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Assignment #3

Biology (Athabasca University)

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Rebekah Cook
3219966
Assighmeht 3
Weight: 5%
Mihimum Pass Grade: 50%
Each question is worth 10 marks.
1.Fill in the words or phrases that best complete each
sentence. Be as specific as possible.
a.Erythrocytes contain the enzyme carbonic anhydrase,
which catalyzes the conversion of metabolically
produced CO2 and water into carbonic acid.
b.Most old erythrocytes are removed from circulation and
destroyed by cells called machrophages, as they
rupture passing through the narrow capillaries of the
organ called the spleen, liver and red bone marrow.
c. Undifferentiated cells called stem cells reside in the
bone marrow, where they continuously divide and
differentiate to give rise to each of the types of blood
cells.
d.The process of leukocytes squeezing through the
capillary wall to exit the vasculature is known as
diapedesis. Once they leave the bloodstream to fight a
pathological condition, they never return.
e.The genetically-determined glycoprotein and glycolipid
antigens found on the surface of an erythrocyte are
called agglutinogens, and a person with agglutinins

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that react with type A and blood type B has type o

blood.
f. During embryonic development, ninety-nine percent of
the cardiac fibers are specialized for the function called
contraction, whereas the remainder is specialized for
inherent and rhythmical electrical activity
(autorhythmic) .
g.The action potential delay at the AV node ensures that
atrial excitation and contraction are complete before
ventrical excitation and contraction commence.
h.The end systolic volume (ESV) is the volume of blood in
the ventricle after ejection has been completed. An
increase of this volume occurs when the stroke volume
is decreased.
i. The three cations, K+, Ca2+, and Na+ have an important
effect of heart function. Increased blood levels of Na+
blocks Ca2+ inflow and results in a decrease in the
force of contraction, while an excess of K+ blocks the
generation of action potentials.
j. An increase in parasympathetic activity has the
following effect on stroke volume: decrease stroke
volume. An increase in parasympathetic activity
weakens atrial contractility.
2.A patient has the misfortune to have both diabetes
insipidus and Addison’s disease. How will those
conditions affect the patient’s ability to regulate blood
pressure?

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ADH (antidiuretic hormone) is released from the posterior

pituitary to help decrease urine production and
decreases the amount of water lost via sweating. There
fore an increase in ADH will have more water return to
the blood from the kidneys. A decrease or absence of
ADH will increase urine output. Constriction of arterioles,
which increases blood pressure. Hyposecretion (low
secretion) of ADH can cause diabetes, which will cause
homeostatic imbalance. Diabetes insipidus is caused by
dysfunction of the posterior pituitary. There is a defect in
ADH receptors or inability to secrete ADH. Neurogenic
diabetes insipidus when the kidneys don’t respond to
ADH related to kidney damage or dysfunction of ADH
receptors. Symptoms that can occur are large amounts
of urine output causing dehydration, hypotension (low
blood pressure) related to blood volume decreasing. With
addisions disease (adrenal insufficiency) the hormones
cortisol in low. Cortisol helps maintain blood pressure so
without it you will have hypotension. Aldosterone is a
hormone that helps regulate blood pressure. Produced in
the adrenal glands' cortex, it tells the kidney and colon to
send more sodium into the blood and to release more K+
in the urine. Aldosterone will also cause reabsorbtion of
water from the urine. When the sodium is put back into
the blood stream, the water sort of tags along. Blood
volume will be increased and blood pressure will be
increased. When the body suffers blood loss, or there is
low blood pressure/blood volume, renin causes
angiotensin, which causes aldosterone to be released.
These three hormones operate through a negative
feedback loop that works to maintain blood pressure and
homeostasis. This means that Aldosterone helps raise

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low blood pressure to normal. Addison's disease causes

hyposecretion of Aldosterone. Many of the cases are
autoimmune disorders in which antibodies cause adrenal
cortex destruction or block binding of ACTH to it's
receptors. Pathogens can be a cause. Loss of aldosterone
cause elevated K+ in the blood and a loss of sodium. Low
blood pressure and dehydration result. Both diseases
cause low blood pressure as two of the important
hormones that work to increase blood pressure and
maintain homeostasis are being hyposecreted. The
person in with both diseases will have extremely low
blood pressure, low blood volume, low cardiac output,
dehydration, and low electrolytes among many other
symptoms. The patient will lose the ability to regulate
blood pressure.

3.In the correct sequence, list the names of the blood

vessels and heart’s chambers that an RBC would travel
through (or flow into other vessels) on its journey from
the muscles located anterior to the right tibia to the
heart, then to the left shoulder muscles, and then back to
the heart. Take in consideration only the vessels listed in
the Study Guide.

Starting in the anterior tibia vein, which collects

deoxygenated blood from the muscles located anterior to
the right tibia, the red blood cell will flow through the right
popliteal vein to the right femoral vein to the right external
iliac vein to the right common iliac vein to the inferior vena
cava to the right atrium. The inferior vena cava receives
deoxygenated blood from veins posterior to the diaphragm.
The inferior vena cava is the largest vein in the body (3.5

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cm) in diameter. The RBC will go from the inferior vena

cava into the superior part of the right atrium, into the
tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The right
ventricle pumps blood through into the pulmonic valve,
and into the pulmonary artery into the lungs, where the
RBC will go into the capillaries. The RBC will flow through
the pulmonary vein, then into the left atrium, where it will
flow into the mitral valve into the left ventricle where it will
enter the aortic valve before entering the systemic
circulatory system. All systemic arteries branch from the
aorta. Deoxygenated blood will return to the heart through
the systemic veins. All veins of systemic circulation drain
into the superior vena cava, inferior venacava or coronary
sinus which in turn empty into the right atrium (which
receives deoxygenated blood). In the case of this RBC, we
will be looking at the arch of the aorta. After the RBC,
travels through the ascending aorta, eventually the
ascending aorta will arch to the left, forming the arch of the
aorta, which descends and ends at the level of the
intervertebral disk between the fourth and fifth thoracic
vertebrae. The arch of the aorta will branch into the left
subclavian artery, which will supply oxygenated blood to
the left upper limb. The left subclavian artery will then
branch into the axillary artery, which will supply the left
shoulder muscles. It will then go through the left axillary
vein, through the left subclavian veins until they join with
tubular veins to form the brachiocephalic veins where the
RBC will enter the superior vena cava, where the RBC will
enter the right atrium, and into the heart.
4.Describe the activation, proliferation and differentiation
of T cells and B cells and briefly describe the functions of
the differentiated cells.

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T cells and B cells both develop in the thymus and red

bone marrow from stem cells. B cells develop and mature
in the red bone marrow. T cells originate in the red bone
marrow as pre T cells and travel to the thymus where
they mature. T cells are present before puberty and
continue through a person’s life. T cells can develop
many immune responses. They have antigen receptors
that can identify invaders (Ex:bacteria). The thymus
releases two types of T cells; Helper T and cytoxin T cells.
The helper T encourage B cells to produce antibodies.
Cytoxin T cells are also called killer T cells are a type of
white blood cells that kill damaging cells such as
cancerous cells. T cells can recognize antibody that enter
the body related to proteins CD4 and CD8 on the outer
surface of T cells. CD4 cells can develop into helper T
cells. CD8 cells can develop into cytoxin T cells when
recognizing a foreign antigen. Cytoxin T cells are
stimulated by interleukin-2 produced by helper T cells
that have already become attached to copies of the
same antigen.
To activate B cells the B cells will bind to an antigen. B
cells take on the antigen into the plasma membrane.
Each B cell has different protein because during their
development there is intentional shuffling of the DNA to
create different combinations of B cells. This allows the B
cells to bind to many different foreign proteins. Once
they bind to a foreign body the B cell becomes activated.
Once they are activated the B cell will start to clone
itself. They also differentiate into specific cells; into
memory cells, effector cells (plasma cells) an antibody
factory that will create cells that will bind with the foreign
body.

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5.Match the items in column A with the descriptions in

column B.
Items in column A can be used only once when making
matches to column B.
Columh A Columh B
1.alveolar macrophages Pharynx serves as a sound
resonating chamber;
2.alveoli contains tonsils; directs
3.Bohr effect air inferiorly
4.bronchi
5.bronchiole Larynx passes air from
6.cerebral cortex pharynx into windpipe;
7.chloride shift site of sound production
8.compliance Paranasal sinuses
9.costal breathing resonate(s) sound; not
10. Dalton’s law part of pharynx
11. diaphragmatic Fauces opening from oral
breathing cavity into pharynx
12. epiglottis
13. eupnea Tertiary bronchus carries air
to a segment of a lung
14. expiratory reserve
volume Terminal bronchiole carries
15. fauces air directly into a
16. functional residual respiratory bronchiole
capacity Plural membrane surround
17. Haldane effect the lungs
18. Henry’s law Surfactant reduces surface
19. hilum
tension at sites of gas
20. hypothalamus exchange
21. inferior, middle, and
superior nasal meatuses Alveoli actual sites of gas
22. inspiratory capacity exchange

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23. larynx Eupnea normal, quiet

24. limbic system breathing
25. medulla oblongata Costal breathing shallow
26. nose breathing using just the
27. paranasal sinuses external intercostal
28. pharynx muscles
29. pleural membranes Compliance amount of effort
30. pons required to expand the
31. primary bronchus lungs and chest wall
32. secondary bronchus
33. surface tension Inspiration capacity tidal
volume + inspiratory
34. surfactant
35. terminal bronchiole reserve volume, usually
about 3600 mL in males
36. tertiary bronchus
37. total lung capacity Vital capacity tidal volume
38. trachea + inspiratory reserve
39. vital capacity volume + expiratory
reserve volume; usually
about 4800 mL in males
Functional residual capacity
residual volume +
expiratory reserve
volume; usually about
2400 mL in males
Henrys law states that the
amount of gas that will
dissolve in a liquid is
proportional to the
partial pressure of that
gas and its solubility
Bohr effect when pH

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decreases, O2 saturation
of hemoglobin
decreases
Daltons law each gas in a
mixture of gases exerts
its own partial pressure
Madulla oblongata sets
basic rhythm of
breathing
Pons includes the pontine
respiratory group
6.You eat spaghetti with meatballs in marinara sauce and
drink a glass of orange juice. Describe the chemical
components of your meal, the digestive events in the
mouth, and the content of your stomach one hour after
you ingest the meal and juice, and describe what
happens to the chemical constituents in the stomach.
Describe the digestive processes for each of these
nutrients in the small intestine, and the mechanisms for
absorption of vitamins, water, and electrolytes.
The spaghetti is made of carbohydrates, one of the major
types of nutrients in the body! Carbohydrates are a main
vital source of energy. Your digestive system changes
carbohydrates into glucose.
The meatballs are composed of proteins. Proteins are
large, complex molecules. They play many roles in the
body, most of the work in cells and are essential for the
structure regulation of the body’s tissues and organs and
function.

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The marinara sauce contains, electrolytes, water,

carbohydrates and vitamins.
The orange juice contains Water, glucose, and citric acid
and minute amounts of minerals. Also containing vitamin
C, thiamine, folic acid as well as potassium.
Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharides, and the
absorbed into the digestive tract and pushed in to the
blood stream by going through the following steps: From
the Mouth to the Stomach- The chemical and mechanical
break down of food begins within the mouth. Chewing
physically breaks down food such as carbohydrates
(spaghetti) and protein (meatballs) into smaller pieces.
The salivary glands secrete saliva that coats the small
food pieces. The saliva contains the essential enzyme
salivary amylase. This crucial enzyme adopts the
responsibility to break down the bonds between the
monomeric sugar of disaccharides, oligosaccharides and
starches. The salivary amylase breaks down the
amylopectin into tiny chains of glucose
(maltose/dectrins). The maltose concentration increases,
and we taste sweetness. The bolus will be swallowed and
will pass down the Pharynx (the epiglottis will close) and
the Esophagus on route to the stomach. The meal moves
down the esophagus, and the rest of the digestive
system, by waves of peristalsis. The meal reaches the
end of the Esophagus, the sphincter opens up and the
meal enters the stomach. Amylase eventually will be
inactivated, as the acidic conditions of the stomach are
not optomal for its function. This inactivation does not
happen as soon as it reaches the stomach, as the food is
often stored in the fundus for a while, where amylase can

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continue to digest carbohydrates. However, mechanical

breakdown still is in tact, which are the peristaltic
contractions of the stomach allows the carbohydrates to
be layered with chyme. In the stomach, the protein
meatball will begin digestion by pepsin, which works well
in the acidic conditions of the stomach. Any fats present
in the meal will not be digested at this point (in the
stomach). Vitamins, water and electrolyte absorption
also does not occur in the stomach. The liquids are mixed
in the chyme, as they do not need mechanical
breakdown. The meal leaves the stomach through the
pylorus, which opens up when the meal has turned into
chyme. The chyme is pushed into the upper part of the
small intestine (duodenum). There are three parts to the
small intestine: the duodenum, the jejunum as well as
the ileum. The duodenum is where the main chemical
digestion will occur in the small intestine. When the
chyme has entered the small intestine signals the
pancreas to release pancreatic juices through a duct.
This pancreatic juice contains the vital enzyme
pancreatic amylase, which breaks down dextrin into
short carbohydrate chains. There are other enzymes that
are important in this part of the breakdown. In the small
intestine, the following enzymes will further digest
carbohydrates: Amylase Lactase, Sucrose and maltase,
which come from the Pancreas and the brush border.
Release of these enzymes is regulated by CCK, Ach,
Gastrin and are activated by enter-okinases. The
products of the carbohydrate digestion in the small
intestine will be Oligosaccharides, disaccharides,
glucose, galactose and fructose. Maltase breaks the bond
between the two glucose units of maltose, and lactase

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breaks the bond between galactose and glucose. Once

carbohydrates are chemically broken down into single
sugar units they are then transported into the inside of
intestinal cells. The enzymes Trypsin, Chymotrypsin and
peptidases that come from the pancreas and the brush
border will further digest proteins. The signal for release
of these enzymes is CCK, Ach, Gastrin, and the presence
of amino acids and fats in duodenum. The products of
digestion will be peptides and amino acids.
Absorption:The cells in the small intestine have
membranes that contain many transport proteins in
order to get the monosaccharides and other nutrients
into the circulatory route, so they can be distributed in
the body where they are needed. The first organ to
receive glucose, fructose, and galactose is the liver. The
liver takes them up and converts galactose to glucose;
breaks fructose into even smaller carbon-containing
units, and either stores glucose as glycogen or exports it
back to the blood. The gallbladder stores and releases
Bile. Bile is made up of water, bile salts, bile pigments,
cholesterol, salts, and lecithin. Throughout the small
intestine, water is absorbed and bacteria form vitamin K
as well as B vitamins. The small intestine also contains
Vili. Villi are small finger-like projections with millions of
microvilli on them, which absorb nutrients through simple
and facilitated diffusion as well as active transport.
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels - Glucose regulates its
levels in the blood via a process called negative
feedback. The body senses blood glucose levels and
maintains the glucose that are most suitable for the
body. The cells within the pancreas regulate the glucose.
After eating a meal containing carbohydrates, blood

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glucose levels rise. When the blood glucose levels rise,

the insulin secreting cells in the pancreas release insulin
into the bloodstream. This sends a signal that to the
body, notifying it that it needs to remove the glucose
from the blood by transporting it to the inside of cells and
to use it as a method of energy (for building
macromolecules). As for the liver, the insulin senses a
message to store glucose as glycogen, it also signifies
that the body is ready to for action. Insulin also has a
opposing hormones called glucagon. This hormone has
an effect after the meal is digested; it decreases glucose
levels in the blood, acting like a key allowing glucose to
enter into body cells. When there is a decrease in
glucose, the pancreas responds by releasing glucagon
into the blood. It also signals the liver to break down
glycogen and release the stored glucose in the blood, so
that the glucose levels can find a equilibrium. Leftover
Carbohydrates (The Large Intestine) – Carbohydrates will
mostly be absorbed into the bloodstream by the time the
chime reaches the large intestine. Enzymes released by
bacteria in the large intestine break some of the
remaining indigestible carbohydrates down. The products
of bacterial digestion of these slow releasing
carbohydrates are short-chain fatty acids and some
gases. The short-chain fatty acids are either used by the
bacteria to make energy and grow, are eliminated in the
feces, or are absorbed into cells of the colon, with a small
amount being transported to the liver. The large intestine
mainly absorbs excess water and prepares the feces for
elimination. Carbohydrates that were not digested and
absorbed by the small intestine reach the colon where
they are partly broken down by intestinal bacteria. Fiber,

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which cannot be digested like other carbohydrates, is

excreted with feces. Unabsorbed chyme enters the large
intestine, starting at the cecum, and then going up the
ascending colon, across the transverse colon, down the
descending colon, and across the sigmoid colon.

7.Fill in the words or phrases that best complete the

sentence.
a.Metabolism is the sum of all of the chemical reactions
in the body, while catabolism refers to chemical
reactions that decompose large molecules into smaller
ones.
b.Reduction is the chemical reaction in which there is a
gain of electrons and it is the opposite of oxidation.
c. Acetyl co-enzyme is a coenzyme that carries hydrogen
atoms during coupled oxidation reactions in the cell.
d.ATP is made primarily in the mitochondria by a process
called cellular respiration.
e.Glycolysis is a set of reactions in which there is the
breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic
acid, and glucogenesis is the formation of glucose
molecules from noncarbohydrate sources.
f. Lipoproteins transport lipids in the bloodstream; they
include VLDLs, LDLs, and HDLs. In lipolysis, fats are
split into fatty acids and glycerol.
g.Acetyl CoA is the molecule that enters the Krebs cycle;
it is also used to synthesize fatty acids, ketone bodies,
and cholesterol.
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h.Insulin is the primary hormone regulating metabolism

during the absorptive state; the major task of the
pancreatic islets of Langerhans state is to maintain the
normal blood glucose level.
i. The metabolic rate observed when a fasting individual
is resting but awake and is experiencing comfortable
conditions is called the basal metabolic rate. Peripheral
vasodilation allows increased blood flow to superficial
tissues of the body to release excess heat.
j. Na+ is the most abundant cation in the extracellular
fluid; proper levels of this ion are critical for nerve
impulse conduction and maintenance of electrolyte
balance.
8.Describe the pressures that affect glomerular filtration,
and describe the effects of drinking too much beer on the
urinary system.
Filtration is the first step in making urine, separating it
from plasma that contains all the dissolved solutes from
the blood. Each nephron on the kidney has a filter called
a glomerulus that is always filtering the blood. The blood
enters the afferent artery and is about to be filtered; it
enters a glomerulus, which is a group of capillaries. The
glomerulus is held inside a cup like sac, the glomerulus
capsule, located at the end of each nephron. Glomerular
capillaries also have small pores in their walls. Red blood
cells and protein can not pass through these pores
because they are too large.
Most capillary beds are between arterioles and venules
and the hydrostatic pressure drops as blood travels
through the capillary bed into the venules and veins. The

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glomerulus is different because they are between two

arterioles; afferent arterioles deliver blood to the
glomerulus and the efferent arterioles take it away. The
constriction of the efferent arterioles as blood exits the
glomerulus prevents blood pressure to drop. The two
arterioles can change in size; vasoconstriction and
vasodilation. The afferent is larger in diameter therefore
the blood enters in a larger arteriole and is forced to exit
through a smaller tube. These features plus the heart
supplies the kidney with over a liter of blood per minute
helps maintain a high glomerular capillary pressure. The
glomerulus and glomerular capsule filtering unit are
called a renal corpuscle. The kidney have other
specialized capillaries called peritubular capillaries that
are tiny blood vessels that run parallel to and surround
the proximal and distal tubules of the nephron as well as
the loop of henle known as the vasa recta. The vasa
recta are the medulla and pertitubular capillaries are in
the cortex. The versa recta is important for counter
current exchange for concentrated urine.
Glomerular filtration is when the kidneys filter blood,
waste into the urine. Vasodilation in the afferent arteriole
and vasoconstriction in the efferent arteriole will increase
blood flow (and hydrostatic pressure) in the glomerulus
and will increase GFR (glomerular filtration rate).
Conversely, vasoconstriction in the afferent arteriole and
vasodilation in the efferent arteriole will decrease GFR.
Alcohol can cause changes in the function of the kidneys
and make them less able to filter the blood. The kidneys
monitor the blood water content. Alcohol affects the
body by dehydrating it. Too much alcohol can affect the
blood pressure by increasing it. Drinking too much beer

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will limit or stop the secretion of antidiuretic hormone

(ADH), which helps to concentrate the urine by
reabsorbing water back into the bloodstream. So there
fore the more beer you drink the more dilute your urine
will be.

9.List and briefly describe the mechanisms that prevent

acid-base imbalances from appearing in the body. In
addition, indicate where each mechanism functions most
significantly. (Do not explain any specific chemical
reactions.)
Bicarbonate buffer system is used to maintain a proper
ph balance in the blood (7.35-7.45)
Chemical Buffers
The most important chemical buffer is Bicarbonate
(HCO3). The body uses bicarbonate to perform a chemical
reaction with strong acids and bases on a regular basis.
For reference, look at the simplified equation below.
The H ion binds to the hydrogen, leaving the reaction
with water and CO2, which can easily be eliminated by
breathing and urination. This reaction can also be
reversed, if more H+ ions are needed to be released into
the blood and make it more acidic. The kidneys aid in this
process by releasing Bicarbonate when it is needed.
HCO3 + H = H20 + CO2
Respiratioh
Another vital component to acid base balance is
respiration. Our lungs regulate how much CO2 is in our
blood. This is important because it can reverse the above
reaction and combine with water to form bicarbonate. If a
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person were to breathe in and out at a rapid rate or

hyperventilate, this would decrease the amount of CO2 in
the blood, thus reducing the amount of Bicarbonate.
With less Bicarbonate, there will be less H+ ions in the
blood, and pH will rise. However, this is a short fix for pH
balance.
Kidheys
The kidneys are the third and final component to acid
base balance in the body. They can absorb more acids or
bases as needed to keep the body at homeostasis or
normal. Since our bodies tend to produce more acids,
and we tend to have more acidic diets, urine is slightly
acidic to get rid of some of it. Recall that the kidneys can
also produce more bicarbonate when needed.

10. Describe the path of a sperm cell from the site of its
maturation to the site of the acrosomal reaction. Include
the major function of each segment in this process and
descriptions and functions of fluids added along that
path.
The epididymis is a place where sperm is stored and
maturation occurs. Once maturation sperm has the
ability to travel and fertilize an ovum. Sperm is propelled
via the ductus vas deferens during sexual arousal.
Vans deferens ; within the tail of epididymis, the ductus
epididymis becomes less convoluted, and its diameter
increases. Beyond this point the duct is knwn as the
ductus deferens or vas deferens, the ductus deferens
ehich is about 45 sm long ascends along the posterior
border of the epididymis through the spermatic cord and

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then enters the pelvic cavity. There it loops over the

ureter and passes over the side and down the posterior
surface of the urinary bladder. The dilated terminal of the
ductus deferens is the ampulla. The mucosa of the
ductus deferens consist of pseudostratified columnar
epithelium and lamina propria, the muscularis is
composed of three layers of smooth muscle; the inner
outer layers are longitudinal and the middle layer is
circular.
Seminal vesicle; Each ejaculatory duct is formed by the
union of the duct from the seminal vesicle and the
ampulla of the ductus deferens. They terminate in the
prostatic urethra, where sperm is ejected and seminal
vesicle secretions just before release of semen from the
urethra to the exterior. The seminal vesicles secrete an
alkaline fluid containing fructose to nourish sperm and
progtaglandins to cause muscular contractions in the
female tract to help propel sperm to the egg cell.
Prostate Gland surrounds the urethra at the base of the
urinary bladder. The prostate slowly increases in size
after birth to puberty then expands fast until around age
30. It secretes milky acidic fluid (ph= 6.5) that contains
several substances. Prostatic secretions make up about
25% of semen.
Citric acid in prostatic fluid is used by sperm for ATP
production via the Kerbs cycle. Proteolytic enzymes;
Prostate-specific antigen, pepsinogen, lysozyme,
amylase and hyaluronidase eventually breaks down the
clotting protein from the seminal vesicles.
Seminalplasmin in prostatic fluid is an antibiotic that can
destroy bacteria’s.

Assignment 2 :: Biology 235: Human Anatomy and Physiology 19

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Bulbourethral Glands; During sexual arousal the glands

secrete an alkaline fluid into the urethra that protects
passing sperm by neutralizing acids from urines in the
urethra. They also secrete mucus that lubticates the end
of the penis and the lining of the urethra. This decreases
the number of sperms damaged during ejaculation.
Semen; is a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid. A large
number of sperm is needed for fertilization.
During fertilization a sperm must fist fuse with the
plasma membrane and then penetrate the female egg in
order to fertilize it. Fusing to the egg usually causes little
problem. Sperm cells go through a process known as
acrosome reaction. The acrosome is a cap like structure
over the anterior half of sperm’s head. As the sperm
approaches the zona pellucida of the egg the membrane
surrounding the acrosome fuses with the plasma
membrane of the oocyte, exposing the contents of the
acrosome. The contents include surface antigens and
numerous enzymes; which are responsible for breaking
through the eggs tough coating allowing fertilization to
occur.

Assignment 2 :: Biology 235: Human Anatomy and Physiology 20

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