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Analysis and Testing for Basketball
such as running and jumping (46). To 20-minute halves. This adjustment also accumulating greater playing times. As
allow the reader to fully understand the precipitated an alteration in the game such, determining the level of appropri-
physiological demands of the sport, in demands leading to the increased time ate physical qualities is of fundamental
this review, high-intensity activities will spent in high-intensity activities (2). As importance for S&C coaches for talent
be defined in accordance with the such, caution is required when refer- identification and monitoring the effects
study of Abdelkrim et al. (2) to include ring to evidence in the literature of their programming.
sprinting, abrupt stops, fast changes in because it may not be truly reflective
direction, acceleration, shuffling, and of current game demands, including ENERGY SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
jumping. the study of Miller and Bartlett (45) It has been suggested that a large pro-
where high-intensity movements were portion of the energy required for the
Highlighting the multidirectional nature high-intensity bursts within a game is
of the sport, reported changes between performed every 21 seconds and only
5% of sprints lasted more than 4 sec- derived from the adenosine triphosphate
movement patterns occur every 2 sec- (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) sys-
onds (43). This would imply that fre- onds. Although the above data could
be deemed useful in designing assess- tems (5). Abdelkrim et al. (1) identified
quent changes of direction and 6 seconds of high-to-moderate intensi-
ment and conditioning strategies based
subsequently speed and agility are of ties followed by 22 seconds of submax-
on positional differences with an opti-
major importance in game play. Fur- imal work (walking, jogging, and
mization of work-to-rest ratios, it may
thermore, it was evidenced that 22% recovery), equating to a mean work-
not be truly reflective of current game
of the game distances covered involved to-rest ratio of 1:3.6. This suggests an
demands. Therefore, the study of Ab-
lateral movement. This is an important insufficient time period in which to
delkrim et al. (2) may provide a more
consideration for S&C specialists because replenish CP stores and a subsequent
accurate representation. However,
of the fact that lateral movements have reliance on anaerobic glycolysis (5).
practitioners should also be cognizant
been reported to be more metabolically Additionally, Ratamess et al. (50) iden-
of the fact that the subjects used in the
demanding in comparison with straight tified that the metabolic demands of
study of Abdelkrim et al. were elite U19
line running (61). Therefore, the devel- basketball required a high proportion
players, and as such, these results may
opment of strength, optimal mechanics, of the phosphagen system, a moder-
not be applicable to players of all ages
and conditioning in multiple planes of ate-to-high requirement for anaerobic
and levels.
movement (frontal, sagittal, and trans- glycolysis, and the contribution of aer-
verse) should be considered essential. To date, limited evidence is available
obic metabolism as a less significant
regarding distances covered during
Initial research pertaining to game factor. Collectively, these findings dem-
a game. Abdelkrim et al. (1) reported
analysis has identified differential de- onstrate the need for the inclusion of
that a total of 7,558 m provided a baseline
mands based on positions namely appropriate testing and training proto-
figure during junior basketball games,
guards, forwards, and centers. Posi- cols for both the anaerobic alactic
with only 2% of game play involving
tions are then further defined by spe- (underpinned by the ATP-PC systems)
high-intensity activities. Although this
cific roles such as centers, point guard, and anaerobic glycolytic systems (14),
data may be valid for junior players, its
shooting guard, small forward, and that is, maximal sprint tests and
relevance to adult and elite populations
power forward. Centers are involved repeated sprint protocols.
is speculative. Further to this, it should be
in less high-intensity movements than
noted that it is not the total distance
both forwards and guards, respectively, AEROBIC VERSUS ANAEROBIC
covered that dictates basketball perfor-
with forwards completing greater vol- Speculation as to whether basketball
mance (1). Therefore, it has been sug-
umes of running (45). More recently, should be classified as an aerobic or
gested that determining the amount of
the frequency of high-intensity move- anaerobic sport is present within the
high-intensity activity may be a more
ments during a game has also been available literature. A reliance on the
prudent strategy to differentiate between
analyzed, with Abdelkrim et al. (2) re- ATP-PC and glycolytic systems has
levels of performance (1).
porting higher occurrences in guards been suggested (31), with the aerobic
and forwards compared with centers PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS OF system identified as a secondary energy
(17.1%, 16.6% versus 14.7%), respec- THE GAME source. This is highlighted in the fact
tively. It is also important to note that For successful performance, players are that mean V̇ O2max values are lower
this research has been carried out since required to possess a number of physi- than that of other more endurance-
the Fédération Internationale de Bas- cal attributes including muscular power based activities (17). Further support
ketball (FIBA) rule changes of May (34), aerobic power (34), speed, and agil- can be derived from Hoffman et al.
2000. These FIBA modifications have ity (31). The relationship between ath- (32) who suggested that basketball seems
resulted in shorter attack times from 30 letic ability and playing time has been to be more dependent on anaerobic
to 24 seconds, a reduction in the time measured previously (32), with players power rather than aerobic power and
spent in the backcourt and four 10- demonstrating the greatest athletic capacity. Over a 4-year period assessing
minute quarters as opposed to two ability (based on the fitness tests) the relationships between athletic
lifting variations, as confirmed by Hoff- components and will likely affect energy systems, has been suggested
man et al. (32), where 1RM bench press movement mechanics, thus reducing as the primary component for exercises
scores were not a good indicator of play- the content validity of the test. An lasting 30–90 seconds (42). Although it
ing time. alternative option may be to perform has been proposed that this test may
a qualitative assessment of lateral abil- reflect the anaerobic capacity compo-
AGILITY
ities and changes of direction in nent of competition (42), with dura-
Agility has been suggested as a key response to a variety of stimuli. Finally, tions of approximately 30 seconds,
physical component in a number of it should also be noted, at this point, validity concerns within the literature
team sports including basketball (21). that none of the tests suggested above are present. This was highlighted
Due to frequent changes of direction are true tests of agility; however at by Delextrat and Cohen (21) who
and reactive nature of the sport (43), this time, efficient, cost-effective, and reported no significant differences
agility has been established as a physio- reliable measures are limited (56). between first and second team players
logical prerequisite for successful perfor- in suicide run performance. This
mance (33). Agility is traditionally SPEED
was likely because of the shorter higher
defined as the ability to change direction When analyzing speed, the majority frequency game actions as has been
rapidly, without losing balance, using of the literature has reported data per- reported previously (2).
a combination of strength, power, and taining to distances of 20–27 m, close
neuromuscular coordination (40). Such to the length of the basketball court AEROBIC CAPACITY
qualities are clearly evident within game (33). It should be considered that play- As mentioned above, aerobic perfor-
play; however, this may be more accu- ers rarely cover these distances in the mance has been shown to affect the
rately described as change of direction same high-intensity effort with aver- game of basketball because of the abil-
speed (60). More recently, Shephard age distances of 10 m recorded or ity to repeat high-intensity efforts
and Young (52) have identified that agil- between 1.7 and 2.1 seconds in dura- (2,15). According to Castagna et al.
ity is affected by the athlete’s perception tion (2,43). Therefore, the use of (15), the Yo-Yo IR1 was able to detect
and decision-making skills. This is high- shorter distance tests (5 and 10 m) significant differences across competi-
lighted by the fact that more skilled ath- to assess linear speed may be a more tive levels, suggesting that basketball
letes are better able to respond to prudent strategy, with the measure- requires well-developed aerobic and
kinematic and postural cues (3). ment of maximal running speed con- anaerobic capabilities, as has been con-
When considering appropriate change sidered inappropriate. With the firmed elsewhere (1: 46; 2). Although
of direction speed or agility tests for requirement for quick accelerations this evidence should be considered,
basketball, it should be considered that and decelerations, this further advo- further research may be necessary to
players are not only required to sprint cates the importance of strength, due support findings because it opposes
in linear planes of motion. Backwards to the ability and effort, required to the majority of previous research dis-
gait and side shuffling movements are overcome the body’s inertia (43). It cussed above.
common, subsequently suggesting the was also noted by Abdelkrim et al. (2)
LANDING MECHANICS/
that the percentage of high-intensity
relevance of the T test. This is sup- UTILIZATION OF THE STRETCH
ported by Delextrat and Cohen (21), movements was reduced in each quar- SHORTENING CYCLE
where first team players achieved sig- ter. As such, the ability to repeat sprints It has been evidenced that maximal
nificantly lower times compared with under conditions of fatigue (i.e., the power production in jumping tasks is
the second team, further confirmed by 12 3 20 m repeated sprint test) may related to lower-limb stiffness (4). Fur-
Gillam (27), with significant differences be deemed appropriate. thermore, athletes from power-based
between basketball athletes and physi- An assessment and training method sports demonstrate higher leg stiffness
cal education majors. Although the that is commonly used within basket- than endurance-trained athletes during
T test has gained support within the ball is the suicide run. Hoare (30) re- a one-legged vertical jump (37). Stiffness
literature, other change of direction ported significant differences in suicide is an important parameter to the power
speed tests, including the pro-agility run time in the “best” versus the “rest” athlete because they will maximize the
test or 5-0-5, may also be appropriate in their assessment of Australian male storage and release of elastic energy in
because of the frequent changes of and female basketball players. How- the musculotendinous unit to improve
direction (43) and inherent game ever, the use of suicide runs has been muscle power and jump height (9). Dur-
demands where sprints will often questioned (21) because of their non- ing a countermovement jump (CMJ),
begin while players are in motion specific nature in terms of game de- a stiffer musculotendinous system might
(2), further justifying the use of the mands. Anaerobic capacity, a key benefit the performance through a faster
5-0-5 test. Also speculatively, performing component of successful basketball elastic recoil during the upward concen-
lateral motions in closed environ- performance, defined as the maximal tric phase of the jump (4), as well as
ments under timed conditions (as in the rate of energy production by the com- a more efficient transfer of force to the
T test) is not reflective of the perceptual bined phosphagen and lactic acid skeleton (58). Rabita et al. (48)
speculated that in trained athletes with landing mechanics, such as the Landing measure of performance such as a sin-
a skilled motor program, the neuromus- Error Scoring System, established by gle-leg CMJ is recommended.
cular system adopts strategies to find Padua et al. (47) will provide coaches
the optimal balance between these con- with useful information that may aid FITNESS TESTS
flicting requirements. in injury prevention. As highlighted above, strength, power,
agility, and speed are important char-
Ineffective absorption of impact forces
acteristics for elite basketball players
has been noted within basketball (25). UNILATERAL ASSESSMENT/ (31,38). Based on the evidence outlined
In particular, it was highlighted that ASYMMETRY in this article, the following testing bat-
females demonstrated inadequate abil- Another consideration in the assessment tery is proposed to assist S&C coaches
ities to withstand eccentric forces on of basketball players is preferred limb in the determination of the physical
landing. This is an important consider- dominance and muscle balance. Theo- abilities of basketball players (Table 1).
ation for S&C coaches because of in- haropoulos and Tsitskaris (55) noted It is suggested that the order of testing
creases in injury risk, in addition to an a difference in the ankle plantar-flexor provided is the most appropriate (i.e.,
inability to effectively use elastic energy strength in favor of the preferred take- least to most fatiguing) and will ensure
accumulated in the eccentric phase of off limb in professional basketball players optimal efficiency. Furthermore, the
the jump (8). It has been suggested that with observed differences of 10%. Some specified sequencing is in agreement
the longer ground contact times dis- element of limb asymmetry is to be antic- with National Strength and Condition-
played within basketball athletes may ipated; however, these findings may val- ing Association recommendations (28).
be due to player-specific body constitu- idate the use of a single-leg CMJ to
tion, differences in jumping technique, determine power ratios and imbalances INJURIES IN BASKETBALL
poorly developed explosive strength, between limbs. Of note, Bracic et al. (11) Previous study has reported that male
and elasticity of the leg extensor muscles identified that elite sprinters who dem- high school basketball players sus-
because of insufficient rigidity and poor onstrated lower bilateral deficits in CMJ tained injuries at a rate of 16.9 per
landing mechanics (22). Subsequently, produced higher peak forces (r 5 0.63). 1,000 hours of game exposure (44).
an assessment of the athlete’s limb This is an important consideration, as in By way of comparison, the NBA
stiffness and reactive strength index is addition to performance decrements, it noted an overall game injury rate of
recommended as a measure of their has been reported that a discrepancy 19.3 per 1,000 athlete exposures (20),
effectiveness in switching from an .15% is an important injury predictor suggesting that injuries are prevalent
eccentric to a concentric contraction. for recurrent hamstring strains (19). Sub- within competition, in particular, the
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