1.

INTERVIEW

This is a method of collecting or generating data that specifically involves asking a

series of questions or engaging a several conversations. Typically, an interview
represents a meeting or dialogue between people which are often conducted on face
to face basis. However, the advancement in computer and information technology,
other formats have yielded other formats, for example, Internet interviews (e.g skype
etc), mobile phone interviews, emailed and mailed. Basically, Interviews are typical
in both quantitative and qualitative social research, and are often used alongside other
methods. Inasmuch as interviews can be generally defined and have some
commonality of meaning, they can vary enormously in terms of the context or setting
in which they are carried out, the purpose they serve as well as how they are
structured and conducted.

1.1 Structured interviews

A structured interview, or a standardised interview is a quantitative research method
commonly used in survey research. The aim of this approach is to confirm that each
interview is offered with exactly the same questions in the same order. The idea is to
ensure reliability and validity of the data such that comparisons can be made with
confidence between sample subgroups or between different survey periods.

The strengths of a structured interview are that: All respondents are asked the same
questions in the same manner. This makes it easy to replicate the discussion. In other
words, it allows for standardization or generalization. On the other hand, the
weaknesses of a structured interview are that: It is not flexible to concrete situations
because the interviewer cannot change the questions, they must all stay the same. In
addition, the format of questionnaire design makes it difficult for the researcher to
examine complex issues and opinions. Even where open-ended questions are used,
the depth of answers the respondent can provide often are more limited than with
almost any other method.

1.2 Qualitative interviews

Qualitative interview aims at delving deep beneath the surface of superficial
responses to obtain true meanings that individuals assign to events and the
complexities of their attitudes, behaviors and experiences (see Silverman 2013;
Denzin 2000). Among the major features of a qualitative interview include but are not
limited to the following:
• It ensures that the relevant contexts are brought into focus so that situated
knowledge can be produced
• It is about the construction or reconstruction of knowledge rather than just
collecting data
• It is based on a theme or topic designed in a way that allows flexibility such that
interviewers can develop other themes in the course of the interview
• It takes a relatively informal style in the sense that it has to be more of a
conversation rather than a formal question and answer session
Qualitative interviews can take different forms or in other words, there are several types
of qualitative interviews. Among the most common include: in-depth interviews (semi-
structured or unstructured interviews; narratives; and focus group discussions (FGDs).

In-depth interview
In-depth interviews are an important tool for qualitative data generation which address
personal experience of various processes in social life of the research participant or
informants. The major aim is to explore in depth respondents’ point of view, experiences,
feelings, and perspectives. In-depth interviews allow for freedom of the respondents to
voice their own concerns hence creating space for mutual evaluation of the issues under
study without the researcher imposing his or her ideas. In this case, questions posed by
the researchers are usually open ended, and may be semi-structured or unstructured in the
sense what matters is the flow of conversations rather than the order of questions.

Narratives (life histories)

This a special type of unstructured interview whereby the informant is asked to tell the
interviewer a story or to narrate about a particular research agenda. It intends to generate
an account of the life (the chronology of the actors’ lives) in order to throw light on social
processes.

Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

This is sometimes referred to as group interviews. It brings together a small number of
people (normally between 5 and 12) to discuss on the research agenda (focus) with
guidance from a moderator/facilitator (the researcher). The latter’s task is not to conduct
individual interview but to facilitate a comprehensive exchange of views in which all
participants are able to speak their minds and respond to the ideas of others. FGDs can
represent various opinions that are likely to be prevalent in the community. They also
help researchers to understand issues and are able to gauge what one would consider as a
consensus of people over an issue. FGDs provide common or shared and competing
opinion or understanding of issues related to the phenomenon under study. Furthermore,
sensitive topics can be easily discussed because they are not personalised. In addition a
lot of information can be gathered in short period of time. However one needs to be
sensitive to group identities such as sex, age, occupation, power etc.

The art of qualitative interviewing

Unlike in the structured interview where the researcher ought to adhere to a rigid
structure of a standard questionnaire, qualitative interview rely on the ability and
competence of the researcher to engage the informant in the process of data generation.
For that matter, the way in which questions are asked can make a big difference to
replies. Not everybody can adequately conduct qualitative interviews, it requires skillful
questioning which enables the informants to give full, clear and honest replies. In
practical terms, the following should be considered in order to conduct a rich qualitative
interview:
• Do not influence or bias responses by asking questions that restrict/limit your
informants opinion
 • Avoid influencing the responses by introducing your own values and judgments.
• Try to probe as much as possible and do not be satisfied by superficial statements
or responses
• You may get more detailed information by repeating what has been said. This also
enables you to make sure that what you heard what was meant
• Avoid threatening attitudes because by doing so no informant will tell you the
truth. E.g If you don’t cooperate you will be in trouble
• Be patient and avoid asking questions constantly because the informants may feel
underpressure
• Make the conversation interesting by not being too extractive (beyond questions
and answers)
• Value and respect the informants throughout the interview session. Show him/her
that you are interested in the conversation (concentrate)

Qualities of a good Interviewer

• Make other people feel comfortable-your goal is to make the interviewee to feel
relaxed and wants to share her stories with you
• Great listener-when people feel that the person they are speaking to is really
listening to what they are saying, they are more likely to speak openly
• Responsible and punctual- keeping appointments and considering interviewee’s
schedule, make him/her feel respected
• Can ask hard questions with sensitivity-interviewers may can ask informants
about their personal subjects or probe when they are feeling sad, angry or scared.
This has to be done in a sympathetic and less offending way
• Positive body language-aware of the messages send by his/her face, body, hands,
posture etc to the informants
• Does not interrupt—allow the informants to complete their thought hence make
them more willing to share their life histories
• Likes talking to others-your enthusiasm for talking with other people and interest
in what they are saying helps to make the informants eager to speak to you
• Sense of humor- little laughter, humor or even a smile decrease nervousness
about speaking on sensitive or personal issues
• Quick thinker-be able to adapt and follow the relevant new conversation that
come up in the course of the interview
• Flexibility-ability to adjust quickly if location, time and even the direction of the
topic change.

2. OBSERVATION

Marshall and Rossman (1989) define observation as "the systematic description of

events, behaviors, and artifacts in the social setting chosen for study" (p.79).
Observations enable the researcher to describe existing situations using the five senses,
providing a "written photograph" of the situation under study (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper,
and Allen 1993). Thus, observation is a tool for understanding more than what people say
about a complex situation. It is based on the assumption that what people say for example
in an interview, may not necessarily match with what they actually do real situation.
While some scholars have classified observation on the basis of participation hence
categories such as participant observation and non-participant observation (Bernard
1994), others differentiate types of observation based of how it is structured leading to
structured observation and unstructured or casual observation (see Kawulich 2005).

What can be observed?-behaviour, actions, activities, interactions, events etc. As a

method of generating knowledge, observation is more than seeing (this is not a focused
act), it entails focusing on a particular aspect of interest to the researcher (see Förster et
al. 2011). It is also about direct gathering of information using senses both sight and
hearing. As such, it neither depends on people’s willing to be interviewed nor their
memory and knowledge.

The advantage of observation lies in its ability to capture the unverbalized normative
pattern of a small group (Sieber 1978). In other words observation goes beyond what
people can tell the researcher. It also provides the researcher with clue or hints that might
not arise in other methods of data collection. It is therefore possible to follow up on such
issues through probes in other methods such as in-depth interviews and FGDs.

3. ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACHES

Hammersly and Atkinson (1989) define ethnography as a particular method or set of

methods which involve participating overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an
extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, asking
questions – generating data to throw light on the issues that are the focus of research.
Etymologically, ethnography originates from the Greek word ethnos which means people
or folks and graphis which means writing. As a noun, the term “ethnography” means
portrait or description of a people or description of a culture or a piece of culture (see
Wolcott 1999).

The ethnographic approach is mainly a qualitative research strategy that comes largely
from the field of anthropology. The emphasis in ethnography is on studying an entire
culture. Originally, the idea of a culture was tied to the notion of ethnicity and geographic
location (e.g., the culture of the Haya, Sukuma etc), but it has been broadened to include
virtually any group or organization. That is, we can study the "culture" of a business or
defined group (students, soldiers, musicians, urban residents etc). In addition, with the
ongoing social transformations, current debates in ethnographic practices appreciate the
fact individuals belong to multiple social ties within and beyond their localities. As such
one need to take into account influences beyond local cultural context by analysing the
interplay between the local and global, traditional and modern etc.

Ethnography is an extremely broad area with a great variety of practitioners and methods.
However, the most common ethnographic approach is participant observation as a part of
field research. The ethnographer is expected to immerse in the culture as an active
participant and records extensive field notes. As in grounded theory, there are no pre-set
limits of what will be observed and no real ending point in an ethnographic study.
Although, anthropologists have constantly reflected on their ethnographic practices
questioning some of the old practices of participant observation (see Förster et al. 2011),
long term field work remains to be the core of ethnographic approaches.

Apparently, the strength of ethnographic approaches rests in the extended period of

fieldwork which combines several methods of qualitative data generation such as in-
depth interviews, narratives, observation, participation, and FGDs.
Selected references
Bernard, H. Russell (1994). Research methods in anthropology: qualitative and
quantitative approaches (second edition). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

Erlandson, David A.; Harris, Edward L.; Skipper, Barbara L. & Allen, Steve D. (1993).
Doing naturalistic inquiry: a guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Marshall, Catherine & Rossman, Gretchen B. (1989). Designing qualitative research.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Wolcott, H. (1999). Ethnography: A Way of Seeing. Oregon: Altamira Press.