive Pressures

ro
The Amagat model is shown in Figure 12-2. Here, a volume VA of ideal gas A at pressure P
and temperature T is mixed with a volume VB of ideal gas B at the same pressure P and
temperature T and placed in a container of volume Vat the same pressure P and temperature
T. Each molecule of gas in the mixture, A or B, behaves as though it alone contributes to
G
pressure p. The result is that the volume of the mixture, or total volume, is the sum of the
volumes VA and VB because there is a simple additive effect of the space occupied. The
volumes VA and VB are known as the partial volumes.
Amagat's law of additive volumes is:
The volume of an ideal gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes each gas
would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.
Chapter 12 MoistAir Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

12: 5
Gas A GasB Mixture

Pressure P Pressure P Pressure p
Volume VA + Volume VB ----... Volume lYA+VB)
Mass rnA Mass mB Mass (rnA+rn B)
t
Moles NA Moles NB Moles (NA+Ne)
pe
Figure 12-2. Amagat's Law of Additive Volumes
This means that when looking at a mixture of ideal gases, regardless of how the mixture was
made, the mixture can be described as a volume V in which the pressure p is made up of the
sum of partial pressures, or as a mixture at pressure p for which the volume V is made up of
Eg
the sum of the partial volumes. The description using the partial pressures will be more
convenient when we come to considering the mixture of air and water vapor.
There are some other useful measures that can be developed from a mixture of ideal gases
by considering the models given in Figures 12-1 and 12-2. The properties of a gas mixture
depend on the properties of the individual components and the composition of the mixture.
There are two ways of specifying the composition:
up
• If the composition is given as the number of moles of each component in the
mixture, it is known as a molar analysis.
• If the composition is given as the mass of each component, it is known as a
gravimetric analysis.
ro
For a mixture of ideal gases, the mass is:
The mass fractions are:

mfA = mAl m and
G
mfB =mB1m
For a mixture of ideal gases, the number of moles is:

12:6
(Note that for reacting mixtures, this would be different because one mole reacted with
another mole produces one mole of product, but here we are only considering nomeacting
ideal gases.)
The mole fractions are therefore:
t
YA=NAIN and
pe
YB = NB IN
The mole and mass fractions are useful in determining the properties of a mixture. For
example, consider the specific enthalpy of the mixture:
h = mfAhA + mfBhB
h = y}iA + YBhB
Eg
The overbar indicates per unit mole. The molar mass of a substance is the mass divided by
the number of moles. Therefore, the molecular weight of the mixture is:
M=mIN
=mAI N+mBI N
=NAMAIN+NBMBIN
up
=YAMA+YBMB
F or ideal gases, there is a relationship between the partial pressure and the mole fraction.
The ideal gas law applied to each of the three boxes in the Dalton model shown in Figure
12-1 is:
For gas A: =NA Ru T

ro
For gas B: =NR

B u
T
For mixture: =NRu T
The universal gas constant, Ru = 1986 Btu/(lbmo/R) = 10.73 psia.ft3/(lbmo/R)
Dividing the equations for gas A and gas B by the equation for the mixture results in:
G
PAl p=NAI N=YA

PBlp=NBIN=YB
A similar argument for the Amagat model in Figure 12-2 leads to:
VA I V = N A I N =Y A
VB IV = NB IN = YB
Chapter 12 MoistAir Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

12: 7
The partial pressure only changes if there is a change of composition or a change in total
pressure. In words, the result may be expressed as:
Partial pressure = mole fraction x total pressure = volume fraction x total pressure
The above expressions are all derived for just two ideal gases in a mixture. The results can
t
be easily extended to mixtures of any number of ideal gases. On the other hand, real gases
pe
do not always behave as ideal gases. The conceptual models derived above are applicable to
real gases, but adjustments must be made to the detailed results.
12.3 Mixture ofDry Air and Water Vapor
Eg
For the following discussion, we need to be specific about the use of the term air. Moist air
as used here is to be considered as a mixture of dry air (itself a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen
and some other gases) and water vapor (sometimes referred to as moisture).
Dry air may be accurately treated as an ideal gas with constant specific heat at atmospheric
pressure and at the temperatures commonly encountered in HVAC applications. The value
of the specific heat for dry air is Cpa = 0.240 BtuI(lbn/F). Therefore, the enthalpy (with a
reference value of 0 at O°F) and change in enthalpy for dry air may be calculated as:
up
ha = Cpa t = 0.240 t Btullbdryatr. with temperature t in OF
!::.ha = Cpa !::. t = 0.240 /).t Btullbdryatr. with temperature change in OF or R
Water vapor may also be accurately treated as an ideal gas under the right conditions. For
common HV AC conditions, the total pressure of the dry air and water vapor mixture is
ro
atmospheric and the temperature is in the range ofO°F to 125°F. The saturation pressure of
water vapor at 125°F is only 2 psia (see Appendix B-1). At and below this low pressure,
water vapor may be treated as an ideal gas with negligible error (under 0.2%) even when it
is in a saturated condition. If water vapor is treated as an ideal gas, then the enthalpy de-
pends only on temperature, and the enthalpy can be taken to be equal to the saturated vapor
G
value at the appropriate temperature. Saturated values for water vapor are given in Appen-
dix B-1. Over the range of temperatures commonly encountered in HV AC, the enthalpy of
saturated water may be reasonably calculated as:
hg = 1061.5 + 0.435 t Btullbvapor
Therefore, both the dry air and water vapor components of moist air behave as ideal gases
and may be analyzed as though each alone occupied the space. Therefore, the pressure of

12: 8
the air (usually atmospheric) is the sum of the partial pressures of dry air and water vapor:
The subscripts a and v refer to dry air and water vapor, respectively. The partial pressure of
water vapor is often also referred to as the vapor pressure. The vapor pressure is the pressure
t
the water vapor would exert if it alone occupied the space at the temperature and volume of
pe
the mixture.
There is an upper limit as to how much water vapor can be present in moist air. That limit
depends on the temperature. Consider a mixture of given composition and at a specified
total pressure. As the mixture is cooled, the temperature will fall until it reaches a value
when the saturation pressure of the water vapor (Pg) is just equal to the partial pressure of
the vapor in the mixture (p J. Any cooling below this saturated temperature will cause some
Eg
of the water vapor to condense to saturated liquid. At the saturation temperature, the moist
air is said to be saturated and incapable of holding any more water vapor.
12.4 MoistAir Tables
The properties of moist air are tabulated in the table on thermodynamic properties of moist
up
air at standard pressure in Appendix D-1. A sample of that table is shown in Figure 12-3. As
can be seen from the column headings, the properties for all but the condensed water are
given per Ibm of dry air, and not per Ibm of mixture. As we shall see later, this is a convenient
form for the application of the equations of First Law of Thermodynamics.
The entries in the table are listed according to temperature. The humidity ratio is defined as
ro
the mass ratio of water vapor to dry air in the mixture. The value given in the table is the
value at the saturation condition. For example, that means at 70°F, the humidity ratio could
be anywhere between 0 and a maximum ofO.015832lbjlbda (Ibm water vapor to Ibm dry
air). The specific volume, enthalpy and entropy are all given at both the conditions of zero
humidity ratio (dry air) and maximum humidity ratio (saturated air) with the possibility of
G
linearly interpolating between those extremes according to humidity ratio. The vapor pres-
sure given under the heading of condensed water is actually the saturated pressure of water
at the specified temperature. The units of pressure are given as inches of mercury because it
is easy to compare with the standard atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury. For calcu-
lation purposes, it is just as convenient to find the saturation pressure in psia from the tables
for water (see Appendix B-1).

12: 9
Condensed Water
Vapor
Temp. Humidity Volume, Enthalpy, Entropy,
Enthalpy, Entropy, Press.,
t, Ratio, ft311b dry air Btullb dry air Btul(lb dry air) • of
Btullb Btullb' of in.Hg Temp.,
of Ib.,JIbda Ws vG vllg• va
g hG haga hga SG Saga sa
g hw S.. p/
59 0.010692 13.071 0.224 13.295 14.174 11.618 25.792 0.02901 0.02358 0.05259 27.11 0.0536 0.50363 59
t
60 0.011087 13.096 0.233 13.329 14.415 12.052 26.467 0.02947 0.02442 0.05389 28.11 0.0555 0.52193 60
61 0.011496 13.122 0.242 13.364 14.655 12.502 27.157 0.02994 0.02528 0.05522 29.12 0.0575 0.54082 61
62 0.011919 13.147 0.251 13.398 14.895 12.966 27.862 0.03040 0.02617 0.05657 30.11 0.0594 0.56032 62
pe
63 0.012355 13.172 0.261 13.433 15.135 13.446 28.582 0.03086 0.02709 0.05795 31.11 0.0613 0.58041 63
64 0.012805 13.198 0.271 13.468 15.376 13.942 29.318 0.03132 0.02804 0.05936 32.11 0.0632 0.60113 64
65 0.013270 13.223 0.281 13.504 15.616 14.454 30.071 0.03178 0.02902 0.06080 33.11 0.0651 0.62252 65
66 0.013750 13.248 0.292 13.540 15.856 14.983 30.840 0.03223 0.03003 0.06226 34.11 0.0670 0.64454 66
67 0.014246 13.273 0.303 13.577 16.097 15.530 31.626 0.03269 0.03107 0.06376 35.11 0.0689 0.66725 67
68 0.014758 13.299 0.315 13.613 16.337 16.094 32.431 0.03315 0.03214 0.06529 36.11 0.0708 0.69065 68
69 0.015286 13.324 0.326 13.650 16.577 16.677 33.254 0.03360 0.03325 0.06685 37.11 0.0727 0.71479 69
70 0.015832 13.349 0.339 13.688 16.818 17.279 34.097 0.Q3406 0.03438 0.06844 38.11 0.0746 0.73966 70
71 0.016395 13.375 0.351 13.726 17.058 17.901 34.959 0.03451 0.03556 0.07007 39.11 0.0765 0.76567 71
72 0.016976 13.400 0.365 13.764 17.299 18.543 35.841 0.03496 0.03677 0.07173 40.11 0.0783 0.79167 72
73 0.017575 13.425 0.378 13.803 17.539 19.204 36.743 0.03541 0.03801 0.07343 41.11 0.0802 0.81882 73
74 0.018194 13.450 0.392 13.843 17.779 19.889 37.668 0.03586 0.03930 0.07516 42.11 0.0821 0.84684 74
75
76
77
78
79
0.018833
0.019491
0.020170
0.020871
0.021594
Eg
13.476
13.501
13.526
13.551
13.577
0.407
0.422
0.437
0.453
0.470
13.882
13.923
13.963
14.005
14.046
18.020
18.260
18.500
18.741
18.981
20.595
21.323
22.075
22.851
23.652
38.615
39.583
40.576
41.592
42.633
0.03631
0.03676
0.03721
0.03766
0.03811
Figure 12.3 Example of Moist Air Table

0.04062
0.04199
0.04339
0.04484
0.04633
0.07694
0.07875
0.08060
0.08250
0.08444
43.11
44.10
45.10
46.10
47.10
0.0840
0.0858
0.0877
0.0896
0.0914
0.87567
0.90533
0.93589
0.96733
0.99970
75
76
77
78
79
Example 12.1 - Consider moist, atmospheric air at 70 0 P and determine from Appendix D-1
up
the humidity ratio and enthalpy in the following cases:
• Saturated air
• Humidity ratio ofO.01lbw Ilbda •
Solution -
ro
• Saturated air: Humidity ratio = 0.015832 lb w Ilbda , enthalpy = 34.097 Btu/lb a

• Interpolation
Table 12-1
G
Humidity Ratio, Enthalpy,

IbJlb da Btullba
0.0 16.818
0.01 h -16.818 +
(0.01/0.015832)(17.279)
= 27.73
0.015832 34.097

12: 10
The Next Step
Having formulated the basics about treating moist air as a mixture of ideal gases, we are
now ready to see how these basics can apply to the terms and calculations of processes such
as cooling, dehumidification and comfort that involve moist air. In Chapter 13, we will
t
define the terms for relative humidity, dewpoint and wet-bulb temperature, and develop
expressions for the application of the First Law of Thermodynamics to moist air.
pe
Summary
In this chapter, we laid the groundwork for the study of moist air or psychrometrics. The
basis of the analysis was that moist air could be treated as a mixture of ideal gases. The
Eg
Dalton and Amagat laws for ideal gases are:
• Dalton's law of additive pressures: The pressure of an ideal gas mixture is equal
to the sum of the pressures each gas would exert if it existed alone at the mixture
temperature and volume.
• Amagat's law of additive volumes: The volume of an ideal gas mixture is equal
to the sum of the volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mix-
up
ture temperature and pressure.
The Dalton and Amagat models applied to the mixture of two ideal gases, gas A and gas B,
led to the following expressions of partial pressure ratio, volume fraction and mole fraction:
P A / P = VA / V = N A / N = Y A
ro
PB / P = VB / V = N B / N = Y B
The mass and mole fractions are useful in determining the properties of a mixture. For
example, the specific enthalpy of the mixture of ideal gases is:
G
The molecular weight of the mixture is:
M=YAMA +YBMB

12: 11
The enthalpy of dry air at pressures and temperatures commonly encountered in HVAC
applications may be accurately calculated as:
ha = Cpa t = 0.24 t Btullbdryair with temperature t in OF
llha = Cpa II t = 0.24 II t Btullbdrymr. with temperature change in of or R
t
pe
The enthalpy of water vapor at partial pressures and temperatures commonly encountered
in HVAC applications may be accurately calculated as:
hg = 1061.5 + 0.435 t Btullbvapor with t in of, and -20°F < t < 125°F
Eg
Dry air and water vapor may be treated as ideal gases when combined as moist air at the
temperatures and pressures commonly encountered in HVAC applications. For moist air,
the total pressure is the sum of the dry air and vapor pressures:
p = Pa + Pv
The partial pressure of water vapor is often also referred to as the vapor pressure. It is the
pressure the water vapor would exert if it alone occupied the space at the temperature and
up
volume of the mixture.
There is an upper limit as to how much water vapor can be present in moist air. That limit
depends on the temperature and is known as the saturated air condition. It occurs when the
vapor pressure is equal to the saturated vapor pressure at that temperature, p v = Pg •
Moist air tables shown in Appendix D-llist the property values of moist air by temperature
ro
for both dry air (zero humidity ratio) and saturated conditions. The tabulated values are
given per unit mass of dry air.
After studying Chapter 12, you are able to:
• Understand the Dalton and Amagat models as they apply to the basic description
G
of a mixture of ideal gases, including the concepts of partial pressure and partial
volume.
• Calculate mixture properties given the constituent properties and the composi-
tion of the mixture.
• Describe why the model of a mixture of ideal gases is applicable to moist air.
• Calculate the properties of moist air as a function of temperature.
Fundamentals ofThermotiynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 12 MoistAir

12: 12
Skill Development Exercisesfor Chapter 12

t
pe
12-01. State Dalton's law of additive pressures, and then sketch and explain how this model
may result from the addition of two gases of equal volume and temperature.
12-02. Calculate the mass fractions and mole fractions when 2 Ibm nitrogen (molecular
weight MN2 = 28.013 Ibmllbmo/J is mixed with 6 Ibm hydrogen (molecular weight
Eg
MH2 = 2.016Ib /lb J· What is the molecular weight of the mixture? What are the
m mo/
partial volume fractions and the partial pressure fractions?
12-03. 2lbm dry air (molecular weight MAlr, = 28.97 lbm lIbmoeI) is mixed with 0.1 lbm water
vapor (molecular weight MH20 = 18.015Ibm/lbmo/J. What is the molecular weight of
the mixture? What is the partial pressure of the water vapor if the total pressure is
up
atmospheric (14.97 psi a)? Compare the partial pressure with the saturated pressure
at 100°F and say whether this mixture is possible at this temperature.
12-04. Find the humidity ratio, specific volume (per Ibm of dry air) and specific enthalpy
(per Ibm of dry air) of saturated moist air at standard atmospheric pressure and 120°F.
ro
12-05. Find the specific enthalpy (per Ibm of dry air) of moist air at standard atmospheric
pressure and 120°F if the humidity ratio is 0.05.
G
12-06. 2lbm dry air is mixed with 0.11bm water vapor at atmospheric pressure and a tem-
perature of 120°F. Calculate the enthalpy of the mixture (per Ibm of dry air) from: the
moist air tables; and the expressions given for the enthalpy of dry air and water
vapor in the text.

13: 1
Chapter 13
Properties of Moist Air
t
pe
• Instructions
• 13.1 Humidity Ratio and Relative Humidity
• 13.2 Dewpoint Temperature
• 13.3 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
• The Next Step
Eg
• Summary
Instructions
up

ro
The topics of Chapter 13 are the terms and parameters useful in common air-conditioning
applications involving moist air. Because ofthe moderate temperatures and low vapor pres-
sure of the water vapor in moist air, the water vapor may reasonably be idealized as behav-
ing as an ideal gas. The objectives of Chapter 13 are to develop an understanding of the
G
following terms: humidity ratio, relative humidity, dewpoint temperature, adiabatic satura-
tion temperature and wet-bulb temperature.
• Understand and calculate humidity ratio and relative humidity;

• Understand the basis for determining the dewpoint, adiabatic saturation and wet-
bulb temperatures; and
• Apply the First law of Thermodynamics to problems involving moist air.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air

13:2
13.1 Humidity Ratio and Relative Humidity
The amount of water vapor in the moist air can be specified in various ways. One way
already introduced in the previous chapter is the humidity ratio. The humidity ratio is the
mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air. The humidity ratio is sometimes called spe-
t
cific humidity and is denoted by W (not to be confused with work which is also denoted W).
The subscripts v and a refer to water vapor and dry air, respectively:
pe
Ibm vapor /lb m dry air
With the assumption that the dry air and water vapor can be treated as ideal gases, a rela-
tionship can be developed between the humidity ratio and the vapor pressure by using the
ideal gas equation, P V = mRT.
W=ml'lma
Eg
=(PI'V I RI'T) I (PaV I RaT)
=(Ra I Rv)(Pv I Pa)
= 0.622 (PI' I Pa) Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air
The gas constants are Rv = 0.1102 Btu/(lbmvapor·R) and Ra = 0.06855 BtuI(lbmair·R) and
up
therefore Ra IR v = 0.6221bm vaporperlbm dry air. Therefore, the units of humidity ratio are
also Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air. The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures, P = P a +
PI'. Solving for Paand substituting into the equation for humidity ratio results in the follow-
ing expression:
W = 0.622 PI' I (p - PI') Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air

ro
The total pressure P is often atmospheric pressure when dealing with many of the problems
in air-conditioning. We will see later why this is such a useful relationship.
Another measure of the moisture content of moist air is the relative Relative
G
humidity is the ratio of the mass of vapor in the moist air compared to the maximum mois-
ture that moist air can hold at that temperature. To explain relative humidity, first consider
dry air. Dry air has a humidity ratio of zero. Imagine that water vapor is added to the dry air,
thereby increasing the humidity ratio. The more moisture that is added, the higher the hu-
midity ratio, until the air can no longer hold any more moisture. The moist air is then satu-
rated. Any further moisture added to saturated air will cause condensation of the vapor to
liquid water. The maximum amount of water vapor in the moist air is at the saturated condi-
tion and can be found by setting PI' equal to the saturation pressure Pg in the expression for
Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

13: 3
humidity ratio and in the ideal gas equation. Therefore, the relative humidity is:
=ml' /mg
= (Pl'v / RvT)/(pgV / RT)
= PI' / Pg
t
pe
where P g = PSal at temperature t. Relative humidity is dimensionless.
Combining the relationship for relative humidity with the relationship for humidity ratio by
eliminatingp" yields the following two useful expressions:
= W(p/ Pg)/(O.622+W)
W = Pg / pg)
Eg
The relative humidity ranges from zero for dry air to a value of one for the saturated condi-
tion. The relative humidity depends on the temperature because the maximum moisture that
the air can hold depends on its temperature. In contrast, the humidity ratio depends on
composition and not on temperature except at the saturated condition. Therefore, the rela-
tive humidity may change with temperature even when the humidity ratio is constant. The
up
relative humidity ratio is important because the comfort level depends more on relative
humidity than on humidity ratio. The humidity ratio is the quantity that is most useful when
doing analysis and applying the First Law of Thermodynamics.
The total enthalpy of moist air includes both the enthalpies of the dry air and of the water
vapor:
ro
H= ha +Hv
= maha +mvhv
The specific enthalpy of moist air is commonly written per unit mass of dry air because the
amount of dry air is usually fixed while the amount of moisture varies. Dividing through by
G
the mass of dry air gives the specific enthalpy as:

h = ha +(mv / ma)h"
=ha + Whv Btu/Ibm dry air (hI' is in Btu/Ibm vapor)
Because it is treated as an ideal gas, hI' can be approximated by hg at the same temperature.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air

13:4
Example 1. The conditions on a hot summer day are given as 95°F and a relative humidity
of 65%. Calculate the humidity ratio.
Solution. From Appendix B-1, the saturated pressure at 95°F is p g = 0.81625 psia.
With = 0.65, the humidity ratio is:
t
W = Pg pg)
pe
= 0.622(0.65)(0.81625) 1{ 14.696 - (0.65)(0.81625)}
= 0.0238 Ibm vapor perlbmdry air
Note that the units of Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air are contained in the term 0.622 because it
came from the ratio of gas constants of vapor and dry air.
Eg
Example 2. If the temperature of Example 1 drops from 95°F down to 85°F while the hu-
midity ratio remains at 0.0238 Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air, estimate the relative humidity at the
new temperature.
Solution. From Appendix B-1, the saturated pressure at 85°F is p g = 0.59647 psia.
With W = 0.0238 Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air:

up
= W(pl pg)/(0.622+W)
= 0.0238 (14.696/0.59647)/(0.622 + 0.0238)
= 0.908
The relative humidity is 90.8% and the day will feel closer to rain.
ro
13.2 Dewpoint Temperature

Consider what happens when moist air at constant total pressure is steadily cooled: the
G
temperature will decrease. Initially, the humidity ratio remains constant because there is no
change in composition of the moist air. However, the relative humidity will increase, as
shown in an earlier example. When the relative humidity becomes 100%, the air reaches its
saturated condition. The temperature at which this occurs is the dewpoint temperature. Any
further cooling means that the air cannot hold all the vapor and the vapor condenses as a
liquid.
Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

13: 5
This process is shown on the t-s diagram in Figure 13-1. The diagram shows only the water
vapor behavior and not the dry air behavior. State 1 represents the state of the water vapor at
vapor pressure of P. and a relative humidity of less than one. As the moist air is cooled at
constant pressure, it follows the line of constant p. until it meets the saturated vapor curve.
State 2 is the saturated condition at the intersection of the constant pressure line and the
t
saturation curve. The conditions at State 2 are p g = p.' = 1, and the temperature is the
dewpoint temperature:
pe
The dewpoint temperature is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins if the
moist air is cooled at constant vapor pressure.
If the moist air is cooled below the dewpoint temperature, then there is condensation of
Eg
some of the vapor to liquid. This can be traced on the t-s diagram in Figure 13-1. The liquid
that forms will be at the condition on the saturated liquid curve between States 2f and 3f.
The vapor that remains in the moist air will follow the saturated vapor curve from State 2 to
State 3g. For the process from State 2 to State 3g, the relative humidity remains constant at
100%, but the humidity ratio steadily decreases.
up
Temperature
t
ro
G
Entropy,s
Figure 13-1. Dewpoint Temperature on the t-s Diagram for Water Vapor

13:6
The dewpoint temperature can be measured by chilling a surface until dew is first observed
and measuring the temperature of the surface. The dewpoint temperature can then be used
to determine the vapor pressure. With the vapor pressure, it is then possible to calculate the
relative humidity from = p v /pg. Although this is a straightforward procedure, it is cumber-
some and not that convenient.
t
pe
13.3 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
The relative humidity and humidity ratio are both useful parameters in calculations, but
there are no direct measures for these quantities. The dewpoint temperature measurement
can lead to the relative humidity as explained earlier, but it is not a convenient measure-
Eg
ment. The most common way of determining the relative humidity and humidity ratio is to
measure something known as the wet-bulb temperature and use that in a calculation. How-
ever, before describing the wet-bulb temperature and how it is used, it is informative to first
consider another temperature known as the adiabatic saturation temperature that results
from the adiabatic saturation process.
Consider the apparatus shown in Figure 13-2. A steady flow of moist air, with unknown
humidity ratio WJ and relative humidity J ' enters the long insulated channel at State 1. The
up
channel contains a pool of water. As the· air flows through the channel, some of the water
evaporates and mixes with the stream of moist air. As a result, the humidity ratio changes
along the length of the channel. If the channel is long enough, the moist air will emerge
from the channel at State 2 in a saturated condition, = 100%. The process for the water
vapor change in the moist air is shown as Process 1 to 2 on the t-s diagram of Figure 13-3.
The temperature of the moist air changes along the length of the channel because the air has
ro
Moist Air . . . 92.,.CI Air
Humidity Ratio w1 Humidity Ratio w2

[l [f
G
Temperature Temperature t2
Relative Humidity cj>1 Relative Humidity cj>2
Enthalpy h1 Enthalpy h2
Saturated Water
Temperature
Enthalpy hf
Figure 13-2. The Adiabatic Saturator
Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air Fundamentals ofThermody"amics and Psychrometries

13: 7
Temperature
t
t
pe
Adiabatic
Saturation
Temperature
Eg Entropy,s
Figure 13-3. The Adiabatic Saturation Process

up
to provide the heat of evaporation of the moisture added to the air stream. The temperature
at State 2 is known as the adiabatic saturation temperature because it comes at the end ofthe
adiabatic (insulated channel) saturation (water vapor picked up along the channel) process.
The adiabatic saturation temperature is different from the dewpoint temperature, as can be
ro
seen from Figure 13-3. The moist air composition and humidity ratio change along the
channel and, therefore, the saturation process is not a constant vapor pressure process as
described for dewpoint temperature.
The adiabatic saturation temperature can be related to the unknown inlet humidity ratio and
relative humidity by applying the conservation of mass and steady-flow form of the First
G
Law of Thermodynamics to the adiabatic saturation process. The subscript a refers to dry
air, v refers to vapor, g refers to saturated vapor, and Ito saturated liquid water. It is helpful
to think of the moist air to be made up of two streams: the dry air stream and the water vapor
stream. For the conservation of mass, this means two equations, one for each stream. But
for the First Law of Thermodynamics, there is only one energy balance with both streams in
the same equation.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air

13: 8
Conservation of mass (air stream):
Conservation of mass (water vapor stream):
t
pe
The humidity ratios are = mvl / rna and = m1'2 / rna . Solving for mvl and m1'2 and sub-
stituting into the equation above, the conservation of mass of the water vapor stream be-
comes:
Reorganizing terms and solving for ml3

ml3
Eg= -
First Law of Thermodynamics (no work and no heat transfer):
Substitute for mvl and mv2 as before. Then using the expression for ml3 from the mass
up
balance in the energy balance, and dividing through by rna leads to:
hal + - = +
Solving for humidity ratio
ro
In this equation, the air and the water vapor are treated as ideal gases. The enthalpy change
of the air can be replaced by ha2 - haJ = C/t2 - tl ). Also the enthalpy of the vapor can be
found as the saturated vapor value at the appropriate temperature because, for an ideal gas,
G
the enthalpy depends only on temperature. Furthermore, the difference between the vapor
and liquid enthalpy can be written as h1'2 - hf3 = hlg2 for the liquid water at t 2. With all these
substitutions, the energy equation may be written as:
= {Cp (t2- tJ ) + W2 hlg2 }/ (h gl - hj2)
= O.622pg2 . /(p - p g2)

13: 9
After a long derivation, this is a result that can be used to determine the humidity ratio by
measurement of two temperatures and the total pressure. The temperatures are the moist air
temperature t] and the adiabatic saturation temperature t2. Knowing t2 , the values of hjg2 ,
hp and Pg2 can be found in the water tables. Knowing t] , the value of hg] can be found in
the water tables.
t
The adiabatic saturator provides the measurements to calculate the humidity ratio, but it is
pe
a cumbersome piece of equipment. Fortunately, there is another device - the wet-bulb ther-
mometer - that gives temperatures very similar to the adiabatic saturation temperatures
even though the way it functions is quite different. The wet-bulb temperature is measured
by a thermometer whose bulb is covered with a water saturated cotton wick. As the unsatur-
ated air blows over the wet wick, some of the water in the wick evaporates, thus cooling the
thermometer to a lower temperature. The temperature that results when there is a balance
Eg
between the heat needed for evaporation and the heat transfer to the air stream is the wet-
bulb temperature.
In general, the wet-bulb temperature and the adiabatic saturation temperature are not the
same but, for moist air at atmospheric pressure, they have almost identical values. There-
fore, the wet-bulb temperature can be used in place of the adiabatic saturation temperature
in the equations developed earlier. Sometimes, the usual temperature measured by just a
plain unwrapped thermometer is called the dry-bulb temperature.
up
Wet-bulb temperatures are sometimes measured with a sling psychrometer. The psychrom-
eter has a wick-covered thermometer that is kept wet and is mounted on a handle so that it
can be made to rapidly swing through the air. This brings the wet-bulb temperature to quick
equilibrium. The sling psychrometer is handy for a single measurement but, for continuous
measurement of wet-bulb temperature, it is more common to use a wick-covered thermo-
ro
couple.
Example 13.3. On a 82°F day, the wet-bulb temperature is measured as 65°F. Calculate the
humidity ratio and the relative humidity.
Solution. The expression for humidity ratio is:

G
w;. = {cAt2 - tl ) + / (h gl - hj2 ) Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
From the water tables in Appendix B-1, the property values at t2 = 65°F and t] = 82°F are:
hjg2 = 1056.5 Btullbmvapor, hj2 = 33.07 Btullbmvapor andpg 2 = 0.30574 psia
hgl = 1096.95 Btu / Ibm vapor

13: 10
The saturated humidity ratio at the wet-bulb temperature is:
= 0.622 P g2 / (p - P g2 )
= (0.622 Ibm vapor Ilb m dry air )(0.30574 psia)/ {(14.696- 0.30574) psia}
= 0.0132 Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
t
pe
Therefore, the humidity ratio of the moist air is:
= {CAt2
= {0.24(65- 82) + 0.0132(1056.5)} Btullb m dry air / {(1096.5- 33.07) Btullbm vapor}
= 0.0087 Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
cj> Eg
The relative humidity is:
= W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
= 0.0087(14.696/0.30574) / (0.622 + 0.0087)
=0.663
= 66.3%
up
Example 13.4. Atmospheric air at 95°F and 50% relative humidity is cooled to 80°F or
60°F. In each case, calculate the final relative humidity.
Solution.
W = 0.622 cj> Pg /(p-cj> p g) Ibm vapor Ilb m dry air
ro
cj> = W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
At 95°F, the saturated pressure is found in Appendix B-1 as Pg = 0.81625 psia. Therefore,
the humidity ratio is:
=0.622 cj>Pg/(p-cj>Pg)
G
= 0.622(0.5)(0.81625) / {14.696 - (0.5)(0.81625)}

= 0.0178 Ibm vapor Ilb m dry air

13: 11
The humidity ratio will remain unchanged if there is no condensation. To check if there is
condensation, first find the dewpoint temperature. If the final temperature is above the
dewpoint temperature, then W2 = WI ; if the final temperature is less than the dewpoint
temperature, then 2 = 1:
tdp = t sat @ Pv
t
= Pv / Pg
pe
Pv Pg
= 0.5(0.81625)
= 0.40813 psia
From the water table in Appendix B-1, the dewpoint temperature may be interpolated as
shown in Table 13-1:
Eg
t
Temperature,
of
73
Table 13-1
= 73 + (74 - 73)(0.40813 - 0.40217)1

Pressure,
psia
0.40217
0.40813
(0.41592 - 0.40217)
t= 73.44
up
74 0.41592
• Cooled to t2 = 80°F. Because t 2 > tdp' the humidity ratio is unchanged and W2 =
ro
WI = 0.0178 Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air. From the saturated water tables in Appendix
B-1, the saturation pressure at 80°F is 0.50736 psia. The relative humidity can
be calculated as:
=W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
= 0.0178(14.696/0.50763) / (0.622 + 0.0178)
G
= 0.805
= 80.5%
• Cooled to t2 = 60°F. Because t2 < t dp ' the final condition is saturated. Therefore:
= 100%

13: 12
The Next Step
In the next chapter, we will introduce the psychrometric chart. The chart contains the values
of the parameters introduced in this chapter as well as the other moist air data in a very
compact and easy-to-use format.
t
pe
Summary
For moist air, the humidity ratio is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air:
Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
Eg
W = 0.622 Pv / (p - Pv)
Another measure of the moisture content of moist air is the relative humidity, Relative
humidity is the ratio of the mass of vapor in the moist air compared to the maximum mois-
ture that the air can hold at that temperature. The relative humidity is:
=mv /mg
up
= Pv / Pg
where Pg = PSal at temperature t. Relative humidity is dimensionless.
Combining the relationship for relative humidity with the relationship for humidity ratio
yields the following two useful expressions:
ro
= W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
W= Pg p g ) Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air
The relative humidity ranges from zero for dry air to a value of one for the saturated condi-
tion. Relative humidity depends on the temperature as well as the amount of vapor in the
G
au.
The specific enthalpy of moist air is commonly written per unit mass of dry air:
Cltapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air Fundamentals ofTltermodynamics and Psycltrometrics

13: 13
The dewpoint temperature is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins if the
moist air is cooled at constant vapor pressure:
The relative humidity and humidity ratio are both useful parameters in calculations, but
t
there are no direct measures for these quantities. The dewpoint temperature measurement
pe
can lead to the relative humidity as explained earlier, but it is not a convenient measure-
ment. The most common way of determining the relative humidity and humidity ratio is to
measure the wet-bulb temperature and use that in a calculation. The wet-bulb temperature
temperature is measured by a thermometer whose bulb is covered with a water-saturated
cotton wick. The calculation is based on the First Law of Thermodynamics applied to an
adiabatic saturation process. For moist air at atmospheric pressure, the wet-bulb tempera-
ture replaces the adiabatic saturation temperature in the expression:
where:
Eg
W; = {cAt2 - t l ) +
W2 =
/ (h gl - hj2 )
0.622 Pg2 /(p - Pg2 )

Ibm vapor / Ibm dry air
t2 = the wet-bulb temperature

up
tJ = the dry-bulb temperature
hjg2 ,hj2 and Pg2 are found in the saturated water tables at t2
hg] is found in the saturated water tables at t]
Cp = the coefficient of specific heat for dry air, Cp = 0.24 Btu/(lbmdry air·R)
ro
G
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 13 Properties ofMoistAir

13: 14
t
pe
13-01. Give a short description of humidity ratio and relative humidity.
13-02. Using the definitions of humidity ratio, relative humidity and the Ideal Gas Law,
show that the relationship between humidity ratio and relative humidity can be writ-
ten as:
= W(p/ Pg)/(0.622+W)
W= Eg
tions:
Pg / pg) Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air
13-03. Consider moist air at 72°P and atmospheric pressure. Answer the following ques-
• What is the humidity ratio and relative humidity if the air is saturated?
• What is the humidity ratio if the relative humidity is 60%?
• What is the relative humidity ifthe humidity ratio is 0.015 Ibm vapor/ Ibm dry air?
up
13-04. Explain the term dewpoint temperature. Calculate the dewpoint temperature for 72°P
atmospheric air with a relative humidity of 60%.
13-05. On a 72°P day, the wet-bulb temperature is measured as 55°P. Calculate the humid-
ity ratio and the relative humidity.
ro
13-06. Atmospheric air at 90 0 P and 60% relative humidity is cooled to 80 0 P or 60 o P. In

each case, calculate the final relative humidity.
13-07. Moist air at 95°P, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity of 60% is cooled at
constant pressure to saturation conditions at a rate of 2,000 Ibm dry air per hour.
G
Estimate the rate of heat removal.
Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

14: 1
Chapter 14
The Psychrometric Chart
t
• Instructions
pe
• 14.2 Description of the Axes and Lines of the Chart
• 14.3 Finding Property Values on the Psychrometric Chart
• 14.4 Human Comfort and the Psychrometric Chart
Eg
• The Next Step
• Summary
Instructions
up
Read the material of Chapter 14. Re-read the parts ofthe chapter that are emphasized in the
ro
The psychrometric chart is a comprehensive property chart for moist air. For a given total
pressure, the chart covers a range of dry- and wet-bulb temperatures commonly found in
HV AC applications. The objective of Chapter 14 is to understand the layout and how to
G
find property values on the chart. After studying Chapter 14, you should be able to:
• Fully describe the psychrometric chart;

• Look up states on the chart; and
• Identify the ASHRAE comfort zone on the chart.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart

14:2
14.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we introduced humidity ratio, relative humidity, moist air enthalpy,
dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature and dewpoint temperature. It was also shown
that given any two of these properties, the other properties could be calculated by using the
t
expressions that relate different properties, the moist air tables and the saturated water tables.
pe
However, the calculations are cumbersome and repetitive. They are more conveniently done
by using a plot of the properties on the psychrometric chart. The chart is used extensively in
air-conditioning calculations because it is good for finding properties and because many of
the processes of air-conditioning are easy to map out on it.
The ASHRAE psychrometric chart is shown in Appendix E-l. (It is suggested that you
make a few photocopies of the chart that you can use for practice and for developing a
are:
Eg
familiarity with the many aspects of the chart). The chart includes a wealth of infonnation,
but the first thing is to learn the basics of the chart. The properties represented on the chart
• Dry-bulb temperature, tdb: The temperature ofthe moist air.

• Wet-bulb temperature, twb: The equilibrium temperature measured when a ther-
mometer covered in a wet wick is exposed to moist air at tdb'
up
• Dewpoint temperature, tdp : The saturation temperature at a saturation pressure
equal to the vapor pressure in the moist air (tsat at Pv = Pg ). In more practical
tenns, it is the temperature at which condensation first appears if moist air is
cooled at constant vapor pressure.
• Humidity ratio, W: The mass ratio of moisture to dry air in the moist air (mass
basis).
ro
• Relative humidity, The ratio of moisture in the moist air to the amount of
moisture in the moist air if it was saturated at the same temperature.
• Specific volume, v: The specific volume of the moist air (mixture of dry air and
water vapor) in ft3 per Ibm dry air.
• Specific enthalpy, h: The specific enthalpy of moist air in Btu per Ibm dry air. The
G
enthalpy includes the contributions of both dry air and water vapor, h = ha + Whg
There is a second drawing on the same chart in the left-hand top comer that looks like
protractor and includes the ratios of sensible heat to total heat and enthalpy change to hu-
midity ratio change. Unlike the main chart which is used for properties and processes, the
protractor only applies to processes, and will be explained further in the next chapter.
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

14: 3
14.2 Description ofthe Axes and Lines ofthe Chart
The basic features of the chart are shown in Figure 14-1. Along the horizontal axis is the
dry-bulb temperature. Along the vertical axis on the right side of the chart is the humidity
ratio. On the left boundary of the chart, there are two lines, neither of them a vertical axis.
t
There is a straight sloped line that serves as the axis for values of enthalpy. There is also a
sloped curve that is the saturation line. The saturated moist air states are located along the
pe
saturation line. The saturation line corresponds to a line of constant relative humidity of
100%.
The lines of constant property are shown in Figure 14-2. The dry-bulb temperature and
humidity ratio form the basis of the chart, with lines of constant humidity running horizon-
tally and the lines of constant dry-bulb temperature running up and down. Lines of constant
huinidity ratio are lines of constant dewpoint temperature. The lines of constant enthalpy
Eg
and constant wet-bulb temperature are straight and slope down and to the right on the chart.
They have very nearly the same slope, but not quite. The lines of constant wet-bulb tem-
perature are not drawn as boldly as the lines of constant enthalpy so as to distinguish them
from each other. To read a value of enthalpy that lies between two enthalpy lines, draw a
up
Dew-point temperature
-<0%
6-
ro
r:::
C'
CD
3
16
@
G
Dry-Bulb Temperature
Figure 14-1. Basic Features of the Psychrometric Chart
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart

14:4
t
Constant Humidity Ratio, W
pe
Eg Figure 14-2. Lines of Constant Property Value
up
ro
Dew-point temperature, 70°F

G
70°F
Figure 14-3. Dry-Bulb, Wet-Bulb and Dewpoint

Temperatures and the Saturation Line
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

14:5
line parallel to the enthalpy line and read the result where this intersects the enthalpy axis.
The lines for constant specific volume are also straight lines that slope down to the right of
the chart, but they are steeper than enthalpy or wet-bulb temperature. Lines of constant
relative humidity are curved up and to the right of the chart and are shaped similarly to the
saturated line.
t
At any point on the saturation line, the wet-bulb temperature, dry-bulb temperature and
pe
dewpoint temperature are the same as shown in Figure 14-3. For non-saturated conditions,
the line of constant dewpoint temperature is a horizontal straight line.
The lines of constant property will be shown to be important in the next chapter when we
look at applications of the psychrometric chart to air-conditioning processes. Often, pro-
cesses such as simple heating and cooling involving no humidification are equivalent to
lines of constant humidity ratio. The chart is good for visualizing the processes of air-
Eg
conditioning. The general direction of increasing property values is shown in Figure 14-4.
up
ro
G
Figure 14-4. Direction of Increasing Property Values
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart

14:6
14.3 Finding Property Values on the Psychrometric Chart
The methodology using two known property values to find any other property value for
moist air on the psychrometric chart is best shown in the following series of examples. In
each case, two of the seven properties will be known. The seven properties are:
t
• Dry-bulb temperature, tdb
• Wet-bulb temperature, twb
pe
• Dewpoint temperature, tdp
• Humidity ratio, W
• Relative humidity,
• Specific volume, v
• Specific enthalpy, h
Eg
Example 14.1. Atmospheric moist air has a dry-bulb temperature of SO°F and a humidity
ratio of 0.012 Ibm moisture per Ibm dry air. Find the other five properties.
Solution. Looking at Figure 14.4 and consulting the psychrometric chart in Appendix E-1 at
tdb = SO°F and W = 0.012, the other properties are:
twb = 6S0F (read from the faint dotted line for constant wet-bulb temperature)
up
tdp = 62°F (read from extending a horizontal line until it intersects the satura-
tion line)
= 55% (interpolated between the lines of 50% and 60%)
v = 13.S7 ft3 per Ibm dry air (interpolated between lines of 13.S and 13.9)
h 32.2 Btu per Ibm dry air (read from the intersection of the enthalpy axis
and a straight line drawn through the state point with a slope like that of
the lines of constant enthalpy)
ro
Example 14.2. Atmospheric moist air has a dry-bulb temperature of SO°F and a wet-bulb
temperature of 64°F. Find the other five properties.
G
Solution. Consulting the psychrometric chart in Appendix E-1 at tdb = SO°F and twb = 64°F,
the other properties are:
tdp = 54.6°F (read from extending a horizontal line until it intersects the
saturation line)
W = 0.00921bm moisture per lbm dry air
= 42% (interpolated between the lines of 40% and 50%)
v 13.S0 ft3 per Ibm dry air
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

14: 7
h = 29.1 Btu per Ibm dry air (read from the intersection ofthe enthalpy axis
and a straight line drawn through the state point with a slope like that of
the lines of constant enthalpy)
t
Example 14.3. Atmospheric moist air has a relative humidity of 40% and a specific en-
thalpyof 38.6 Btu per Ibm dry air. Find the other five properties.
pe
Solution. Consulting the psychrometric chart in Appendix E-1 at = 40 % and h = 29.1 Btu
per Ibm dry air, the other properties are:
tdb 95°F
twb = 75.1°F
tdp = 66.8°F (read from extending a horizontal line until it intersects the
V
Eg
W =
=
saturation line)
0.01421bm moisture per lbm dry air
14.3 ft3 perlbmdry air
The accuracy is limited by the ability to read and interpolate on the chart. Fortunately, there
are only linear scales and it is not necessary to interpolate on a log scale, as may be found in
up
heat transfer or fluid mechanics. The only combination that is not easy to pinpoint with
accuracy on the chart is when wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy are known. These lines
are almost parallel, making the task of finding the intersection point difficult. Fortunately,
the known wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy combination are not commonly encountered.
So far, we have only described the psychrometric chart for standard atmospheric pressure.
There are other psychrometric charts, with similar information, for moist air at pressures
ro
slightly above and below that of standard sea-level pressure. Also, many manufacturers of
air-conditioning equipment have developed their own psychrometric charts. These vary in
the details about scales, units and line drawing techniques, but they are basically the same
as the ASHRAE psychrometric chart.
G
The values represented on the charts may now be conveniently, and more accurately, deter-
mined by using ASHRAE software that has programmed the calculations in just the same
way that the chart was constructed. However, there is still a big value to the charts, as will
be seen in the next chapter, because they help us visualize the processes of air-conditioning.
Plotting out the change of state on the chart gives a perspective that is very useful in design.
As time goes on, we can anticipate that even more of the visual aspects will be programmed
for the computer.

14: 8
14.4 Human Comfort and the Psychrometric Chart
The psychrometric chart covers a range of temperatures and humidities that include those
most likely to be encountered under ordinary conditions. However, there is only a smaller
range of conditions for which people say they feel comfortable. Comfort means different
things to different people, but in the context of environmental conditions of temperature
t
and humidity, surveys have tried to establish a consensus on the range of values considered
comfortable. The ASHRAE envelope is such a range that is said to satisfy better than a 10%
pe
dissatisfaction criterion.
The ASHRAE comfort envelope is specified in ASHRAE Standard 55-1992. It includes two
overlapping regions: one appropriate for people in light summer clothing and the other
appropriate for people in the slightly heavier indoor clothing that is worn in winter. The
comfort envelope is shown in Figure 14-5. The envelope is given as an area on a chart in
Eg
which the horizontal axis is the operative temperature (aT) and the vertical axis is either the
humidity ratio or the dewpoint temperature. Because the heat balance on the human body
includes both convection and radiation heat transfer, the operative temperature is the aver-
age of the mean radiant
temperature and the dry
bulb temperature. 70
On the chart, there are lines

up
of constant relative humid-
65
ity. The boundaries to the
comfort zone are lines of
60
constant relative humidity
and lines of constant effec- :::l
55
tive temperature (ET*). Q)
c.
ro
E
The effective temperature 50
is an empirical index that E
'0
c. 45
includes the effects of both
operative temperature and o 5
evaporative cooling. It is 35
G
30
the temperature of an en-
25
vironment at 50% relative 20
68Er"
humidity that results in the 10
same total heat loss from o

60 65 70 75 80 85 90
the skin as in the actual en- Operative Temperature, OF
vironment. The effective
temperature depends on Figure 14-5. The ASHRAE Comfort Zone
the clothing worn and on
C/,apter 14 The Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals ofT/,ermodynamics and Psychrometries

14: 9
the skin wettedness as well as on the surrounding conditions. This means that the effective
temperatures for two different people in the same space could be different.
The comfort region shown in Figure 14-5 is appropriate for people engaged in light office
work «1.2 met). The range is based on a 10% dissatisfaction criterion. The comfort zone
may also be shown on the psychrometric chart as in Figure 14-6 if it is assumed that the
t
surrounding radiative temperature is the same as the air temperature and the operative tem-
perature is then just the dry-bulb temperature. Air-conditioning systems often try to main-
pe
tain the environmental conditions depicted within the comfort zone if there are human oc-
cupants in the conditioned space.
Besides effective temperature, several other factors contribute to comfort or discomfort.

p or example, air velocity that is too high or asymmetric radiation due to certain heat sources
in the room can cause discomfort. A vertical temperature gradient can also be a problem,
and the temperature at head level should never be more that sop different from that at feet
Eg
level. Another comfort factor is floor temperature. In environments where shoes are worn,
the floor and air temperatures should be the same. However, when barefoot, the preferred
temperature range depends on the floorcovering; for bare concrete, it is from 79°P to 83 0p.
up
ro
G
Figure 14..;6. The ASHRAE Comfort Zone on the Psychrometric Chart

14: 10
The Next Step
Whereas this chapter described the structure of the psychrometric chart and how to find
property values on the chart, the next chapter will discuss using the chart for common air-
conditioning processes. The processes to be considered are heating, cooling, humidification,
t
dehumidification and mixing.
pe
Summary
The psychrometric chart is a very useful tool for determining the values of moist air proper-
ties. There are seven properties plotted on the chart:
Eg
• Dry-bulb temperature, tdb
• Wet-bulb temperature, twb

• Dewpoint temperature, tdp
• Humidity ratio, W
• Relative humidity,
• Specific volume, v
up
• Specific enthalpy, h
The basic features of the chart include the dry-bulb temperature on the horizontal axis and
the humidity ratio on the vertical axis. On the left boundary of the chart, there are two lines.
There is a straight sloped line that serves as the axis for values of enthalpy. There is also a
sloped curve that is the saturation line. The saturated moist air states are located along the
ro
saturation line. At any point on the saturation line, the wet-bulb temperature, dry-bulb tem-
perature and the dewpoint temperature are the same.
A basic rectangular grid is formed with the lines of constant humidity running horizontally
and the lines of constant dry-bulb temperature running vertically. The lines of constant
G
enthalpy and constant wet-bulb temperature are straight and slope down and to the right on
the chart. They have very nearly the same slope, but not quite. The lines for constant spe-
cific volume are also straight lines that slope down to the right of the chart, but they are
steeper than enthalpy or wet-bulb temperature. Lines of constant relative humidity are curved
up and to the right of the chart and are shaped similarly to the saturated line.
The psychrometric chart covers a range of temperatures and humidities that include those
most likely to be encountered under ordinary conditions. However, there is only a smaller
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

14: 11
range of conditions for which people say they feel comfortable. Comfort means different
things to different people, but in the context of environmental conditions of temperature
and humidity, surveys have tried to establish a consensus on the range of values considered
comfortable. The ASHRAE envelope is such a range that is said to satisfy better than a 10%
dissatisfaction criterion.
t
pe
• Fully describe the psychrometric chart.
• Look up states on the chart.
• Identify the ASHRAE comfort zone on the chart.
Eg
up
ro
G
Fundamentals ofTllermodynamics and Psycllrometrics Cllapter 14 Tile Psycllrometric Cllart

14: 12

t
pe
14-01. Sketch the outline of the psychrometric chart showing typical lines of constant value
of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity,
specific enthalpy and specific volume.
14-02. List the seven properties that are represented on the psychrometric chart.
Eg
The following five problems are to be solved by looking up the properties of moist air on
the psychrometric chart for standard atmospheric pressure (sea-level). Given two proper-
ties, you must look up the other five properties.
up
14-03. Dry-bulb temperature of 90°F and a wet-bulb temperature of 75°F.
14-04. Humidity ratio of 0.008 Ibm moisture per Ibm dry air and relative humidity of 80%.
ro
14-05. Humidity ratio of 0.020 Ibm moisture per Ibm dry air and dry-bulb temperature of
80°F.
14-06. Enthalpy of25 Btu per Ibm dry air and relative humidity of20%.
G
14-07. Saturated moist air at a dry-bulb temperature of 72°F.
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart Fundamentals ofTI,ermodynamics and Psychrometries

15: 1
Chapter 15
Air-Conditioning Processes on the Psychrometric Chart
t
• Instructions
pe
• 15.1 Simple Heating or Cooling at Constant Humidity Ratio
• 15.2 Heating with Humidification
• 15.3 Cooling Coil Dehumidification
• 15.4 Evaporative Cooling
Adiabatic Mixing
Eg
• 15.5
• 15.6
• Summary
Sensible Heat Ratio
Instructions
up
summary and memorize important definitions. At the end ofthe chapter, complete all ofthe
ro

The objectives of Chapter 15 are to develop an understanding of how to use the psychro-
metric chart to analyze the processes of air-conditioning. After studying Chapter 15, you
should be able to use the chart and the First Law of Thermodynamics to solve problems
G
involving:
• Simple heating and cooling processes;

• Heating processes with humidification;
• Cooling processes with dehumidification;
• Evaporative cooling processes; and
• Processes with a constant sensible heat ratio.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes

15:2
15.1 Simple Heating or Cooling at Constant Humidity Ratio
Simple heating or cooling processes do not involve any moisture addition or removal, or
any flow mixing. They appear on the psychrometric chart as straight horizontal lines. Simple
heating (as found with an electric heating system, a heat pump or a heating coil with no
t
moisture addition) is shown as a constant humidity ratio process 1 to 2 on the chart in
Figure 15-1. Simple cooling is similarly a straight horizontal line, but towards decreasing
pe
temperature to the left rather than to the right. The humidity ratio does not change with
simple heating or cooling but the relative humidity does. The relative humidity decreases
with simple heating and increases with simple cooling.
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to simple heating or cooling is:
Eg
The enthalpy of the moist air includes both that of dry air and water vapor, h
The sign of the value of heat transfer
cooling (negative).
Q depends on whether there is heating (positive) or
= ha + Wh g '
up
CD.
t1 :
"1c::> ::
AIR 'Q"
.
··
w1
._.-
I I
.
I
h1 1 .' 2 .'
..
ro
I "
• Cooling'. ':
,""
tl
Figure 15-1. Simple Heating or Cooling

G
Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

15: 3
15.2 Heating with Humidification

As observed earlier, the relative humidity decreases during heating. The decrease is quite
noticeable in winter, when outdoor air with a low relative humidity is heated and becomes
uncomfortably dry in the conditioned space. The situation can be remedied by adding mois-
t
ture. The process of adding moisture is known as humidification.
pe
Consider the case of a heater followed by a humidifier as shown in Figure 15-2. Through
the heating section from State 1 to State 2, the dry-bulb temperature increases while the
humidity ratio remains the same. Through the humidification system from State 2 to State
3, the humidity ratio increases, but the dry-bulb temperature may increase or decrease de-
pending on the way in which humidification is accomplished. If the moisture is added by
evaporation from a pool of water (as in the adiabatic saturator described in an earlier chap-
ter or by water spray), then the dry-bulb temperature will decrease slightly because the air
Eg
stream needs to provide the energy for evaporation. However, ifthe moisture is introduced
as steam as shown in Figure 15-2, then the dry-bulb temperature could be expected to
increase slightly because of the high energy content of the steam.
up
1, 1a
til, • tIIs
AIR c::> : : C::>AIR
w,
h,
Heater
t
Steam
ro
Humidifier
Figure 15-2. Heating With Humidification

G
Example 15.1. 2,000 cfm of outdoor air at 35°F and 30% relative humidity is to be heated
and humidified to a final condition of 80°F and 50% relative humidity with a heater fol-
lowed by a steam humidifier. The temperature after the heater is 74°F. Find the following:
• The heat added in the heater section;

• The mass flow rate of steam; and
• The enthalpy of the steam.
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes

15:4
Solution. The process can be mapped onto the psychrometric chart as shown in Figure 15-2,
and the appropriate properties determined at States 1, 2 and 3 as needed.
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the heater is:
t
pe
The mass flow rate can be calculated by knowing the volume flow rate and reading from the
chart that the specific volume is VI = 12.48 ft3 per Ibm dry air.
ma = V IVI
= (2,000 ft3 I min) I (12.48 ft3 /lb mdry air)
= 160.3 Ibm dry air per minute
Eg
From the chart, the enthalpies are hI = 9.2, hi = 19.0 Btu per Ibm dry air. Therefore, the heat
added in the heater is:
= (160.3 Ibm dry air per minute)(19.0- 9.2) Btu per Ibm dry air
up
= 1,570 Btu I min
= 94,231 Btu I h
The mass flow of steam can be found by considering the conservation of mass in the hu-
midifier:
= msteam + mV3
ro
m v2
msteam = mV3 - m v2
G
From the chart, W2 = WI = 0.0008 and W3 = 0.011 Ibm vapor per Ibm dry air:
msteam = (0.011- 0.0008)(lb mvapor I Ibm dry air)(160J Ibm dry air I minute)
= 1.64 Ib steam per minute
Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

15: 5
The enthalpy of the steam can be calculated by applying the First Law of Thermodynamics
to the adiabatic humidifier:
t
From the chart, the enthalpies are h2 = 19.0 and h3 = 31.4 Btu per Ibm dry air:
pe
hsteam = (160.3 / 1.64)(31.4 -19.0)
= 1,212 Btu per Ibm steam
15.3 Cooling Coil Dehumidification
Eg
Consider the cooling of moist air shown on the psychrometric chart in Figure 15-3. Ini-
tially, there is simple cooling at a constant humidity ratio from State 1 to State 2 as the
relative humidity increases. When the air becomes saturated at a relative humidity of 100%,
any further cooling has to follow the saturated line from State 2 to State 3 as water vapor is
condensed to liquid and the humidity ratio decreases.
Applications usually call for a final moist air condition that is in the comfort zone and not
on the saturation line. Therefore, the overall cooling path includes a final process during
up
which the relative humidity is reduced from 100% to the desired leveL The final process
may be one of simple heating or by mixing the saturated air with warmer, non-saturated air.
The overall process may be thought of as one in which there is both temperature control
through heat removal and relative humidity control through heating.
ro
.1
AIR c::> :
I ..,
'Q"
G
• I
WI I
hI
. .-_----I w" =
'Q--
+
Condensate
":AF--....-r-......
I
•
• 4
W3
Drain
fa t2 tl
Figure 15-3. Cooling Coil With Dehumidification

15:6
Example 15.2. Outdoor air at 95°F and 60% relative humidity is to be cooled to a final
condition of 80°F and 50% relative humidity using a cooling coil and a simple heater. Find
the intermediate temperature between the cooling coil and the heater, the specific heat re-
moved in the cooling coil, and the specific heat added in the heater.
t
Solution. The solution is best found by drawing all four processes on the psychrometric
chart as shown in Figure 15-3. Start with the initial condition and draw a horizontal line
pe
across to the saturation line to describe the cooling process 1 to 2. Next draw a horizontal
straight line across from the desired final condition to the saturation line. This is the final
heating process from State 3 to State 4. The intermediate temperature can be read as t3 =
60°F. It is worth noting that this is also the dewpoint temperature of the final condition.
From the chart, the enthalpies are: hI = 46.3, h3 = 26.4, and h4 = 31.4 Btu per Ibm dry air.
The heat transfer may be found by applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to the cool-
Eg
ing coil and heater:
qcoil
= 26.4-46.3
= -19.9 Btu per Ibm dry air (negative means cooling)
qheater = h4 -
up
= 31.4-26.4
= 5.0 Btu per Ibm dry air (positive means heating)
In actual cooling coils, the process does not usually follow the idealized process path of
constant humidity ratio from 1 to 2, along the saturation line from 2 to 3, and simple heating
ro
from 3 to 4. The more practical path is similar to the dotted line shown in Figure 15-3. In the
air stream, only the air closest to the coils or fins is cooled to saturation. The state leaving
the coil is not on the saturation line because it is a mixture of the parts of the air stream that
reach saturation and parts that do not. A reasonable rule of thumb is to assume 90% relative
humidity. The air stream is then heated or mixed with another stream to achieve the desired
G
final state.
Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes Fundamentals ofTllermodynamics and Psychrometries

15: 7
15.4 Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative cooling is the process that occurs when water is sprayed into an air stream or
when air blows over a wet surface. The energy required to evaporate the water must come
from somewhere, and if the process is adiabatic, then that energy is taken out of the air
t
stream. It is the same process that was described earlier as happening in an adiabatic satura-
tor. It is a practical cooling method if the air is initially quite dry (low relative humidity) as
pe
is often the case in semi-arid areas. It can be used for space cooling provided the final state
is not too humid.
Conservation of mass applied to the evaporative cooling process is:
mv1 = mw +mv2
mw =mv2 -mv1
Eg
Therefore the mass ratio is:
up
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the adiabatic evaporative cooling process is:
= mwhw +
hw = (ma I
-ffn
ro
=l:!.hll:!.W
That means that evaporative cooling is a process in which the ratio of the enthalpy change
to humidity change is constant and equal to the enthalpy of the water being sprayed into the
air stream. On the psychrometric chart, the evaporative cooling process is represented by a
G
straight line with its slope determined from the protractor as shown in Figure 15-4. The
protractor can be seen to have I:!.hll:!. W printed as a scale around its perimeter. The line drawn
by connecting the center of the protractor to the point on the perimeter corresponding to the
value of hw has the same slope as a line drawn on the psychrometric chart itself that goes
from State 1 to State 2. The slope of the line is fixed by the enthalpy ofthe added water, and
the actual location of State 2 along that line is determined by the mass flow rate of added
water. There is an upper limit to the evaporative cooling effect when the outlet condition
reaches the adiabatic saturation temperature.

15: 8
t
pe
t
Water spray
... 'Q'lf
,
M1 = hwater '0'
hwaler
tlw
•
_____ ___
o.
W
2
, I fiII'It •
#' : -:'..... !It
,', ,. ;1'"-..""""--
tj£fl11e/
w,
,. •
• 0
Eg Figure 15-4. Evaporative Cooling With Water Spray
15.5 Adiabatic Mixing
Mixing of two air streams is a common situation in HVAC systems. The air-conditioning of
up
buildings requires a certain amount of mixing of conditioned air with fresh outdoor venti-
lated air. The physical means of mixing may be brought about in many different ways, but
the case of two air streams merging into one is shown in Figure 15-5. There are three states
involved: the flow streams are at States I and 2 respectively, and the mixture state is State 3.
It is common to assume that mixing is an adiabatic process.
The conservation of mass equation can be applied to the dry air and to the water vapor:
ro
mal + ma2 = ma3

W;mal + = W; ma3
The First Law of Thermodynamics applied to the mixing process is:

G
After substituting for ma3 from the first equation into each of the other two equations and
then dividing through by ma2 and solving for mal I ma2 the result is:
mal Ima2 -W;)/(W; -W;)

15:9
The geometrical interpretation of this result is shown on the psychrometric chart in Figure
15-5. State 3 lies on a straight line connecting States 1 and 2, such that the relative distances
between the mixed state and each ofthe original unmixed states are proportional to the ratio
of the air stream flow rates. Although not exact because there is a slight change in specific
heat with humidity ratio, the flow ratio can be reasonably estimated from the rule of
t
proportionalities applied to the dry-bulb temperature differences:
pe
mall ma2 = (t2 -t3)1 (t3 -tl )
Example 15.3. Saturated air leaving the cooling section of an air-conditioning system at
55°F at a rate of 200 Ibm per minute is mixed with outside air at 95°F and 40% relative
humidity at a rate of 100 Ibm per minute. Determine the temperature and relative humidity of
the mixture.
Eg
Solution. The mixed State 3 is most easily located by drawing a straight line between air
stream States 1 and 2 and using the dry-bulb temperature calculated from proportionality to
locate State 3 on the straight line. From proportionality:
mal Ima2 =(t2 -t3)/(t2 -tl )
2001100 = (95 - t3) 1(t3 - 55)
up
Solving for the temperature results in a mixed temperature of t3 = 75°F. From the chart, the
relative humidity is = 63%.
ro
>
I
,,
\'). ,
G
,
'(\').
..
'). ··
.. .. ..
1I
-- ••
I
•••
•
•••••••• Wi
·· ..
Figure 15-5. Adiabatic Mixing of Two Streams of Moist Air

15: 10
15.6 Sensible Heat Ratio
In air-conditioning applications, the object is to maintain the temperature and humidity of

the conditioned space within certain comfort limits. To maintain steady conditions means
removing the heat load due to people, appliances, conduction through walls, solar gain and
t
other various heat and moisture sources. Because both temperature and humidity are impor-
tant, it is sometimes useful to think of the total load as being made up of two components:
pe
the sensible load and the latent load. The sensible load is the heat to be removed to maintain
the dry-bulb temperature without changing the humidity ratio. The latent load is the heat to
be removed to change the humidity ratio without changing the dry-bulb temperature. The
ratio of the sensible heat to total heat (sensible plus latent) is known as the sensible heat
ratio (SHR).
This idea can also be related to the psychrometric chart. Consider the change of state shown
Eg
in Figure 15-6. The line may be thought of as a line of constant SHR. By looking at the
protractor, it can be seen
that the slope of the line on
the psychrometric chart is
the same as a line drawn
from the center of the pro-
tractor to a point on the
up
perimeter corresponding
to a value of the SHR.
In practice, the idea of the

SHR may be useful when
approached from the per-
ro
spective that typical values

for SHR may be known
from the desired design Figure 15-6. Sensible Heat Ratio
conditions. With the
known value of SHR and
G
using the slope from a line on the protractor, a line can be drawn through the desired setpoint
on the psychrometric chart. Any air delivered to the conditioned space with conditions
along this lirie will remove heat in the right ratio of sensible to latent change.
Example 15.5. The sensible heat load ratio for a cooling problem is known to be SHR =
+2.0. The setpoint condition for the conditioned space is 72°F and 50% relative humidity.
Find the relative humidity of the 60°F cooling air if the correct ratio of sensible to latent
heat is to be removed from the conditioned space.

15: 11
Solution. The positive sign on SHR means that the sensible enthalpy change and the total
enthalpy change have the same sign. On the protractor, draw a line from the center to the
value of SHR = 2.0 on the perimeter. Draw a parallel line on the psychrometric chart that
goes through the state point tdb = 72°F, = 50%. Read the relative humidity for a point on
this line at a dry-bulb temperature of 60°F. The relative humidity of the supply air should be
t
= 87%.
pe
Summary
Simple heating or cooling at constant humidity ratio is a horizontal straight line on the
psychrometric chart for which the heat transfer is given as:
Eg
Cooling coil operation with dehumidification is idealized as a two-step process. First there
is simple cooling at constant humidity ratio from State 1 to State 2 as the relative humidity
increases to 100%, followed by a path along the saturation line from State 2 to State 3 as
water vapor is condensed to liquid and the humidity ratio decreases. Applications usually
up
call for a final moist air condition that is in the comfort zone and not on the saturation line.
Therefore, the overall cooling path includes a final process during which the relative hu-
midity is reduced to the desired level either by heating or by mixing the saturated air with
warmer, non-saturated air.
In actual cooling coils, a more practical process path does not reach the saturated condition
ro
because there is a mixture of the parts of the air stream that reach saturation and the parts
that do not. A reasonable rule of thumb is to assume 90% relative humidity.
Evaporative cooling is the process that occurs when water is sprayed into an air stream or
when air blows over a wet surface. Adiabatic evaporative cooling is characterized on the
psychrometric chart by:
G
hw =
=I:1h / I:1W
This means that evaporative cooling is a process in which the ratio ofthe enthalpy change to
humidity change is constant and equal to the enthalpy ofthe water being sprayed into the air
stream. On the psychrometric chart, the evaporative cooling process is represented by a
straight line with its slope determined from the protractor.

15: 12
Mixing of two air streams is a common situation in HVAC systems. If the flow streams are
at States 1 and 2, respectively, and the mixture is at State 3, then for adiabatic mixing, the
mass ratio may be expressed as:
mal Ima2 =(W; -U;;)/(U;;
t
=(t2 - t3) I (t3 - t l )
pe
The geometrical interpretation of this result on the psychrometric chart is that State 3 lies on
a straight line connecting States 1 and 2, such that the relative distances between the mixed
state and each of the original unmixed states are proportional to the ratio of the air stream
flow rates.
Eg
In air-conditioning applications, the object is to maintain the temperature and humidity of
the conditioned space within certain comfort limits. To maintain that relatively steady state
means removing the heat load due to people, appliances, conduction through walls, solar
gain and other heat and moisture sources.
The total load may be considered as being the sensible load plus the latent load. The sen-
sible load is the heat to be removed to maintain the dry-bulb temperature without changing
up
the humidity ratio. The latent load is the heat to be removed to change the humidity ratio
without changing the dry-bulb temperature. The ratio of the sensible heat to total heat (sen-
sible plus latent) is known as the sensible heat ratio (SHR). With a known value ofSHR and
using the slope from a line on the protractor, a line can be drawn through the desired setpoint
on the psychrometric chart. Any air delivered to the conditioned space with conditions
along this line will remove heat in the right ratio of sensible to latent change to satisfy the
load.
ro
G

15: 13 .
t
pe
15-01. Moist air is cooled from 80°F, 50% relative humidity to 70°F with no moisture
added or removed. What is the final relative humidity and the heat removed perlbm
of dry air?
15-02. Moist air is cooled from 80°F, 50% relative humidity to 50°F. What is the final
relative humidity, humidity ratio and change of enthalpy?
Eg
15-03. 1,000 cfm of outdoor air at 40°F and 20% relative humidity is to be heated and
humidified to a final condition of 72°F and 50% relative humidity with a heater
followed by a steam humidifier. The temperature after the heater is 64°F. Find the
following: the heat added in the heater section; the mass flow rate of steam; and the
enthalpy of the steam.
15-04. Outdoor air at 95°F and 50% relative humidity is to be cooled to a final condition of
up
72°F and 50% relative humidity using a cooling coil and a simple heater. Find the
intermediate temperature between the cooling coil and the heater, the specific heat
removed in the cooling coil, and the specific heat added in the heater.
15-05. Outdoor air at 95°F and 20% relative humidity is cooled in an evaporative cooler by
spraying with saturated liquid water at 70°F. What is the final temperature if the
final relative humidity is 60%? (Hint: use the protractor to get the slope of the pro-
ro
cess line.) How much water will it take per Ibm of dry air? (Hint: use the change in
humidity ratio.)
15-06. 20 Ibm per minute of air at 40°F and 90% relative humidity is adiabatically mixed
with moist air at 80°F, but unknown relative humidity. The final mixture is at 72°F
G
and 50% relative humidity. What is the relative humidity and mass flow rate ofthe
second air stream?
15-07. The sensible heat load ratio for a heating problem is known to be SHR = -2.0. The
setpoint condition for the conditioned space is 72°F and 50% relative humidity.
Find the relative humidity of the 80°F heating air if the correct ratio of sensible to
latent heat is to be removed from the conditioned space.

G
ro
up
Eg
pe
t
A:1
Appendix A-I: Dimensions and Units

Used in Air-Conditioning Applications
t
pe
Dimension SI Unit IP Unit
Acceleration mls2 ftlsec 2
Area m2 ft2
Density kg/m3 lb m Ift3
Energy N-m, Joule (J) Btu, ft-Ib
Force
Eg
Length
Mass
Power
(kg-m)/s2, Newton (N)
m, meter (m)
kg, kilogram (kg)
J/s, Watt (W)
pound (Ibj
foot (ft)
)
pound mass (Ibm)

Btu/h
Pressure N/m2, Pascal (P) pSI
J/(kgeOC) Btu/(IbmeOF)
up
Specific Heat
Time second (s) second (sec)
Temperature (absolute) degree Kelvin (K) degree Rankine (R)
Temperature degree Celsius (OC) degree Fahrenheit eF)

Thermal Conductivity W/(meOC) Btu/(hefteOF)
Thermal Flux Density W/m2 Btu/(heft2)

ro
Velocity mls ft/sec, ftlmin, fpm
Volume m3 ft3
Volume Flow Rate m 3/s ft3/sec, ft 3/min, cfm

G
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Appendix A

A:2
Appendix A-2: Unit Conversion Factors
Dimension SI Unit IP Unit
t
Length 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.305 m
pe
Area 1 m2= 10.76 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
Volume 1 m3= 35.32 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.0929 m3
Mass 1 kg = 2.205 Ibm 1 Ibm = 0.435 kg
Force 1 N = 0.2248 lbf 1 lbf = 4.448 N
Energy 1 kJ = 0.9478 Btu 1 Btu = 778.2 ft-Ibf = 1.055 kJ
1 J = 0.7376 ft-Ibf 1 ft-Ibf = 1.356 J
Eg
Specific Energy
Specific Enthalpy
Power
1 kWh = 3.412 X 103Btu
1 kJ/kg = 0.4298 Btu/Ibm
1 W = 3.412 Btu/h
1 kW = 1.341 hp
1 Btu = 3.183 x 10-2kWh
1 Btu/Ibm = 2.326 kJ/kg
1 Btu/h = 0.318 W
1 hp = 2545 Btu/h = 0.746 kW
1 kW = 0.2844 ton refrigeration 1 ton = 12,000 Btu/h = 3.516 kW
up
Pressure 1 Pa = 1.450 x 10-4 psi 1 psi = 6.897 x 103Pa
1 atm = 101 kPa 1 atm = 14.7 psi = 29.921 in. Hg
Temperature 1°C diff. = 9/5°F diff. 1°F diff. = 5/9°C diff.
tC = [(9/5)y + 32]OF tF = (y - 32)(5/9)OC
K = °c + 273.15 R = OF + 459.67
Velocity 1 mls = 1.969 x 102ftlmin 1 ftlmin = 1.602 x 10-3mls
ro
Mass Density 1 kglm3= 6.243 x 1O-2Ib m/ft3 Ilbm/ft3 = 1.602 x 103kglm3

Mass Flow Rate 1 kgls = 2.205 Ibm/sec 1 Ibm/sec = 0.4535 kgls
1 kgls = 7.937 x 1031b)h Ilbmlh = 1.260 x lO-4kgls
Volume Flow Rate 1 m3/s = 2.119 x 103cfin 1 cfm = 4.719 x 10-4 m3/s
1 m3/s = 1.585 x 104 gal/min 1 gal/min = 6.309 x 10-5 m3/s
G
Thermal 1 W/(moOC) = 1 Btu/(hoftoOF) =

Conductivity 0.5778 Btu/(hoftoOF) 1.731 W/(mo°C)
Heat Transfer 1 W/(m2oOC) = 1 Btu/(hoft2 0F) =
0
Coefficient 0.1761 Btu/(hoft2 0F)

0 5.679 W/(m2o°C)
Specific Heat 1 J/(kgoOC) = 1 Btu/(lbmoOF) =
2.389 x 10-4 Btu/(lbmoaF) 4.186 x 10-5 J/(kgoOC)
Appendix A Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

B: 1
Appendix B-1: Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation

Specific Volume, ft311b Enthalpy, Btullb Entropy, Btullb·oF
Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
Absolute Pressure p SolidILiq. Evap. Vapor SolidILiq. Evap. Vapor SolidILiq. Evap. Vapor Temp.,
Temp.
t, of psi in.Hg Vg hi h jg hg si Sig Sg of
vi Vig
-80 0.000116 0.000236 0.01732 1953234 1953234 -193.50 1219.19 1025.69 -0.4067 3.2112 2.8045 -80
-79 0.000125 0.000254 0.01732 1814052 1814052 -193.11 1219.24 1026.13 -0.4056 3.2029 2.7972 -79
-78 0.000135 0.000275 0.01732 1685445 1685445 -192.71 1219.28 1026.57 -0.4046 3.1946 2.7900 -78
-77 0.000145 0.000296 0.01732 1566663 1566663 -192.31 1219.33 1027.02 -0.4036 3.1964 2.7828 -77
-76 0.000157 0.000319 0.01732 1456752 1456752 -191.92 1219.38 1027.46 -0.4025 3.1782 2.7757 -76
-75 0.000169 0.000344 0.01733 1355059 1355059 -191.52 1219.42 1027.90 -0.4015 3.1701 2.7685 -75
t
-74 0.000182 0.000371 0.01733 1260977 1260977 -191.12 1219.47 1028.34 -0.4005 3.1619 2.7615 -74
-73 0.000196 0.000399 0.01733 1173848 1173848 -190.72 1219.51 1028.79 -0.3994 3.1539 2.7544 -73
-72 0.000211 0.000430 0.01733 1093149 1093149 -190.32 1219.55 1029.23 -0.3984 3.1459 2.7475 -72
pe
-71 0.000227 0.000463 0.01733 1018381 1018381 -189.92 1219.59 1029.67 -0.3974 3.1379 2.7405 -71
-70 0.000245 0.000498 0.01733 949067 949067 -189.52 1219.63 1030.11 -0.3963 3.1299 2.7336 -70
-69 0.000263 0.000536 0.01733 884803 884803 -189.11 1219.67 1030.55 -0.3953 3.1220 2.7267 -69
-68 0.000283 0.000576 0.01733 825187 825187 -188.71 1219.71 1031.00 -0.3943 3.1141 2.7199 -68
-67 0.000304 0.000619 0.01734 769864 769864 -188.30 1219.74 1031.44 -0.3932 3.1063 2.7131 -67
-66 0.000326 0.000664 0.01734 718508 718508 -187.90 1219.78 1031.88 -0.3922 3.0985 2.7063 -66
-65 0.000350 0.000714 0.01734 670800 670800 -187.49 1219.82 1032.32 -0.3912 3.0907 2.6996 -65
-64 0.000376 0.000766 0.01734 626503 626503 -187.08 1219.85 1032.77 -0.3901 3.0830 2.6929 -64
-63 0.000404 0.000822 0.01734 585316 585316 -186.67 1219.88 1033.21 -0.3891 3.0753 2.6862 -63
-62 0.000433 0.000882 0.01734 548041 547041 -186.26 1219.91 1033.65 -0.3881 3.0677 2.6730 -62
0.000945 0.01734 511446 511446 -185.85 1219.95 1034.09 -0.3870 3.0601 2.6730 -61
-61
-60
-59
-58
-57
-56
-55
-54
-53
-52
Eg
0.000464
0.000498
0.000533
0.000571
0.000612
0.000655
0.000701
0.000750
0.000802
0.000857
0.001013
0.001086
0.001163
0.001246
0.001333
0.001427
0.001526
0.001632
0.001745
0.01734
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
0.01735
478317
447495
418803
392068
367172
343970
322336
302157
283335
478317
447495
418803
392068
367172
343970
322336
302157
283335
-185.44
-185.03
-184.61
-184.20
-183.78
-183.37
-182.95
-182.53
-182.11
1219.98
1220.01
1220.03
1220.06
1220.09
1220.11
1220.14
1220.16
1220.18
1034.54
1034.98
1035.42
1035.86
1036.30
1036.75
1037.19
1037.63
1038.07
-0.3860
-0.3850
-0.3839
-0.3829
-0.3819
-0.3808
-0.3798
-0.3788
-0.3778
3.0525
3.0449
3.0374
3.0299
3.0225
3.0151
3.0077
3.0004
2.9931
2.6665
2.6600
2.6535
2.6470
2.6406
2.6342
2.6279
2.6216
2.6153
-60
-59
-58
-57
-56
-55
-54
-53
-52
-51
-51 0.000916 0.001865 0.01736 265773 265773 -181.69 1220.21 1038.52 -0.3767 2.9858 2.6091
-50 0.000979 0.001992 0.01736 249381 249381 -181.27 1220.23 1038.96 -0.3757 2.9786 2.6029 -50
up
-49 0.001045 0.002128 0.01736 234067 234067 -180.85 1220.25 1039.40 -0.3747 2.9714 2.5967 -49
-48 0.001116 0.002272 0.01736 219766 219766 -180.42 1220.26 1039.84 -0.3736 2.9642 2.5906 -48
-47 0.001191 0.002425 0.01736 206398 206398 -180.00 1220.28 1040.28 -0.3726 2.9570 2.5844 -47
-46 0.001271 0.002587 0.01736 193909 193909 -179.57 1220.30 1040.73 -0.3716 2.9499 2.5784 -46
-45 0.001355 0.002760 0.01736 182231 182231 -179.14 1220.31 1041.17 -0.3705 2.9429 2.5723 -45
-44 0.001445 0.002943 0.01736 171304 171304 -178.72 1220.33 1041.61 -0.3695 2.9358 2.5663 -44
-43 0.001541 0.003137 0.01737 161084 161084 -178.79 1220.34 1042.05 -0.3685 2.9288 2.5603 -43
-42 0.001642 0.003343 0.01737 151518 151518 -177.86 1220.36 1042.50 -0.3675 2.9218 2.5544 -42
-41 0.001749 0.003562 0.01737 142566 142566 -177.43 1220.37 1042.94 -0.3664 2.9149 2.5485 -41
-40 0.001863 0.003793 0.01737 134176 134176 -177.00 1220.38 1043.38 -0.3654 2.9080 2.5426 -40
-39 0.001984 0.004039 0.01737 126322 126322 -176.57 1220.39 1043.82 -0.3644 2.9011 2.5367 -39
ro
-38 0.002111 0.004299 0.01737 118959 118959 -176.13 1220.40 1044.27 -0.3633 2.8942 2.5309 -38
-37 0.002247 0.004574 0.01737 112058 112058 -175.70 1220.40 1044.71 -0.3623 2.8874 2.5251 -37
-36 0.002390 0.004866 0.01738 105592 105592 -175.26 1220.41 1045.15 -0.3613 2.8806 2.5193 -36
-35 0.002542 0.005175 0.01738 99522 99522 -174.83 1220.42 1045.59 -0.3603 2.8738 2.5136 -35
-34 0.002702 0.005502 0.01738 93828 93828 -174.39 1220.42 1046.03 -0.3592 2.8671 2.5078 -34
-33 0.002872 0.005848 0.01738 88489 88489 -173.95 1220.43 1046.48 -0.3582 2.8604 2.5022 -33
-32 0.003052 0.006213 0.01738 83474 83474 -173.51 1220.43 1046.92 -0.3572 2.8537 2.4965 -32
-31 0.003242 0.006600 0.01738 78763 78763 -173.07 1220.43 1047.36 -0.3561 2.8470 2.4909 -31
G
-30 0.003443 0.007009 0.01738 74341 74341 -172.63 1220.43 1047.80 -0.3551 2.8404 2.4853 -30
-29 0.003655 0.007441 0.01738 70187 70187 -172.19 1220.43 1048.25 -0.3541 2.8338 2.4797 -29
-28 0.003879 0.007898 0.01739 66282 66282 -171.74 1220.43 1048.69 -0.3531 2.8272 2.4742 -28
-27 0.004116 0.008380 0.01739 62613 62613 -171.30 1220.43 1049.13 -0.3520 2.8207 2.4687 -27
-26 0.004366 0.008890 0.01739 59161 59161 -170.86 1220.43 1049.57 -0.3510 2.8142 2.4632 -26
-25 0.004630 0.009428 0.01739 55915 55915 -170.41 1220.42 1050.01 -0.3500 2.8077 2.4577 -25
-24 0.004909 0.009995 0.01739 52861 52861 -169.96 1220.42 1050.46 -0.3489 2.8013 2.4523 -24
-23 0.005203 0.010594 0.01739 49986 49986 -169.51 1220.41 1050.90 -0.3479 2.7948 2.4469 -23
-22 0.005514 0.011226 0.01739 47281 47281 -169.07 1220.41 1051.34 -0.3469 2.7884 2.4415 -22
-21 0.005841 0.011892 0.01740 44733 44733 -168.62 1220.40 1051.78 -0.3459 2.7820 2.4362 -21
-20 0.006186 0.012595 0.01740 42333 42333 -168.16 1220.39 1052.22 -0.3448 2.7757 2.4309 -20
-19 0.006550 0.013336 0.01740 40073 40073 -167.71 1220.38 1052.67 -0.3438 2.7694 2.4256 -19
-18 0.006933 0.014117 0.01740 37943 37943 -167.26 1220.37 1053.11 -0.3428 2.7631 2.4203 -18
-17 0.007337 0.014939 0.01740 35934 35934 -166.81 1220.36 1053.55 -0.3418 2.7568 2.4151 -17
-16 0.007763 0.015806 0.01740 34041 34041 -166.35 1220.34 1053.99 -0.3407 2.7506 2.4098 -16
-15 0.008211 0.016718 0.01740 32256 32256 -165.90 1220.33 1054.43 -0.3397 2.7444 2.4046 -15
-14 0.008683 0.017678 0.01741 30572 30572 -165.44 1220.31 1054.87 -0.3387 2.7382 2.3995 -14
Fundamentals ofTllermot/ynamics and Psycllrometries AppendixB

8:2
Specific Volume, ft3IIb Entbalpy, BtulIb Entropy, BtulIb·OF
Temp. Absolute Pressure p
SolidILiq. Evap. Vapor SolidILiq. Evap. Vapor SolidILiq. Evap. Vapor Temp.,
t, of psi in.Hg vi Vig Vg hi hig hg si Sig Sg of
-13 0.009179 0.018689 0.01741 28983 28983 -164.98 1220.30 1055.32 -0.3377 2.7320 2.3943 -13
-12 0.009702 0.019753 0.01741 27483 27483 -164.52 1220.28 1055.76 -0.3366 2.7259 2.3892 -12
-11 0.010252 0.020873 0.01741 26067 26067 -164.06 1220.26 1056.20 -0.3356 2.7197 2.3841 -II
-10 0.010830 0.022050 0.01741 24730 24730 -163.60 1220.24 1056.64 -0.3346 2.7136 2.3791 -10
-9 0.011438 0.023288 0.01741 23467 23467 -163.14 1220.22 1057.08 -0.3335 2.7076 2.3740 -9
-8 0.012077 0.024590 0.01741 22274 22274 -162.68 1220.20 1057.53 -0.3325 2.7015 2.3690 -8
-7 0.012749 0.025958 0.01742 21147 21147 -162.21 1220.18 1057.97 -0.3315 2.6955 2.3640 -7
-6 0.013456 0.027396 0.01742 20081 20081 -162.75 1220.16 1058.41 -0.3305 2.6895 2.3591 -6
-5 0.014197 0.028906 0.01742 19074 19074 -161.28 1220.13 1058.85 -0.3294 2.6836 2.3541 -5
t
-4 0.014977 0.030493 0.01742 18121 18121 -160.82 1220.11 1059.29 -0.3284 2.6776 2.3492 -4
-3 0.015795 0.032159 0.01742 17220 17220 -160.35 1220.08 1059.73 -0.3274 2.6717 2.3443 -3
-2 0.016654 0.033908 0.01742 16367 16367 -159.88 1220.05 1060.17 -0.3264 2.6658 2.3394 -2
pe
-I 0.017556 0.035744 0.01742 15561 15561 -159.41 1220.02 1060.62 -0.3253 2.6599 2.3346 -I
0 0.018502 0.037671 0.01743 14797 14797 -158.94 1220.00 1061.06 -0.3243 2.6541 2.3298 0
I 0.019495 0.039693 0.01743 14073 14073 -158.47 1219.96 1061.50 -0.3233 2.6482 2.3249 I
2 0.020537 0.041813 0.01743 13388 13388 -157.99 1219.93 1061.94 -0.3223 2.6424 2.3202 2
3 0.021629 0.044037 0.01743 12740 12740 -157.52 12J9.90 1062.38 -0.3212 2.6367 2.3154 3
4 0.022774 0.046369 0.01743 12125 12125 -157.05 1219.87 1062.82 -0.3202 2.6309 2.3107 4
5 0.023975 0.048813 0.01743 11543 11543 -156.57 1219.83 1063.26 -0.3192 2.6252 2.3060 5
6 0.025233 0.051375 0.01743 10991 10991 -156.09 1219.80 1063.70 -0.3182 2.6194 2.3013 6
7 0.026552 0.054059 0.01744 10468 10468 -155.62 1219.76 1064.14 -0.3171 2.6138 2.2966 7
8 0.027933 0.056872 0.01744 9971 9971 -155.14 1219.72 1064.58 -0.3161 2.6081 2.2920 8
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
9 0.029379
0.030894
0.032480
0.034140
0.035878
0.037696
0.039597
0.041586
0.043666
0.045841
Eg
0.059817
0.062901
0.066131
0.069511
0.073047
0.076748
0.080621
0.084671
0.088905
0.093332
0.01744
0.01744
0.01744
0.01744
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
0.01745
9500
9054
8630
8228
7846
7483
7139
6811
6501
6205
9500
9054
8630
8228
7846
7483
7139
6811
6501
6205
-154.66
-154.18
-153.70
-153.21
-152.73
-152.24
-151.76
-151.27
-150.78
-150.30
-1219.68 -1065.03
1219.64
1219.60
1219.56
1219.52
1219.47
1219.43
1219.38
1219.33
1219.28
1065.47
1065.91
1066.35
1066.79
1067.23
1067.67
1068.11
1068.55
1068.99
-0.3151
-0.3141
-0.3130
-0.3120
-0.3110
-0.3100
-0.3089
-0.3079
-0.3069
-0.3059
-2.6024
2.5968
2.5912
2.5856
2.5801
2.5745
2.5690
2.5635
2.5580
2.5526
-2.2873
2.2827
2.2782
2.2736
2.2691
2.2645
2.2600
2.2556
2.2511
2.2467
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 0.048113 0.097960 0.01745 5924 5924 -149.81 1219.23 1069.43 -0.3049 2.5471 2.2423 19
20 0.050489 0.102796 0.01746
up
5657 5657 -149.32 1219.18 1069.87 -0.3038 2.5417 2.2379 20
21 0.052970 0.107849 0.01746 5404 5404 -148.82 1219.13 1070.31 -0.3028 2.5363 2.2335 21
22 0.055563 0.113128 0.01746 5162 5162 -148.33 1219.08 1070.75 -0.3018 2.5309 2.2292 22
23 0.058271 0.118641 0.01746 4932 4932 -147.84 1219.02 1071.19 -0.3008 2.5256 2.2248 23
24 0.061099 0.124398 0.01746 4714 4714 -147.34 1218.97 1071.63 -0.2997 2.5203 2.2205 24
25 0.064051 0.130408 0.01746 4506 4506 -146.85 1218.91 1072.07 -0.2987 2.5149 2.2162 25
26 0.067133 0.136684 0.01747 4308 4308 -146.35 1218.85 1072.50 -0.2977 2.5096 2.2119 26
27 0.070349 0.143233 0.01747 4119 4119 -145.85 1218.80 1072.94 -0.2967 2.5044 2.2077 27
28 0.073706 0.150066 0.01747 3940 3940 -145.35 1218.74 1073.38 -0.2956 2.4991 2.2035 28
29 0.077207 0.157195 0.01747 3769 3769 -144.85 1218.68 1073.82 -0.2946 2.4939 2.1992 29
30 0.080860 0.164632 0.01747 3606 3606 -144.35 1218.61 1074.26 -0.2936 2.4886 2.1951 30
ro
31 0.084669 0.172387 0.01747 3450 3450 -143.85 1218.55 1074.70 -0.2926 2.4834 2.1909 31
32 0.088640 0.180474 0.01747 3302 3302 -143.35 1218.49 1075.14 -0.2915 2.4783 2.1867 32
32* 0.08865 0.18049 0.01602 3302.07 3302.09 -0.02 1075.15 1075.14 0.0000 2.1867 2.1867 32
33 0.09229 0.18791 0.01602 3178.15 3178.16 0.99 1074.59 1075.58 0.0020 2.1811 2.1832 33
34 0.09607 0.19559 0.01602 3059.47 3059.49 2.00 1074.02 1076.01 0.0041 2.1756 2.1796 34
35 0.09998 0.20355 0.01602 2945.66 2945.68 3.00 1073.45 1076.45 0.0061 2.1700 2.1761 35
36 0.10403 0.21180 0.01602 2836.60 2836.61 4.01 1072.88 1076.89 0.0081 2.1645 2.1726 36
37 0.10822 0.22035 0.01602 2732.13 2732.15 5.02 1072.32 1077.33 0.0102 2.1590 2.1692 37
38 0.11257 0.22919 0.01602 2631.88 2631.89 6.02 1071.75 1077.77 0.0122 2.1535 2.1657 38
39 0.11707 0.23835 0.01602 2535.86 2535.88 7.03 1071.18 1078.21 0.0142 2.1481 2.1623 39
G
40 0.12172 0.24783 0.01602 2443.67 2443.69 8.03 1070.62 1078.65 0.0162 2.1426 2.1589 40
41 0.12654 0.25765 0.01602 . 2355.22 2355.24 9.04 1070.05 1079.09 0.0182 2.1372 2.1554 4J
42 0.13153 0.26780 0.01602 2270.42 2270.43 10.04 1069.48 1079.52 0.0202 2.1318 2.1521 42
43 0.13669 0.27831 0.01602 2189.02 2189.04 11.04 1068.92 1079.96 0.0222 2.1265 2.1487 43
44 0.14203 0.28918 0.01602 2110.92 2110.94 12.05 1068.35 1080.40 0.0242 2.1211 2.1454 44
45 0.14755 0.30042 0.01602 2035.91 2035.92 13.05 1067.79 1080.84 0.0262 2.1158 2.1420 45
46 0.15326 0.31205 0.01602 1963.85 1963.87 14.05 1067.22 1081.28 0.0282 2.1105 2.1387 46
47 0.15917 0.32407 0.01602 1894.71 1894.73 15.06 1066.66 1081.71 0.0302 2.1052 2.1354 47
48 0.16527 0.33650 0.01602 1828.28 1828.30 16.06 1066.09 1082.15 0.0321 2.1000 2.1321 48
49 0.17158 0.34935 0.01602 1764.44 1764.46 17.06 1065.53 1082.59 0.0341 2.0947 2.1288 49
50 0.17811 0.36263 0.01602 1703.18 1703.20 18.06 1064.96 1083.03 0.0361 2.0895 2.1256 50
51 0.18484 0.37635 0.01602 1644.25 1644.26 19.06 1064.40 1083.46 0.0381 2.0843 2.1224 51
52 0.19181 0.39053 0.01603 1587.64 1587.65 20.07 1063.83 1083.90 0.0400 2.0791 2.1191 52
*Extrapolated to represent metastable equilibrium with undercooled liquid.
AppendixB Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycilrometrics

B: 3
Specific Volume, ft31lb Enthalpy, Btullb Entropy, Btullb·oF

Temp.
t, of in.Hg of
psi vi Vig Vg hi hig hg si Sig Sg
53 0.19900 0.40516 0.01603 1533.22 1533.24 21.07 1063.27 1084.34 0.0420 2.0740 2. \159 53
54 0.20643 0.42029 0.01603 1480.89 1480.91 22.07 1062.71 1084.77 0.0439 2.0689 2.1128 54
55 0.21410 0.43591 0.01603 1430.61 1430.62 23.07 1062.14 1085.21 0.0459 2.0637 2.1096 55
56 0.22202 0.45204 0.01603 1382.19 1382.21 24.07 1061.58 1085.65 0.0478 2.0586 2,1064 56
57 0.23020 0.46869 0.01603 1335.65 1335.67 25.07 1061.01 1086.08 0.0497 2.0536 2.1033 57
58 0.23864 0.48588 0.01603 1290.85 1290.87 26.07 1060.45 1086.52 0.0517 2.0485 2.0002 58
59 0.24735 0.50362 0.01603 1247.76 1247.78 27.07 1059.89 1086.96 0.0536 2.0435 2.0971 59
t
60 0.25635 0.52192 0.01604 1206.30 1206.32 28.07 1059.32 1087.39 0.0555 2.0385 2.0940 60
61 0.26562 0.54081 0.01604 1166.38 1166.40 29.07 1058.76 1087.83 0.0575 2.0334 2.0909 61
1127.93 1127.95 30.07 1058.19 1088.27 0.0594 2.0285 2.0878 62
pe
62 0.27519 0.56029 0.01604
63 0.28506 0.58039 0.01604 1090.94 1090.96 31.07 1057.63 1088.70 0.0613 2.0235 2.0848 63
64 0.29524 0.60\12 0.01604 1055.32 1055.33 32.07 1057.07 1089.14 0.0632 2.0186 2.0818 64
65 0.30574 0.62249 0.01604 1020.98 1021.00 33.07 1056.50 1089.57 0.0651 2.0136 2.0787 65
66 0.31656 0.64452 0.01604 987.95 987.97 34.07 1055.94 1090.01 0.0670 2.0087 2.0758 66
67 0.32772 0.66724 0.01605 956.11 956.12 35.07 1055.37 1090.44 0.0689 2.0039 2.0728 67
68 0.33921 0.69065 0.01605 925.44 925.45 36.07 1054.81 1090.88 0.0708 1.9990 2.0698 68
69 0.35107 0.71478 0.01605 895.86 895.87 37.07 1054.24 1091.31 0.0727 1.9941 2.0668 69
70 0.36328 0.73964 0.01605 867.34 867.36 38.07 1053.68 1091.75 0.0746 1.9893 2.0639 70
71 0.37586 0.76526 0.01605 839.87 839.88 39.07 1053.11 1092.18 0.0765 1.9845 2.0610 71
72 0.38882 0.79164 0.01606 813.37 813.39 40.07 1052.55 1092.61 0.0783 1.9797 2.0580 72
0.81883 0.01606 787.85 787.87 41.07 1051.98 1093.05 0.0802 1.9749 2.0552 73
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Eg
0.40217
0.41592
0.43008
0.44465
0.45966
0.47510
0.49100
0.50736
0.52419
0.54150
0.84682
0.87564
0.90532
0.93587
0.96732
0.99968
1.03298
1.06725
1.10250
0.01606
0.01606
0.01606
0.01607
0.01607
0.01607
0.01607
0.01608
0.01608
763.19
739.42
716.51
694.38
673.05
652.44
632.54
613.35
594.82
763.21
739.44
726.53
794.40
673.06
652.46
632.56
613.37
594.84
576.92
42.06
43.06
44.06
45.06
46.06
47.06
48.06
49.06
50.05
51.05
1051.42
1050.85
1050.29
1049.72
1049.16
1048.59
1048.03
1047.46
1046.89
1046.33
1093.48
1093.92
1094.35
1094.78
1095.22
1095.65
1096.08
1096.51
1096.95
1097.38
0.0821
0.0840
0.0858
0.0877
0.0896
0.0914
0.0933
0.0951
0.0970
0.0988
1.9702
1.9654
1.9607
1.9560
1.9513
1.9466
1.9420
1.9373
1.9327
1.9281
2.0523
2.0494
2.0465
2.0437
2.0409
2.0380
2.0352
2.0324
2.0297
2.0269
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
83 0.55931 1.13877 0.01608 576.90
84 0.57763 1.17606 0.01608 559.63 559.65 52.05 1045.76 1097.81 0.1006 1.9235 2.0242 84
85 0.59647 1.21442 0.01609 542.93 542.94 53.05 1045.19 1098.24 0.1025 1.9189 2.0214 85
up
86 0.61584 1.25385 0.01609 526.80 526.81 54.05 1044.63 1098.67 0.1043 1.9144 2.0187 86
87 0.63575 1.29440 0.01609 511.21 511.22 55.05 1044.06 1099.11 0.1061 1.9098 2.0160 87
88 0.65622 1.33608 0.01609 496.14 496.15 56.05 1043.49 1099.54 0.1080 1.9053 2.0133 88
89 0.67726 1.37892 0.01610 481.60 481.61 57.04 1042.92 1099.97 0.1098 1.9008 2.0106 89
90 0.69889 1.42295 0.01610 467.52 467.53 58.04 1042.36 1100.40 0.1 \16 1.8963 2.0079 90
91 0.72111 1.46820 0.01610 453.91 453.93 59.04 1041.79 1100.83 0.1134 1.8918 2.0053 91
92 0.74394 1.51468 0.01611 440.76 440.78 60.04 1041.22 1101.26 0.1152 1.8874 2.0026 92
93 0.76740 1.56244 0.01611 428.04 428.06 61.04 1040.65 1101.69 0.1170 1.8829 2.0000 93
94 0.79150 1.61151 0.01611 415.74 415.76 62.04 1040.08 1102.12 0.1188 1.8785 1.9973 94
95 0.81625 1.66189 0.01612 403.84 403.86 63.03 1039.51 1102.55 0.1206 1.8741 1.9947 95
96 0.84166 1.71364 0.01612 392.33 392.34 64.03 1038.95 1102.98 0.1224 1.8697 1.9921 96
ro
97 0.86776 1.76678 0.01612 381.20 381.21 65.03 1038.38 1103.41 0.1242 1.8653 1.9895 97
98 0.89456 1.82134 0.01612 370.42 370.44 66.03 1037.81 1103.84 0.1260 1.8610 1.9870 98
99 0.92207 1.87736 0.01613 359.99 360.01 67.03 1037.24 1104.26 0.1278 1.8566 1.9844 99
100 0.95031 1.93485 0.01613 349.91 349.92 68.03 1036.67 1104.69 0.1296 1.8523 1.9819 100
101 0.97930 1.99387 0.01613 340.14 340.15 69.03 1036.10 1105.12 0.1314 1.8479 1.9793 101
102 1.00904 2.05443 0.01614 330.69 330.71 70.02 1035.53 1105.55 0.1332 1.8436 1.9768 102
103 1.03956 2.11667 0.01614 321.53 321.55 71.02 1034.95 1105.98 0.1349 1.8393 1.9743 103
104 1.07088 2.18034 0.01614 312.67 312.69 72.02 1034.38 1106.40 0.1367 1.8351 1.9718 104
304.10 73.02 1033.81 1106.83 0.1385 1.8308 1.9693 105
G
105 1.10301 2.24575 0.01615 304.08

106 1.13597 2.31285 0.01615 295.76 295.77 74.02 1033.24 1107.26 0.1402 1.8266 1.9668 106
107 1.16977 2.38168 0.01616 287.71 287.73 75.01 1032.67 1107.68 0.1420 1.8223 1.9643 107
108 1.20444 2.45226 0.01616 279.91 279.92 76.01 1032.10 1108.11 0.1438 1.8181 1.9619 108
109 1.23999 2.52464 0.01616 272.34 272.36 77.01 1031.52 1108.54 0.1455 1.8139 1.9594 109
110 1.27644 2.59885 0.01617 265.02 265.03 78.01 1030.95 1108.96 0.1473 1.8097 1.9570 \10
III 1.31381 2.67494 0.01617 257.91 257.93 79.01 1030.38 1109.39 0.1490 1.8055 1.9546 111
112 1.35212 2.75293 0.01617 251.02 251.04 80.01 1029.80 1109.81 0.1508 1.8014 1.9521 112
113 1.39138 2.83288 0.01618 244.36 244.38 81.01 1029.23 1110.24 0.1525 1.7972 1.9497 113
114 1.43162 2.91481 0.01618 237.89 237.90 82.00 1028.66 \110.66 0.1543 1.7931 1.9474 114
\15 1.47286 2.99878 0.01619 231.62 231.63 83.00 1028.08 1111.09 0.1560 1.7890 1.9450 115
116 1.51512 3.08481 0.01619 225.53 225.55 84.00 1027.51 1111.51 0.1577 1.7849 1.9426 116
117 1.55842 3.17296 0.01619 219.63 219.65 85.00 1026.93 \111.93 0.1595 1.7808 1.9402 117
118 1.60277 3.26327 0.01620 213.91 213.93 86.00 1026.36 1112.36 0.1612 1.7767 1.9379 118
119 1.64820 3.35577 0.01620 208.36 208.37 87.00 1025.78 1112.78 0.1629 1.7726 1.9356 119
120 1.69474 3.45052 0.01620 202.98 202.99 88.00 1025.20 1113.20 0.1647 1.7686 1.9332 120
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries AppendixB

8:4
Specific Volume, ft31lb Enthalpy, Btullb Entropy, Btullb·oF

Temp.
t, of psi in.Hg Vi Vig Vg hi h ig hg si Sig Sg of
121 1.74240 3.54755 0.01621 197.76 197.76 89.00 1024.63 1113.62 0.1664 1.7645 1.9309 121
122 1.79117 3.64691 0.01621 192.69 192.69 90.00 1024.05 1114.05 0.1681 1.7605 1.9286 122
123 1.84117 3.74863 0.01622 187.78 187.78 90.99 1023.47 1114.47 0.1698 1.7565 1.9263 123
124 1.89233 3.85282 0.01622 182.98 182.99 91.99 1022.90 1114.89 0.1715 1.7525 1.9240 124
125 1.94470 3.95945 0.01623 178.34 178.36 92.99 1022.32 1115.31 0.1732 1.7485 1.9217 125
126 1.99831 4.06860 0.01623 173.85 173.86 93.99 1021.74 1115.73 0.1749 1.7445 1.9195 126
127 2.05318 4.18032 0.01623 169.47 169.49 94.99 1021.16 1I16.15 0.1766 1.7406 1.9172 127
128 2.10934 4.29465 0.01624 165.23 165.25 95.99 1020.58 1116.57 0.1783 1.7366 1.9150 128
t
129 2.16680 4.41165 0.01624 161.11 161.12 96.99 1020.00 II 16.99 0.1800 1.7327 1.9127 129
130 2.22560 4.53136 0.01625 157.11 157.12 97.99 1019.42 1117.41 0.1817 1.7288 1.9105 130
pe
131 2.28576 4.65384 0.01625 153.22 153.23 98.99 1018.84 II 17.83 0.1834 1.7249 1.9083 131
132 2.34730 4.77914 0.01626 149.44 149.46 99.99 1018.26 II 18.25 0.1851 1.7210 1.9061 132
133 2.41025 4.90730 0.01626 145.77 145.78 100.99 1017.68 1118.67 0.1868 1.7171 1.9039 133
134 2.47463 5.03839 0.01627 142.21 142.23 101.99 1017.10 1119.08 0.1885 1.7132 1.9017 134
135 2.54048 5.17246 0.01627 138.74 138.76 102.99 1016.52 1119.50 0.1902 1.7093 1.8995 135
136 2.60782 5.30956 0.01627 135.37 135.39 103.98 1015.93 11I9.92 0.1919 1.7055 1.8974 136
137 2.67667 5.44975 0.01628 132.10 132.12 104.98 1015.35 1120.34 0.1935 1.7017 1.8952 137
138 2.74707 5.59308 0.01628 128.92 128.94 105.98 1014.77 1120.75 0.1952 1.6978 1.8930 138
139 2.81903 5.73961 0.01629 125.83 125.85 106.98 1014.18 1121.17 0.1969 1.6940 1.8909 139
140 2.89260 5.88939 0.01629 122.82 122.84 107.98 1013.60 1121.58 0.1985 1.6902 1.8888 140
141 2.96780 6.04250 0.01630 119.90 II 9.92 108.98 1013.01 1122.00 0.2002 1.6864 1.8867 141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
3.04465
3.12320
3.20345
3.28546
3.36924
3.45483
3.54226
3.63156
3.72277
3.81591
Eg
6.19897
6.35888
6.52229
6.68926
6.85984
7.03410
7.21211
7.39393
7.57962
7.76925
0.01630
0.01631
0.01631
0.01632
0.01632
0.01633
0.01633
0.01634
0.01634
0.01635
117.05
114.29
111.60
108.99
106.44
103.96
101.55
99.21
96.93
94.70
II 7.07
114.31
II 1.62
109.00
106.45
103.98
101.57
99.22
96.94
94.72
109.98
110.98
111.98
112.98
113.98
114.98
115.98
116.98
117.98
118.99
1012.43
1011.84
1011.26
1010.67
1010.09
1009.50
1008.91
1008.32
1007.73
1007.14
1122.41
1122.83
1123.24
1123.66
1124.07
1124.48
1124.89
1125.31
1125.72
1126.13
0.2019
0.2035
0.2052
0.2068
0.2085
0.2101
0.2118
0.2134
0.2151
0.2167
1.6827
1.6789
1.6752
1.6714
1.6677
1.6640
1.6603
1.6566
1.6529
1.6492
1.8845
1.8824
1.8803
1.8783
1.8762
1.8741
1.8721
1.8700
1.8680
1.8659
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152 3.91101 7.96289 0.01635 92.54 92.56 119.99 1006.55 1126.54 0.2184 1.6455 1.8639 152
153 4.00812 8.16061 0.01636 90.44 90.46 120.99 1005.96 1126.95 0.2200 1.6419 1.8619 153
154 4.10727 8.36247 0.01636 88.39 88.41 121.99 1005.37 1127.36 0.2216 1.6383 1.8599 154
up
155 4.20848 8.56854 0.01637 86.40 86.41 122.99 1004.78 1127.77 0.2233 1.6346 1.8579 155
156 4.31180 8.77890 0.01637 84.45 84.47 123.99 1004.19 1128.18 0.2249 1.6310 1.8559 156
157 4.41725 8.99360 0.01638 82.56 82.58 124.99 1003.60 1128.59 0.2265 1.6274 1.8539 157
158 4.52488 9.21274 0.01638 80.72 80.73 125.99 1003.00 1128.99 0.2281 1.6238 1.8519 158
159 4.63472 9.43637 0.01639 78.92 78.94 126.99 1002.41 1129.40 0.2297 1.6202 1.8500 159
160 4.7468 9.6646 0.01639 77.175 77.192 127.99 1001.82 1129.81 0.2314 1.6167 1.8480 160
161 4.8612 9.8974 0.01640 75.471 75.488 128.99 1001.22 1130.22 0.2330 1.6131 1.8461 161
162 4.9778 10.1350 0.01640 73.812 73.829 130.00 1000.63 1130.62 0.2346 1.6095 1.8441 162
163 5.0969 10.3774 0.01641 72.196 72.213 131.00 1000.03 1131.03 0.2362 1.6060 1.8422 163
164 5.2183 10.6246 0.01642 70.619 70.636 132.00 999.43 1131.43 0.2378 1.6025 1.8403 164
165 5.3422 10.8768 0.01642 69.084 69.101 133.00 998.84 1131.84 0.2394 1.5989 1.8383 165
ro
166 5.4685 11.1340 0.01643 67.587 67.604 134.00 998.24 1132.24 0.2410 1.5954 1.8364 166
167 5.5974 11.3963 0.01643 66.130 66.146 135.00 997.64 1132.64 0.2426 1.5919 1.8345 167
168 5.7287 11.6638 0.01644 64.707 64.723 136.01 997.04 1133.05 0.2442 1.5884 1.8326 168
169 5.8627 11.9366 0.01644 63.320 63.336 137.01 996.44 1133.45 0.2458 1.5850 1.8308 169
170 5.9993 12.2148 0.01645 61.969 61.986 138.01 995.84 1133.85 0.2474 1.5815 1.8289 170
171 6.1386 12.4983 0.01646 60.649 60.666 139.01 995.24 1134.25 0.2490 1.5780 1.8270 171
172 6.2806 12.7874 0.01646 59.363 59.380 140.oI 994.64 1134.66 0.2506 1.5746 1.8251 172
173 6.4253 13.0821 0.01647 58.112 58.128 141.02 994.04 1135.06 0.2521 1.5711 1.8233 173
174 6.5729 13.3825 0.01647 56.887 56.904 142.02 993.44 1135.46 0.2537 1.5677 1.8214 174
G
175 6.7232 13.6886 0.01648 55.694 55.711 143.02 992.83 1135.86 0.2553 1.5643 1.8196 175
176 6.8765 14.0006 0.01648 54.532 54.549 144.02 992.23 1136.26 0.2569 1.5609 1.8178 176
177 7.0327 14.3186 0.01649 53.397 53.414 145.03 991.63 1136.65 0.2585 1.5575 1.8159 177
178 7.1918 14.6426 0.01650 52.290 52.307 146.03 991.02 1137.05 0.2600 1.5541 1.8141 178
179 7.3539 14.9727 0.01650 51.210 51.226 147.03 990.42 1137.45 0.2616 1.5507 1.8123 179
180 7.5191 15.3091 0.01651 50.155 50.171 148.04 989.81 1137.85 0.2632 1.5473 1.8105 180
181 7.6874 15.6518 0.01651 49.126 49.143 149.04 989.20 1138.24 0.2647 1.5440 1.8087 181
182 7.8589 16.0008 0.01652 48.122 48.138 150.04 988.60 1138.64 0.2663 1.5406 1.8069 182
183 8.0335 16.3564 0.01653 47.142 47.158 151.05 987.99 1139.03 0.2679 1.5373 1.8051 183
184 8.2114 16.7185 0.01653 46.185 46.202 152.05 987.38 1139.43 0.2694 1.5339 1.8034 184
185 8.3926 17.0874 0.01654 45.251 45.267 153.05 986.77 1139.82 0.2710 1.5306 1.8016 185
186 8.5770 17.4630 0.01654 44.339 44.356 154.06 986.16 1140.22 0.2725 1.5273 1.7998 186
187 8.7649 17.8455 0.01655 43.448 43.465 155.06 985.55 1140.61 0.2741 1.5240 1.7981 187
188 8.9562 18.2350 0.01656 42.579 42.595 156.07 984.94 1141.00 0.2756 1.5207 1.7963 188
189 9.1510 18.6316 0.01656 41.730 41.746 157.07 984.32 1141.39 0.2772 1.5174 1.7946 189
AppendixB Fundamentals ofTilermodynamics and Psycllrometrics

B: 5
Specific Volume, ft 311b Enthalpy, Btullb Entropy, Btullb·oF

Temp.
t, of of
psi in.Hg vi Vig Vg hi h ig hg si Sig Sg
190 9.3493 19.0353 0.01657 40.901 40.918 158.07 983.71 1141.78 0.2787 1.5141 1.7929 190
191 9.5512 19.4464 0.01658 40.092 40.108 159.08 983.10 1142.18 0.2803 1.5109 1.7911 191
192 9.7567 19.8648 0.01658 39.301 39.317 160.08 982.48 1142.57 0.2818 1.5076 1.7894 192
193 9.9659 20.2907 0.01659 38.528 38.544 161.09 981.87 1142.95 0.2834 1.5043 1.7877 193
194 10.1788 20.7242 0.01659 37.774 37.790 162.09 981.25 1143.34 0.2849 1.5011 1.7860 194
195 10.3955 21.1653 0.01660 37.035 37.052 163.10 980.63 1143.73 0.2864 1.4979 1.7843 195
196 10.6160 21.6143 0.01661 36.314 36.331 164.10 980.02 1144.12 0.2880 1.4946 1.7826 196
35.628 165.11 979.40 1144.51 0.2895 1.4914 1.7809 197
t
197 10.8404 22.0712 0.01661 35.611
198 11.0687 22.5361 0.01662 34.923 34.940 166.11 978.78 1144.89 0.2910 1.4882 1.7792 198
199 11.3010 23.0091 0.01663 34.251 34.268 167.12 978.16 1145.28 0.2926 1.4850 1.7776 199
pe
200 11.5374 23.4904 0.01663 33.594 33.610 168.13 977.54 1145.66 0.2941 1.4818 1.7759 200
201 11.7779 23.9800 0.01664 32.951 32.968 169.13 976.92 1146.05 0.2956 1.4786 1.7742 201
202 12.0225 24.4780 0.01665 32.324 32.340 170.14 976.29 1146.43 0.2971 1.4755 1.7726 202
203 12.2713 24.9847 0.01665 31.710 31.726 171.14 975.67 1146.81 0.2986 1.4723 1.7709 203
204 12.5244 25.5000 0.01666 31.110 31.127 172.15 975.05 1147.20 0.3002 1.4691 1.7693 204
205 12.7819 26.0241 0.01667 30.523 30.540 173.16 974.42 1147.58 0.3017 1.4660 1.7677 205
206 13.0436 26.5571 0.01667 29.949 29.965 174.16 973.80 1147.96 0.3032 1.4628 1.7660 206
207 13.3099 27.0991 0.01668 29.388 29.404 175.17 973.17 1148.34 0.3047 1.4597 1.7644 207
208 13.5806 27.6503 0.01669 28.839 28.856 176.18 972.54 1148.72 0.3062 1.4566 1.7628 208
209 13.8558 28.2108 0.01669 28.303 28.319 177.18 971.92 1149.10 0.3077 1.4535 1.7612 209
210
212
214
216
218
220
222
224
226
228
Eg
14.1357
14.7096
15.3025
15.9152
16.5479
17.2013
17.8759
18.5721
19.2905
20.0316
28.7806
29.9489
31.1563
32.4036
33.6919
35.0218
36.3956
37.8131
39.2758
40.7848
0.01670
0.01671
0.01673
0.01674
0.01676
0.01677
0.01679
0.01680
0.01682
0.01683
27.778
26.763
25.790
24.861
23.970
23.118
22.299
21.516
20.765
20.045
27.795
26.780
25.807
24.878
. 23.987
23.134
22.316
21.533
20.782
20.062
178.19
180.20
182.22
184.24
186.25
188.27
190.29
192.31
194.33
196.35
971.29
970.03
968.76
967.50
966.23
964.95
963.67
962.39
961.11
959.82
1149.48
1150.23
1150.98
1151.73
1152.48
1153.22
1153.96
1154.70
1155.43
1156.16
0.3092
0.3122
0.3152
0.3182
0.3212
0.3241
0.3271
0.3301
0.3330
0.3359
1.4503
1.4442
1.4380
1.4319
1.4258
1.4197
1.4136
1.4076
1.4016
1.3957
1.7596
1.7564
1.7532
1.7501
1.7469
1.7438
1.7407
1.7377
1.7347
1.7316
210
212
214
216
218
220
222
224
226
228
230 20.7961 42.3412 0.01684 19.355 19.372 198.37 958.52 1156.89 0.3389 1.3898 1.7287 230
232 21.5843 43.9461 0.01686 18.692 18.709 200.39 957.22 1157.62 0.3418 1.3839 1.7257 232
up
234 22.3970 45.6006 0.01688 18.056 18.073 202.41 955.92 1158.34 0.3447 1.3780 1.7227 234
236 23.2345 47.3060 0.01689 17.446 17.463 204.44 954.62 1159.06 0.3476 1.3722 1.7198 236
238 24.0977 49.0633 0.01691 16.860 16.877 206.46 953.31 1159.77 0.3505 1.3664 1.7169 238
240 24.9869 50.8738 0.01692 16.298 16.314 208.49 952.00 1160.48 0.3534 1.3606 1.7140 240
242 25.9028 52.7386 0.01694 15.757 15.774 210.51 950.68 1161.19 0.3563 1.3548 1.7111 242
244 26.8461 54.6591 0.01695 15.238 15.255 212.54 949.35 1161.90 0.3592 1.3491 1.7083 244
246 27.8172 56.6364 0.01697 14.739 14.756 214.57 948.03 1162.60 0.3621 1.3434 1.7055 246
248 28.8169 58.6717 0.01698 14.259 14.276 216.60 946.70 1163.29 0.3649 1.3377 1.7026 248
250 29.8457 60.7664 0.01700 13.798 13.815 218.63 945.36 1163.99 0.3678 1.3321 1.6998 250
252 30.9043 62.9218 0.01702 13.355 13.372 220.66 944.02 1164.68 0.3706 1.3264 1.6971 252
254 31.9934 65.1391 0.01703 12.928 12.945 222.69 942.68 1165.37 0.3735 1.3208 1.6943 254
ro
256 33.1135 67.4197 0.01705 12.526 12.147 226.73 939.99 1166.72 0.3764 1.3153 1.6691 256
258 34.2653 69.7649 0.01707 12.123 12.140 226.76 939.97 1166.73 0.3792 1.3097 1.6889 258
260 35.4496 72.1760 0.01708 11.742 11.759 228.79 938.61 1167.40 0.3820 1.3042 1.6862 260
262 36.6669 74.6545 0.01710 11.376 11.393 230.83 937.25 1168.08 0.3848 1.2987 1.6835 262
264 37.9180 77.2017 0.01712 11.024 11.041 232.87 935.88 1168.74 0.3876 1.2932 1.6808 264
266 39.2035 79.8190 0.01714 10.684 10.701 234.90 934.50 1169.41 0.3904 1.2877 1.6781 266
268 40.5241 82.5078 0.01715 10.357 10.374 236.94 933.12 1170.Q7 0.3932 1.2823 1.6755 268
270 41.8806 85.2697 0.01717 10.042 10.059 238.98 931.74 1170.72 0.3960 1.2769 1.6729 270
G
272 43.2736 88.1059 0.01719 9.737 9.755 241.03 930.35 1171.38 0.3988 1.2715 1.6703 272
274 44.7040 91.0181 0.01721 9.445 9.462 243.07 928.95 1172.02 0.4016 1.2661 1.6677 274
276 46.1723 94.0076 0.01722 9.162 9.179 245.11 927.55 1172.67 0.4044 1.2608 1.6651 276
278 47.6794 97.0761 0.01724 8.890 8.907 247.16 926.15 1173.31 0.4071 1.2554 1.6626 278
280 49.2260 100.2250 0.01726 8.627 8.644 249.20 924.74 1173.94 0.4099 1.2501 1.6600 280
282 50.8128 103.4558 0.01728 8.373 8.390 251.25 923.32 1174.57 0.4127 1.2448 1.6575 282
284 52.4406 106.7701 0.01730 8.128 8.146 253.30 921.90 1175.20 0.4154 1.2396 1.6550 284
286 54.1103 110.1695 0.01731 7.892 7.910 255.35 920.47 1175.82 0.4182 1.2343 1.6525 286
55.8225 113.6556 0.01733 7.664 7.681 257.40 919.03 1176.44 0.4209 1.2291 1.6500 288
288
290 57.5780 117.2299 0.01735 7.444 7.461 259.45 917.59 1177.05 0.4236 1.2239 1.6476 290
59.3777 120.8941 0.01737 7.231 7.248 261.51 916.15 1177.66 0.4264 1.2187 1.6451 292
292
294 61.2224 124.6498 0.01739 7.026 7.043 263.56 914.69 1178.26 0.4291 1.2136 1.6427 294
296 63.1128 128.4987 0.01741 6.827 6.844 265.62 913.24 1178.86 0.4318 1.2084 1.6402 296
298 65.0498 132.4425 0.01743 6.635 6.652 267.68 911.77 1179.45 0.4345 1.2033 1.6378 298
67.0341 136.4827 0.01745 6.450 6.467 269.74 910.30 1180.04 0.4372 1.1982 1.6354 300
300
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometrics AppendixB

G
ro
up
Eg
pe
t
c: 1
Appendix C-l: R-22 Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor

Density, Volume, Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific Heat cp ' Velocity of Viscosity, Thermal Cond, Surface
Temp,· Pressure, Iblft3 •• 1
.,lIb Btullb _ _Btullb·OF
_ _ _ _ _ _Btullb·oF Sound,
_ _ _ _ cplc, -:-:-_ __ fils _ _ _
Ib.,lft·oF Btulh·ft·oF
"'-__- - _ _ _ _ _ _ Tension, Temp,.
of psia Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor dyne/cm OF
-250.00 107.37 -63.169 76.604 -0.21914 0.44952 0.1018 1.2914 395. -250.00
-240.00 106.41 -56.462 77.629 -0.18786 0.42332 0.1033 1.2860 403. -240.00
-230.00 105.48 -51.569 78.669 -0.16605 0.40101 0.1048 1.2807 411. 36.75 -230.00
-220.00 0.002 104.58 16805. -47.705 79.724 -0.14958 0.38211 0.1064 1.2754 419. 35.70 -220.00
-210.00 0.004 103.70 6982.6 -44.426 80.796 -0.13616 0.36538 0.1080 1.2703 427. 34.67 -210.00
-200.00 0.010 102.81 3151.5 -41.474 81.882 -0.12457 0.35048 0.1096 1.2653 435. 33.63 -200.00
-190.00 0.022 101.92 1527.4 -38.706 82.984 -0.11411 0.33715 0.1113 1.2604 442. 32.61 -190.00
t
-180.00 0.044 101.03 787.79 -36.038 84.100 -0.10439 0.32518 0.1130 1.2558 449. 31.59 -180.00
-170.00 0.084 100.12 429.22 -33.424 85.230 -0.09521 0.31441 0.1147 1.2515 456. 30.58 -170.00
-160.00 0.151 99.22 245.51 -30.839 86.373 -0.08644 0.30470 0.1165 1.2474 463. 29.57 -160.00
pe
-150.00 0.262 98.30 146.65 -28.269 87.528 -0.07800 0.29594 0.1183 1.2437 470. 28.57 -150.00
-140.00 0.435 97.38 91.059 -25.708 88.692 -0.06986 0.28801 0.1201 1.2403 476. 27.57 -140.00
-130.00 0.6% %.46 58.544 -23.150 89.864 -0.06198 0.28082 0.1221 1.2374 482. 26.59 -130.00
-120.00 1.080 95.53 38.833 -20.594 91.040 -0.05435 0.27430 0.2555 0.1241 1.2349 3483. 488. 25.61 -120.00
-110.00 1.626 94.60 26.494 -18.D38 92.218 -0.04694 0.26838 0.2555 0.1262 1.2329 3384. 494. 0.0765 24.64 -110.00
-100.00 2.384 93.66 18.540 -15.481 93.397 -0.03973 0.26298 0.2557 0.1285 1.2315 3290. 500. 0.0749 23.67 -100.00
-90.00 3.413 92.71 13.275 -12.921 94.572 -0.03271 0.25807 0.2561 0.1308 1.2307 3198. 505. 0.0734 0.00292 22.71 -90.00
-80.00 4.778 91.75 9.7044 -10.355 95.741 -0.02587 0.25357 0.2567 0.1334 1.2305 3110. 510. 0.0718 0.00315 21.76 -80.00
-70.00 6.555 90.79 7.2285 -7.783 %.901 -0.01919 0.24945 0.2574 0.1361 1.2310 3023. 514. 0.0703 0.00338 20.82 -70.00
-60.00 8.830 89.81 5.4766 -5.201 98.049 -0.01266 0.24567 0.2584 0.1389 1.2323 2937. 519. 0.0688 0.00360 19.89 -60.00
-50.00 11.6% 88.83 4.2138 -2.608 99.182 -0.00627 0.24220 0.25% 0.1420 1.2344 2852. 522. 0.0673 0.00382 18.% -50.00
-45.00
-41.44b
-40.00
-35.00
-30.00
13.383
14.6%
15.255
17.329
19.617
-25.00 22.136
-20.00 24.899
-15.00 27.924
-10.00 31.226
-5.00 34.821
Eg
88.33
87.97
87.82
87.32
86.81
86.29
85.77
85.25
84.72
84.18
3.7160 -1.306 99.742 -0.00312 0.24056 0.2604
3.4048 -0.377 100.138 -0.00090 0.23944 0.2609
3.2880 0.000 100.296 0.00000 0.23899 0.2611
2.9185 1.310 100.847 0.00309 0.23748 0.2620
2.5984 2.624 101.391 0.00616 0.23602 0.2629
2.3202
2.0774
1.8650
1.6784
1.5142
3.944
5.268
6.598
7.934
9.276
101.928
102.461
102.986
103.503
104.013
0.00920
0.01222
0.01521
0.01818
0.02113
0.1436
0.1448
0.1453
0.1471
0.1489
0.23462 0.2638 0.1507 1.2437
0.23327 0.2648 0.1527 1.2463
0.23197 0.2659 0.1547 1.2493
0.23071 0.2671 0.1567 1.2525
0.22949 0.2684 0.1589 1.2560
1.2358
1.2369
1.2374
1.2393
1.2414
2810.
2780.
2768.
2725.
2683.
2641.
2599.
2557.
2515.
2473.
524.
525.
526.
527.
529.
530.
531.
532.
533.
534.
0.0665
0.0660
0.0658
0.0651
0.0643
0.0636
0.0629
0.0622
0.0614
0.0607
0.00393
0.00401
0.00404
0.00414
0.00425
0.00435
0.00445
0.00456
0.00466
0.00476
18.50
18.18
18.05
17.59
17.14
16.69
16.24
15.79
-45.00
-41.44
-40.00
-35.00
-30.00
-25.00
-20.00
-15.00
-10.00
-5.00
0.00 38.726 83.64 1.3691 10.624 104.515 0.02406 0.22832 0.2697 0.1611 1.2599 2431. 535. 0.615 0.0268 0.0600 0.00486 0.00
5.00 42.960 83.09 1.2406 11.979 105.009 0.02697 0.22718 0.2710 0.1634 1.2641 2389. 535. 0.597 0.0271 0.0593 0.004% 5.00
up
10.00 47.538 82.54 1.1265 13.342 105.493 0.02987 0.22607 0.2725 0.1658 1.2687 2346. 535. 0.580 0.0274 0.0586 0.00506 10.00
15.00 52.480 81.98 1.0250 14.712 105.%8 0.03275 0.22500 0.2740 0.1683 1.2737 2304. 536. 0.563 0.0276 0.0579 0.00516 15.00
20.00 57.803 81.41 0.9343 16.090 106.434 0.03561 0.22395 0.2756 0.1709 1.2792 2262. 536. 0.546 0.0279 0.0572 0.00526 20.00
25.00 63.526 80.84 0.8532 17.476 106.891 0.03846 0.22294 0.2773 0.1737 1.2851 2219. 536. 0.530 0.0282 0.0566 0.00536 25.00
30.00 69.667 80.26 0.7804 18.871 107.336 0.04129 0.22195 0.2791 0.1765 1.2915 2177. 536. 0.515 0.0284 0.0559 0.00546 30.00
35.00 76.245 79.67 0.7150 20.275 107.769 0.04411 0.22098 0.2809 0.1794 1.2984 2134. 535. 0.499 0.0287 0.0552 0.00555 35.00
40.00 83.280 79.07 0.6561 21.688 108.191 0.04692 0.22004 0.2829 0.1825 1.3059 2091. 535. 0.484 0.0290 0.0545 0.00565 40.00
45.00 90.791 78.46 0.6029 23.111 108.600 0.04972 0.21912 0.2849 0.1857 1.3141 2048. 534. 0.470 0.0292 0.0538 0.00575 45.00
50.00 98.799 77.84 0.5548 24.544 108.997 0.05251 0.21821 0.2870 0.1891 1.3229 2005. 533. 0.456 0.0295 0.0532 0.00584 50.00
55.00 107.32 77.22 0.5111 25.988 109.379 0.05529 0.21732 0.2893 0.1927 1.3324 1%2. 532. 0.442 0.0298 0.0525 0.00594 55.00
60.00 116.38 76.58 0.4715 27.443 109.748 0.05806 0.21644 0.2916 0.1964 1.3428 1919. 531. 0.429 0.0301 0.0518 0.00604 60.00
ro
65.00 126.00 75.93 0.4355 28.909 110.103 0.06082 0.21557 0.2941 0.2003 1.3540 1876. 530. 0.416 0.0303 0.0512 0.00613 65.00
70.00 136.19 75.27 0.4026 30.387 110.441 0.06358 0.21472 0.2%7 0.2045 1.3663 1832. 528. 0.404 0.0505 0.00623 70.00
75.00 146.98 74.60 0.3726 31.877 110.761 0.06633 0.21387 0.2994 0.2089 1.37% 1788. 527. 0.392 0.0499 0.00632 75.00
80.00 158.40 73.92 0.3451 33.381 111.066 0.06907 0.21302 0.3024 0.2135 1.3941 1744. 525. 0.380 0.0492 0.00642 80.00
85.00 170.45 73.22 0.3199 34.898 111.350 0.07182 0.21218 0.3055 0.2185 1.4100 1700. 523. 0.369 0.0486 0.00652 85.00
90.00 183.17 72.51 0.2%8 36.430 111.616 0.07456 0.21134 0.3088 0.2238 1.4275 1655. 520. 0.358 0.0479 0.00661 90.00
95.00 1%.57 71.79 0.2756 37.977 111.859 0.07730 0.21050 0.3123 0.2295 1.4467 1611. 518. 0.348 0.0473 0.00671 95.00
100.00 210.69 71.05 0.2560 39.538 112.081 0.08003 0.20%5 0.3162 0.2356 1.4678 1566. 515. 0.338 0.0466 0.00680 100.00
105.00 225.53 70.29 0.2379 41.119 112.278 0.08277 0.20879 0.3203 0.2422 1.4912 1520. 512. 0.0460 0.00690 105.00
G
110.00 241.14 69.51 0.2212 42.717 112.448 0.08552 0.20793 0.3248 0.2495 1.5173 1474. 509. 0.0454 0.00699 110.00
115.00 257.52 68.71 0.2058 44.334 112.591 0.08827 0.20705 0.3298 0.2573 1.5464 1428. 506. 0.0447 0.00709 115.00
120.00 274.71 67.89 0.1914 45.972 112.704 0.09103 0.20615 0.3353 0.2660 1.5791 1382. 502. 0.0441 0.00719 120.00
125.00 292.73 67.05 0.1781 47.633 112.783 0.09379 0.20522 0.3413 0.2756 1.6160 1334. 498. 125.00
130.00 311.61 66.17 0.1657 49.319 112.825 0.09657 0.20427 0.3482 0.2864 1.6581 1287. 494. 130.00
135.00 331.38 65.27 0.1542 51.032 112.826 0.09937 0.20329 0.3559 0.2985 1.7063 1238. 489. 135.00
140.00 352.07 64.33 0.1434 52775 112.784 0.10220 0.20227 0.3648 0.3123 1.7621 1189. 485. 140.00
145.00 373.71 63.35 0.1332 54.553 112.692 0.10504 0.20119 0.3752 0.3282 1.8275 1139. 479. 145.00
150.00 3%.32 62.33 0.1237 56.370 112.541 0.10793 0.20006 0.3873 0.3468 1.9050 1088. 474. 150.00
160.00 444.65 60.12 0.1063 60.145 112.035 0.11383 0.19757 0.4198 0.3957 2.1126 983. 462. 160.00
170.00 497.35 57.59 0.0907 64.175 111.165 0.12001 0.19464 0.4711 0.4716 2.4409 873. 448. 170.00
180.00 554.82 54.57 0.0763 68.597 109.753 0.12668 0.19102 0.5657 0.6073 3.0349 752. 433. 180.00
190.00 617.53 50.62 0.0625 73.742 107.398 0.13432 0.18613 0.7952 0.9222 4.4150 616. 415. 190.00
200.00 686.11 44.44 0.0478 80.558 102.809 0.14432 0.17805 200.00
205.06c 723.74 32.70 0.0306 91.052 91.052 0.15989 0.15989 o. o. 0.00 205.06
"temperatures are on the ITS-90 scale b = boiling point c =critical point
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries AppendixC

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Appendix C-3: R-134a Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor

Density, Volume, Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific Heat cp' Velocity or Viscosity, Thennal Cond, Surface
o
Temp,. Pressure, Ib/rt 3 rt 311b _ _B_t_uII_b_ _ _ _B_t_uII_b_o_F_ _ _ _B_tull_b_oo_F_ c/c, _S_o_un_d_,rtI_s_ _ _I_b",..If_t_oO_F_ _ _ _
B_tu/h_o_ft_oo_F_ Tension, Temp,.
OF psia Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor dyne/cm OF
-153.94a 0.057 99.34 564.85 32.989 80.235 0.09154 0.27880 0.2740 0.1397 1.1628 3723. 416. 5.289 0.0160 28.15 -153.94
-150.00 0.072 98.95 449.29 31.902 80.783 0.08801 0.27588 0.2776 0.1409 1.1615 3670. 418. 4.913 0.0163 27.76 -150.00
-140.00 0.130 97.98 259.15 29.093 82.190 0.07908 0.26903 0.2837 0.1438 1.1583 3552. 424. 4.117 0.0168 26.78 -140.00
-130.00 0.222 97.01 155.69 26.238 83.618 0.07029 0.26294 0.2870 0.1467 1.1554 3448. 430. 3.497 0.0173 25.81 -130.00
-120.00 0.367 96.05 97.027 23359 85.066 0.06169 0.25752 0.2886 0.1497 1.1528 3352. 436. 3.006 0.0179 24.86 -120.00
-110.00 0.586 95.09 62.509 20.467 86.531 0.05330 0.25270 0.2895 0.1527 1.1507 3261. 441. 2.613 0.0184 23.92 -110.00
-100.00 0.906 94.13 41.496 17.569 88.011 0.04513 0.24842 0.2900 0.1559 1.1489 3173. 446. 2.292 0.0190 22.99 -100.00
t
-90.00 1.363 93.17 28.303 14.665 89.504 0.03717 0.24462 0.2906 0.1591 1.1475 3087. 451. 2.028 0.0195 0.0721 22.08 -90.00
-80.00 1.997 92.21 19.783 11.755 91.005 0.02940 0.24125 0.2913 0.1624 1.1466 3001. 456. 1.808 0.0200 0.0706 21.17 -80.00
-75.00 2.396 91.73 16.680 10.297 91.759 0.02559 0.23972 0.2917 0.1641 1.1463 2959. 458. 1.712 0.0203 0.0699 20.73 -75.00
pe
-70.00 2.859 91.25 14.138 8.837 92.514 0.02182 0.23827 0.2922 0.1658 1.1462 2916. 460. 1.623 0.0206 0.0691 20.28 -70.00
-{;5.00 3.393 90.77 12.045 7.374 93.270 0.01809 0.23691 0.2928 0.1676 1.1461 2874. 462. 1.542 0.0209 0.0684 19.84 -{;5.00
-{;D.OO 4.006 90.28 10.310 5.907 94.026 0.01440 0.23563 0.2935 0.1694 1.1462 2832. 464. 1.466 0.0212 0.0677 0.00405 19.40 -{;D.OO
-55.00 4.707 89.80 8.8656 4.437 94.783 0.01075 0.23443 0.2943 0.1712 1.1465 2790. 466. 1.396 0.0214 0.0669 0.00423 18.96 -55.00
-50.00 5.505 89.31 7.6569 2.963 95.539 0.00713 0.23331 0.2951 0.1731 1.1468 2747. 468. 1.331 0.0217 0.0662 0.00440 18.52 -50.00
-45.00 6.409 88.82 6.6405 1.484 96.295 0.00355 0.23225 0.2960 0.1750 1.1473 2705. 470. 1.271 0.0220 0.0654 0.00457 18.09 -45.00
-40.00 7.429 88.32 5.7819 0.000 97.050 0.00000 0.23125 0.2970 0.1769 1.1479 2663. 471. 1.215 0.0223 0.0647 0.00473 17.66 -40.00
-35.00 8.577 87.83 5.0533 1.489 97.804 0.00352 0.23032 0.2981 0.1789 1.1487 2621. 473. 1.163 0.0225 0.0639 0.00489 17.23 -35.00
-30.00 9.862 87.33 4.4325 2.984 98.556 0.00701 0.22945 0.2992 0.1810 1.1497 2579. 474. 1.113 0.0228 0.0632 0.00505 16.81 -30.00
-25.00 11.297 86.82 3.9014 4.484 99.306 0.01048 0.22863 0.3004 0.1831 1.1508 2536. 476. 1.068 0.0231 0.0625 0.00521 16.38 -25.00
-20.00 12.895 86.32 3.4452 5.991 100.054 0.01392 0.22786 0.3017 0.1852 1.1521 2494. 477. 1.024 0.0234 0.0617 0.00536 15.96 -20.00
-15.00
-14.92b
-10.00
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
14.667
14.696
16.626
18.787
21.162
23.767
26.617
29.726
33.110
36.785
Eg
85.81
85.80
85.29
84.77
84.25
83.72
83.18
82.64
82.10
81.55
3.0519 7.505
3.0462 7.529
2.7116 9.026
2.4161 10.554
2.1587
1.9337
1.7365
1.5630
1.4101
12.090
13.634
15.187
16.748
18.318
100.799
100.811
101.542
102.280
103.015
103.745
104.471
105.192
105.907
1.2749 19.897 106.617
0.01733
0.01739
0.02073
0.02409
0.02744
0.03077
0.03408
0.03737
0.04065
0.22714
0.22713
0.22647
0.22584
0.22525
0.22470
0.22418
0.22370
0.22325
0.04391 0.22283
0.3031
0.3031
0.3045
0.3060
0.3075
0.3091
0.3108
0.3126
0.3144
0.3162
0.1874
0.1874
0.1897
0.1920
0.1943
0.1968
0.1993
0.2018
0.2045
0.2072
1.\535
1.\535
1.\552
1.\570
1.1590
1.\613
1.\ 637
1.1664
1.1694
1.1726
2452.
2451.
2410.
2367.
2325.
2283.
2240.
2198.
2155.
2113.
478.
478.
479.
480.
481.
481.
482.
482.
482.
482.
0.984
0.983
0.946
0.910
0.876
0.843
0.813
0.784
0.756
0.730
0.0237
0.0237
0.0240
0.0243
0.0245
0.0248
0.0251
0.0254
0.0257
0.0260
0.0610
0.0610
0.0602
0.0595
0.00550
0.00551
0.00565
0.00579
0.0588 0.00593
0.0580 0.00607
0.0573 0.00621
0.0565 0.00635
0.0558 0.00649
0.0550 0.00662
15.54
15.54
15.13
14.71
14.30
13.89
13.48
13.08
12.67
12.27
-15.00
-14.92
-10.00
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00 40.768 80.99 \.1550 21.486 107.320 0.04715 0.22244 0.3182 0.2100 1.1761 2070. 482. 0.705 0.0263 0.0543 0.00676 11.87 30:00
35.00 45.075 80.42 1.0484 23.085 108.016 0.05038 0.22207 0.3202 0.2129 1.\799 2027. 482. 0.681 0.0267 0.0536 0.00690 11.48 35:00
up
40.00 49.724 79.85 0.9534 24.694 108.705 0.05359 0.22172 0.3223 0.2159 1.1841 1985. 482. 0.658 0.0270 0.0528 0.00704 11.08 40.00
45.00 54.732 79.26 0.8685 26.314 109.386 0.05679 0.22140 0.3244 0.2190 1.1886 1942. 481. 0.636 0.0273 0.0521 0.00718 10.69 45.00
50.00 60.116 78.67 0.7925 27.944 110.058 0.05998 0.22110 0.3267 0.2222 1.\935 1899. 481. 0.615 0.0276 0.0513 0.00732 10.30 50.00
55.00 65.895 78.07 0.7243 29.586 11 0.722 0.06316 0.22081 0.3290 0.2255 1.1988 1856. 480. 0.595 0.0280 0.0506 0.00746 9.91 55.00
60.00 72.087 77.46 0.6630 31.239 111.376 0.06633 0.22054 0.3314 0.2289 1.2046 1813. 479. 0.576 0.0283 0.0499 0.00761 9.53 60.00
65.00 78.712 76.84 0.6077 32.905 112.019 0.06949 0.22028 0.3339 0.2325 1.2109 1770. 477. 0.557 0.0286 0.0491 0.00776 9.15 65.00
70.00 85.787 76.21 0.5577 34.583 112.652 0.07264 0.22003 0.3366 0.2363 1.2178 1726. 476. 0.539 0.0290 0.0484 0.00791 8.77 70.00
75.00 93.333 75.57 0.5125 36.274 113.272 0.07578 0.21979 0.3393 0.2402 1.2252 1683. 474. 0.522 0.0294 0.0476 0.00806 8.39 75.00
80.00 101.37 74.91 0.4715 37.978 113.880 0.07892 0.21957 0.3422 0.2444 1.2334 1640. 472. 0.505 0.0297 0.0469 0.00822 8.02 80.00
85.00 109.92 74.25 0.4343 39.697 114.475 0.08205 0.21934 0.3453 0.2487 1.2424 1596. 470. 0.489 0.0301 0.0462 0.00838 7.65 85.00
90.00 1\9.00 73.57 0.4004 41.430 115.055 0.08518 0.21912 0.3485 0.2533 1.2522 1552. 468. 0.473 0.0305 0.0454 0.00855 7.28 90.00
95.00 128.63 72.87 0.3694 43.179 115.619 0.08830 0.21890 0.3519 0.2582 1.2630 1509. 466. 0.458 0.0309 0.0447 0.00872 6.91 95.00
ro
100.00 138.83 72.16 0.3411 44.943 116.166 0.09142 0.21868 0.3555 0.2633 1.2748 1465. 463. 0.443 0.0313 0.0439 0.00890 6.55 100.00
105.00 149.63 71.43 0.3153 46.725 116.694 0.09454 0.21845 0.3594 0.2689 1.2880 1421. 460. 0.428 0.0318 0.0432 0.00908 6.20 105.00
110.00 161.05 70.68 0.2915 48.524 117.203 0.09766 0.21822 0.3635 0.2748 1.3026 1376. 457. 0.414 0.0322 0.0425 0.00926 5.84 110.00
1\5.00 173.11 69.91 0.2697 50.343 117.690 0.10078 0.21797 0.3680 0.2812 1.3189 1332. 454. 0.400 0.0327 0.0417 0.00946 5.49 115.00
120.00 185.84 69.12 0.2497 52.181 118.153 0.10391 0.21772 0.3728 0.2881 1.3372 1288. 450. 0.387 0.0332 0.04 10 0.00965 5.15 120.00
125.00 199.25 68.31 0.2312 54.040 118.591 0.10704 0.21744 0.3781 0.2957 1.3577 1243. 446. 0.374 0.0338 0.0403 0.00986 4.80 125.00
130.00 213.38 67.47 0.2141 55.923 119.000 0.11018 0.21715 0.3839 0.3040 1.3810 1198. 442. 0.361 0.0343 0.0395 0.01007 4.47 130.00
135.00 228.25 66.60 0.1983 57.830 119.377 0.11333 0.21683 0.3903 0.3133 1.4075 1153. 437. 0.348 '0.0349 0.0388 0.01029 4.\3 135.00
G
140.00 243.88 65.70 0.1836 59.764 119.720 0.11650 0.21648 0.3974 0.3236 1.4379 110S. 432. 0.335 0.0356 0.0380 0.01052 3.81 140.00
145.00 260.31 64.77 0.1700 61.727 120.024 0.11968 0.21609 0.4053 0.3353 1.4731 1062. 427. 0.323 0.0363 0.0373 0.01075 3.48 145.00
150.00 277.57 63.80 0.1574 63.722 120.284 0.12288 0.21566 0.4144 0.3486 1.5143 1017. 421. 0.311 0.0370 0.0366 om I 00 3.17 150.00
155.00 295.69 62.78 0.1455 65.752 120.495 0.12611 0.21517 0.4247 0.3640 1.5630 97 I. 416. 0.298 0.0378 0.0358 0.01125 2.86 155.00
160.00 314.69 61.72 0.1345 67.823 120.650 0.12938 0.21463 0.4368 0.3821 1.6213 924. 409. 0.286 0.0387 0.0351 om151 2.55 160.00
165.00 334.62 60.60 0.1241 69.939 120.739 0.13268 0.21400 0.4511 0.4036 1.6921 877. 403. 0.274 0.0397 0.0343 0.01178 2.26 165.00
170.00 355.51 59.42 0.1144 72.106 120.753 0.13603 0.21329 0.4683 0.4299 1.7798 829. 396. 0.262 0.0407 0.0336 0.01206 1.97 170.00
175.00 377.40 58.16 0.1052 74.335 120.677 0.13945 0.21247 0.4896 0.4627 1.8908 781. 388. 0.249 0.0420 0.0329 0.01235 1.69 175.00
180.00 400.34 56.80 0.0965 76.636 120.493 0.14295 0.21151 0.5168 0.5048 20354 731. 380. 0.237 0.0434 0.0321 0.01265 1.41 180.00
185.00 424.37 55.33 0.0881 79.027 120.175 0.14655 0.21037 0.5527 0.5612 2.2309 680. 372. 0.224 0.0450 0.0314 0.01296 1.15 185.00
190.00 449.55 53.70 0.0801 81.534 119.684 0.15029 0.2090 I 0.6031 0.6406 2.5087 627. 363. 0.211 0.0469 0.90 190.00
195.00 475.95 51.86 0.0723 84.196 118.963 0.15423 0.20733 0.6794 0.7612 29338 572. 353. 0.197 0.0493 0.67 195.00
200.00 503.64 49.70 0.0646 87.088 117.906 0.15847 0.20519 0.8100 0.9673 3.6640 514. 343. 0.182 0.0523 0.45 200.00
205.00 532.72 47.00 0.0566 90.368 116.289 0.16326 0.20226 1.0906 1.4042 5.2174 450. 331. 0.164 0.0566 0.25 205.00
210.00 563.34 43.03 0.0474 94.548 113.411 0.16933 0.19750 378. 316. 0.142 0.0639 0.09 210.00
213.85c 588.27 32.04 0.0312103.775 103.775 0.18128 0.18128 O. O. 0.00 213.85
"temperatures are OR the ITS-90 scale a =triple point b = boiling point c =critical point
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries AppendixC

20 60 100 140 180
t
220 260
IJ I
pe
3000
2000
1000
g
Eg
-as
200 200 ..
I
-
'u;
c.
100 100
=
up
w
a:
::l
en
40
=
......
en
w =-
.....
a: 20 20
D.
C
.....
ro
10 (JQ
4 - 9
4
11
2 2 I-l
G
1
260
ENTHALPY (Btu/Ibm)
D: 1
Appendix D-l: Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air at 14.696 psia

Condensed Water
Vapor
Volume, Enthalpy, Entropy, Enthalpy, Entropy, Press.,
Temp. Humidity Btul(Ib dry air) • OF
ft 31lb dry air Btullb dry air Btullb Btullb· OF in.Hg Temp.,
I, Ratio,
OF Ib,.JIbda Ws va ha hga Sa Sg a h., S., pg" OF
va va/ g ha/ Saga
-80 0.0000049 9.553 0.000 9.553 -19.221 0.005 -19.215 -<l.04594 0.00001 -<l.04592 -193.45 -<l.4067 0.000236 -80
-79 0.0000053 9.579 0.000 9.579 -18.980 0.005 -18.975 -<l.0453 I 0.00002 -<l.04529 -193.06 -<l.4056 0.000255 -79
-78 0.0000057 9.604 0.000 9.604 -18.740 0.006 -18.734 -<l.04468 0.00002 -<l.04466 -192.66 -<l.4046 0.000275 -78
-77 0.0000062 9.629 0.000 9.629 -18.500 0.007 -18.493 -<l.04405 0.00002 -<l.04403 -192.27 -<l.4036 0.000296 -77
-76 0.0000067 9.655 0.000 9.655 -18.259 0.007 -18.252 -<l.04342 0.00002 -<l.04340 -191.87 -<l.4025 0.000319 -76
0.000344 -75
t
-75 0.0000072 9.680 0.000 9.680 -18.019 0.007 -18.0ll -<l.04279 0.00002 -<l.04277 -191.47 -<l.4015
-74 0.0000078 9.705 0.000 9.705 -17.778 0.008 -17.770 -<l.04217 0.00002 -<l.04215 -191.07 -<l.4005 0.000371 -74
-73 0.0000084 9.731 0.000 9.731 -17.538 0.009 -17.529 -<l.04155 0.00002 -<l.04152 -190.68 -<l.3994 0.000400 -73
-17.288 -<l.04093 0.00003 -0.04090 -190.27 -<l.3984 0.000430 -72
pe
-72 0.0000090 9.756 0.000 9.756 -17.298 0.010
-71 0.0000097 9.781 0.000 9.782 -17.057 0.010 -17.047 -<l.04031 0.00003 -<l.04028 -189.87 -<l.3974 0.000463 -71
-70 0.0000104 9.807 0.000 9.807 -16.806 0.01l -16.817 -<l.03969 0.00003 -<l.03966 -189.47 -<l.3963 0.000498 -70
-69 0.0000 II 2 9.832 0.000 9.832 -16.577 0.012 -16.565 -<l.03907 0.00003 -<l.03904 -189.07 -0.3953 0.000536 -69
-68 0.0000120 9.857 0.000 9.858 -16.336 0.013 -16.324 -<l.03846 0.00003 -0.03843 -188.66 -0.3943 0.000576 -68
-67 0.0000129 9.883 0.000 9.883 -16.096 0.013 -16.083 -<l.03785 0.00004 -<l.0378I -188.26 -0.3932 0.000619 -67
-66 0.0000139 9.908 0.000 9.908 -15.856 0.015 -15.841 -0.03724 0.00004 -<l.03720 -187.85 -<l.3922 0.000665 -66
-65 0.0000149 9.933 0.000 9.934 -15.616 0.015 -15.600 -<l.03663 0.00004 -<l.03659 -187.44 -0.3912 0.000714 -65
-64 0.0000160 9.959 0.000 9.959 -15.375 0.017 -15.359 -<l.03602 0.00005 -0.03597 -187.04 -0.3901 0.000766 -64
-63 0.0000172 9.984 0.000 9.984 -15.117 0.018 -15.135 -<l.0354I 0.00005 -0.03536 -186.63 -0.3891 0.000822 -63
-62 0.0000184 10.009 0.000 10.010 -14.895 0.019 -14.876 -0.03481 0.00005 -0.03476 -186.22 -<l.388 I 0.000882 -62
-61 0.0000198 10.035 0.000 10.035 -14.654 0.021 -14.634 -0.03420 0.00006 -<l.03415 -185.81 -0.3870 0.000945 -61
-60
-59
-58
-57
-56
-55
-54
-53
-52
-51
0.0000212
0.0000227
0.0000243
0.0000260
0.0000279
0.0000298
0.0000319
0.0000341
0.0000365
0.0000390
Eg 10.060
10.085
10.111
10.136
10.161
10.187
10.212
10.237
10.263
10.288
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
10.060
10.086
10.111
10.137
10.162
10.187
10.213
10.238
10.263
10.289
-14.414
-14.174
-13.933
-13.693
-13.453
-13.213
-12.972
-12.732
-12.492
-12.251
0.022
0.024
0.025
0.027
0.029
0.031
0.033
0.035
0.038
0.041
-14.392
-14.150
-13.908
-13.666
-13.424
-13.182
-12.939
-12.697
-12.454
-12.211
-<l.03360
-<l.03300
-0.03240
-0.03180
-<l.03121
-<l.03061
-0.03002
-<l.02943
-<l.02884
-0.02825
0.00006
0.00006
0.00007
0.00007
0.00008
0.00008
0.00009
0.00009
0.00010
0.000 II
-0.03354
-0.03294
-0.03233
-0.03173
-<l.03113
-<l.03053
-0.02993
-0.02934
-<l.02874
-<l.02814
-185.39
-184.98
-184.57
-184.15
-183.74
-183.32
-182.90
-182.48
-182.06
-181.64
-0.3860
-0.3850
-0.3839
-0.3829
-0.3819
-<l.3808
-0.3798
-0.3788
-0.3778
-0.3767
0.001013 -60
0.001086 -59
0.001163 -58
0.001246 -57
0.001333 -56
0.001427 -55
0.001526 -54
0.001632 -53'
0.001745 -52
0.001865 -51
-50 0.0000416 10.313 0.001 10.314 -12.011 0.043 -11.968 -<l.02766 0.00011 -<l.02755 -181.22 -0.3757 0.001992 -50
-49 0.0000445 10.339 0.001 10.340 -11.771 0.046 -11.725 -<l.02708 0.00012 -<l.02696 -180.80 -0.3747 0.002128 -49
-11.481 -<l.02649 0.00013 -0.02636 -180.37 -0.3736 0.002272 -48
up
-48 0.0000475 10.364 0.001 10.365 -11.531 0.050
-47 0.0000507 10.389 0.001 10.390 -11.290 0.053 -11.237 -<l.0259I 0.00014 -<l.02577 -179.95 -0.3726 0.002425 -47
-46 0.0000541 10.415 0.001 10.416 -11.050 0.056 -10.994 -<l.02533 0.00015 -<l.02518 -179.52 -0.3716 0.002587 -46
-45 0.0000577 10.440 0.001 10.441 -10.810 0.060 -10.750 -<l.02475 0.00016 -<l.02459 -179.10 -0.3705 0.002760 -45
-44 0.0000615 10.465 0.001 10.466 -10.570 0.064 -10.505 -0.02417 0.00017 -<l.02400 -178.67 -0.3695 0.002943 -44
-43 0.0000656 10.491 0.001 10.492 -10.329 0.068 -10.261 -<l.02359 0.00018 -0.02342 -178.24 -0.3685 0.003137 -43
-42 0.0000699 10.516 0.001 10.517 -10.089 0.073 -10.016 -<l.02302 0.00019 -0.02283 -177.81 -0.3675 0.003343 -42
-41 0.0000744 10.541 0.001 10.543 -9.849 0.078 -9.771 -<l.02244 0.00020 -<l.02224 -177.38 -0.3664 0.003562 -41
-40 0.0000793 10.567 0.001 10.568 -9.609 0.083 -9.526 -<l.02187 0.00021 -<l.02166 -176.95 -0.3654 0.003793 -40
-39 0.0000844 10.592 0.001 10.593 -9.368 0.088 -9.280 -<l.02130 0.00022 -0.02107 -176.52 -0.3644 0.004039 -39
-38 0.0000898 10.617 0.002 10.619 -9.128 0.094 -9.034 -0.02073 0.00024 -<l.02049 -176.08 -0.3633 0.004299 -38
-37 0.0000956 10.643 0.002 10.644 -8.888 0.100 -8.788 -0.02016 0.00025 -<l.0199 I -175.65 -0.3623 0.004575 -37
ro
-36 0.0001017 10.668 0.002 10.670 -8.648 0.106 -8.541 -<l.01959 0.00027 -0.01932 -175.21 -0.3613 0.004866 -36
-35 0.0001081 10.693 0.002 10.695 -8.407 0.113 -8.294 -<l.01902 0.00028 -0.01874 -174.78 -0.3603 0.005175 -35
-34 0.0001150 10.719 0.002 10.721 -8.167 0.120 -8.047 -<l.01846 0.00030 -0.01816 -174.34 -0.3529 0.005502 -34
-33 0.0001222 10.744 0.002 10.746 -7.927 0.128 -7.799 -0.01790 0.00032 -<l.01758 -173.90 -0.3582 0.005848 -33
-32 0.0001298 10.769 0.002 10.772 -7.687 0.136 -7.551 -<l.01733 0.00034 -0.01699 -173.46 -0.3572 0.006214 -32
-31 0.0001379 10.795 0.002 10.797 -7.447 0.145 -7.302 -<l.01677 0.00036 -<l.0 164 I -173.02 -0.3561 0.006601 -31
-30 0.0001465 10.820 0.003 10.822 -7.206 0.154 -7.053 -0.01621 0.00038 -<l.01583 -172.58 -0.3551 0.007009 -30
-29 0.0001555 10.845 0.003 10.848 -6.966 0.163 -6.803 -<l.01565 0.00040 -<l.01525 -172.14 -0.3541 0.007442 -29
-28 0.0001650 10.871 0.003 10.873 -6.726 0.173 -6.553 -<l.0151O 0.00043 -<l.01467 -171.70 -0.3531 0.007898 -28
-<l.01454 0.00045 -<l.01409 -171.25 -0.3520 0.008381 -27
G
-27 0.0001751 10.896 0.003 10.899 -6.486 0.184 -6.302

-26 0.0001858 10.921 0.003 10.924 -6.245 0.195 -6.051 -<l.01399 0.00048 -0.01351 -170.81 -0.3510 0.008890 -26
-25 0.0001970 10.947 0.003 10.950 -6.005 0.207 -5.798 -<l.01343 0.00051 -0.01293 -170.36 -0.3500 0.009428 -25
-24 0.0002088 10.972 0.004 10.976 -5.765 0.220 -5.545 -<l.01288 0.00054 -<l.01235 -169.92 -0.3489 0.009995 -24
-23 0.0002214 10.997 0.004 11.001 -5.525 0.233 -5.292 -<l.01233 0.00057 -0.01176 -169.47 -0.3479 0.010594 -23
-22 0.0002346 11.022 0.004 11.027 -5.284 0.247 -5.038 -<l.01l78 0.00060 -O.01l18 -169.02 -0.3469 0.011226 -22
-21 0.0002485 11.048 0.004 11.052 -5.044 0.261 -4.783 -0.01123 0.00063 -0.01060 -168.57 -0.3459 0.011893 -21
-20 0.0002632 11.073 0.005 11.078 -4.804 0.277 -4.527 -<l.01069 0.00067 -0.01002 -168.12 -0.3448 0.012595 -20
-19 0.0002786 11.098 0.005 11.103 -4.564 0.293 -4.271 -<l.01014 0.00071 -0.00943 -167.67 -0.3438 0.013336 -19
-18 0.0002950 11.124 0.005 11.129 -4.324 0.311 -4.013 -0.00960 0.00075 -<l.00885 -167.21 -0.3428 0.014117 -18
-17 0.0003121 11.149 0.006 11.155 -4.084 0.329 -3.754 -<l.00905 0.00079 -<l.00826 -166.76 -0.3418 0.014939 -17
-16 0.0003303 11.174 0.006 11.180 -3.843 0.348 -3.495 -<l.0085I 0.00083 -0.00768 -166.30 -0.3407 0.015806 -16
-15 0.0003493 11.200 0.006 11.206 -3.603 0.368 -3.235 -0.00797 0.00088 -0.00709 -165.85 -0.3397 0.016718 -15
-14 0.0003694 11.225 0.007 11.232 -3.363 0.390 -2.973 -<l.00743 0.00093 -<l.00650 -165.39 -0.3387 0.017679 -14
-13 0.0003905 11.250 0.007 11.257 -3.123 0.412 -2.710 -<l.00689 0.00098 -0.00591 -164.93 -0.3377 0.018690 -13
-12 0.0004128 11.276 0.007 11.283 -2.882 0.436 -2.447 -0.00635 0.00103 -0.00532 -164.47 -<l.3366 0.019754 -12
-11 0.0004362 11.301 0.008 11.309 -2.642 0.460 -2.182 -0.00582 0.00109 -<l.00473 -164.01 -0.3356 0.020873 -II
"Note that the values for subSCript g are actually solids (s) until O°F.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries AppendixD

0:2
Condensed Water
Vapor
Temp. Humidity
ft 311b
dry air Btullb dry air Btul(lb dry air) . of Btullb Btullb· OF in.Hg Temp.,
t, Ratio,
of Ib.,.llbda Ws va vag" va ha hag" h ga Sa Saga Sg" hw Sw p ga of
g
-10 0.0004608 11.326 0.008 11.335 -2.402 0.487 -1.915 -0.00528 0.00115 -0.00414 -163.55 -0.3346 0.022050 -10
-9 0.0004867 11.351 0.009 11.360 -2.162 0.514 -1.647 -0.00475 0.00121 -0.00354 -163.09 -0.3335 0.023289 -9
-8 0.0005139 11.377 0.009 11.386 -1.922 0.543 -1.378 -0.00422 0.00127 -0.00294 -162.63 -0.3325 0.024591 -8
-7 0.0005425 11.402 0.010 11.412 -1.681 0.574 -1.108 -0.00369 0.00134 -0.00234 -162.17 -0.3315 0.025959 -7
-6 0.0005726 11.427 0.010 11.438 -1.441 0.606 -0.835 -0.00316 0.00141 -0.00174 -161.70 -0.3305 0.027397 -6
-5 0.0006041 11.453 0.011 11.464 -1.201 0.640 -0.561 -0.00263 0.00149 -0.00114 -161.23 -0.3294 0.028907 -5
-4 0.0006373 11.478 0.012 11.490 -0.961 0.675 -0.286 -0.00210 0.00157 -0.00053 -160.77 -0.3284 0.030494 -4
-3 0.0006722 11.503 0.012 11.516 -0.721 0.712 -0.008 -0.00157 0.00165 0.00008 -160.30 -0.3274 0.032160 -3
t
-2 0.0007088 11.529 0.013 11.542 -0.480 0.751 0.271 -0.00105 0.00174 0.00069 -159.83 -0.3264 0.033909 -2
-1 0.0007472 11.554 0.014 11.568 -0.240 0.792 0.552 -0.00052 0.00183 0.00130 -159.36 -0.3253 0.035744 -1
pe
0 0.0007875 11.579 0.015 11.594 0.0 0.835 0.835 0.00000 0.00192 0.00192 -158.89 -0.3243 0.037671 0
1 0.0008298 11.604 0.015 11.620 0.240 0.880 1.121 0.00052 0.00202 0.00254 -158.42 -0.3233 0.039694 1
2 0.0008742 11.630 0.016 11.646 0.480 0.928 1.408 0.00104 0.00212 0.00317 -157.95 -0.3223 0.041814 2
3 0.0009207 11.655 0.017 11.672 0.721 0.978 1.699 0.00156 0.00223 0.00380 -157.47 -0.3212 0.044037 3
4 0.0009695 11.680 0.018 11.699 0.961 1.030 1.991 0.00208 0.00235 0.00443 -157.00 -0.3202 0.046370 4
5 0.0010207 11.706 0.019 11.725 1.201 1.085 2.286 0.00260 0.00247 0.00506 -156.52 -0.3192 0.048814 5
6 0.0010743 11.731 0.020 11.751 1.441 1.143 2.584 0.00311 0.00259 0.00570 -156.05 -0.3182 0.051375 6
7 0.0011306 11.756 0.021 11.778 1.681 1.203 2.884 0.00363 0.00635 0.00272 -155.57 -0.3171 0.054060 7
8 0.0011895 11.782 0.022 11.804 1.922 1.266 3.188 0.00414 0.00286 0.00700 -155.09 -0.3161 0.056872 8
9 0.0012512 11.807 0.024 11.831 2.162 1.332 3.494 0.00466 0.00300 0.00766 -154.61 -0.3151 0.059819 9
10 0.0013158 11.832 0.025 11.857 2.402 1.402 3.804 0.00517 0.00315 0.00832 -154.13 -0.3141 0.062901 10
11 0.0013835 11.857 0.026 11.884 2.642 1.474 4.117 0.00568 0.00330 0.00898 -153.65 -0.3130 0.066131 11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
0.0014544
0.0015286
0.0016062
0.0016874
0.0017724
0.0018613
0.0019543
0.0020515
0.0021531
0.0022592
11.883
11.908
11.933
11.959
11.984
12.009
12.035
12.060
12.085
12.110
Eg 0.028
0.029
0.031
0.032
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.040
0.042
0.044
11.910
11.937
11.964
11.991
12.018
12.045
12.072
12.099
12.127
12.154
2.882
3.123
3.363
3.603
3.843
4.084
4.324
4.564
4.804
5.044
1.550
1.630
1.714
1.801
1.892
1.988
2.088
2.193
2.303
2.417
4.433
4.753
5.077
5.404
5.736
6.072
6.412
6.757
7.107
7.462
0.00619
0.00670
0.00721
0.00771
0.00822
0.00872
0.00923
0.00973
0.01023
0.01073
0.00347
0.00364
0.00381
0.00400
0.00419
0.00439
0.00460
0.00482
0.00505
0.00529
0.00966
0.01033
0.01102
0.01171
0.01241
0.01312
0.01383
0.01455
0.01528
0.01602
-153.17
-152.68
-152.20
-151.71
-151.22
-150.74
-150.25
-149.76
-149.27
-148.78
-0.3120
-0.3110
-0.3100
-0.3089
-0.3079
-0.3069
-0.3059
-0.3049
-0.3038
-0.3028
0.069511
0.073049
0.076751
0.080623
0.084673
0.088907
0.093334
0.097962
0.102798
0.107849
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 0.0023703 12.136 0.046 12.182 5.285 2.537 7.822 0.01123 0.00554 0.01677 -148.28 -0.30\8 0.113130 22
23 0.0024863 12.161 0.048 12.209 5.525 2.662 8.187 0.01173 0.00580 0.01753 -147.79 -0.3008 0.118645 23
24 0.0026073 12.186 0.051 12.237 5.765 2.793 8.558 0.01223 0.00607 0.01830 -147.30 -0.2997 0.124396 24
up
25 0.0027339 12.212 0.054 12.265 6.005 2.930 8.935 0.01272 0.00636 0.01908 -146.80 -0.2987 0.130413 25
26 0.0028660 12.237 0.056 12.293 6.246 3.073 9.318 0.01322 0.00665 0.01987 -146.30 -0.2977 0.136684 26
27 0.0030039 12.262 0.059 12.321 6.486 3.222 9.708 0.01371 0.00696 0.02067 -145.81 -0.2967 0.143233 27
28 0.0031480 12.287 0.062 12.349 6.726 3.378 10.104 0.01420 0.00728 0.02148 -145.31 -0.2956 0.150066 28
29 0.0032984 12.313 0.065 12.378 6.966 3.541 10.507 0.01470 0.00761 0.02231 -144.81 -0.2946 0.157198 29
30 0.0034552 12.338 0.068 12.406 7.206 3.711 10.917 0.01519 0.00796 0.02315 -144.31 -0.2936 0.164631 30
31 0.0036190 12.363 0.072 12.435 7.447 3.888 11.335 0.01568 0.00832 0.02400 -143.80 -0.2926 0.172390 31
32 0.0037895 12.389 0.075 12.464 7.687 4.073 11.760 0.01617 0.00870 0.02487 -143.30 -0.2915 0.180479 32
32* 0.003790 12.389 0.075 12.464 7.687 4.073 11.760 0.01617 0.00870 0.02487 0.02 0.0000 0.18050 32
33 0.003947 12.414 0.079 12.492 7.927 4.243 12.170 0.01665 0.00905 0.02570 1.03 0.0020 0.18791 33
34 0.004109 12.439 0.082 12.521 8.167 4.420 12.587 0.01714 0.00940 0.02655 2.04 0.0041 0.19559 34
35 0.004277 12.464 0.085 12.550 8.408 4.603 13.010 0.01763 0.0,0977 0.02740 3.05 0.006J 0.20356 35
ro
36 0.004452 12.490 0.089 12.579 8.648 4.793 13.441 0.01811 0.01016 0.02827 4.05 0.0081 0.21181 36
37 0.004633 12.515 0.093 12.608 8.888 4.990 13.878 0.01860 0.01055 0.02915 5.06 0.0102 0.22035 37
38 0.004820 12.540 0.097 12.637 9.128 5.194 14.322 0.01908 0.01096 0.03004 6.06 0.0122 0.22920 38
39 0.0050J4 12.566 0.101 12.667 9.369 5.405 14.773 0.01956 0.01139 0.03095 7.07 0.0142 0.23835 39
40 0.005216 12.591 0.105 12.696 9.609 5.624 15.233 0.02004 0.01183 0.03187 8.07 0.0162 0.24784 40
41 0.005424 12.616 0.110 12.726 9.849 5.851 15.700 0.02052 0.01228 0.03281 9.08 0.0182 0.25765 41
42 0.005640 12.641 0.114 12.756 10.089 6.086 16.175 0.02100 0.01275 0.03375 10.08 0.0202 0.2678J 42
43 0.005863 12.667 0.119 12.786 10.330 6.330 16.660 0.02148 0.01324 0.03472 11.09 0.0222 0.27831 43
44 0.006094 12.692 0.124 12.816 10.570 6.582 17.152 0.02196 0.01374 0.03570 12.09 0.0242 0.28918 44
G
45 0.006334 12.717 0.129 12.846 10.810 6.843 17.653 0.02244 0.01426 0.03669 13.09 0.0262 0.30042 45
46 0.006581 12.743 0.134 12.877 11.050 7.114 18.164 0.02291 0.01479 0.03770 14.10 0.0282 0.31206 46
47 0.006838 12.768 0.140 12.908 11.291 7.394 18.685 0.02339 0.01534 0.03873 15.10 0.0302 0.32408 47
48 0.007103 12.793 0.146 12.939 11.531 7.684 19.215 0.02386 0.01592 0.03978 16.10 0.0321 0.33651 48
49 0.007378 12.818 0.152 12.970 11.771 7.984 19.756 0.02433 0.01651 0.04084 17.10 0.0341 0.34937 49
50 0.007661 12.844 0.158 13.001 12.012 8.295 20.306 0.02480 0.01712 0.04192 18.11 0.0361 0.36264 50
51 0.007955 12.869 0.164 13.033 12.252 8.616 20.868 0.02528 0.01775 0.04302 19.11 0.0381 0.37636 51
52 0.008259 12.894 0.171 13.065 12.492 8.949 21.441 0.02575 0.01840 0.04415 20.11 0.0400 0.39054 52
53 0.008573 12.920 0.178 13.097 12.732 9.293 22.025 0.02622 0.01907 0.04529 21.11 0.0420 0.40518 53
54 0.008897 12.945 0.185 13.129 12.973 9.648 22.621 0.02668 0.01976 0.04645 22.11 0.0439 0.42030 54
55 0.009233 12.970 0.192 13.162 13.213 10.016 23.229 0.02715 0.02048 0.04763 23.11 0.0459 0.43592 55
56 0.009580 12.995 0.200 13.195 13.453 10.397 23.850 0.02762 0.02122 0.04884 24.11 0.0478 0.45205 56
57 0.009938 13.021 0.207 13.228 13.694 10.790 24.484 0.02808 0.02198 0.05006 25.11 0.0497 0.46870 57
58 0.010309 13.046 0.216 13.262 13.934 11.197 25.131 0.02855 0.02277 0.05132 26.11 0.0517 0.48589 58
*Extrapolated to represent metastable equilibrium wilh undercooled liquid.
"Note that the values for subscript g are actually solids (s) until O°F.
AppendixD Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

0:3
Condensed Water
Vapor
Temp. Humidity Btu/(Ib dry air) . of
ft 311b
dry air Btullb dry air Btullb Btullb' of in.Hg Temp.,
t, Ratio,
of Ib,.JIbda Ws va hag" hga Sa sag" sa hw Sw pg" OF
va Vag" g ha g
59 0.010692 13.071 0.224 13.295 14.174 11.618 25.792 0.02901 0.02358 0.05259 27.11 0.0536 0.50363 59
60 0.011087 13.096 0.233 13.329 14.415 12.052 26.467 0.02947 0.02442 0.05389 28.11 0.0555 0.52193 60
61 0.011496 13.122 0.242 13.364 14.655 12.502 27.157 0.02994 0.02528 0.05522 29.12 0.0575 0.54082 61
62 0.011919 13.147 0.251 13.398 14.895 12.966 27.862 0.03040 0.02617 0.05657 30.11 0.0594 0.56032 62
63 0.012355 13.172 0.261 13.433 15.135 13.446 28.582 0.03086 0.02709 0.05795 31.11 0.0613 0.58041 63
64 0.012805 13.198 0.271 13.468 15.376 13.942 29.318 0.03132 0.02804 0.05936 32.11 0.0632 0.60113 64
65 0.013270 13.223 0.281 13.504 15.616 14.454 30.071 0.03178 0.02902 0.06080 33.11 0.0651 0.62252 65
66 0.013750 13.248 0.292 13.540 15.856 14.983 30.840 0.03223 0.03003 0.06226 34.11 0.0670 0.64454 66
t
67 0.014246 13.273 0.303 13.577 16.097 15.530 31.626 0.03269 0.03107 0.06376 35.11 0.0689 0.66725 67
68 0.014758 13.299 0.315 13.613 16.337 16.094 32.431 0.03315 0.03214 0.06529 36.11 0.D708 0.69065 68
69 0.015286 13.324 0.326 13.650 16.577 16.677 33.254 0.03360 0.03325 0.06685 37.11 0.0727 0.71479 69
pe
70 0.015832 13.349 0.339 13.688 16.818 17.279 34.097 0.03406 0.03438 0.06844 38.11 0.0746 0.73966 70
71 0.016395 13.375 0.351 13.726 17.058 17.901 34.959 0.03451 0.03556 0.07007 39.11 0.0765 0.76567 71
72 0.016976 13.400 0.365 13.764 17.299 18.543 35.841 0.03496 0.03677 0.07173 40.11 0.0783 0.79167 72
73 0.017575 13.425 0.378 13.803 17.539 19.204 36.743 0.03541 0.03801 0.07343 41.11 0.0802 0.81882 73
74 0.018194 13.450 0.392 13.843 17.779 19.889 37.668 0.03586 0.03930 0.07516 42.11 0.0821 0.84684 74
75 0.018833 13.476 0.407 13.882 18.020 20.595 38.615 0.03631 0.04062 0.07694 43.11 0.0840 0.87567 75
76 0.019491 13.501 0.422 13.923 18.260 21.323 39.583 0.03676 0.04199 0.07875 44.10 0.0858 0.90533 76
77 0.020170 13.526 0.437 13.963 18.500 22.075 40.576 0.03721 0.04339 0.08060 45.10 0.0877 0.93589 77
78 0.020871 13.551 0.453 14.005 18.741 22.851 41.592 0.03766 0.04484 0.08250 46.10 0.0896 0.96733 78
79 0.021594 13.577 0.470 14.046 18.981 23.652 42.633 0.03811 0.04633 0.08444 47.10 0.0914 0.99970 79
80 0.022340 13.602 0.487 14.089 19.222 24.479 43.701 0.03855 0.04787 0.08642 48.10 0.0933 1.03302 80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
0.023109
0.023902
0.024720
0.025563
0.026433
0.027329
0.028254
0.029208
0.030189
0.031203
0.032247
Eg 13.627
13.653
13.678
13.703
13.728
13.754
13.779
13.804
13.829
13.855
13.880
0.505
0.523
0.542
0.561
0.581
0.602
0.624
0.646
0.669
0.692
0.717
14.132
14.175
14.220
14.264
14.310
14.356
14.403
14.450
14.498
14.547
14.597
19.462
19.702
19.943
20.183
20.424
20.664
20.905
21.145
21.385
21.626
21.866
25.332
26.211
27.120
28.055
29.021
30.017
31.045
32.105
33.197
34.325
35.489
44.794
45.913
47.062
48.238
49.445
50.681
51.949
53.250
54.582
55.951
57.355
0.03900
0.03944
0.03988
0.04033
0.04077
0.04121
0.04165
0.04209
0.04253
0.04297
0.06810
0.04945
0.05108
0.05276
0.05448
0.05626
0.05809
0.05998
0.06192
0.06392
0.06598
0.04340
0.08844
0.09052
0.09264
0.09481
0.09703
0.09930
0.10163
0.10401
0.10645
0.10895
0.11150
49.10
50.10
51.09
52.09
53.09
54.09
55.09
56.09
57.09
58.08
59.08
0.0951
0.0970
0.0988
0.1006
0.1025
0.1043
0.1061
0.1080
0.1098
0.1116
0.1134
1.06728
1.10252
1.13882
1.17608
1.21445
1.25388
1.29443
1.33613
1.37893
1.42298
1.46824
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92 0.033323 13.905 0.742 14.647 22.107 36.687 58.794 0.04384 0.07028 0.11412 60.08 0.1152 1.51471 92
93 0.034433 13.930 0.768 14.699 22.347 37.924 60.271 0.04427 0.07253 0.11680 61.08 0.1170 1.56248 93
up
94 0.035577 13.956 0.795 14.751 22.588 39.199 61.787 0.04471 0.07484 0.11955 62.08 0.1188 1.61l54 94
95 0.036757 13.981 0.823 14.804 22.828 40.515 63.343 0.04514 0.07722 0.12237 63.08 0.1206 1.66196 95
96 0.037972 14.006 0.852 14.858 23.069 41.871 64.940 0.04558 0.07968 0.12525 64.07 0.1224 1.71372 96
97 0.039225 14.032 0.881 14.913 23.309 43.269 66.578 0.04601 0.08220 0.12821 65.07 0.1242 1.76685 97
98 0.040516 14.057 0.912 14.969 23.550 44.711 68.260 0.04644 0.08480 0.13124 66.07 0.1260 1.82141 98
99 0.041848 14.082 0.944 15.026 23.790 46.198 69.988 0.04687 0.08747 0.13434 67.07 0.1278 1.87745 99
100 0.043219 14.107 0.976 15.084 24.031 47.730 71.761 0.04730 0.09022 0.13752 68.07 0.1296 1.93492 100
101 0.044634 14.133 1.010 15.143 24.271 49.312 73.583 0.04773 0.09306 0.14079 69.07 0.1314 1.99396 101
102 0.046090 14.158 1.045 15.203 24.512 50.940 75.452 0.04816 0.09597 0.14413 70.06 0.1332 2.05447 102
103 0.047592 14.183 1.081 15.264 24.752 52.621 77.373 0.04859 0.09897 0.14756 71.06 0.1349 2.11661 103
104 0.049140 14.208 1.118 15.326 24.993 54.354 79.346 0.04901 0.10206 0.15108 72.06 0.1367 2.18037 104
105 0.050737 14.234 1.156 15.390 25.233 56.142 81.375 0.04944 0.10525 0.15469 73.06 0.1385 2.24581 105
ro
106 0.052383 14.259 1.196 15.455 25.474 57.986 83.460 0.04987 0.10852 0.15839 74.06 0.1402 2.31297 106
107 0.054077 14.284 1.236 15.521 25.714 59.884 85.599 0.05029 0.11189 0.16218 75.06 0.1420 2.38173 107
108 0.055826 14.309 1.279 15.588 25.955 61.844 87.799 0.05071 0.1l537 0.16608 76.05 0.1438 2.45232 108
109 0.057628 14.335 1.322 15.657 26.195 63.866 90.061 0.05114 0.11894 0.17008 77.05 0.1455 2.52473 109
110 0.059486 14.360 1.367 15.727 26.436 65.950 92.386 0.05156 0.12262 0.17418 78.05 0.1473 2.59891 110
III 0.061401 14.385 1.414 15.799 26.677 68.099 94.776 0.05198 0.12641 0.17839 79.05 0.1490 2.67500 III
112 0.063378 14.41l 1.462 15.872 26.917 70.319 97.237 0.05240 0.13032 0.18272 80.05 0.1508 2.75310 112
113 0.065411 14.436 1.511 15.947 27.158 72.603 99.760 0.05282 0.13434 0.18716 81.05 0.1525 2.83291 113
114 0.067512 14.461 1.562 16.023 27.398 74.964 102.362 0.05324 0.13847 0.19172 82.04 0.1543 2.91491 114
0.19640 83.04 0.1560 2.99883 115
G
115 0.069676 14.486 1.615 16.101 27.639 77.396 105.035 0.05366 0.14274
116 0.071908 14.512 1.670 16.181 27.879 79.906 107.786 0.05408 0.14713 0.20121 84.04 0.1577 3.08488 116
117 0.074211 14.537 1.726 16.263 28.120 82.497 110.617 0.05450 0.15165 0.20615 85.04 0.1595 3.17305 117
118 0.076586 14.562 1.784 16.346 28.361 85.169 1l3.530 0.05492 0.15631 0.21122 86.04 0.1612 3.26335 118
119 0.079036 14.587 1.844 16.432 28.601 87.927 1l6.528 0.05533 0.16111 0.21644 87.04 0.1629 3.35586 119
120 0.081560 14.613 1.906 16.519 28.842 90.770 1l9.612 0.05575 0.16605 0.22180 88.04 0.1647 3.45052 120
121 0.084169 14.638 1.971 16.609 29.083 93.709 122.792 0.05616 0.17115 0.22731 89.04 0.1664 3.54764 121
122 0.086860 14.663 2.037 16.700 29.323 96.742 126.065 0.05658 0.17640 0.23298 90.03 0.1681 3.64704 122
123 0.089633 14.688 2.106 16.794 29.564 99.868 129.432 0.05699 0.18181 0.23880 91.03 0.1698 3.74871 123
124 0.092500 14.714 2.176 16.890 29.805 103.102 132.907 0.05740 0.18739 0.24480 92.03 0.1715 3.85298 124
125 0.095456 14.739 2.250 16.989 30.045 106.437 136.482 0.05781 0.19314 0.25096 93.03 0.1732 3.95961 125
126 0.098504 14.764 2.325 17.090 30.286 109.877 140.163 0.05823 0.19907 0.25729 94.03 0.1749 4.06863 126
127 0.101657 14.789 2.404 17.193 30.527 113.438 143.965 0.05864 0.20519 0.26382 95.03 0.1766 4.18046 127
128 0.104910 14.815 2.485 17.299 30.767 117.111 147.878 0.05905 0.21149 0.27054 96.03 0.1783 4.29477 128
129 0.108270 14.840 2.569 17.409 31.008 120.908 151.916 0.21800 0.21810 0.27745 97.03 0.1800 4.41181 129
"Note that the values for subscript g are actually solids (s) until O°F.
Fundamentals ofTllermodynamics and Psycllrometrics AppendixD

0:4
Condensed Water
Vapor
Temp. Humidity
ft311b
dry air Btullb dry air Btu/(Ih dry air) . OF Btullb Btullb· OF in.Hg Temp.,
t, Ratio,
OF Ib,.llbda Ws va V a/
va ha haga h a Sa Saga S a hO' SO' pg" OF
g g g
130 0.111738 14.865 2.655 17.520 31.249 124.828 156.076 0.05986 0.22470 0.28457 98.03 0.1817 4.53148 130
131 0.115322 14.891 2.745 17.635 31.489 128.880 160.370 0.06027 0.23162 0.29190 99.02 0.1834 4.65397 131
132 0.119023 14.916 2.837 17.753 31.730 133.066 164.796 0.06068 0.23876 0.29944 100.02 0.1851 4.77919 132
133 0.122855 14.941 2.934 17.875 31.971 137.403 169.374 0.06109 0.24615 0.30723 101.02 0.1868 4.90755 133
134 0.126804 14.966 3.033 17.999 32.212 141.873 174.084 0.06149 0.25375 0.31524 102.02 0.1885 5.03844 134
135 0.130895 14.992 3.136 18.127 32.452 146.504 178.957 0.06190 0.26161 0.32351 103.02 0.1902 5.17258 135
136 0.135124 15.017 3.242 18.259 32.693 151.294 183.987 0.06230 0.26973 0.33203 104.02 0.1919 5.30973 136
137 0.139494 15.042 3.352 18.394 32.934 156.245 189.179 0.06271 0.27811 0.34082 105.02 0.1935 5.44985 137
t
138 0.144019 15.067 3.467 18.534 33.175 161.374 194.548 0.06311 0.28707 0.35018 106.02 0.1952 5.59324 138
139 0.148696 15.093 3.585 18.678 33.415 166.677 200.092 0.06351 0.29602 0.35954 107.02 0.1969 5.73970 139
140 0.153538 15.118 3.708 18.825 33.656 172.168 205.824 0.06391 0.30498 0.36890 108.02 0.1985 5.88945 140
pe
141 0.158643 15.143 3.835 18.978 33.897 177.857 211.754 0.06431 0.31456 0.37887 109.02 0.2002 6.04256 141
142 0.163748 15.168 3.967 19.135 34.138 183.754 217.892 0.06471 0.32446 0.38918 110.02 0.2019 6.19918 142
143 0.169122 15.194 4.103 19.297 34.379 189.855 224.233 0.06511 0.33470 0.39981 111.02 0.2035 6.35898 143
144 0.174694 15.219 4.245 19.464 34.620 196.183 230.802 0.06551 0.34530 0.41081 112.02 0.2052 6.52241 144
145 0.180467 15.244 4.392 19.637 34.860 202.740 237.600 0.06591 0.35626 0.42218 113.02 0.2068 6.68932 145
146 0.186460 15.269 4.545 19.815 35.101 209.550 244.651 0.06631 0.36764 0.43395 114.02 0.2085 6.86009 146
147 0.192668 15.295 4.704 19.999 35.342 216.607 251.949 0.06671 0.37941 0.44611 115.02 0.2101 7.03435 147
148 0.199110 15.320 4.869 20.189 35.583 223.932 259.514 0.06710 0.39160 0.45871 116.02 0.2118 7.21239 148
149 0.205792 15.345 5.040 20.385 35.824 231.533 267.356 0.06750 0.40424 0.47174 117.02 0.2134 7.39413 149
150 0.212730 15.370 5.218 20.589 36.064 239.426 275.490 0.06790 0.41735 0.48524 118.02 0.2151 7.57977 150
151 0.219945 15.396 5.404 20.799 36.305 247.638 283.943 0.06829 0.43096 0.49925 119.02 0.2167 7.76958 151
152 0.227429 15.421 5.596 21.017 36.546 256.158 292.705 0.06868 0.44507 0.51375 120.02 0.2184 7.96306 152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
0.235218
0.243309
0.251738
0.260512
0.269644
0.279166
0.289101
0.29945
0.31027
0.32156
15.446
15.471
15.497
15.522
15.547
15.572
15.598
15.623
15.648
15.673
Eg 5.797
6.005
6.223
6.450
6.686
6.933
7.190
7.459
7.740
8.034
21.243
21.477
21.720
21.972
22.233
22.505
22.788
23.082
23.388
23.707
36.787
37.028
37.269
37.510
37.751
37.992
38.233
38.474
38.715
38.956
265.028
274.245
283.849
293.849
304.261
315.120
326.452
338.263
350.610
363.501
301.816
311.273
321.118
331.359
342.012
353.112
364.685
376.737
389.325
402.457
416.175
0.06908
0.06947
0.06986
0.07025
0.07065
0.07104
0.07143
0.07181
0.07220
0.07259
0.07298
0.45973
0.47494
0.49077
0.50723
0.52434
0.54217
0.56074
0.58007
0.60025
0.62128
0.64325
0.52881
0.54441
0.56064
0.57749
0.59499
0.61320
0.63216
0.65188
0.67245
0.69388
0.71623
121.02
122.02
123.02
124.02
125.02
126.02
127.02
128.02
129.02
130.03
131.03
0.2200
0.2216
0.2233
0.2249
0.2265
0.2281
0.2297
0.2314
0.2330
0.2346
0.2362
8.16087
8.36256
8.56871
8.77915
8.99378
9.21297
9.43677
9.6648
9.8978
10.1353
10.3776
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
163 0.33336 15.699 8.341 24.040 39.197 376.979
164 0.34572 15.724 8.664 24.388 39.438 391.095 430.533 0.07337 0.66622 0.73959 132.03 0.2378 10.6250 164
165 0.35865 15.749 9.001 24.750 39.679 405.865 445.544 0.07375 0.69022 0.76397 133.03 0.2394 10.8771 165
up
166 0.37220 15.774 9.355 25.129 39.920 421.352 461.271 0.07414 0.71535 0.78949 134.03 0.2410 11.1343 166
167 0.38639 15.800 9.726 25.526 40.161 437.578 477.739 0.07452 0.74165 0.81617 135.03 0.2426 11.3965 167
168 0.40131 15.825 10.117 25.942 40.402 454.630 495.032 0.07491 0.76925 0.84415 136.03 0.2442 11.6641 168
169 0.41698 15.850 10.527 26.377 40.643 472.554 513.197 0.07529 0.79821 0.87350 137.04 0.2458 11.9370 169
170 0.43343 15.875 10.959 26.834 40.884 491.372 532.256 0.07567 0.82858 0.90425 138.04 0.2474 12.2149 170
171 0.45079 15.901 11.414 27.315 41.125 511.231 552.356 0.07606 0.86058 0.93664 139.04 0.2490 12.4988 171
172 0.46905 15.926 11.894 27.820 41.366 532.138 573.504 0.07644 0.89423 0.97067 140.04 0.2506 12.7880 172
173 0.48829 15.951 12.400 28.352 41.607 554.160 595.767 0.07682 0.92962 1.00644 141.04 0.2521 13.0823 173
174 0.50867 15.976 12.937 28.913 41.848 577.489 619.337 0.07720 0.96707 1.04427 142.04 0.2537 13.3831 174
175 0.53019 16.002 13.504 29.505 42.089 602.139 644.229 0.07758 1.00657 1.08416 143.05 0.2553 13.6894 175
176 0.55294 16.027 14.103 30.130 42.331 628.197 670.528 0.07796 1.04828 1.12624 144.05 0.2569 14.0010 176
177 0.57710 16.052 14.741 30.793 42.572 655.876 698.448 0.07834 1.09253 1.17087 145.05 0.2585 14.3191 177
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178 0.60274 16.078 15.418 31.496 42.813 685.260 728.073 0.07872 1.13943 1.21815 146.05 0.2600 14.6430 178
179 0.63002 16.103 16.139 32.242 43.054 716.524 759.579 0.07910 1.18927 1.26837 147.06 0.2616 14.9731 179
180 0.65911 16.128 16.909 33.037 43.295 749.871 793.166 0.07947 1.24236 1.32183 148.06 0.2632 15.3097 180
181 0.69012 16.153 17.730 33.883 43.536 785.426 828.962 0.07985 1.29888 1.37873 149.06 0.2647 15.6522 181
182 0.72331 16.178 18.609 34.787 43.778 823.487 867.265 0.08023 1.35932 1.43954 150.06 0.2663 16.0014 182
183 0.75885 16.204 19.551 35.755 44.019 864.259 908.278 0.08060 1.42396 1.50457 151.07 0.2679 16.3569 183
184 0.79703 16.229 20.564 36.793 44.260 908.061 952.321 0.08098 1.49332 1.57430 152.07 0.2694 16.7190 184
185 0.83817 16.254 21.656 37.910 44.501 955.261 999.763 0.08135 1.56797 1.64932 153.07 0.2710 17.0880 185
186 0.88251 16.280 22.834 39.113 44.742 1006.149 1050.892 0.08172 1.64834 1.73006 154.08 0.2725 17.4634 186
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187 0.93057 16.305 24.111 40.416 44.984 1061.314 1106.298 0.08210 1.73534 1.81744 155.08 0.2741 17.8462 187
188 0.98272 16.330 25.498 41.828 45.225 1121.174 1166.399 0.08247 1.82963 1.91210 156.08 0.2756 18.2357 188
189 1.03951 16.355 27.010 43.365 45.466 1186.382 1231.848 0.08284 1.93221 2.01505 157.09 0.2772 18.6323 189
190 1.10154 16.381 28.661 45.042 45.707 1257.614 1303.321 0.08321 2.04412 2.12733 158.09 0.2787 19.0358 190
191 1.16965 16.406 30.476 46.882 45.949 1335.834 1381.783 0.08359 2.16684 2.25043 159.09 0.2803 19.4468 191
192 1.24471 16.431 32.477 48.908 46.190 1422.047 1468.238 0.08396 2.30193 2.38589 160.10 0.2818 19.8652 192
193 1.32788 16.456 34.695 51.151 46.431 1517.581 1564.013 0.08433 2.45144 2.53576 161.10 0.2834 20.2913 193
194 1.42029 16.481 37.161 53.642 46.673 1623.758 1670.430 0.08470 2.61738 2.70208 162.11 0.2849 20.7244 194
195 1.52396 16.507 39.928 56.435 46.914 1742.879 1789.793 0.08506 2.80332 2.88838 163.11 0.2864 21.1661 195
196 1.64070 16.532 43.046 59.578 47.155 1877.032 1924.188 0.08543 3.01244 3.09787 164.12 0.2880 21.6152 196
197 1.77299 16.557 46.580 63.137 47.397 2029.0692076.466 0.08580 3.24914 3.33494 165.12 0.289522.0714 197
198 1.92472 16.583 50.636 67.218 47.638 2203.464 2251.102 0.08617 3.52030 3.60647 166.13 0.2910 22.5367 198
199 2.09975 16.608 55.316 71.923 47.879 2404.6682452.547 0.08653 3.83275 3.91929 167.13 0.2926 23.0092 199
200 2.30454 16.633 60.793 77.426 48.121 2640.084 2688.205 0.08690 4.19787 4.28477 168.13 0.2941 23.4906 200
aNote that the values for subscript g are acrually solids (s) until O°F.
AppendixD Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics

E: 1
ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart
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NORMAL TEMPERATURE
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE: 29.921 INCHES OF MERCURY
SEA LEVEL
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries AppendixE

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Skill Development Exercises
Contents
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• Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC
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• Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes
• Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances
• Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts
• Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables
• Chapter 6 Heat and Work
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• Chapter 7
• Chapter 8
• Chapter 9
• Chapter 10
• Chapter 11
First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Closed Systems
First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Open Systems
Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics
The Carnot Cycle
Refrigeration Cycles
• Chapter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture of Ideal Gases
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• Chapter 13 Properties of Moist Air
• Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart
• Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes on the Psychrometric Chart
Instructions
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After reading each chapter, answer all of the questions pertaining to that chapter on the
following worksheets. Remove and send your completed worksheets to ASHRAE. Be sure
to include your name and address
G
Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Skill Development Exercises

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1: 1
Complete the following questions by writing your answers on these worksheets. Be sure to
include your name and address below. Send the completed worksheets to ASHRAE.
t
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Name
Company/Organization
---------------------------------------------------
Address
----------------------------------------------------------
Eg
City _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Telephone_________________________
State -----
Zip ---------
Fax -----------------------------
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1-01. List the seven main air-conditioning processes, give a one-sentence description of
each process, and give another one-sentence reason why the process is likely to be
found in a hospital.
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Question Sheet Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

1: 2
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1-02. Define what is meant by air-conditioning.
Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC Question Sheet

1: 3
1-03. Name five pieces of normal HVAC equipment for which the application of thermo-
dynamic principles is essential to predict performance.
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pe
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1-04. In your own words, state what is meant by the conservation of energy principle.
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Question Sheet Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

1: 4
1-05. Provide two examples of a process that goes in one direction but will not go in the
reverse direction without applying an external energy source.
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1-06.
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What is the difference between dry air and moist air?
up
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Send your completed worksheets to:

G
ASHRAElnc.
Atlanta, GA 30329-2305
Phone: 404/636-8400
Fax: 404/321-5478
Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC Question Sheet

2: 1
t
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Name
CompanyIOrganization
---------------------------------------------------
Address
---------------------------------------------------------------
City
Eg
------------------------------------
Telephone_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
State ----
Zip
Fax -----------------------------
2-01. Using examples, explain the main difference between open and closed systems.
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Question Sheet Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes

2:2
2-02. Automobile engines are usually cooled by antifreeze that is circulated between the
engine and the radiator by a centrifugal pump. Air is blown over the radiator to cool
the antifreeze. Sketch the following systems and state whether they are open or
closed:
• Antifreeze in the pump
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• Antifreeze in the radiator
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• Antifreeze in the pump, radiator and engine water jacket
• Antifreeze in the radiator and air in the fan
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Chapter 2 Systems, Properties, States and Processes Question Sheet

2: 3
2-03. Describe the differences between thermal, phase, chemical and nuclear energies.
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2-04. Give an expression for the specific total energy of a system in terms of the internal,
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potential and kinetic energies.

G

2:4
2-05. Sketch on a p- V diagram what happens when trapped air expands in a closed cylin-
der with a piston. Be sure to label the initial and final states, the path and the major
properties.
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Chapter 2 SystelllS, Properties, States and Processes Question Sheet

2: 5
2-06. Sketch on a p- V diagram a four-process cycle that has process 1 to 2 as an isobaric

decrease in volume, 2 to 3 as an isometric increase in pressure, 3 to 4 as an isobaric
increase in volume, and 4 to 1 as an isometric decrease in pressure.
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2: 6
2-07. Sketch on a t-p diagram the following four-process cycle: 1 to 2 isothermal; 2 to 3

isobaric; 3 to 4 isothermal; and 4 to 1 isobaric.
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ASHRAElnc.
Phone: 404/636-8400
Fax: 404/321-5478
Chapter 2 SystelllS, Properties, States and Processes Question Sheet

3: 1
t
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Name
---------------------------------------------------
Address
State Zip
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City ___________________
Telephone ______________
--- ------
Fax -----------------------------
3-01. Give the state postulate and explain what a simple compressive substance is.
up
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Question Sheet Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances

3:2
3-02. Explain the differences between absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.
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3-03.
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Give the typical units for the following properties and indicate which properties are
intensive and which are extensive: specific enthalpy, total volume, pressure, tem-
perature, specific entropy, mass and quality.
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3-04. Give the temperature of212 cF in units of degrees Rankine, degrees Kelvin and cC.
Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances Question Sheet

3: 3
3-05. Sketch a T-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant pressure process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant temperature line.
t
pe
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3-06. Sketch a p-v diagram for a pure substance and show the saturated liquid line, the
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saturated vapor line, the critical point and a constant temperature process line from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor. Also include a constant pressure line.
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Question Sheet Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances

3:4
3-07. A saturated mixture of water is at 230°F and 103 psia. The specific volume of the
liquid is vj = 0.0178 ft3/lb m and the specific volume of the vapor is vg = 4.312 ft3/lb m.
Ifthe quality is x = 0.5, what is the specific volume of the mixture?
t
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3-08.
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A fixed volume container initially contains a pure substance in superheated form.
The container is cooled until there is a mixture of liquid and vapor inside. Using T-v
and p-v diagrams, describe the changes taking place in this constant volume process
as the contents are cooled.
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ASHRAElnc.
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Chapter 3 Property Diagramsfor Pure Substances Question Sheet

4: 1
t
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Name
-------------------------------------------------
Address
City
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-----------------------------------
Telephone___________________
State ---
Zip
Fax - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-----
4-01. The saturated temperature of water is lOO°F. What is the pressure? What are the
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liquid and vapor values of specific volume, specific enthalpy and specific entropy?
(Use the table in Appendix B.)
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4-02. The saturated temperature of water is 100°F and the quality is 50%. What is the
value of specific volume and specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
G
Question Sheet Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

4:2
4-03. The saturation pressure for R-22 is 50 psia. What is the saturation temperature?
(U se the table in Appendix C.)
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4-04.
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The saturation temperature for water is 231.5°F and the quality is 0.2. What is the
pressure and the specific enthalpy? (Use the table in Appendix B.)
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Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts Question Sheet

4: 3
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the quality?
(Use the chart in Appendix C.)
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4-06. The enthalpy for R-22 is 50 Btu/Ibm and the temperature is 100°F. Is the refrigerant
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in the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the pressure
and the quality? (Use the table in Appendix C.)
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Question Sheet Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

4:4
the compressed liquid, saturated or superheated vapor state? What is the value of the
density? (Use the chart in Appendix C.)
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ASHRAEInc.
Phone: 404/636-8400
Fax: 404/321-5478
Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts Question Sheet

5: 1
t
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Name
---------------------------------------------
Address
City _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ State - - - Zip
Eg
Telephone ______________ Fax ----------------------------
------
5-01. Air is often treated as an ideal gas. For the conditions of p = 14.696 psia and t =
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72°F, find the specific volume for dry air, va' in Appendix D, and compare the value
read in the table to the value caclulated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T= t + 459.67
to convert from OF to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1. Express
the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being correct.
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Question Sheet Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables

5:2
5-02. Water vapor is sometimes treated as an ideal gas. For the condition ofp = 67.0341
psia, find the specific volume for saturated vapor, vg , in Appendix B, and compare
the value read in the table to the value caclulated using the Ideal Gas Law. Use T=
t + 459.67 to convert from OF to R. Use the value of gas constant given in Table 5-1.
Express the answer as a percent error by treating the tabulated value as being cor-
t
rect.
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5-03. Repeat Exercise 5-02 except for conditions of saturated vapor at p = 0.3628 psia.
Compare the error found with the error determined in Exercise 5-02 and comment
on the difference.
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Cltapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables Question Slteet

5: 3
5-04. A room of dimensions 10ft x 20 ft x 8 ft at atmospheric pressure contains 120 lb of 11/
air. Assume an ideal gas and estimate the temperature in the room in of.
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5-05. Consider the constant pressure heating of air from 70°F to 200°F. If the pressure is
14.7 psia, what is the ratio of specific volumes before and after the heating?
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Question Sheet Chapter 5 I deal Gas Law and Air Tables

5:4
5-06. Make a table listing the values of internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for air at
14.696 psia, with temperatures ranging from Oop to lOOoP in steps of lOoP, using
the coefficients of specific heat suggested for air at 80 0 P in the text. Use reference
values of zero internal energy, zero enthalpy and zero entropy at OOp.
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Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables Question Sheet

5: 5
5-07. Find the values of enthalpy for dry air in the table in Appendix D, at the same tem-
perature entries used in the table created in Exercise 5-06 and compare calculated
and look-up values. Calculate percent error assuming the tabulated values to be
correct.
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ASHRAElnc.
Phone: 404/636-8400
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Question Sheet Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law andAir Tables

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6: 1
t
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Name
---------------------------------------------------
Address
---------------------------------------------------------------
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Ciry ________________________________
Telephone__________________________
State -----
Zip
Fax ----------------------------
6-01. Provide a description of heat, and describe how it is different from internal energy.
up
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Question Sheet Chapter 6 Heat and Work

6:2
6-02. A 0.35 Ibm potato at 70°F is placed in an oven at 350°F. After 45 minutes, the potato
temperature is 350°F. Assume the coefficient of specific heat for the potato is cp =
1.0 BtU/lbm·oF. If the reference datum for internal energy is U= 0 at t = OaF, then
estimate the internal energy content of the potato at the beginning and end of the 45
minutes. What has been the heat during the 45 minutes and is it positive or negative?
What was the average rate of heat transfer?
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6-03. Provide a description of work in general, and then give short (one- or two-sentence)
descriptions of boundary work and shaft work.
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Chapter 6 Heat and Work Question Sheet

6: 3
6-04. Provide a description of flow work, and say how it is included in enthalpy.
t
pe
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6-05. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 2 Ibm of water at 212°P and quality x =
0.4. The fixed weight piston is not attached to a shaft. Heat is added to the water
until it is all saturated vapor. Calculate the work done by the system.
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6:4
6-06. A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.2 ft3 of air at 80 psia and 76°F. The air
is expanded to 0.9 ft3 in such a way that the temperature remains constant. Calculate
the work done by the system, the final pressure and the mass of air.
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Chapter 6 Heat and Work Question Sheet

6: 5
6-07. In the isentropic compression of air in a cylinder, the volume is reduced from 1.5 ft3
to 0.5 ft3. The ratio of specific heats for air is k= 1.4. The initial pressure is 14.7 psia
and the initial temperature is 45°F. Assume the air acts as an ideal gas. Estimate the
final pressure, the final temperature and the work done.
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ASHRAEInc.
Phone: 404/636-8400
Fax: 404/321-5478

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7: 1
t
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Name
---------------------------------------------------
Address
City
Eg
------------------------------------
Telephone______________ Fax
State ----
Zip
----------------------------
------
7-01. Give a one-page description of the heat, work and energy change terms in the First
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Law equation for a closed system and describe how they relate to each other (a word
description of the conservation of energy principle).
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Question Sileet Cllapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems

7:2
7-02. A rigid tank with a volume of 3 ft3 is initially filled with air at 15 psi a and 20°F. The
air is heated to 200°F. Treat the air as an ideal gas.' Apply the Ideal Gas Law to
determine the mass of air in the tank. Apply the continuity equation to determine the
final pressure in the tank. Assuming the air in the tank to constitute a closed system,
apply the First Law to determine the heat transferred during the process.
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Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems Question Sheet

7: 3
7-03. A rigid tank with a volume of 1.5 ft3 is initially filled with R-22 in a saturated vapor
state at 140°F. The refrigerant is cooled until the pressure is 57.083 psia. Sketch the
process on ap-v diagram. Use the refrigerant tables (in Appendix C-l) to determine
the mass of refrigerant in the tank. Determine the final temperature. Assuming the
refrigerant in the tank to constitute a closed system, apply the First Law and deter-
t
mine the heat transferred during the process.
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Question Sheet Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems

7:4
7-04. A piston-cylinder device contains 10 lb of air which is maintained at a constant

/11
pressure of 150 psia by a floating piston of constant weight. How much heat must be
added to raise the temperature from 20°F to 300°F?
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7: 5
7-05. A piston-cylinder contains 1 Ibm of saturated liquid R-22 at 20°F. The refrigerant is
maintained at constant pressure by a floating piston. Determine the work and heat if
the refrigerant is heated until the quality is 50%. Sketch the process on a p-v dia-
gram.
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Question Sheet Chapter 7 First Law and Closed Systems

7: 6
7-06. Describe experiments in which the First Law may be used to determine the specific
heats of an ideal gas of unknown properties placed in a rigid tank, and in a cylinder
in which the pressure is kept constant with a floating, frictionless piston.
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ASHRAElnc.
Phone: 404/636-8400
Fax: 404/321-5478

8: 1
t
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Name
-------------------------------------------------
Address
------------------------------------------------------------
City
Eg
-----------------------------------
Telephone__________________________ Fax
State Zip
----------------------------
8-01. The inlet temperature to a centrifugal flow, 0.8 kW air compressor is 20°F. The
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steady mass flow rate is 0.04 lbn/s. If the compressor is assumed adiabatic and the
kinetic and potential energies are assumed negligible, then estimate the outlet tem-
perature of the compressor.
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Question Sheet Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems

8:2
8-02. The inlet condition to a centrifugal flow, R-134a compressor is saturated vapor at
20°F. The steady mass flow rate is 0.08 Ibm Is. If the heat lost from the compressor is
800 Btulh and the work to run the compressor is 3.0 kW, estimate the specific en-
thalpy of the refrigerant leaving the compressor. Neglect the kinetic and potential
energies of the flow.
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8-03. Air enters an adiabatic turbine at 300°F and with negligible velocity. The rate of
doing work is 2.0 kW. The outlet temperature is 20°F. If the outlet velocity is 300
fils, then calculate the mass flow rate of air.
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Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems Question Sheet

8: 3
8-04. A mixing tank has two steady inflows and one steady outflow. The conditions of the
first inflow are superheated steam at t] = 350°F, h] = 1,140 Btu/Ibm' and flow rate
rill = 30 Ibm Ih. The second inflow is compressed liquid at t2 = 70°F, h2 = 38 Btu/Ibm'
Ifthe rate of heat removal from the tank is 25,000 Btu/h, then estimate the inflow of
water needed to result in the outflow being saturated liquid water at 212°F. Neglect
t
changes in kinetic and potential energy.
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Question Sheet Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems

8:4
8-05. Two air streams are mixed together in an adiabatic mixer to produce an output stream
of air at 95°F. lfthe two incoming streams are at 120°F and 35°F respectively, find
the ratio of volume flow rates of the hot to cold air to produce the 95°F air.
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ASHRAElnc.
Phone: 404/636-8400
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Chapter 8 First Law and Open Systems Question Sheet

9: 1
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Name
---------------------------------------------------
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City
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-------------------------------------
Telephone_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Fax
State ---
Zip
----------------------------
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compresses air from 15 psia to 100 psia. The inlet temperature is 72°F. Assume
isentropic compression of an ideal gas, k = 1.4, Cp = 0.24 Btullb111 .oF.
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Question Sheet Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law

9:2
compresses air from 15 psia to 150 psia. The inlet temperature is 72°F. Assume
polytropic compression of an ideal gas, n = 1.3, Cp = 0.24 Btullbm.of and a heat loss
rate of 0.1 KW.
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9-03. The inlet condition to a R-22 compressor is saturated vapor at -40°F. If the specific
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work for the isentropic compression is 30 Btu/Ibm' then calculate the specific en-
thalpy of the refrigerant at the compressor exit. Sketch the process on the p-h dia-
gram and use Appendix C-2 to estimate the delivery pressure. (The diagram of Ap-
pendix C-2 is not easy to read, so an approximate value is acceptable.)
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Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law Question Sheet

9: 3
9-04. The inlet to an adiabatic steam turbine is superheated steam at 1,OOO°F, 400 psia and
enthalpy of 1,526 Btullb The steam leaves the turbine at 150°F, with a quality of
111.
0.90. Determine the specific work in Btullb111 of the turbine.
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9-05.
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The inlet condition to a throttling valve in a R -134a refrigerator is saturated liquid at
110°F. Determine the outlet condition of the refrigerant (quality) if the outlet pres-
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sure is 21.162 psia.
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Question Sheet Chapter 9 Applications ofthe First Law

9:4
9-06. Consider a pipe-in-pipe, counterflow, water-to-air heat exchanger. The water flow
rate ofO.1lbm /s enters at 200°F and leaves at 100°F. The air flow rate ofO.9lbm /s
enters at 72°F. The coefficient of specific heat of water is Cp = 1.0 Btullbm .oF, and
for air Cp = 0.24 Btullbm .oF. For both water and air, the change in enthalpy can be
expressed as the coefficient of specific heat times the change in temperature. Com-
t
plete the following:
pe
• Sketch the heat exchanger and the temperature profiles of the two streams
through the length of the heat exchanger.
• Determine the outlet temperature of the air.
Eg • Determine the UA product for the heat exchanger.

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10: 1
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Name
-------------------------------------------------
Address
City
Eg
-----------------------------------
Telephone______________ Fax
State ----
Zip ------
----------------------------
10-1. A refrigerator with a coefficient of performance of 2.8 provides 120,000 Btu of

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cooling. Calculate the net work required to run the refrigerator and the heat to be
rejected to the surroundings.
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Question Sheet Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

10:2
10.2. Give the Clausius statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and briefly
describe in your own words what the statement means.
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10.3. Describe the four processes of the reversed Carnot cycle and show the cycle on a T-s
diagram.
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10.4. A Carnot heat engine operates between a source at 2000 R and a sink at 440 R. lfthe
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heat engine is supplied heat at a rate of 800 Btu/min, determine the thermal effi-
ciency and the power output of the engine.
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Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle Question Sheet

10: 3
10.5. A heat engine is operating on a Camot cycle and has a thermal efficiency of 55%.
The waste heat from the engine is rejected to a nearby lake at 50°F at a rate of 600
Btu!min. Determine the power output of the engine and the temperature of the heat
source.
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pe
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10.6. A refrigerator is required to remove heat from a cooled space at a rate of 200 Btu!
min to maintain a temperature of 20°F. If the ambient air surrounding the refrigera-
tor is at 72°F, determine the minimum power input required for the refrigerator.
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Question Slteet Cltapter 10 Tlte Carnot Cycle

10:4
10.7. An inventor claims to have developed a cooling system that removes heat from a
cooled region at 10°F and transfers it to surrounding air at 75°F while maintaining a
COP of7.5. How do you assess the inventor's claim?
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10.S. An air-conditioning system is used to maintain a house at 72°F when the tempera-
ture outside is 95°F. The house is gaining heat through the walls and windows at a
rate of 50,000 Btu/h, and the heat generation rate within the house by lights and
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appliances is 5,000 Btu/h. Determine the minimum power input required by the air-
conditioning system.
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Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle Question Sheet

11: 1
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Name
-------------------------------------------------
Address
________________________________
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Telephone_________________________
State -----
Zip
Fax ---------------------------
---------
11-01. Sketch the basic elements of the vapor-compression cycle: compressor, condenser,
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expansion valve and evaporator and describe the basic function of each.
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Question Sheet Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

11: 2
11-02. Sketch the T-s and p-h property diagrams of an ideal vapor-compression cycle and
describe the thermodynamic processes of the cycle.
t
pe
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11-03. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an ideal vapor-compression cycle with
R-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor at 8.577 psia and is compressed to 199.25 psia. Find the coefficient of perfor-
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mance of the refrigerator and the power of the compressor. Compare the coefficient
of performance with that ofa Carnot cycle operating between -35°F and 125°F.
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Chapter II Refrigeration Cycles Question Sheet

11:3
11-04. A 3-ton refrigeration system operates on an actual vapor-compression cycle with

R-134a as the working fluid. The isentropic efficiency ofthe adiabatic compressor
is 85%. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 8.577 psi a and
is compressed to 199.25 psia. The pressure drop in the condenser is 13.41 psi. The
pressure drop in the evaporator is 2.72 psi. Find the coefficient of performance of
t
the refrigerator and the power ofthe compressor.
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Question Sheet Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

11: 4
11-05. A 5 kW compressor drives an ideal vapor-compression cycle heat pump with R-22
as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at
83.28 psia and is compressed to 396.32 psia. Find the heating capability of the heat
pump and the coefficient of performance.
t
pe
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11-06. An ice-making machine operates on a vapor-compression cycle using R-22. The
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refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor at 10°F and leaves the com-
pressor with an enthalpy of 120 Btu/Ibm. The condenser pressure is 210.69 psia.
Water enters the ice-machine at 55°F and leaves as ice at 25°F. For an ice produc-
tion rate of 10 lbn/h, estimate the power input to the refrigerator. The heat removed
to convert 55°F water to ice at 25°F is 169 Btullbm .
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Chapter II Refrigeration Cycles Question Sheet

11:5
11-07. Sketch and describe the operation of an absorption refrigeration cycle that uses a
mixture of ammonia and water. Ammonia serves as the refrigerant.
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Question Sheet
Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles
11: 6
11-08. Sketch and describe the operation of an open cycle gas refrigeration system.
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Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles Question Sheet

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Name
f
Company IOrganization
---------------------------------------------------
Address
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City _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Telephone _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
State ---
Zip
Fax - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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12-01. State Dalton's law of additive pressures, and then sketch and explain how this model
may result from the addition of two gases of equal volume and temperature.
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Question Sileet Chapter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture ofIdeal Gases

12:2
12-02. Calculate the mass fractions and mole fractions when 2 Ibm nitrogen (molecular
weight MN2 = 28.013 Ibl/,1lb mo,) is mixed with 6 Ibm hydrogen (molecular weight
MH2 = 2.0161b m lIb moe
I). What is the molecular weight of the mixture? What are the
partial volume fractions and the partial pressure fractions?
t
pe
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12-03. 2 lbm dry air (molecular weight M Alr. = 28.97 lbm lIb moeI) is mixed with 0.1 lbm water
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vapor (molecular weightMH20 = 18.015Ibmllbmo'e). What is the molecular weight of
the mixture? What is the partial pressure of the water vapor if the total pressure is
atmospheric (14.97 psia)? Compare the partial pressure with the saturated pressure
at 100°F and say whether this mixture is possible at this temperature.
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Chapter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture ofIdeal Gases Question Sheet

12: 3
12-04. Find the humidity ratio, specific volume (per Ibm of dry air) and specific enthalpy
(per Ibm of dry air) of saturated moist air at standard atmospheric pressure and
120°F.
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pe
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12-05. Find the specific enthalpy (per Ibm of dry air) of moist air at standard atmospheric
pressure and 120°F if the humidity ratio is 0.05.
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Question Sheet Chapter i2 Air as a Mixture ofideal Gases

12:4
12-06. 2 lb m dry air is mixed with 0.1 lb m water vapor at atmospheric pressure and tem-
perature of 120°F. Calculate the enthalpy of the mixture (per Ibm of dry air) from:
the moist air tables; and the expressions given for the enthalpy of dry air and water
vapor in the text.
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Cl,apter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture ofIdeal Gases Question Sheet

13: 1
t
pe
Name
-------------------------------------------------
Address
City _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ State Zip
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Telephone________________________
-----
Fax ----------------------------
13-01. Give a short description of humidity ratio and relative humidity.

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Question Sheet Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air

13:2
13-02. Using the definitions of humidity ratio, relative humidity and the Ideal Gas Law,
show that the relationship between humidity ratio and relative humidity can be writ-
ten as:
= W(pi pg)/{0.622+W)
t
W= Pg pg) lb vapor/lb dry air
III 1Jl
pe
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13-03. Consider moist air at 72°P and atmospheric pressure. Answer the following ques-
tions:
• What is the humidity ratio and relative humidity if the air is saturated?
• What is the humidity ratio if the relative humidity is 60%?
• What is the relative humidity if the humidity ratio is 0.015 Ibm vapor/lb dry air?
fII
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Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air Question Sheet

13: 3
13-04. Explain the term dewpoint temperature. Calculate the dewpoint temperature for nop
atmospheric air with a relative humidity of 60%.
t
pe
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13-05. On a 72°P day, the wet-bulb temperature is measured as 55°P. Calculate the humid-
ity ratio and the relative humidity.
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Question Sheet Chapter 13 Properties ofMoist Air

13:4
13-06. Atmospheric air at 90°F and 60% relative humidity is cooled to 80°F or 60°F. In
each case, calculate the final relative humidity.
t
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13-07. Moist air at 95°F, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity of 60% is cooled at
constant pressure to saturation conditions at a rate of 2,000 Ibm dry air per hour.
Estimate the rate of heat removal.
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Chapter 13 Properties ofMoistAir Question Sheet

14: 1
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Name
-------------------------------------------------
Address
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City _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Telephone _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
State ----
Zip _ _ __
Fax ----------------------------
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14-01. Sketch the outline of the psychrometric chart showing typical lines of constant value
of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity,
specific enthalpy and specific volume.
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Question Sheet Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart

14:2
14-02. List the seven properties that are represented on the psychrometric chart.
t
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The following five problems are to be solved by looking up the properties of moist air on
the psychrometric chart for standard atmospheric pressure (sea-level). Given two proper-
ties, you must look up the other five properties.
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14-03. Dry-bulb temperature of90oP and a wet-bulb temperature of75°P.
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14-04. Humidity ratio of 0.008 lb m moisture per lb dry air and relative humidity of 80%.
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14-05. Humidity ratio of 0.020 lbm moisture per lb111 dry air and dry-bulb temperature of
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80 oP.
Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart Question Sheet

14: 3
14-06. Enthalpy of25 Btu per Ibm dry air and relative humidity of20%.
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14-07. Saturated moist air at a dry-bulb temperature of 72°F.
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Question Sheet Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart

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15: 1
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Name
-------------------------------------------------
Address
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City _________________________
Telephone________________ Fax
State -----
Zip
----------------------------
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15-01. Moist air is cooled from 80°F, 50% relative humidity to 70°F with no moisture
added or removed. What is the final relative humidity and the heat removed per lb 11/
of dry air?
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Question Sheet Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes

15:2
15-02. Moist air is cooled from 80°F, 50% relative humidity to 50°F. What is the final
relative humidity, humidity ratio and change of enthalpy?
t
pe
15-03. 1,000 cfm of outdoor air at 40°F and 20% relative humidity is to be heated and
humidified to a final condition of 72°F and 50% relative humidity with a heater
followed by a steam humidifier. The temperature after the heater is 64°F. Find the
following: the heat added in the heater section; the mass flow rate of steam; and the
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enthalpy of the steam.
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Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes Question Sheet

15: 3
15-04. Outdoor air at 95°F and 50% relative humidity is to be cooled to a final condition of
72°F and 50% relative humidity using a cooling coil and a simple heater. Find the
intermediate temperature between the cooling coil and the heater, the specific heat
removed in the cooling coil, and the specific heat added in the heater.
t
pe
Eg
15-05. Outdoor air at 95°F and 20% relative humidity is cooled in an evaporative cooler by
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spraying with saturated liquid water at 70°F. What is the final temperature if the
final relative humidity is 60%? (Hint: use the protractor to get the slope of the pro-
cess line.) How much water will it take per Ibm of dry air? (Hint: use the change in
humidity ratio.)
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Question Sheet Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes

15:4
15-06. 20 Ibm per minute of air at 40°F and 90% relative humidity is adiabatically mixed
with moist air at 80°F, but unknown relative humidity. The final mixture is at 72°F
and 50% relative humidity. What is the relative humidity and mass flow rate of the
second air stream?
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15-07. The sensible heat load ratio for a heating problem is known to be SHR = -2.0. The
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setpoint condition for the conditioned space is 72°F and 50% relative humidity.
Find the relative humidity of the 80°F heating air if the correct ratio of sensible to
latent heat is to be removed from the conditioned space.
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Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes Question Sheet

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Eg A Self-Directed Learning Course

Richard R. Johnson, Ph.D.

North Carolina State University

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

ASHRAE Education Department:

Laura Tracy, Education Coordinator

F or course information or to order additional materials, please contact:

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

• Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 2

Chapter 3 Property Diagrams for Pure Substances

• Study Objectives of Chapter 3

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Table of Contents

Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Tables and Charts

Chapter 5 Ideal Gas Law and Air Tables

Chapter 6 Heat and Work

• Study Objectives of Chapter 6

• The Next Step

Table of Contents Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Chapter 7 First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Closed Systems

Chapter 8 First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Open Systems

Chapter 9 Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics

• The Next Step

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Table of Contents

Chapter 10 The Carnot Cycle

Chapter 11 Refrigeration Cycles

Chapter 12 Moist Air as a Mixture of Ideal Gases

• 12.2 Mixtures ofIdeal Gases

Table of Contents Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Chapter 13 Properties of Moist Air

Chapter 14 The Psychrometric Chart

Chapter 15 Air-Conditioning Processes on the Psychrometric Chart

• 15.1 Simple Heating or Cooling at Constant Humidity Ratio

• 15.6 Sensible Heat Ratio

Table of Contents Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Study Objectives of Chapter I

assertion that it is important to study thermodynamics to gain a better understanding of

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Air-conditioning allows for the creation of a comfortable environment indoors no matter

Times have changed. Today, energy conservation is a key component in air-conditioning

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

Air-conditioning is more than an occasional luxury. It is important to our everyday comfort,

Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

1.3 The Major Processes ofAir-Conditioning

midification) and cleaning processes outlined above.

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometries

Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC Fundamentals ofThermodynamies and Psychrometries

Both thermodynamic and psychrometric principles are applied to these processes:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

• Provide a description of thermodynamics as the science of energy; and

Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC Fundamentals ofThermodynamics and Psychrometries

1. Carrier, W. 1990. Father ofAir-Conditioning. Louisville, KY: Fetter Printing Co.

1-02. Define what is meant by air-conditioning.

Fundamentals ofThernwdynamics and Psychrometries Chapter 1 Introduction to HVAC

skill development exercises without consulting the text.

Study Objectives of Chapter 2

After studying Chapter 2 you will be able to:

• Define and describe open and closed systems;

Before Adding Weight After Adding Weight

Figure 2-1. Closed System

Storage Tank Storage Tank

Before Adding Weight After Adding Weight