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Regional Clearing House on Population Education

UNESCO PROAP
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

Bangkok, 1996
United Nations
Population Fund
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) document. WARNING! Spelling errors might subsist. In order to access
© UNESCO 1996
Published by the
UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
P.O. Box 967, Prakanong Post Office
Bangkok 10110, Thailand
Printed in Thailand
under UNFPA Project RAS/96/P02
The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the

publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning its frontiers or boundaries.
Introduction ................................................................. 1
SECTION I : Environmental Problems ............ 11
A. Review and Synthesis.. ......................................... 13
B. Abstracts ............................................................... 16
01 State of the world .................................................. 16

02 Environmental strategy for Asia ........................... 18
03 Global ecology handbook.. ................................... 19
04 Environment and global arena.. ............................ 20
05 State of the environment in Asia and the Pacific ... 22
06 Population and development.. ............................... 23
07 Changing global environment............................... 25
08 Environmental trends ............................................ 26
09 Environment and health ....................................... 27
SECTION II : Population Problems ................... 29
A. Review and Synthesis.. .........................................
B. Abstracts ..............................................................
10 Relationship between population and socio-

economic development.. .......................................
11 Long-range population projections.. ......................
12 World population prospects.. ................................
13 World population monitoring and age structure...
14 Meeting population challenge...............................
15 Population issues.. ................................................
16 State of world population .....................................
17 World population profile ......................................
SECTION III : Sustainable Development.. ...........
A. Review and Synthesis ...........................................
B. Abstracts ...............................................................
18 Shaping an environmentally sustainable global

economy ...............................................................
19 Sustaining rapid development in East Asia and
the Pacific .............................................................
20 Strategy for sustainable living.. ............................
SECTION IV : Policy Statements and World

Summits/Meetings.. ...................... 55
A. Review and Synthesis.. ......................................... 57
B. Abstracts.. ............................................................. 60
21 Environment and development in the South Pacific 60

22 Policy issues on population and environment ....... 61
23 Bali declaration on population and sustainable
development ......................................................... 63
24 Report of the fourth Asian and Pacific population
conference ............................................................ 65
25 Selected papers from the fourth Asian and Pacific
population conference.. ......................................... 66
26 Round table on population, environment and
sustainable development.. ..................................... 68
27 Earth’s summit agenda for change, Agenda 21
and other Rio agreements.. .................................... 69
28 Population and environment framework for
analysis ................................................................. 71
29 Guide to Agenda 21.. ............................................ 72
30 Expert group meetings for the international
conference on population and development.. ........ 74
31 Five regional meetings for the international
conference on population and development.. ........ 75
32 Population and environment impacts in the
developing world .................................................. 77
33 International conference on population and
development.......................................................... 79
34 Agenda 21 ............................................................ 80
35 ICPD Programme of Action ................................. 81
SECTION V : Population-Environment-
Sustainable Development
Linkages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A. Review and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
B. Abstracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
36 A new approach to protect environment from

overpopulation ...................................................... 88
37 Population-environment relations in tropical islands 89
38 Accommodating human needs and numbers to the
earth’s resources.. ................................................. 90
39 Population explosion.. .......................................... 92
40 Issues in human ecology.. ..................................... 93
41 Population, resources and environment.. .............. 94
42 Population and environment in the balance.. ........ 95
43 Population and sustainable development.. ............. 97
44 Population, environment and quality of life.. ........ 98
ii
45 Global collapse or sustainable future.. .................. 99

46 Handbook for environmental activist ................... 100
47 Population and development.. ............................... 102
48 Population-environment nexus.. ............................ 103
49 Population and environment related issues.. ......... 105
50 Resources, population and the Philippines’ future 106
51 Safeguarding the future ........................................ 107
52 Zero growth.. ........................................................ 108
53 Ultimate resource.................................................. 110
54 Population, environment and development.. ......... 111
55 Challenges to population and environment.. ......... 113
56 Critical challenges to population, resources and
environment.. ........................................................ 114
57 People and environment.. ...................................... 116
SECTION VI : Population/Environment
Programmes for Special Interest
Groups . . . . . . . . . 119
A. Review and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
B. Abstracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
58 Women, environment and sustainable development 123

59 Women and environment in the third world.. ........ 124
60 Children and environment.. ................................... 126
61 Children first.. ....................................................... 127
62 Women, population and environment.. ................. 129
63 Cross-cultural experiences in population, wildlife
and environment.. ................................................. 131
SECTION VII : Curriculum Materials . . . . . . . . . . 133
A. Review and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
B. Abstracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
64 Population, resources and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

65 Making connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
66 Teacher’s manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
67 Guide to healthy environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
68 Population education sourcebook . . . . 140
69 Teacher’s guide for junior secondary education
in population and family life education in social
studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
70 Linking population and environment: student’s
guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
71 Linking population and environment: teacher’s
guide... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
72 Earth matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
73 World resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
74 Multiplying people, dividing resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
iii
INTRODUCTION
The growing concern by the global community on the effects of population on the environment
and the impact of environmental degradation on population and development is manifested in the
increasing mass of literature focusing on this concern. Numerous documents and reports have
demonstrated that the earth’s life - support systems is being depleted and seriously threatened by
rapid population growth. Research studies have likewise shown that unless the demographic
projections and trends in the coming decades are reversed, the problems associated with high
growth rates such as migration, imbalances in population distribution and urbanization will only
be more intensified. And unless the issues and problems related to these two threatening phenomena
are properly addressed and viable solutions are sought, developmental policies and programmes
aimed toward sustaining development are likely to fail.
Various publications and documents have also critically examined the linkage between
population and environment and have arrived at a similar conclusion that each additional person
on earth is an added increment to the demand on the environment. Each person’s demand when
multiplied to varying degrees with the person’s influence and by the impact of the technology
involved in the production and consumption contributes much to environmental degradation. The
high population density in big and crowded cities resulting from high growth rates and immigration
from the peripheries overloads the available water supply, sanitation and waste disposal. Similarly,
the steadily growing population overburdens the existing natural systems and threatens their continuous
existence.
Since there is no publications that have tried to systematically compile and consolidate
available materials in the areas of population, environment and sustainable development, this issue
of the Abstract-Bibliography series is an attempt to provide an up-to-date listing and analytical
survey of materials in these areas. It is also aimed to provide an overview of publications and
documents which demonstrates the critical link that exists between population, environment and
sustainable development. The analytical review and synthesis of materials in this issue is undertaken
to show the trends and developments in the different areas of the population-environment-sustainable
development triangle. Likewise, this issue provides a comprehensive framework from which
national authorities involved with population and environment programmes may draw in implementing,
monitoring and evaluating their national population and environment education activities.
The significance of this publication is more fully recognized and highlighted with the
establishment in UNESCO of an EDP (Environment and Population Education for Sustainable
Development) Programme. This abstract-bibliography is the 13th issue of the Abstract-Bibliography
Series on Population Education regularly produced by the Clearing House on Population Education.
It is also geared toward the objectives and principles of EPD and for use of EPD specialists.
Organization and How to Use
This Abstract-Bibliography series of 73 publications is grouped under seven sections,

namely, Section I: Environmental Problems; Section II: Population Problems; Section III: Sustainable
Development; Section IV: Policy Statements and World Summits/Meetings on Population,
Environment and Sustainable Development; Section V: Population-Environment-Sustainable
Development Linkages; Section VI: Population/Environment Programmes for Special Interest Groups;
and Section VIII: Curriculum and Training Materials.
The classification of the 73 selections into the above-mentioned sections enables the
reader to have an overview of how problems involving population and sustainable development
are inseparably linked and interrelated with the world’s major problems resulting from widespread
and persistent poverty, income disparities and wasteful consumption and some potential solutions
to these problems. The selections closely examine demographic trends and projections and their
effect on urbanization, migration, HIV/AIDS, gender and developmental policies. They discuss
why economic tools alone are not sufficient to achieve the goals of sustainable development and
why there is a need for major political changes to help reshape existing human institutions and
policies to cope with growing social and environmental problems. A more in-depth analysis of
policy statements made in world summit meetings underscores the measures adopted by the world
leaders to restore the balance between population, environment and resources in the context of
sustainable development. Since the unifying framework of this issue of abstract-bibliographies is
population education viewed from the population-environment-sustainable development perspective,
the last section includes curriculum and teaching materials that can be utilized as text and reference
materials by teachers and trainers in presenting the issues, problems and challenges resulting from
rapid population growth.
The entries in this issue are only a portion of a larger collection on population, environment
and development which forms part of the UNESCO Population Education Clearing House Collection.
These titles have been selected among others, since they are pertinent to the theme of this issue
and they demonstrate the complex interrelationships between population, environment and sustainable
development, specifically the effect of high growth rates on environmental degradation and in
sustaining the world’s development. The large number of entries on the population-environment-
sustainable development linkage highlights the heightened awareness of people and concern of
international organizations and professional societies, regional and national agencies and local
non-governmental organizations in many countries to work together and share resources toward a
more concerted effort to protect and conserve the world’s environment and help improve the
quality of life of present and future generations. The small number of entries on sustainable
development indicate the need to further strengthen efforts in the acquisition of materials in this
area, if available, since they are directly useful to population education programmes. The different
and varied instructional materials selected for this issue provide a good rationale for national
population education, environmental education and development programmes to intensify their
advocacy campaigns, information drives and educational activities related to these programmes.
Under each classification, the entries are arranged alphabetically by author, institution or
other main entries. Each entry can be identified by an assigned reference number. The format for
each bibliographic entry comprises four major elements: the bibliographic description (title, author,
publisher, place and date of publication); the abstract; the descriptors; and the source and its
address. The descriptors are intended to facilitate systematic searching for references by specific
subject. These descriptors were derived from the UNBIS Thesaurus and Macrothesaurus. Subject
and author indexes are found at the back, to enable cross-referencing, allowing users access to the
content through various entry points. Readers will notice that the abstracts contained in this series
are rather lengthy. This was done specifically on purpose. Informative summaries are presented
for each entry, not only to give the readers the main issues but to serve as a replacement of the
original materials which are inaccessible to users in other countries. Enough information is given
to enable users to complete their research without going through the original documents. Majority
of the materials included in this issue consist of research studies, monographs, technical papers,
reports and journal articles.
On the basis of the 73 documents abstracted here, a general summary follows to provide
an overall perspective to the different sections.
Overview of the Population, Environment and Sustainable

Development Problems
a opulation
I n general, the world’s population growth rate declined

from 2.1 per cent in the 1960s to 1.7 in the 1990s. However,
this trend should be interpreted with caution since there exist a great
variation in the extent and pace of that decline for individual countries.
The delayed fertility decline in most developing countries can have
tremendous consequences for the world’s population size. This is
best exemplified by large countries like China and India which can
determine the total world population depending upon what policies
they will adopt to control their population growth.
Some family planning programmes have suffered setbacks

because of the controversies surrounding the issue of unplanned
pregnancy and abortion which has met strong opposition from various
religious and cultural groups in many countries. As a result, the low
status of women has remained since their productive participation in
society is limited because their role as child-bearers and wives has
not changed. It would need strong political will and commitment to
change societies’ perception of women’s traditional role and value.
The key in breaking through this gender bias is education. Establishing
gender equity through major policy interventions is also needed to be
able to strengthen men’s reproductive and familial roles and their
understanding of the social function of motherhood through effective
population programmes.
The recent AIDS epidemic and its impact on life expectancy

and child survival has alarmed the world, reversing much of the hard-
won battles in child survival achieved in many countries over several
decades. While AIDS-related deaths have doubled in countries most
affected, it is not likely to produce negative population growth. However,
in countries with low fertility rates, AIDS has the potential to cause
decline in population. The impact of AIDS will have a dampening
effect on agricultural and economic development since HIV infection
is concentrated in the most productive ages.
The unprecedented period of rapid population growth at present

will determine the shape of the world’s population in the future
particularly in terms of where people will live. It is observed that
rapid population growth is taking place in areas where resources are
limited to sustain the population. This phenomenon has resulted in
an increased migration from the rural areas to the urban centres. The
influx is largely caused by better employment opportunities available
in the urban areas.
In recent years, international migration has become

demographically important because of migrant labour movements. It
3
is important to recognize the common roots of refugees and other

forms of mass movements of populations. There is also a clear need
to distinguish between political and socio-economic causes of migration.
Migrant workers, especially women, can hardly claim protective rights
from their own and their host countries, exposing them to extreme
vulnerability. While cash remittances from migrant workers have
supported many developing economies, they do not compensate for
the loss of the countries’s most productive human resources - the
young and the educated.
El
nvironment
C urrent issues on environmental problems pose new

challenges to humanity as global solutions present their
needs and create new problems. The issue of addressing the forest
economy is placed in the hands of its inhabitants to join forces with
ecologists to plan the use of their lands designed for a productive
economy that thrives on value, thrift and aims for sustainability rather
than volume and profit. At the same time, high profile issues should
not distract the population from more pervasive and ultimately more
destructive intrusions of coastal habitat destruction, chronic overfishing
and pollution from land-based resources.
Among developed countries, the fixation on mobility has

taken its heavy toll. National economies stagger under the burden of
acquiring oil to fuel their growing fleet of cars. Environmental damage
from land use and transport also include pollution in urban areas,
squandering of valuable land, and even altering the earth’s climate.
The biological and chemical agents in the environment cause or
contribute to the premature death of millions of people annually and
to ill health or disablement of hundreds of millions more. The
introduction of new technologies in the past decades failed to anticipate
its growing environmental costs. For example, computers have become
a major electricity consumer in industrial countries. And instead of
creating paperless offices, they have stimulated an ever-growing demand
for paper.
The earth’s carrying capacity in terms of its food resource is

approaching its limits. Oceanic supply of fish, rangelands which
support livestock, and the hydrological cycle to produce freshwater
are strained. The backlog of unused agricultural technology is shrinking
in industrial and developing countries alike, slowing the rise in cropland
productivity. At the same time, soil erosion, air pollution, soil
compaction, aquifer depletion, the loss of soil organic matter, and the
waterlogging and salting of irrigated land are all slowing food production.
At present, it appears that nothing can reverse the worldwide decline
in grain output per person. The bottomline is that the world’s farmers
can no longer be counted on to feed the projected additions to the
present population. Attaining a humane balance between food production
and population growth now depends more on family planners instead
of farmers.
4
El
ustainable
Development
I n many developed and developing countries, efforts to

generate income as fast as possible have damaged the
natural systems. Intensive cultivation, clearing forests, tilling wetlands,
and overfishing, all propelled partly by population growth, eventually
can impair the ability of so-called renewable resources to renew
themselves.
Development experts and national leaders increasingly

recognize that destroying the natural systems to meet current needs or
to make a quick profit is short-sighted and potentially disastrous for
future generations. The alternative to meet people’s current needs
while preserving nature’s productive capacity for the future has been
termed sustainable development.
Adopting the principle of sustainable development requires a

fundamental change in thinking. The data used for decision-making
must reflect the true costs of resource depletion and pollution as they
affect future generations rather than just the short-term costs and
profits of depleting income-producing resources.
Experts in sustainable development argue that long-term

economic development and environmental protection are inextricably
linked. In fact, sustained economic development requires the continued
productivity of farmlands and forests, adequate and safe water supplies
and efficient energy use.
While the concept of sustainable development appears simple,

putting it into practice promises to be difficult. Both political and
technical problems abound: Can sustainability be defined on a global
basis? How will sustainability be defined and measured for any
specific resource? Will nations make major economic policy changes
for the world’s benefit rather than their own? Can politicians forego
offering their constituents short-term benefits in favour of long-term
benefits? How should measures of nations’ economic well-being
reflect sustainability? All these questions and others need serious
attention and continuous appraisal from policy and decision-makers.
he Population-Environment
Development Linkage
ow does population growth endanger the environment?

A critical look at the effect of every person added to
the population as an increment to the demands on the environment
and the environmental impact of technologies involved in the production
to meet the consumption needs of each additional person presents an
alarming situation. For instance, it has been shown that high population
density of big urban centres and large cities has overwhelmed the
water supply, sanitation and disposal systems in these areas. The
rapid pace of population growth has therefore left very little time to
5
promote environmental safeguards and to introduce new technologies.

Solving environmental problems is more difficult and more expensive
when populations grow very quickly. Thus, the steadily increasing
burden of rapid population growth can eventually overload natural
systems and cause their collapse.
The links between population and environment are especially

close in the developing world, where poverty often forces people to
use up resources they know cannot be replaced. Among the contributing
factors, which also include national policies that restrict land ownership
and international ones that limit trade and impose debt, population
clearly figures prominently.
Much of the world’s current environmental dilemma, however

can be traced to the consumption patterns of industrial countries,
home to just one-fifth of the world’s population. These countries
have population that are growing slowly in comparison to those of
the developing world, yet these one fifth of the world’s population
currently uses 70 per cent to 80 per cent of the planet’s energy and
material resources. It is clear that greater energy efficiency and changes
in lifestyles in these countries would help resolve global environmental
problems such as greenhouse warming, ozone depletion and waste
production.
Urgently needed actions include resource and energy

conservation, pollution control, farsighted economic and social policies,
protection of high-risk areas, and support for family planning
programmes. Family planning holds promise because so many women
are entering their reproductive years, and more of them want family
planning. Thus family planning providers face a big challenge: as
part of a broad range of actions, slowing population growth can contribute
to the health of the environment and efforts to raise standards of
living, not just for now but also for generations to come.
The role played by women in both alleviating poverty and

finding development paths that are environmentally sustainable is
very critical. Women in developing countries are assigned the task of
managing natural resources at the local level, in addition to providing
food, health care, child rearing, and a wide range of subsistence work
for their families, Unfortunately, they are often faced with an unusual
number of barriers that inhibit their contribution to society. Providing
women with more access to education, legal rights, and economic
opportunities, as well as elevating the cultural status of women is
crucial if the goals of sustainable development are to be fully achieved.
6
olicy Implications of the

Population-Environment-
Development Linkage
H ow much have the aforementioned issues influence

leaders in formulating developmental policies? Policy-
makers have seen the need to address environmental and population
problems at the top of the political agenda. They have begun by
prioritizing the critical importance of gathering information on current
and potential environmental problems - on such topics as local and
national carrying capacity, a range of population projections,
urbanization, migration, poverty, land and water use, food production
capacity, resource and energy consumption, and the impact of
government policies on all of these matters. Researchers and policy-
makers are encouraged to collaborate in examining the impact of
population trends on the environment.
The public and key professionals such as planners, economists,

and health workers need to understand the implications of current
environmental and population trends and to develop a consensus on
appropriate developmental actions. Without this understanding it is
difficult for political leaders to support long-term strategies that may
entail higher costs and changes in patterns of consumption. The mass
media, community leaders, schools, and out-of-school programms are
being tapped to build public understanding and support of population,
environment and sustainable development programmes.
A wide range of programmes addressing this linkage need to

be developed. They include: preserving arable land, forests, water
supplies, and coastal areas; reducing pollution by curbing factory
emissions and promoting better sanitation; conserving energy;
introducing less polluting, more efficient technologies; removing
subsidies that distort market prices and encourage short-term use at
the cost of future productivity; using economic incentives to reduce
pollution and resource depletion; and assisting local areas vulnerable
to damage.
Two major world meetings have addressed such programmes

in formulating global policies. The International Conference on
Population and Development in Cairo stressed the human rights
dimension of population programmes and reiterated the central role
women play in development. It also collectively recognized the vital
importance of the family, in its various forms as a cornerstone of
society and the critical importance of the accessibility of services,
particularly in the area of reproductive health, for promoting social
equality and accelerating development efforts. It generally paid
considerable attention to the rights and special needs of sub-populations
such as children, the elderly, women and migrants. Several meetings
focused on the issues of the AIDS pandemic and most recommendations
were addressed to governments. Overall, they emphasized the
fundamental importance of research for policy and programme
formulation.
7
On the other hand, the Earth Summit in Rio produced two

international agreements, two statements of principles and a major
action agenda on worldwide sustainable development. The Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development contains 27 principles
which define the rights and responsibilities of nations as they pursue
human development; Agenda 21, a blueprint on how to make
development socially, economically and environmentally sustainable;
and a statement of principles to guide the management, conservation
and conservation for all types of forests, which are essential to economic
development and the maintenance of all forms of life. Two major
international conventions, namely, The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological
Diversity were also negotiated separately from but in parallel with
the preparations for the Earth Summit. The aims of these two
conventions are to stabilize greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at
levels that will not dangerously upset the global climate system and
to require countries to adopt ways and means to conserve the variety
of living species in order to ensure that the benefits from using biological
diversity are equitably shared by all.
mplications to
Population Education
T he vast knowledge and information provided by the

literature and studies reviewed in this issue has shown
the complexity of the relationship that links population, environment
and sustainable development to each other. It likewise demonstrates
the concomitant effect of rapid population growth on the world’s
natural systems and the sustainability of existing resources. How to
translate this knowledge into workable programmes of action to help
restore the balance between population and the environment poses
tremendous challenge to decision-makers and programme planners.
An important vehicle that can be used to transform these

literature and studies into concrete application is population education.
Since the primary goal of population education is to help individuals
make rational decisions on matters concerning population and in the
process improve the quality of their life, population education
programmes can play a significant role in addressing the issues and
problems of environment and sustainable development in a more
meaningful way. Specifically, this can be done by integrating
environment and sustainable development problems in population
education programmes aimed at planned parenthood and family planning
practices. More importantly, the involvement of more women in
family planning and their dual responsibility as environmental managers
at the local level is consistent with the agenda of population education
to raise women’s status as equal partners of men in the development
process. In likewise manner, the integration of environment and
sustainable development concepts in population education programmes
will enrich the teaching materials designed to target the younger age
groups in school for greater programme impact.
8
Thus, this issue of the Abstract-Bibliography Series has been

prepared to provide population programme planners, managers and
educators some guidelines that will help them in integrating environment
and sustainable development into the population education programmes.
It has also provided some ideas on what type of activities, projects and
materials can be developed to include the population-environment-
development linkage in population education programmes which are
intended to reach the young school children, as well as young girls and
women.
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS
01
Brown, Lester R., and others, State of the world 1994; a Worldwatch Institute
report on progress toward a sustainable society. New York, W.W. Norton
& Co,, Inc., 1994. 265 p.
n State of the World 1994, linked to a service-oriented distribution system,

critical issues are examined offers many advantages. The long-term results
through the lens of the earth’s are likely to include less expensive and more
carrying capacity. Together, population reliable electricity, much more efficient use
growth, high rates of resource consumption, of energy, and a dramatic reduction in the
and poverty are driving the global economy environmental problems caused by today’s
toward ecological bankruptcy - a process that utilities.
can only be reversed if their root causes are
eliminated. It will take reducing excessive The fixation on mobility and the
consumption, redistributing wealth and associated seemingly endless increase in
resources, accelerating the development of kilometres of travel exacts a heavy toll.
more sustainable technologies, and slowing National economies stagger under the burden
population growth to achieve a world in which of acquiring oil to fuel their growing fleets
all people may have a decent and secure life. of cars. Billions of hours are wasted each
year in highway gridlock, and hundreds of
The thrust of redesigning the forest thousands of lives are lost in road accidents.
economy are placed in the hands of its Environmental damage from driving plagues
inhabitants through reforms in tenure, price the farthest reaches of the globe: polluting
and power. It aims for a world of regenerated the air in cities, squandering valuable land,
forests and healthy economies: one where and even altering the earth’s climate. Improved
forest dwellers, with their intimate knowledge access could replace mobility as the benchmark
of the forests, join forces with ecologists to of future progress in transport.
plan the use of their lands for a landscape
designed for ecological health and economic The measure of any new technology
productivity that thrives on value rather than extends beyond the benefits of applying it.
volume, r e w a r d s t h r i f t a n d a i m s f o r Computer may become a major electricity
permanence. consumer in industrial countries. Instead of
creating paperless offices, computers have
Public outcry over catastrophic spills stimulated an ever-growing demand for paper.
of oil tankers, the fouling of beaches, the In addition, computer manufacturing has
killing of whales, and other high profile issues environmental impacts that have largely gone
has prompted some promising actions - yet unrecognized until recently. The most
these are not the biggest problems. Less intriguing fact about computers is that they
dramatic but more pervasive and ultimately vastly increase our ability to control. In this,
more destructive are the slow, persistent they have so far followed the pattern of all
intrusions of coastal habitat destruction, chronic human history, as each new technology has
overfishing and pollution from land-based been turned by its users to the control of
resources. nature or other people other than their own
increasingly unsustainable behaviour.
For the world, as a whole, the shift
to a competitive market for wholesale power,
16
Safeguarding public health is Human demands are approaching the

presumably the ultimate goal of regulatory limits of oceanic fisheries to supply fish, of
agencies. Adopting one of the central rangelands to support livestock, and in many
principles of the public health field (prevention countries, of the hydrological cycle to produce
of disease) would amount to a revolution in fresh water. Even as these constraints become
a way most governments regulate chemicals. more visible, the backlog of unused agricultural
Questions no doubt remain about the precise technology is shrinking in industrial and
contribution of industrial pollutants to human developing countries alike, slowing the rise
disease and dysfunction. But there is ample in cropland productivity. At the same time,
evidence that cumulatively they are causing soil erosion, air pollution, soil compaction,
significant harm to humans. aquifer depletion, the loss of soil organic
matter, and the waterlogging and salting of
The production, maintenance and irrigated land are all slowing the rise in food
disposal of huge quantities of arms incur output. At present, there is nothing in site to
significant environmental damage and immense reverse the worldwide decline in grain output
financial costs. Enormous amounts of military- per person. The bottom line is that the world’
generated hazardous waste need to be s farmers can no longer be counted on to
detoxified and disposed of, countless sites feed the projected additions to our numbers.
with heavy contamination of soil and water Achieving a humane balance between food
await cleanup and rehabilitation, and mountains and people now depends more on family
of obsolete and surplus weapons need to be planners than on farmers.
dismantled in an acceptable manner.
Descriptors:
The World Bank has the largest and
most capable group of development economists
anywhere, the largest financial resources of
any development agency and the best access
to data and information of any development
agency. It is in a position to take a leadership
role and make a major contribution to progress.
But reorienting economic activity toward
sustainable development is a daunting task
Source: Worldwatch Institute
everywhere for national governments and
1776 Massachusetts
international organizations alike. The world
Avenue, NW
community is starting to realize that notions
Washington, D. C.
of development and progress that prevailed
200 36- 1904
50 years ago have little to do with today’s
U. S. A.
sobering realities.
17
02
Carter, Brandon, and Ramesh Ramankutty. Toward an environmental strategy

for Asia. Washington, D. C., The World Bank, 1993. 210 p. (World Bank
discussion paper no. 224)
his paper addresses the need The paper proposes a framework for
arising from both within and accomplishing improved environmental
outside the World Bank for a management. The first of its five components
document that discusses the nature and is the need to set priorities, an obvious but
magnitude of environmental problems in Asia, difficult step imposed by shortages of financial
explores technical and policy approaches to and administrative resources. The paper then
solving these problems, and documents World addresses the four key components of national
Bank experience in assisting Asian countries environmental strategies: designing cost-
to deal with environmental problems. The effective policy instrument, improving
paper does not set out specific strategies for institutional capacity, increasing public and
any particular country, as that would be beyond private sector investments, and improving
its scope. It does, however, make a clear technology, even in areas not fully supported
statement on World Bank principles and by the market. This framework is then applied
priorities for the near future. to specific sectoral issues in the urban, industry,
energy, agriculture, forestry, biodiversity, and
Economic growth and population water sector. The paper emphasizes that there
densities have had severe negative impacts are real institutional and resource constraints
on the Asian environment. Pressure on the in all sectors and that any strategy to achieve
region’s resources is intense and growing. greater sustainability must be continually
There are serious problems in the areas of updated as these constraints change.
urban environmental degradation, industrial
pollution, atmospheric emissions, soil erosion The last section of the paper outlines
and land degradation, water resource the World Bank’s role in assisting Asian
degradation, deforestation, and loss of natural countries to address environmental issues. The
habitat. The real costs of environmental environmental focus of the World Bank’s
degradation are mounting in the form of lending programme and analytical work has
increasing health costs and mortality, reduced grown over the last several years, and is
output in resource-based sectors, and the expected to grow further. The strategies
irreversible loss of biodiversity and overall employed vary by country, as do the relative
environmental quality. areas of emphasis (such as natural resource
management vs. pollution control), partnerships
The answer to these problems does with their donors, NGOs, and the private
not lie in trying to stop the trends toward sector, and the role of technical assistance.
greater urbanization and industrialization in
Asia. Rather, these fundamental economic Pursuing an environmental
trends can be made far more sustainable sustainability in Asia is crucial in the light of
through targeted environmental policies and what is at stake. Both urban and rural problems
investments. Asia’s achievements (its are approaching thresholds of unacceptably
relatively high levels of growth, economic high social and economic costs. The future
efficiency, human resource development, and environmental balance in Asia is also critical
declining levels of poverty) provide them for the global environment, particularly for
greater latitude to address their environmental greenhouse gas emissions, forestry and
problems than others. biodiversity. Although economic growth in
18
Asian countries has given these countries some set of World Bank activities designed to
room to address environmental issues, the contribute toward greater sustainability in Asia.
financial and technical resources required are
beyond the capacity of any individual country Descriptors:
or donor.
The World Bank’s role as described

is to assist Asian countries in determining
environmental priorities; identifying
sustainable economic policies; estimating full
project-level cost and benefits, and increasing
administrative skills for implementing the Source: The World Bank
recommended policies and projects. As was Distribution Unit
emphasized at the outset, the Bank’s strategy Office of the Publisher
is to support a process for achieving 1818 H Street, N. W.
sustainability - a process that must involve Washington, D. C.
every government and most donors active in 20433 U. S. A.
Asia. This document is only one of the broader
03
he decision we make - as The Global Tomorrow Coalition has

consumers in the marketplace, prepared this Global Ecology Handbook as a
as professionals in our daily stimulus to action. A first step toward action
work, as concerned citizens of our country is a better understanding of the complex
and as parents and homemakers helping to interrelationships among major global
form the values of our families - will create problems and some of their potential solutions.
the world our children and grandchildren will Each of the fourteen chapters focuses on the
inherit. This is the premise behind the following global issues: foresight capability;
publication of The Global Ecology Handbook. population growth; development and
environment; food and agriculture; biological
The overall theme of the book is very diversity; tropical forests; ocean and coastal
close to the message conveyed by the recent resources; fresh water; nonfuel minerals;
report of the World Commission on energy; air, atmosphere, and climate; hazardous
Environment and Development, Our Common substances; solid waste management; and
Future: the present path of economic and social global security. It summarizes the nature and
development is causing serious ecological extent of the problem and outlines what can
damage to the planet and is therefore not be or is being done about it.
sustainable over the long-term. The book
provides opportunities for changing course Inspite of the growing attention to
and moving toward new patterns of the nature and causes of these global problems,
development that will be sustainable into the there are political, social, and economic
foreseeable future. obstacles that continue to retard progress
toward solutions. This handbook is designed
19
to help overcome these obstacles by providing public policy, working with the media, and
basic facts about global population, resource, forming international ties.
and environmental problems.
The appendix lists names and
The book likewise demonstrates how addresses of organizations that are referred
these problems are interrelated and shows how to, including participating and affiliate
these problems affect the lives of citizens in members of the Global Tomorrow Coalition.
the United States and other countries. It shows The appendix also includes addresses for
how human activities are affecting our suppliers of audio-visual materials listed.
increasingly interdependent world, how
different global problems are interrelated, and Some conclusions presented in the
how human impacts in one region can be felt book, such as the remaining useful life of
in other parts of the world. For example, fossil fuel and mineral supplies, and the
poverty contributes to environmental damage, climatic effects of a projected doubling of
and environmental degradation exacerbates atmospheric carbon dioxide, are controversial
poverty. and subject to continuing scientific inquiries.
Furthermore, it cites successful efforts Descriptors:

in alleviating the problems in the United States
and around the world. It reviews priority
goals and strategies for achieving sustainable
development, and summarizes progress in both
developing and industrial countries in moving
toward more viable policies and actions.
Finally, it proposes alternative

solutions based on the best information
available and suggests how individuals and
groups can participate in achieving solutions Source: Beacon Press
by giving sources of further information and 25 Beacon Street
assistance. It offers guidelines and advice Boston, Massachusetts
about networking, working with educators, 02108-2800
organizing community activities, shaping U. S. A.
04
Dahlberg, Kenneth A,, and others? Environment and the global arena; actors,
values, policies and futures Durham, Duke University Press; 1985.
188.p.
he book presents four distinct of the values and policies of these global
perspectives: 1) Who are the actors?
global actors involved in the
issue, and what are the linkages among them?; The 1972 Stockholm Conference
2) What prevailing values are operating, and paved the way for the creation of the United
how have the actors responded to these values?; Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
3) What policies are applied by these actors which became a coordinating body and
at the global level, and how are these policies operates under the fundamental principle that
determined?; 4) What are the possible results responsibility for addressing environmental
20
issues does not rest with a specialized body future is believed to be most likely, and
but with every actor. The book categorizes 2) designs advocating the most desirable
and describes the types of environmental actors among the futures (but are not necessary
from the subnational level to the global level. probable). The forecasts range from
They are classified under governmental and pessimistic doomsday scenarios to the
nongovernmental. Under nongovernmental unbridled optimism of high technology. The
are divisions between nonprofit associations designs range from a strengthening of UNEP’
and profit-making enterprises. UNEP would s programmes and the further development
become the creative body, an idea generator, of international regimes to science fiction
a coordinator, and an evaluator. Each of their scenarios. Some designs would have us live
perspectives on environmental issues and how the frugal lifestyle of a steady state-economic
they differ were also discussed. system in small, relatively autonomous
communities or neighbourhoods. Others would
Some of the prevailing values on subject us to stronger centralized controls at
which these actors operate are: 1) the control both the national and international levels.
of pollution; 2) the preservation of genetic However, none of these approaches is certain.
diversity; 3) the conservation of both renewable And none allows for major anticipated events.
and nonrenewable types of resources; and But all share the common concern for the
4) the reduction of a high rate of population future state of the planet Earth.
growth. The strength of the international
commitment to these environmental values In its concluding part, the book
depends on their compatibility with other discusses the major theories behind the causes
widely-accepted and long-standing goals of of environmental degradation such as
the world community. In this regard, there population, affluence, technology, capitalism
is in general a complementary relationship and growth. It focuses on the decade since
between peace and environmental objectives. the 1972 Stockholm Conference, addressing
The compatibility between environmental both the state of the global environment and
values and economic objectives has been in the institutions that have assumed responsibility
more doubt, but over the past decade the for dealing with it. Finally, it examines again
dialogue between the North and South has the debate between the pessimists and the
done much to achieve a reconciliation between optimists, searching for enough common
what were originally believed to be competing ground to find hope that although the problems
values. of the global environment are real, they are
also manageable without conducting radical
The policy approaches discussed are: changes in the quality of life to which human
1) restraint, 2) restriction, 3) taxes, beings are accustomed.
4) enclosures and 5) public monopoly. An
important consideration in the selection of a Descriptors:
policy is its potential for achieving the values
held important by those who will be affected
by it; values such as conservation, production,
equity or freedom. The most frequent response
to an impending environmental tragedy of the
commons has been to adopt restrictions
designed to discourage overuse or misuse of
the natural environment. Source: Duke University Press
6697 College Station
A distinction has been drawn between Durham, N. C. 27708
two types of thought and research about the U. S. A.
future: 1) forecasts projecting what kind of
21
q
he second Report on the State The final part of the report contains
of the Environment in the a description of the context within which
Asian and Pacific Region environmental policy decisions have to be
reviews the dynamics of environmental made. The regional trends and projections
conditions and the status of national and of environmental conditions, as well as the
regional responses t o t h e c h a n g i n g regional implications of global environmental
environmental situation. It aims to provide a problems are the parameters for decision-
general evaluation of the quality of the making. These comprise the environmental
environment and emerging trends so that major challenges that confront decision-makers in
issues can be highlighted for action by the 1990s.
governments, intergovernmental organizations,
non-governmental organizations and private Among the highlights of the report
enterprises in the region. are the following: With only 23 per cent of
the world’s total land area, the Asia and the
In the first part, it describes the Pacific region is home to 55 per cent (2.9
prevailing environmental conditions in the billion) of the world’s 5.2 billion people.
region from two perspectives, namely, the Seventy per cent of the people still live in
natural ecosystems and the human ecosystems. rural areas comprising 72 per cent of the
The environmental conditions in the natural world’s agricultural population. Overall
ecosystems have been assessed by the population growth rate for the region is 1.8
biophysical status in terms of indicators of per cent per annum. Rural population growth
quality and quantity which, in the case of the rates range from 1 per cent to 2.9 per cent
human ecosystems, have been complemented and urban growth rates vary between 3
by indicators of social well-being. per cent and 6.5 per cent, indicating a general
shift of population towards the cities.
In the second part, the human
perception of environmental conditions and The region spans a vast and diverse
the consequent national and regional responses range of ecosystems consisting of deserts,
to the problems of the environment have been forests, rivers, lakes and seas. Desertification
presented. The four response areas identified affects more than 860 million hectares of land
are: 1) institutions and legislation, 2) education, and an estimated 150 million people. It is
communication and environmental awareness, increasing most rapidly in western South Asia
3) technology, and 4) planning. By where it is fueled by heavy population pressure.
strengthening the institutional capabilities to
deal with the environmental problems, enacting The largest forest biomass occurs in
the appropriate legislation, promoting tropical Asia, where 34 per cent of land area,
environmental education and creating public is tropical forest. The average rate of
awareness on the importance of the deforestation in the region, according to an
environment, applying appropriate technologies earlier (1980) estimate, was 2.0 million
and incorporating environmental considerations hectares per annum. A more recent (1990)
in development planning, the prevailing preliminary estimate of FAO places this figure
environmental problems may find adequate at an alarming 5 million hectares per annum.
solutions.
22
The marine and coastal environments there still much scope for diversifying into
of the region are amongst the most diverse higher value-added products and industrial
and productive in the world. Over two-thirds manufacturing. This diversification has started,
of the world’s coral reefs and one-third of and while the world economic growth during
the over 24 million hectares of the world’s the 1990s averaged 3 per cent, the ESCAP
mangrove areas are located in the ESCAP region averaged 6.8 per cent. Given a
region. The oceans, islands coral reefs, conservative projection of 5 percent annual
estuaries and mangrove ecosystems of the growth, economic activity is set to double
region are closely linked with its economic every 15 years.
and other human activities.
Descriptors:
The region’s economy is
predominantly agricultural and is based on Environmental Conditions; Environmental
natural resources. Additionally, the region Legislation; Environmental Education;
supplies 42 per cent of the world’s total inland Environmental Technology; Environmental
and marine fish catch. Planning; Climate; Ozone Layer
Depletion; Environmental Challenges;
Considering that the region has over Asia; Pacific Region
half the world’s population, its share in
international trade is comparatively small, with Source: Economic and Social
exports accounting for only 17 per cent of Commission for
the world’s total and imports 21 per cent. Asia and the Pacific
Exports are still, to a large extent, commodity- United Nations Building
based with a low value-added component. Rajdamnern Nok
Similarly, the region’s GDP accounts for only Avenue, Bangkok
24 per cent of the world’s total, and energy 10200, Thailand
production only 18 per cent. Consequently,
06
Philippine Legislators’ Committee on Population and Development

Foundation, Inc. (PLCPD). Report of the first, second and third regional
conference on population and development. Quezon City, Philippines, 1990.
4 vols.
q
he regional conferences were organizations and the media to discuss
conducted i n N o r t h e r n population and interrelated issues of family
Mindanao and the Western planning, maternal and child welfare, the role
and Eastern Visayas islands of the Philippines of women in development, the use of natural
under the funding of the United Nations resources and the protection of the
Development Programme (UNDP), the United environment.
Nations Population Fund (UNPF), and the
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The aim of the conference is to find
It was initiated by the Philippine Legislators’ a common path to the alleviation of poverty
Committee on Population and Development and examine the region’s provision for health
Foundation (PLCPD) for legislators, governors, and basic services, the advancement of the
mayors, representatives of non governmental rights of children, the enhancement of women’s
23
role i n d e v e l o p m e n t , e n v i r o n m e n t a l involvement in implementing programmes and

management and sustainability of natural projects. There is also a need to validate
resources in the region. statistics at the local level to serve as baseline
data for all government planning and
Each report presented the problems development programmes. Regarding
and issues discussed, and the programmes and government decentralization, local officials
recommendations formulated by the should be given more authority and flexibility
participants. in implementing development programmes and
in allocating and utilizing funds intended for
The issues identified in relation with programmes in their respective communities.
resources, environment and population pressure Coordination of line agencies of the national
include forest denudation, migration and government with the local government and
urbanization, rapid population growth, illegal other agencies in policy formulation and
fishing practices, and open pit mining using implementation should also be instituted.
cyanide or mercury. Vast areas of undeveloped Likewise, there is a need to instill a stronger
resources likewise remain untapped because sense of mission and commitment among local
of lack of capital, scientific and technical officials in performing their roles as local
expertise, political interference, and peace and public servants. With regards to the services
order situation, among others. delivered at the local level, there is a need to
The lack of coordination between balance service delivery by channelling more
local government units and line agencies of these services to the rural areas. It is
recommended that the role of local officials
resulting to inconsistent programmes,
in identifying target beneficiaries be activated.
misprioritizing, inadequate delivery and
The beneficiaries themselves have to be
distribution of social services was also
organized and inculcated with the proper values
highlighted. Ineffective political systems are
and attitudes toward development.
due mainly to an overly centralized and
bureaucratic set-up and too much partisan
Descriptors:
politics. Low priority is being given to human
resource development which emphasizes
tangible infrastructure projects.
The participants at the three regional

conferences shared the following views:
1) that the problem of population is a problem
of development; 2) that development efforts
must be integrated at all levels; 3) that local
government officials must play a stronger role Source: Philippine Legislators’
in integrating these efforts; and 4) that the Committee on
regions offer a wealth of experience for Population and Deve-
programme planners and implementors and lopment Foundation,
that these experiences need to be shared and Inc. (PLCPD)
discussed. Rm. 611 North Wing
Batasan Complex,
Their recommendations include the Quezon City
involvement of local officials in identifying Philippines
or pinpointing the poor for consultation and
24
his book helps concerned their inhabitants. Subsequent topics examine

individuals understand the other human-induced changes to the global
basic science behind global environment, including the threat to the earth’
environmental problems and the policy s ozone layer, deforestation and dwindling
implications that are part of the search for genetic diversity, and how acid deposition
solutions. Describing the earth as a unified affects forests, lakes, and waterways.
system, the authors explore the interactions
between land, water and atmosphere, and the The threats to the global environment
snowballing impact that human activity is should launch a new era of international
having on the system. In addition to the cooperation between the North and South.
scientific descriptions, the book points out Issues like the debt crisis, trade policies,
the seemingly paradoxical need for economic resources for international financial institutions,
growth to alleviate such global environmental harnessing technology for global benefit and
problems. strengthening the United Nations’ system show
the critical link between each region’s
The diverse faces of global economic and environmental concern.
environment change are linked both
scientifically and politically. Scientifically, People in the richer, developed
the ability to predict future changes in the countries, with only one quarter of the world’
environment requires an understanding of the s population, consume most of the world’s
physical, chemical, biological and social energy. They command about 80 per cent of
processes that govern the earth, and of the the world’s wealth, use most of its natural
interaction of these processes throughout the resources, and generate the most waste. Most
earth system. Politically, policy options to of the greenhouse gases and chemicals that
address these problems highlight the need for are changing the composition of the
coordinated international policies relating to atmosphere - and thus contributing to the
energy, technology, land use and economic projected climate change and to other changes
development. such as acid deposition - have been emitted
by industrialized nations in the Northern
The chapters in the book provide the hemisphere.
backdrop of the scientific information on which
these political decisions ultimately will rely. People in developing countries, with
The complexities of earth system science, the three quarter’s of the world’s populations,
lessons derived from the earth’s history, and have less than one quarter of the wealth. But
the modern forces driving changes in the global the millions of poor people in the developing
environment are explored in the first part of world also contribute to resource depletion
the book. The second part describes some of and environmental stress. The poor and hungry
the transformations projected or under way. are often compelled to destroy their
These include the prospect of a warmer global environment, by cutting down forests and
climate, potential changes to the world’s food depleting soils, in order to survive.
production systems and water supplies as
climate changes, and the likelihood that sea In the developing world, improved
level will rise as the climate warms and how standards of living can break the cycle of
this may affect the world coastal zones and rapid population growth and the environmental
25
hazard it engenders. The experience of country Descriptors:

after country has shown that economic
development, when paired with better
opportunities for employment and education,
eventually leads to lower birth rate.
Source: National Academy Press

2101 Constitution
Avenue, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20418
U. S. A.
08
he original Global 2000 report improving since at least World War II, as
forecasts widespread envi- measured by grain prices, production per
ronmental disaster by the turn consumer, and famine death rate.
of the century. The Resourceful Earth
challenges the claims made by Global 2000 Trends in world forests are not
through the findings of an independent team worrying, though in some places deforestation
of world experts. Their findings demonstrate is troubling. There is no statistical evidence
that on the basis of present trends the world for rapid loss of species in the next two
in 2000 will be less crowded, less polluted, decades. An increased rate of extinction cannot
more ecologically stable, and less vulnerable be ruled out if tropical deforestation is severe,
to resource-supply disruption than the world but no evidence about linkage has yet been
we live now. It does not however promise a demonstrated. The fish catch, after a pause,
whitewash nor does it say there will be no has resumed its long upward trend.
dangers. It simply shows that environmental
trends are improving rather than deteriorating. Land availability will not increasingly
Approached with initiative and ingenuity, a constrain world agriculture in the coming
resilient earth draws a scenario where raw decades. In the U.S., the trend is toward
materials are becoming less vital to economic higher-quality cropland, suffering less from
development. erosion than in the past. The widely-published
report of increasingly rapid urbanization of
Among the high points of the findings US farmland was based on faulty data.
are as follows: Life expectancy has been rising
rapidly throughout the world, a sign of Mineral resources are becoming less
demographic, scientific and economic success. scarce. Water does not pose a problem of
The birth rate in less developed countries has physical scarcity or disappearance either,
been falling substantially during the past two although the world and US situations do call
decades, from 2.2 per cent yearly in 1964-65 for better institutional management through
to 1.75 per cent in 1982-83, probably as a more rational systems of property rights.
result of modernization and decreasing child
mortality, and a sign of increased control by There is no persuasive reason to
people over their family lives. Many people believe that the world oil price will rise in
are still hungry, but the food supply has been coming decades. The price may fall well
26
below what it has been. Compared to coal, attitudes about natural resources and the
nuclear power is no more expensive, and is environment, such as those urged by Global
probably much cheaper, under most 2000. These constraints include the view that
circumstances. It is also much cheaper than resource and environmental trends point toward
oil. Nuclear power gives every evidence of deterioration rather than improvement, that
costing fewer lives per unit of energy produced there are physical limits that will increasingly
than does coal or oil. Solar energy sources act as a break upon progress, and that nuclear
(including wind and wave power) are too dilute energy is more dangerous than energy from
to compete economically for much of other sources. These views lead to calls for
humankind’s energy needs, though for subsidies and price controls, as well as
specialized uses and certain climates they can government ownership and management of
make a valuable contribution. resource production, and government allocation
of resources that are produced.
Threats of air and water pollution
have been vastly overblown since processes Descriptors:
were not well analyzed in Global 2000. The
climate does not show signs of unusual and
threatening changes.
In short, the findings express

confidence that the nature of the physical world
permits continued i m p r o v e m e n t i n
Source: Basil Blackwell, Inc.
humankind’s economic lot in the long run,
432 Park Avenue
indefinitely. It is not as confident about the
Suite 1505
constraints currently imposed upon material
New York, N.Y. 10016
progress by political and institutional forces,
U. S. A.
in conjunction with popularly-held beliefs and
09
very year, biological and attempt to give health its rightful place at the
chemical a g e n t s i n t h e centre of the discussion about environment
environment cause or and development.
contribute to the premature death of millions
of people and to the ill health or disablement Development strategies in a number
of hundreds of millions more. Surprisingly, of sectors can have adverse consequences for
inspite of the fact that concern for health health and the environment. This report looks
usually underlies discussions about the in particular at food and agriculture, water,
environment, health itself is not often energy, industry, and urbanization, in each
specifically considered and is seldom given case, examining the adverse health effects of
high priority in development plans. This various sectoral policies and recommending
report, produced by the an independent approaches and action aimed at mitigating or
commission appointed by the Director-General preventing them.
of the World Health Organization, is an
27
Among the interrelationships the book Environmental management is needed

highlights are the following: in all human settlements to provide water,
protect public space, remove wastes, and
Agriculture, forestry and fishing protect air and water quality.
provide not only food and natural resources
on which human society depends but also Certain environmental issues have
the livelihood of about half of the world’s health implications on a wider scale than the
population. Their output can only be sustained local or national level. They include the long-
if the ecological systems on which they draw range transport of air pollutants, the
are not overexploited. transboundary movement of hazardous
products and wastes, stratospheric ozone
Fresh water is considered a renewable depletion, climatic change, ocean pollution
source, but there are limits on the supplies and loss of biodiversity.
available. In many countries or regions,
shortages of fresh water are the main obstacle The discussion is underpinned by
to agricultural and industrial production. Some concern for the principles of more equitable
of the shortages lead to poverty and soil access to resources both within and between
degradation. Many cities and agricultural countries, and participation of the public in
regions are now drawing supplies from formulating, implementing and evaluating
underground aquifers at a rate far above their plans and projects. Application of these
natural rate of recharge. principles is considered essential for the
attainment of the three global objectives set
The main goals of energy by the Commission: achievement of a
development is to reduce the cost of energy sustainable basis for health for all, attainment
production, to make systems more efficient of an environment that promotes health, and
and open up previously untapped energy awareness by all individuals and organizations
sources. Reducing the adverse environmental of their responsibility for health and its
and health effects has also become a goal. environmental basis.
More recently, concern about climatic change
has emerged, since the combustion of fossil Descriptors:
fuels, which accounts for nearly 90 percent
of the world’s commercial energy production,
is the largest source of greenhouse gases.
Industrialization has made many

contributions to health, among them increased
personal incomes, greater social wealth, and
improved services, particularly transport and
communications. But industrial activities carry
the risk of adverse health consequences for Source: World Health
the workforce and the general population, Organization
Industrial emissions and products also threaten Distribution and Sales
the global environment. 1211 Geneva 27
Switzerland
28
POPULATION
PROBLEMS
ection
Two
Population Problems
The selections in this issue provide population estimates, demographic trends and
projections. They further examine key population issues which include fertility and mortality,
urbanization and migration, gender and aids, concluding with policy measures that each selection
offers. A brief overview on the eight selections follows: The Population and Development Review
contains articles, notes and commentaries, data and perspectives, book reviews, archives and
documents dealing with the interrelationships of population and socio-economic development.
Meeting the Population Challenge focuses on the accumulated experience worldwide in the
broad field of population, highlighting significant findings and responses. World Population
Monitoring 1991 presents a special report on age structure, population trends and policies
concluding with a summary of current social and economic conditions relevant to population
trends. World Population Prospects: the 1992 Revision as a biennial publication of the United
Nations Secretariat gives the official UN population estimates and projections for the world.
The UN Long-Range Population Projections: What They Tell Us aims at putting the world’s
possible future population sizes into perspective. The State of the World Population 1993
provides demographic backgrounds and examines key issues such as urbanization and international
migration with a separate chapter on gender dimension, refugees and asylum seekers. The
Population Issues Briefing Kit examines the ten key issues in the field of population and
development. World Population Profile 1994 presents an update on the population estimates
and projections for all countries and regions of the world with a special chapter focusing in
HIV/AIDS.
Six selections show population estimates, demographic trends and population projections:
Meeting the Population Challenge 1991, World Population Monitoring 1991, World Population
Prospects: the 1992 Revision, The UN Long-range Projections: What They Tell Us, Population
Issues Briefing Kit, and World Population Profile 1994. Their chronological publication includes
a comprehensive reference of population developments in the nineties.
Two selections focus on demographic trends between developing and industrialized
countries in 1990. The findings of the selection Meeting the Population Challenge 1991
reveal that 90 per cent of the growth in human numbers take place in the developing world.
The selection World Population Monitoring 1991 further notes that less developed regions
increased at 2.1 per cent per annum; developed region dropped to 0.5 per cent; and least
developed countries increased to 2.8 per cent. Likewise, Meeting the Population Challenge 1991
projects that between 1990 and the 21st century, the population of industrialized countries will
grow only by 5.2 per cent while that of developing countries will balloon to 24.6 per cent.
Political developments in demographic trends are highlighted in two selections. The
selection World Population Prospects: the 1992 Revision, accommodates changes due to political
developments in USSR, Eastern Europe and the Persian Gulf. It has also made available for the
first time population figures by sex and age in six countries, namely Brunei, Maldives, the
Bahamas, Solomon Islands, Guam and French Polynesia due to the lowering of the big-country
criterion in 1990 to include countries with a maximum size of 200,000. Revisions caused by
political developments continued in 1994, where the selection World Population Profile 1994
separates the Czech Republic and Slovakia as well as the entities of the former Yugoslavia.
Newly independent republics are shown individually under the headings of Baltic, Commonwealth
of Independent States and Georgia. In Sub-Saharan Africa though, Aritea is not shown separately
from Ethiopia since demographic estimates and projections for that newly-independent country
has yet to be done.
The selection Population Issues Briefing Kit presents a summary of the demographic
trends by region.
Two selections are sources of the United Nation’s four variants of population projections.
The selection World Population Prospects: the 1992 Revision presents the figures while the
selection The UN Long-Range Projections: What They Tell Us, provides the analysis.
The selections raise the following issues as critical to the population debate: fertility
and mortality, age structure, urbanization, internal and international migration, gender, statistics
and AIDS.
Of the four selections addressing the issue of fertility lengthily, only one deviates
relatively from the commonly held assertions with regards to fertility decline. The Emerging
Demographic Transitions of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand),
from the selection Population and Development Review, reveals that in spite of wide variations,
significant fertility decline is evident in all four countries. Globally, a relatively similar finding
is shown by the selections World Population Monitoring 1991 and the Population Issues Briefing
Kit. The former adds that decline in mortality has offset the respective change between fertility
and mortality as the pace of both declines has slowed. On the other hand, Population Issues
Briefing Kit asserts that although the average fertility rate in developing countries has decreased,
the absolute number being added continues to increase. In contrast with these three selections,
the selection Meeting the Population Challenge attributes the rapid increase in population to
relatively higher levels of fertility and successively expanding cohorts of women in the prime
reproductive stage, a trend expected to continue well into the 21st century.
Five selections address the issues of age structure and urbanization and share similar
views. Meeting the Population Challenge, World Population Monitoring 1991, The State of
World Population 1993, Population Issues Briefing Kit, and World Population Profile 1994
cite a growing concern with regards to age distribution as the number of young and elderly
people grow, relative to the working-age population. The selections likewise attribute the rapid
increase in urban population brought about by rural-urban migration and natural increases in
urban population. The common factor identified affecting urban migration points to better
employment opportunities due to the concentration of industry and commerce in the urban
areas. This has resulted to the expansion of city boundaries which eats up farmland and states
due to the growing demand for housing and infrastructures.
Three selections address the issue of international migration: Meeting the Population
Challenge, Population Issues Briefing Kit and The State of the World Population 1993. The
selection Population Issues Briefing Kit asserts that the value of cash remittances from migrant
workers is second only to oil in its value in the international trade. Unfortunately, remittances
do not always find their way into productive investment. They do not compensate for the loss
of young, educated people, the country’s most productive human resource. The selection State of
the World Population 1993 expands the discussion to include the issue of refugees and the
gender dimension of migration. Despite the disadvantages, women migrants have become
I1 I1
Population and Development Review. Vol. 16, no. 1, March.1990. 211 p.
q
his particular volume contains 1986-87. Compared with the normal level
articles, notes and of approximately 106, this implies that annually
commentaries, data and over half a million female infants are missing,
prospectives, book reviews, archives and or just over 2 per cent of all births. There
documents dealing with the interrelationships are three possible explanations. The first is
between population and socio economic infanticide, the traditional method of disposing
development. unwanted births in feudal China and common
in many premodern societies. The second is
The article of Vaclav Smil on abortion after parents have gained access to
Planetary Warming: Realities and Responses technologies in determining the gender of the
separates relatively skimpy facts from abundant fetus. Third, the finding may be the result of
conjectures, outlines risks and benefits of faulty statistical reporting: missing female
planetary warming, and reviews policy options, infants could have been safely born, but are
their chances for adoption, and desirabilities. concealed by parents attempting to circumvent
It argues strongly for ameliorative action since the national one-child family planning policy
every change aimed at reducing planetary in their quest for a son. All three explanations
warming has many other, ultimately more imply important challenges to the health,
important, benefits. A global strategy safety, and welfare of girls and women in
combines major population growth cuts in China.
large and poor countries with major reductions
of resource consumption in the richest nations. Toward a Political Economy of
Fertility: Anthropological Contributions by
Family Size and the Education of Susan Greenhalgh proposes a new way of
Children in the Context of Rapid Fertility looking at fertility. The essay explaines that
Decline authored by John Knodel, Napaporn three decades ago, there was wide consensus
Havanon, Werasit Sittirai discusses the results on the demographic transition theory in
of a survey of semi-matched samples in two explaining why fertility falls. Since then
rural sites in Thailand indicate that family repeated empirical challenges have led this
size has an important impact on children’s essay to another strand of demographic
education. The number of children in a family theorizing: the political economy of fertility
and the likelihood that a child will study developing in cultural anthropology, social
beyond the compulsory level are inversely history, and historical and macrosociology.
associated, even when other important It directs attention to the embeddedness of
determinants of children’s schooling are community institutions in structures and
controlled. Survey results and qualitative data processes, especially political and economic
also reveal that in Thailand the primary ones, operating at regional, national, and global
responsibility for funding children’s education levels, and the historical roots of those macro-
falls directly on parents. Fertility decline is micro linkages. This essay highlights the
thus likely to contribute to rising levels of contributions of cultural anthropology to this
education. area of inquiry, stressing conceptual
contributions and providing a preliminary
Terence H. Hull’s Recent Trends in formulation on the basic precepts of a political
Sex Ratios at Birth in China reveals an economy of fertility. It also enumerates some
increase to 111 males per 100 females in of the obstacles that must be overcome in
34
establishing a genuine interdisciplinary declines were clearly in all four affecting all
approach to demographic political economy. social groups and geographical areas.
Thomas E. Fricke’s note on The book reviewed in this volume

Darwinian Transitions? A Comment contrasts are Ben Wattenberg’s The Birth Death: What
with John Caldwell’s wealth flows theory of Happens When People in Free Countries Don’t
fertility decline in explaining the demographic Have Enough Babies?; Tim Dyson’s India’s
transition advanced by Paul Turke based on Historical Demography: Studies in Famine,
sociobiology assumptions. Caldwell’s general Diseases and Society; Louis Roussell, La
theory fits well with known empirical patterns, famille incertaine; and James C Rilley’s
whereas Turke’s model is contradicted by Sickness, Recovery and Death: A History and
empirical studies. Moreover, while Forecast o f Ill Health. Archives and
sociobiological considerations of demographic documents include Ravenstein on Global
transition are valuable in drawing attention Carrying Capacity, the Amsterdam Declaration,
to kinship support networks, they are limited The US Council of Economic Advisers on
by their tendency to define these networks Labor Shortages, Worker Mobility, and
solely in biological terms at the expense of Immigration and Mikhail Gorbachev on the
social definitions of proximate interest. Environment.
Caldwell’s focus on cultural variation in
concrete processes of social change looks for Descriptors:
the mechanisms of demographic transformation
in the lives and values of individuals living
in families.
The article of Charles Hirchman and

Philip Guest on The Emerging Demographic
Transitions of Southeast Asia explains that
among the world’s regions, Southeast Asia
appears to be second only to East Asia in its
potential for completed fertility transitions in Source: Population and Development
the near future. It uses microdata from the Review
1970 and 1980 censuses to examine the first The Population Council
phase of fertility declines in four major One Dag Hammarskjold Plaza
Southeast Asian countries: Indonesia, New York, N. Y. 10017
Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. U. S. A.
Inspite of wide variations significant fertility
11
q
his booklet focuses on the new The future of world population is
UN long-range projections to being decided now. Population momentum
help put the world’s possible ensures that the story of a country’s population
future population sizes into perspective. It in 20 years is already being written, since
highlights the following points: the children born today are the parents of the
future.
35
Worldwide, population growth has will be a mixture of outcomes for different

declined from its historic peak of 2.1 per cent geographic areas. Africa, for example, may
per year in the late 1960s to 1.7 per cent follow the path of the Medium-High series,
today. However, there is still great variation while Latin America follows the Medium-
in the extent and pace of that decline for Low. The global Medium series may turn
individual countries. In developing countries, out to be fairly accurate, but due to many
delayed fertility decline can have large compensating regional errors, Medium
numerical consequences for ultimate projections for some regions may prove too
population size. Even slight divergence from high, for others too low.
replacement-level fertility, the rate that will
eventually lead to a no-growth situation, will The role of large countries, of course,
be quite important. Countries where fertility will do much to determine the world total.
approaches replacement level, but settles on If China and India follow the Medium path,
a slightly higher value, will have to cope with the future world total may be close to the
much larger populations that will continue to Medium series even as other countries with
increase. smaller populations struggle to cope with
continued fast growth.
Looking at the near future, the year
2000 for example, population size does not The book identifies the need for a
vary much under the five quite different, yet continuing process of projecting, evaluating,
plausible, fertility scenarios presented in the and projecting again as new data become
long-range projections. But under these, the available. People’s reproductive behaviour
projections show that the world could have changes in response to socio-economic
an eventual population size of anywhere development in ways that projections, however
between 4.3 and 28 billion. When thinking carefully done, cannot always anticipate. In
about the world’s ultimate population size, addition, new medical technologies may
one should avoid thinking of a single number continue to lengthen life expectancies.
but rather think of ranges.
The human population is undergoing
The UN projections also offer two its fastest period of population growth in
implausible, but nonetheless instructive, history. The world of tomorrow will be very
scenarios: first, regional total fertility rates different from that of today, not just in terms
remain at today’s level, and second, its of total numbers, but also in terms of where
complement, fertility in every region most people live. Since then, as the UN
immediately reaches replacement level - about projections show, growth is occurring in areas
two children per woman. In the first case, that may be the least able to deal with it,
world population would reach 694 billion in population growth demands attention at the
the year 2150. In the second, world population highest levels.
would level out at 8.4 billion, higher than
two of the more plausible estimates mentioned Descriptors:
above because of the growth momentum
embedded in today’s young age structure.
These two scenarios illuminate the need for
ongoing attention to population and family
planning policies. Source: Population Reference Bureau,
Inc.
1875 Connecticut Avenue,
The new UN long-range projections
NW, Suite 520
offer a wide range of possible future population
Washington, D. C. 2009-5728
sizes, based on reasonable assumptions about
U. S. A.
the course of fertility and life expectancy.
In all likelihood, the world’s population future
36
12
United Nations. Department for Economic and Social Information and

Policy Analysis. World population prospects: the 1992 revision. New York,
1993. 677 p.
he Population Division of the The potential demographic impact of

Department of Economic and the acquired immuno deficiency syndrome
Social Development of the (AIDS) pandemic has been figured for the
United Nations Secretariat biennially prepares 15 highest prevalence countries of the world,
the official United Nations population estimates all in Africa. Because HIV infection is
and projections for the world, the more concentrated in the most productive ages, the
developed and less developed regions, major high direct and indirect costs per case of AIDS
areas and countries, including their urban and will have a dampening effect on agricultural
rural areas, and their major cities. They are and economic development. This in turn may
used throughout the United Nations system lead to declining standards of living for the
as the basis for activities requiring population surviving population. This potential effect
information as an input. In particular, these may be compounded if HIV-infection rates
population figures provide the denominators are relatively high among the educated, urban
for the regular estimates and projections elite. The middle-age range concentration
exercises undertaken by the specialized also suggests that mortality due to AIDS will
agencies in sectors such as labour force, school impact on patterns of care-giving for both
enrollment and agriculture. children and the elderly. Looking at 10 sub-
Saharan countries (all of which are included
The 1992 Revision accommodates a in the 15 countries), it is estimated that during
number of extraordinary events. The Federal the 1990s between 6 and 11 per cent of the
Republic of Germany and the German population under age 15 will be orphaned.
Democratic Republic united to form one In addition to the impact of AIDS on the
sovereign State, as did Democratic Yemen economy and family, other social institutions
and Yemen. The Union of Soviet Socialist will experience large effects. For instance,
Republics (USSR) separated into 15 individual some of those countries are projected to have
countries. Population estimates and projections AIDS case-loads in excess of 1 million, which
by sex and age are prepared for Estonia, Latvia will put tremendous strain on the health care
and Lithuania (grouped under Northern system and other social institutions.
Europe), and for a major area designated as
former USSR comprising the other 12 former The Population Division has lowered
republics. its big-country criterion for the sex and age-
specific projections to include countries with
Estimates and projections of a minimum population size of 200,000 persons
international migration have been heavily in 1990. This change means that population
revised for an unusually large number of figures by sex and age are available for the
countries, in order to accommodate the new first time for six additional countries: Brunei,
and extensive migratory movements within Maldives, the Bahamas, Solomon Islands,
and to Europe and from the former USSR to Guam and French Polynesia.
Israel and elsewhere, and to account for the
explosion of refugees in Africa and other For the first time, the publication
continents. Population movements due to the presents regional estimates of child mortality
Persian Gulf war are also factored in. by sex (probability of dying by age 5) and
regional estimates of age patterns of fertility.
37
--
The age and sex structure of the rates can follow different courses outside the
population for each country is determined for range. The medium-fertility variant falls
the base year 1990, and for prior years, in between the high and low variants, and is
such a way that they are internally consistent often considered the most- likely. The constant-
and in line with past trends of fertility, fertility variant presents a hypothetical
mortality and international migration. The projection, showing the course of population
book also explains the common approaches growth if fertility rates were to remain
and methodologies used for carrying out the unchanged at the 1985-1990 level. Selected
national estimates and projections and presents results of the constant fertility variant,
the data sources used and methods applied including projected population totals, rate of
country-by-country. population growth, crude birth rates, crude
death rates and the like are presented.
The past demographic history for each
country is presented for 1950-1990. For the Descriptors:
period 1990-2025, four variants of population
projections were prepared: high, medium, low
and constant-fertility variants. The differences
among the four variants are largely due to
the assumed future fertility rates; however,
varying assumptions were also adopted on Source: United Nations
future patterns of international migration when Sales Section
such differentiation seemed appropriate. It New York, N. Y. 10017
is not exhaustive, however, since future U. S. A.
fertility, mortality and international migration
13
he current report is the seventh months it was expected to increase by 93

in a series prepared by the million. Annual increments should peak at
United Nations Secretariat in about 98 million during the final five years
conformance with the recommendations arrived of the twentieth century and should begin to
at during the 1974 United Nations World decline after the year 2000. The current rate
Population Conference. It consists of three of growth continues to be 1.7 per cent per
main parts. Part one presents a special report annum, unchanged since 1975. It is projected
on the age structure of population. Part two that the rate will remain at the current level
focuses on population trends and policies and until around 1995. The less developed regions
in part three, the larger context of current are continuing to grow at 2.1 per cent per
social and economic conditions relevant to annum while the rate for the more developed
population trends and policies is summarized. regions has dropped to 0.5 per cent. The
least developed countries are growing at 2.8
Highlights of the report include the per cent per annum.
following: The total world population was
estimated to be 5.3 billion at mid-1990. During Both fertility and mortality have
the preceding 12 months it had grown by continued to decline at the global level, the
some 91 million; during the succeeding 12 respective changes offsetting each other.
38
However, the pace of the declines has slowed. Forty-five per cent of the world
For the more developed regions, the total population currently live in an urban place;
fertility rate (TFR) is about 1.9 children, and it is expected that by the end of the twentieth
for the less developed regions, 3.9 children. century the proportion will be more than 50
In the least developed countries, the average per cent. In the less developed regions 37
is still well over 6.0 children. In some of the per cent (about 1.5 billion persons) and in
developed countries, most notably in Northern the more developed regions 73 per cent (0.9
Europe, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics billion) lived in an urban area in 1990. Rural
and the United States of America, there have populations are declining in size in Latin
been small but continuous increments in America, Northern America, Eastern Asia and
fertility. Europe.
Ninety-four (94) countries, with 71 Sixty-six (66) countries have adopted

per cent of the world population, reported in policies designed to decelerate migration flows.
1990 that they viewed their current level of Forty-eight (48) have adopted policies intended
fertility as either too high or too low. Twenty to reverse migration flows. A large number
of those countries, with 6 per cent of the of countries continue to want to slow
world population, viewed their fertility rate metropolitan growth, to promote small towns
as too low, while 74 countries (66 per cent and intermediate cities and to develop rural
of the world population) reported that it was areas in order to retain or attract rural
too high. The remaining countries considered population.
current fertility to be satisfactory.
During recent years, international
In the more developed regions, by migration has again become demographically
the late 1980s, infant mortality rates (IMR) important, notably in Europe and Western Asia.
were mostly between 5 and 10 deaths per By the end of 1989, the global number of
1,000 live births, except in Portugal, some refugees had increased to approximately 17
countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR, million, 87 per cent of whom had found asylum
where rates as high as 26 have been recorded in a developing country.
for recent years. For the less developed regions
as a while, infant mortality is still over 70 Descriptors:
and is commonly between 100 and 150 in
sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
In the low-mortality countries, chronic

degenerative diseases are generally the
principal policy concern. Increasing attention
is being given to promotion of healthy lifestyles
and to modification of behaviour that is
detrimental to health. In the higher-mortality
countries, major attention remains focused on
infectious diseases, with particular attention
required to meet the health needs of women
and children.
39
14
he book, designed and written Between now and the turn of the
as a popular guide, reviews century, the population of industrialized
accumulated experience countries will grow only by 5.2 per cent, while
worldwide in the broad field of population. that of the developing countries will balloon
It presents highlights of the findings on to 24.6 per cent.
population programme experience and how
UNFPA and others are responding to the Within the context of the critical
challenges. In particular, it examines strategic decade, the book discusses a broad set of
needs of the 1990s that will have to be met if measures to be advanced: 1) development of
countries are to be able to strike a balance comprehensive population policies to help
between population and resources. achieve sustainable development;
2) formulation of national population
The two most important population strategies in an effort to mobilize the
issues confronting the developing world in appropriate political, economic, social and
the 1990s and beyond will be: 1) the rapid other resources of a nation; 3) deceleration
increase in population, resulting from both of rapid population growth through expansion
relatively higher levels of fertility and of information, education and communication,
successively expanding cohorts of women in and services for family planning; 4) lowering
their prime reproductive ages, a trend that of the current levels of infant, child and
will continue well into the 21st century; and maternal mortality; 5) instituting policies aimed
2) the rapid increase in the urban population, at reducing rapid population growth in major
particularly in large metropolitan areas, brought cities by encouraging the expansion of
on by rural-urban migration and natural secondary towns and improving conditions
increases in urban populations. By the year in rural areas with a view to keeping people
2000, 77 per cent of Latin America’s on the land; 6) improvement of the role, status
population, 41 per cent of Africa’s and 35 and participation of women. As mothers,
per cent of Asia’s will be urbanized. Urban producers or suppliers of food, fuel and water,
sprawl also chews up agricultural land, health care providers, traders and
reducing the amount of arable cropland that manufacturers, political and community
can be farmed. It is clear that increasing leaders, women are at the centre of the
human numbers and needs are already straining development process.
resources necessary for continued sustainable
economic growth. Under this last objective, the book
cites the following set of interrelated measures
Over 90 per cent of the current growth to be pursued during the 1990s: 1) securing
in human numbers is taking place in the easy access to methods of birth spacing and
developing world. A significant contributor fertility limitation; 2) reducing female
to economic u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t is the illiteracy, which averages almost 50 per cent
unfavourable age structure (caused by high in the developing world; 3) expanding girls’
fertility rates) in which children comprise a enrollment in schools and keeping them in
major portion of the total population. This the school system longer since only half as
situation of many dependents puts added strain many girls as boys make it to higher
on the productive members of society, many educational institutions; 4) providing income-
of whom are underemployed much of the time. generating opportunities for women;
40
5) securing women’s legal and social rights 2000, in the Amsterdam Declaration, which
to free marriage, land ownership, and paid forms the final section of this book.
employment.
Descriptors:
Coming to grips with the population
challenge is fundamental to solving many other Population Dynamics; Demographic
development problems. Successful Statistics; Maternal and Child Health;
confrontation of problems of population growth Family Planning; Population Information;
and distribution will allow governments in Information, Education, and
Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle Communication; Population Policy;
East to devote more attention to providing Development Planning; Women in
maternal and child health care, education, jobs, Development; Latin America; Asia; Pacific
shelter and improving the environment. Money Region; Arab Countries; Africa
alone will not be enough to meet the challenges
of the 1990s. Programme management must Source: United Nations Population
be strengthened and realistic priorities set. Fund
Strategic needs were discussed at the 220 East 42nd Street
International Forum on Population in the New York, N. Y. 10017
Twenty-First Century in November 1989. The U. S. A.
Forum adopted goals and targets for the year
15
United Nations Population Fund. Population issues briefing kit 1993. New York,
1993. 21 p.
he fourth edition of UNFPA region will continue to constitute the largest

Population Issues Briefing population of urban dwellers by the end of
Kit examines ten key issues the century. The Asia Pacific continent led
in the field of population and development. the way in family planning and moderate
It begins with the changing balance between growth rate, but numbers arc still rapidly
developing and industrialised countries. increasing because of the large population
Although the average fertility rate in base. A growing division between low-growth
developing countries has decreased, the countries of East Asia and high-growth
absolute numbers being added continue to countries of South Asia was also noted.
increase. This collides inequitably with the Factors were attributed to gender inequality,
resources required to sustain the population low literacy rate and limited access to family
resulting to increased migration from rural planning programmes. In Arab states, high
to urban areas. The situation nevertheless fertility stems from cultural and social factors
spurred population policies linked to economic such as early marriage, lack of contraception
and social development programmes. and preference for large families. Although
large families are still the norm, women in
The issue then sums up demographic most African counties want smaller families
trends by region beginning with Europe and as family planning programme continue to
Japan’s decline in fertility. Although life expand. Based on UNFPA research,
expectancy increased in Latin America, the programme funding will have to double by
the end of the century to keep population By the end of the century, over half
growth to the United Nations’ medium or most of the world’s population will live in cities.
likely projection. The forces driving this influx are better
employment opportunities and the
The booklet then outlines the history concentration of industry and commerce in
and developmental efforts of international urban centres. As a result, city boundaries
groups to recognise family planning as a human creep outwards, eating up farmland and forests.
right considering its impact on health when Demand for housing, infrastructure and social
made available as an integral part of maternal services grows with increasing number of
and child health services. Disregard for this people. Attempts to create alternative urban
right is evident considering the two options centres or resettle city dwellers are plagued
available for women: unplanned pregnancy with huge costs and the advantages of urban
and abortion. The best way to prevent abortion life. Presently, the value of cash remittances
is to make family planning accessible to all from migrant workers is second only to oil
women and men. Overall, it requires change in its value in the international trade.
in values of the society beginning at the child’ Unfortunately, remittances do not always find
s gender at birth which will have a bearing their way into productive investment, and they
on how future generations will perceive do not compensate for the loss of young,
opportunities for choice in their own family educated people, the country’s most productive
life. human resources. Only through long-term
investments in health, education, employment
Findings show that planners and and environmental protection will countries
officials have accepted the need to integrate create the living conditions which will make
population policy with development planning. migration one option among many.
Population programmes should also require
political, commercial, religious and intellectual Mass media are prime carriers of
support before it can proceed to the population information. Both the medium
implementation stage. and the message should be adapted to social
and cultural realities. Population education
Male and female roles in society are in schools is now available in 80 countries in
at the core of social relations, economic the developing world. Aims vary from country
structures and family composition. Low status to country but are generally designed to
of women restricts their access to productive introduce a sense of responsibility regarding
assets and social services, affecting their health population issues. It should continue in literacy
and education, their working conditions and and vocational classes, in workers’ educational
participation in public life. The key factor projects and in extension programmes in health,
in breaking through these many layers of nutrition and agriculture.
gender bias is education. Three approaches
are required to establish gender equality: 1) A data barrier hampers the efforts
major policy interventions; 2) men’s of population and development planners in
reproductive and familial roles need to be many countries. Most countries in the
strengthened; and 3) society at large must developing world still lack reliable statistics
understand the social function of motherhood. on births and deaths. Sophisticated equipments
and training are needed in the correct use of
demographic data. Critical data on women
At any levels of development,
are still lacking in many countries. Women
increased populations also increase energy use,
remain invisible in statistics because little value
resource consumption and environmental
is attached to what they do. Thus, there is a
stress.
need to redesign national censuses.
42
Descriptors: Source: United Nations Population

Fund
Population Growth; Demographic Statistics; 220 East 42nd Street
Population Programmes; Family Planning New York, N. Y. 10017
Programmes; Human Rights; Population U. S. A.
Policy; Environment; Migration;
Urbanization; Information, Education, and
Communication
16
United Nations Population Fund. The state of world population 1993: the
individual and the world - population, migration and development in the
1990s. New York, 1993. 54 p.
q
he book begins by providing has a disproportionate impact. Both internal
a demographic background and international migration are driven by
and then proceeds to examine population growth, and by inequities between
key issues such as urbanization and countries. Patterns of international migration
international organization with a separate differ from region to region. Europe received
chapter on gender dimension, refugees and 15 million migrants between 1980 and 1992,
asylum-seekers. It concludes by laying policy mainly for permanent settlement. The oil-
response for the 1990s. Among the highlights producing countries have drawn migrant labour
are the following. from middle eastern and Asian countries in
different waves since the 1960s. Asia’s
Families and households form the migration patterns are undergoing a
basis for economic growth, social development transformation with the emergence of a need
and personal fulfillment. National policies for labour and skills in the newly industrialized
and international conditions provide the context economies of East and Southeast Asia, and
for individual decision-making. An important the changing composition of the Japanese
element of population programmes is gathering labour force. Africa’s migration patterns vary
data that will allow policy-making responsive from region to region, featuring a large volume
to the realities of daily life, and to the needs of informal transfers in West Africa and
and aspirations of individuals. gravitation towards South Africa in the
southern part of the continent. In North Africa,
The dominant feature of global
the dominant trend is emigration to Europe.
demographics is still growth. Age distribution
Migration patterns in Central America and
is a growing concern, as the numbers of young
the Caribbean are dominated by movement
and elderly people grow, relative to the
to the United States, but Brazil and Venezuela
working-age population.
have also acted as magnets for migrants at
The world is growing steadily more different times. An emerging concern is
urban. From being a sign of strength and movement from Eastern Europe and the former
dynamism in the national economy, the rate Soviet Union to Western Europe and North
and scale of urban growth has become America.
increasingly a cause for concern.
Attention to the gender dimension
International migration is small in of migratory movements ought to be an
extent compared with internal movements, but important component in population and
43
development planning. Despite these policies to emphasize individual development,

disadvantages women migrants have become among them education, health (including
significant economic actors. Their status may reproductive health) and family planning which
be improved by migration, but the advantages are particularly relevant to the situation of
are not clear-cut. Women’s status as migrants women.
are affected by their vulnerability. To ensure
improved status they will need both legal Migration decisions are about family
protection and essential services, including security and long-term life-chances, rather than
reproductive health services. simply the maximization of income. Long-
term external support will be required to make
The number of refugees in the 1990s such policies a reality. Highly coordinated
in Asia, Africa and Latin America reached allocation of development assistance can help
about 17 million, and continue to grow rapidly. establish priorities and focus attention on basic
A further 3.5 to 4 million were thought to be needs. Migration is one of the choices which
in refugee-like situations, though estimates are shape people’s lives and the destiny of nations.
probably extremely conservative, and an But it can also be a symptom of inequity and
estimated 23 million people internally underdevelopment. Migrants are by definition
displaced. It is important to recognize the the most vulnerable members of the host
common roots of refugees and other forms community. Their living and working
of mass movement of populations. There is conditions should be protected. Governments
a clear need to distinguish between political of host countries have a responsibility to
and socio-economic causes of migration. encourage adaptation among the local
Participation in international efforts of burden- community.
sharing would ensure that most refugee
problems would be dealt within their regions The aim of the international
of origin. community should be to protect the right to
move and ensure that movement is voluntary
Migration highlights linkages and and that it stimulates rather than holds back
inter-dependencies within countries and personal and national development.
between different groups of countries, with
many implications for developing agendas, Descriptors:
including population programmes and
development assistance. Policies to regulate Population Growth; Population Dynamics;
or moderate internal migration have Population Distribution; Age Distribution;
concentrated largely on urban growth. They Refugees; Women’s Role; Urbanization;
have been only intermittently effective. The Migration; Migration Analysis; Migration
most successful have concentrated on Policy
stimulating rural development and the growth
of alternative urban centres. Improving Source: United Nations Population
conditions of personal and family life can Fund
make a crucial difference in the decision to 220 East 42nd Street
migrate, reducing dependence on migration New York, N. Y. 10017
as a strategy. This offers the opportunity for U. S. A.
44
his report presents updates of outnumber persons age 60 years and over.
the U. S. Census Bureau’s India, the world leader in total births, will
population estimates and have more births in 1994 than the 50 Sub-
projections for all the countries and regions Saharan African countries combined.
of the world. It includes information on
population composition, population growth, Among the world’s countries, the use
fertility, mortality, and use of contraception. of contraception methods ranges from over
A special chapter focuses on the impact of 70 per cent to under 5 per cent of married
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) women of reproductive age. Prevalence rates
on the populations of selected countries. are highest in developed regions, East and
Southeast Asia, and in parts of Latin America.
Data includes s u m m a r y o f Rates in Africa are increasing but remain the
demographic information for the world, major lowest among the world regions.
regions, and all countries and territories with
a population of at least 5,000 in 1994 (225 The World Health Organization
countries and territories). Czech Republic estimates that as of mid-1993, 14 million
and Slovakia are shown separately as well as people worldwide were HIV infected of which
the entities of the former Yugoslavia, but an 8 million were in Sub-Saharan Africa. In
aggregated total is included for the user’s some urban centres in Africa, more than 25
convenience. A total is also shown for the per cent of pregnant women are HIV infected.
former Soviet Union. Newly independent Since most adults AIDS mortality occurs after
republics are shown individually under the the average age of childbearing (30 years),
headings of Baltics, Commonwealth of over-all fertility measures such as the crude
Independent States, and Georgia. In Sub- birth rate are not much affected by an AIDS
Saharan Africa, Eritrea is not shown separately epidemic. However, because adult AIDS
from Ethiopia, as demographic estimates and deaths occur largely among relatively young
projections for that newly independent country adults (ages 30 to 45 years), the impact of
has not yet been made. AIDS on life expectancy is considerable.
World population has reached about The AIDS epidemic will result in
5.6 billion persons in 1994. Population growth increases in infant and child mortality rates,
rates remain highest in Sub-Saharan Africa reversing hard-won improvements in child
at 2.9 per cent. Rates are above 2 per cent in survival achieved in many countries over the
the Near East and North Africa, but they are several decades. Despite more than doubling
well below that level in Asia and Latin the number of deaths in those countries most
America. Half of the world’s people are under affected, AIDS is not likely to result in negative
25 years of age. In developing countries, population growth, at least in Africa. In
half of all persons are under age 23, while in countries with low fertility rates, a substantial
developed countries half are under age 35. AIDS epidemic has the potential to cause
The world’s children ages 0 to 4 years population declines in the coming decades.
45
Descriptors: Source: U. S. Government Printing

Office
Population Growth; Demographic Statistics; Washington, D. C. 20402-
Population Composition and Dynamics; 9328
Contraceptive Prevalence; Population U. S. A.
Projections; Mortality; Fertility; AIDS
(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
46
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
ection
Three
Sustainable Development
Two of the three selections in this section share a similar framework in discussing
sustainable development: Saving the Planet: How to Shape an Environmentally Sustainable
Global Economy and Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living. After defining
the issue, both selections propose corresponding actions and direct these responsibilities at
many levels, from local communities to global institutions.
The proposed actions in both selections support the basic definition of sustainable
development as a means to improve the quality of human life within the capacity of supporting
ecosystems. Saving the Planet stresses redirecting the engine of economic development and
highlights the necessity of major political changes. Caring for the Earth urges a widespread and
deeply-held commitment to a new ethic and calls for the integration of conservation and
development.
Finally, the two selections provide updates, projections and a comprehensive analysis
on the implications of addressing the issue of sustainable development at all levels of human
society. Saving the Planet highlights the achievements of grassroots groups in making changes
in their lifestyles and their lobbying for changes in public policy. The selection points out that
the proliferation of grassroots organizations in developing countries, has largely been the result
of their response to their government’s failure in coping with growing social and environmenta!
problems. Caring for the Earth supports this thought by concluding that much of what needs
to be done requires a global response. In particular, Saving the Planet anticipates the global conflicts
in sharing responsibility for achieving a given goal.
The third selection in this section is a study of rapid development from a regional
perspective. Sustaining Rapid Development in East Asia and the Pacific is a regional survey
which aims to bring out commonalities and differences in the region and offer new perspectives
in the design and implementation of country strategies for sustaining rapid development in the
region.
Despite the diversity among countries, the book point out that East Asia has achieved
remarakable performance in economic growth, poverty reduction, and social development, including
a narrowing of gender gap. This development brings into sharp focus the changing character of
the region. During the process of rapid growth, the region has accumulated serious problems of
infrastructural botrtlenecks, urban congestion, and pollution. And whereas East Asia is relatively
successful in addressing some environmental concerns such as clean water, it has a long way to
20 in confronting severe environmental problems such as air pollution, soil erosion, and
deforestation.
18
Brown, Lester, and Others. Saving the planet: how to shape an environmentally
sustainable global economy. London, Earthscan Publications, Ltd., 1992.
224 p. (Worldwatch environmenta1 alert series)
his book gives an overview Addressing such issues requires a

of what an environmentally revolution at many levels, from local
sustainable economic system communities to global institutions. Grassroots
would look like. And while the outline is by groups, national governments, and international
necessity rough, some characteristics are clear. organizations all have roles to play in forging
Such an economy has a population that is a sustainable society. Human institutions,
stable and in balance with its natural support many of which have been in place for decades
systems, an energy system that does not raise or centuries, need to be reshaped in a matter
the level of greenhouse gases and disrupt the of years. Some of the most far-reaching
earth’s climate, and a level of material demand changes are coming from the grassroots as
that neither exceeds the sustainable yield of individuals see their lives and their
forests, grasslands, o r f i s h e r i e s n o r relationships with nature in a new light. They
systematically destroys the other species with are making changes in their life-styles, and
which we share the plant. are insisting on changes in public policy. In
developing countries, the proliferation of
The book’s authors, of the grassroots organizations has been extraordinary
Worldwatch Institute, attempt to answer as a response to the failure of governments
questions such as: How should fossil fuels to cope with growing social and environmental
be replaced?, How can a larger population problems.
feed itself? and How can we satisfy material
needs without causing pollution and resource The struggle for global environmental
depletion?. They further describe the major sustainability will not be conflict-free. The
political decisions needed, such as restructuring question of how to share responsibility for
tax systems to promote the shift to a sustainable achieving a given goal, such as climate
society. stabilization, could plague negotiations long
after an agreement is reached on the goal
Achieving the goal of a sustainable itself. Indeed, as such deliberations proceed,
society depends on redirecting the engine of sizeable splits have already developed between
economic development that has inexorably the rich and poor countries. The political
reshaped the globe during the past century. stresses between the East and West are likely
Although the economic tools mentioned in to be replaced by the economic and
the book, are essential instruments, they are environmental stresses between the North and
unlikely to be effective unless accompanied South, over such issues as the need to reduce
by major political changes. Ultimately, the Third World debt, access to markets in the
struggle for a livable world is about industrial North, and allocation of the costs
overcoming concentrations of economic power, of environmental protection between rich and
about the universal human yearning for poor.
political freedoms, and about the fight for
human rights and dignity.
50
Among the questions that emerge: region’s deteriorating forests from acid rain,
Does responsible global citizenship mean that nations bordering the Baltic sea could join
those living in wealthy countries have an together to reverse its degradation, and
obligation to reduce carbon dioxide emissions countries in the Indian sub-continent could
to the level of those living in poor countries? reforest the Himalayas. Another prime target
Although some island nations are eager to for regional cooperation is in the management
see international commitments to slow climate of water in the Middle East.
change, China is planning to double its already
heavy use of coal. How should the cost of Descriptors:
preserving the planet’s diversity of life be
allocated among countries? Should repayment Sustainable Development; Economic
of the ecological debt of wealthy countries - Conditions; Environmental Planning;
the environmental costs to the world of their Population Pressure; Waste Recycling;
industrialization - be used to ease the financial Socio-Economic Development; Solar
debt of developing countries? Energy; Food Production; Environmental
Protection
As countries search for new ways to
address transnational threats, other ad hoc Source: Earthscan Publications
environmental alliances are springing up. 3 Endsleigh Street
European countries may look into the London, WC 1H ODD
possibility of working together to save the United Kingdom
19
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Sustaining rapid

development in East Asia and the Pacific. Washington, D. C., The World
Bank, 1993. 121 p. (Development in practice series)
he countries of East Asia and strategies. Among the major insights gleaned
the Pacific have been at the from the book are the following:
leading edge of economic
development in many respects over the past First, despite the diversity among
quarter century. Progress on some fronts has countries, East Asia has achieved remarkable
been so remarkable that policymakers around performance in economic growth, poverty
the world are searching for the lessons of reduction, and social development, including
East Asia’s successes. But equally, the region, a narrowing of the gender gap. And it has
which is home to two-fifths of the population managed to do that not only during periods
of the developing world, also faces tough of substantial government interventions but
economic problems and growing challenges. even more spectacularly during the period of
market reforms. Behind this performance lies
This regional survey aims to bring a uniquely pragmatic and effective style of
out commonalities and differences to aid economic management that steers clear of
country analysis. It sheds light on emerging theoretical abstracts and ideological extremes.
problems that have both regional and global This approach to economic management
dimension, be it trade and investment or characterizes the socialist economies in
infrastructure and the environment and transition such as China and Viet Nam as
provides perspectives that would help in the much as it does the market economies of
design and implementation of country countries like Korea and Malaysia.
Second, this regional development trends may continue in the region during the
review brings into sharp focus the changing 1990s as it tackles its infrastructure problems
character of the region. Typically, one thinks and environmental issues. Equally striking
of East Asia as a predominantly market- is the fact that the external resource
oriented and middle-income region. However, requirements for the socialist economies in
80 per cent of East Asia’s population live in the region that are moving toward market
socialist economies in transition, three times orientation are increasing, much as they have
as many live in the socialist economies in in Eastern Europe and the FSU.
Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union
(FSU). Accordingly, the analytical challenges Finally, the report emphasizes the
as well as resource requirements for the East interaction between domestic efforts and global
Asia region during the 1990s will be enormous. developments. The external trade and resource
requirements for growth highlight the crucial
Third, even though East Asian importance of greater openness in the regional
economies have been undergoing reforms and global environment for trade, investment,
during the 1980s, the remaining reform agenda and capital flows. As pressures are mounting
is still large and complex. In particular, the for regionalism and protectionism in the world,
region needs to make a breakthrough during East Asia has a global leadership role to play
the 1990s in enterprise and financial sector in ensuring that the outward orientation of
reforms. Moreover, during the process of all concerned parties is furthered. And within
rapid growth, the region has accumulated this region, the countries can gain substantially
serious problems of infrastructural bottlenecks, from concerted efforts at promoting
urban congestion, and pollution. And whereas intraregional trade and foreign direct
East Asia is relatively successful in addressing investment.
some environmental concerns such as clean
water, it has a long way to go in confronting Descriptors:
severe environmental problems such as air
pollution, soil erosion, and deforestation. Economic Development; Economic
Conditions; Economic Policy; Social
Fourth, the report shows a sharp Development; Enterprises; Environmental
change in the external financing needs of the Development; Sustainable Development;
region. During the past twenty-five years Statistics; Asia; Pacific Countries
the region has, on the average, run current
account deficits of less than 1 per cent of its Source: The World Bank
gross domestic product (GDP), although there 1818 H. Street, N. W.
were large variations among countries. But Washington, D. C. 20433
emerging deficits are much larger. These U. S. A.
52
20
ustainable development is Earth’s capacity, and development to enable

defined as a means to improve people everywhere to enjoy long, healthy and
the quality of human life fulfilling lives.
within the carrying capacity of supporting
ecosystems. Progress toward sustainability Caring for the Earth is intended to
has been slow because of the belief that be used by those who shape policy and make
conservation and development are opposite decisions that affect the course of development
concepts. Most current development fails and the condition of our environment. While
because it meets human needs incompletely it must include politicians, and executives in
and often destroys or degrades its resource the public and private sectors at the national
base. and international levels, it also includes leaders,
business people and other citizens in
The book discusses the guiding communities and settlements everywhere.
principles toward sustainable societies. These Local communities are the focus for much
include: respect and care for the community that needs to be done in making the change
of life, improving the quality of human life, to living sustainably, but there is little they
conserving the Earth’s vitality and diversity, can do if they lack the power to act. Subject
minimizing the depletion of non-renewable to the vital interests of the larger community,
resources, a change in personal attitudes and they must be enabled to manage the resources
practices, enabling communities to care for on which they depend and have an effective
their own environments, providing a national voice in the decisions that affect them. Legal,
framework for integrating development and social, economic and technical measures aimed
conservation, and forging a global alliance. at sustainability must be integrated in planning
and action at all levels, particularly in national
The second part of the book describes governments which have the main levers for
corresponding actions that are required in strategic action.
relation to the main areas of human activity
and some of the major components of the Much of what needs to be done is of
biosphere such as energy, business, industry global significance and requires a global
and commerce, human settlements, farm and response. The framework exists for the
range lands, forest lands, fresh waters, and cooperation, monitoring and management that
oceans and coastal areas. Each part begins are necessary, but programmes are poorly
with a brief survey of the issues followed by integrated and rarely integrated. Considering
a series of recommended priority actions. how human societies differ greatly in culture,
religion, history, politics, institutions and
The book aims to help improve the traditions - the strategies featured in the book
condition of the world’s people by defining are more of a guide than a strict prescription.
two requirements. One is to secure a Nor arc the features fixed in time since change
widespread and deeply-held commitment to is continual. Because of these considerations,
a new ethic for sustainable living and translate the principles and actions discussed in the
its principles into practice. The other is to book are described in broad terms. They are
integrate conservation and development: meant to be interpreted and adapted by each
conservation to keep our actions within the community. The world needs a variety of
sustainable societies, achieved through many Descriptors:

different paths.
Sustainable Development; Quality of Life;
The last part on Implementation and Environmental Planning; Environmental
Follow-up consists of proposed guidelines to Policy
help users adapt the strategy to their needs
and capabilities and implement it and a listing Source: International Union for
of all the recommended priority actions and Conservation of Nature and
suggested targets. Annexes include net primary Natural Resources
production pre-empted or destroyed by human 219c Huntington Road
activities, classification of 160 countries by Cambridge, CB3 ODL
income, average life expectancy at birth in United Kingdom
160 countries, categories and management
objectives of protected areas, and classification
of countries by consumption of commercial
energy per person and total fertility rate.
54
POLICY STATEMENTS
AND WORLD
SUMMITS/MEETINGS
Policy Statements and World Summits/Meetings
- - - -
Twelve out of the fifteen selections in this section, which focus on global policies
are results of two major world meetings: the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and
the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo in 1994. ICPD
produced a Programme of Action which is described chapter by chapter in two publications,
one which the United Nations printed as the final report of the Conference and another
published in the Populi, a UNFPA magazine.
These two selections highlights the new strategy that emphasizes the integral linkages
between population and development and focuses on the meeting the needs of individual/
women and men, rather than on achieving demographic targets. It contains the preamble,’
principles and findings and recommendations on various areas ranging from population,
development and environment to reproductive health, gender quity and women empowerment
family role, education, girl-child issues, adolescent sexuality, mortality, urbanization and,
migration.
The selections published as a result of the Earth Summit are: The Earth Summit’s
Agenda for Change: A Plain Version of Agenda 21 and Other Agreements; Securing the,
Future: A Guide to Agenda 21; Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable
Development, Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development and Statement of
Forest Principles. The selection Environment and Development: A Pacific Island Perspective
focuses on the Pacific island developing countries’ main concerns within the context of/
UNCED’s proposed Earth Charter in Agenda 21 as culled by the South Pacific Regional/
Environment Programme (SPREP).
The foundations for the Earth Summit were laid in 1972, when 113 nations gathered,
for the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, the first global environmental
meeting. In 1983, the United Nations created the World Commission on Environment and
/
Development which came up with a landmark report four years later. It became to be
known popularly as the report on Our Common Future, which warned that people had to
change many of the ways in which they did business and lived or the world would face
unacceptable levels of human suffering and environmental damage. In line with this, the
Brundlandt Commission later called for sustainable development, a way of meeting the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs. In 1989, the United Nations began planning a Conference on Environment
and Development to spell out how to achieve sustainable development. It took two years ;
to pave the way to Rio de Janeiro with the participation of thousands of people from non- ~
governmental organizations, businesses, education, women’s groups, indigenous groups 1
and other experts. !I !1
i
_ _
The Earth Summit in Rio produced two international agreements, two statements
of principles, and a major action agenda on worldwide sustainable development: the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development whose 27 principles define the rights and
responsibilities of nations as they pursue human development and well-being; Agenda 21,
a blueprint on how to make development socially, economically and environmentally
sustainable; and a statement of principles to guide the management, conservation and
sustainable development of all types of forests, which are essential to economic development
and the maintenance of all forms of life.
Two major international conventions were negotiated separately from but in parallel
with the preparations for the Earth Summit. The aim of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change is to stabilize greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at levels
that will not dangerously upset the global climate system. This will require a reduction of
gas emissions such as carbon dioxide, a by-product of the use of burning fuels for energy;
and the Convention on Biological Diversity which requires countries to adopt ways and
means to conserve the variety of living species, and to ensure that the benefits from using
biological diversity are equitably shared. Preparations for the International Conference
on Population and Development began in 1991 and involved convening six expert group
meetings and major regional conferences.
In November 1993, 35 experts from different regions of the world participated in

a policy dialogue to consider interlinkages between population factors, environmental
degradation, and sustainable development. Their summary report and recommendations
were submitted to the ICPD Secretariat and published in the selection Round Table on
Population, Environment and sustainable Development.
The experts’ major findings state that now, more than ever, it is recognized that
the phenonemena of historically unprecedented growth in human numbers, depletion of
natural resources, and environmental degradation are inseparably linked, while being
themselves influenced by widespread and persistent poverty, income disparities, and wasteful
consumption. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21
reflect these complex modern realities. The population-environment-development nexus
is characterized by complicated interactions in which the chains of causality are often
difficult to quantify. The impacts of population growth, structure, density and migration
are mediated through political, economic, socio-cultural, behavioural and institutional
: factors. They can also vary with the environmental conditions and resource base of a
/ particular region during a given time period. Nevertheless, it seems evident from the
large body of existing research and case studies that population pressures can exacerbate
problems of environmental deterioration and resource depletion and limit the options for
sustainable development policies and actions. The Round Table has endorsed the principles
and guidelines for action embodied in the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 and, without
I attempting to reflect every aspect of them, elect to highlight certain recommendations.
They are addressed for action by international and regional organizations, national
1 governments, local communities and non-governmental organizations. The participants
have emphasized the urgent need for timely and sustained actions, for integrated and
multisectoral approaches, and for international cooperation in mobilizing and financing
technological resources.
The selections Bali Declaration on Population and Sustainable Development, Report ~

of the Fourth Asian Pacific Population Conference and the Fourth Asian and Pacific
1’ Conference (Selected Papers) are outputs of the Fourth Asian and
‘L
~______ - --__---- _-._____

in Indonesia in August 1992. The Population Bulletin of the United Nation’s Special Issue
on the five Major Regional Conferences and Meetings completes the report to include the
Third African Population Conference at Dakar in December 1992; the European Population
Conference in Geneva, in March 1993; the Arab Population Conference at Amnan, in
April 1993; and the Latin American and Caribbean Regional Conference on Population
and Development in Mexico City, in May 1993.
Notwithstanding the fact that major differences exist among the world’s five regions,
they nevertheless share specific priorities in which expert group meetings likewise shared
similar concerns. They are mindful of the human rights dimension of population programmes
and reiterate the central role women play in development. They also collectively recognize
the vital importance of the family, in its various forms as a cornerstone of society and the
critical importance of the accessibility of services, particularly in the area of reproductive
health, for promoting social equality and accelerating development efforts. They generally
give considerable attention to the rights and special needs of sub-populations such as
children, the elderly, women and migrants, depending on the theme of each meeting./
Several meetings focus on the issue of the AIDS pandemic and most recommendations are
addressed to governments, since the meetings took place in the context of population for
intergovernmental conference. Overall, they emphasize the fundamental importance of
research for policy and programme formulation, All of the meetings have adopted numerous
recommendations involving the donor community in partnership with governments and
non-governmental organizations of recipient countries.
An information kit has been compiled by the Population Crisis Committee in

Washington D.C. in the selection Population and the Environment: Impacts on the Developing
World. It includes graphs, abstracts and excerpts from recent scientific literature, excerpts
from official statements on the Environmental Impact of Population, and a Reference
Guide.
This section also includes two working papers which examine major ways of
thinking about the population-environment-sustainable development linkage. The selections;
Population and the Environment: Framework for Analysis, produced by the EPAT/MUCIA
Population and Natural Resources Team and the selection Population and Environment:
Inseparable Policy Issues, published in Washington D.C., both agree that the difficulty of
establishing relationships between these issues has to do with its complex and relativistic
nature - it is never simple and direct. The selection Population and the Environment:
Framework for Analysis concludes that achieving sustainable development will require a/
combined attack on population growth, consumption and a variety of other human patterns’
of production. The second selection, Population and Environment: Inseparable Policy
Issues, presents two papers. The first. paper, People Pressure and Environmental/
Consequences is a statement on the issue of increasing the number of people in relation to
the quality of life and the environment. The second paper, Unrealized Possibilities of the
(US) National Environmental Policy Act, points out that the legislation which could initiate
national population-environment policy has already been enacted and needs only political
will to put it into effect. --
21
Asian Development Bank. Environment and development: a Pacific island

perspective. Manila, 1992. 334 p,
uring the last 10-15 years, the situations from low-lying atoll countries with
27 countries and territories of populations of only a few thousand to towering
the South Pacific Regional mountain areas with populations of 100,000
Environment Programme (SPREP) have or more (and in one case more than 3 million).
organized themselves to protect and improve Despite their physical diversity and the fact
their shared environment and to work that the 22 island developing countries and
cooperatively to improve the quality of life territories of the South Pacific are dispersed
for both present and future generations. Within over 6 per cent of the earth’s surface, there
a growing network of regional consultative are many common themes in the countries’
organizations the SPREP has come to be analyses of links between environmental
recognized, regionally and globally, as the challenges and developmental trends. A
organization responsible for environmental synthesis of these themes is presented in Part
coordination, protection, and management II, and is followed up by a discussion of the
within the Pacific island community. Working priorities for future action in Part III. The
through its member governments, SPREP has Appendices offer supporting statistical data
undertaken a far-reaching set of programmes and selected reference documents. Appendix
concerned with training, research, and resource A contains the statistical tables; Appendix B
management. The programmes are spelled has official documents; Appendix C gives other
out in its five-year Action Plan, which was background information; Appendix D is a
reviewed and revised recently for the l991- partial list of non-governmental organizations
1995 period. (NGOs) which operates in the South Pacific
area; and Appendix E lists participants in the
Given its programmes, SPREP Nadi and Port Vila workshops which were
responded promptly when its member preparatory to the formulation of the national
governments requested assistance in order to and the regional reports. Boxes presented
ensure that the Pacific voice would be throughout the report illustrate topics in the
represented clearly and effectively during the text and represent various points of view on
preparations for and final deliberations of policy issues. The underlying purpose of the
UNCED. This background document and the volume is to provide detailed information and
accompanying Regional Report on The Pacific analysis in support of the official submission
Way, are two visible products of SPREP’s to UNCED, The Pacific Way, which focuses
response; they reflect the work of Task Forces on the Pacific island developing countries’
appointed by the governments of more than (PICDs) main areas of concern within the
a dozen SPREP members, the national reports context of UNCED’s proposed Earth Charter
submitted to UNCED by those Task Forces, and Agenda 21.
two intensive workshops, and many other
consultations. Developing island members of
SPREP that prepared national reports in
Part I, Environment and accordance with UNCED guidelines are Cook
Development: A Pacific Island Perspective, Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands,
consists of summaries of 14 country reports. Micronesia, Niue, Papua New Guinea,
The summaries reflect a variety of geographic Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu,
60
Vanuatu, and Western Samoa. This Descriptors:

background document leans heavily on that
material in describing the circumstances and Environmental Surveys; Socio-Economic
concerns of PIDCs. However, conditions in Conditions; Development Programmes;
the other nine regional members of SPREP Sustainable Development; Environmental
(American Samoa, French Polynesia, Guam, Management; Natural Resources; Statistics;
Nauru, New Caledonia, Northern Marianas, Pacific Region
Palau, Pitcairn, and Wallis and Futuna) are
not geographically or economically different. Source: Asian Development Bank
The five industrialized and high income Office of the Environment
members of SPREP (Australia, France, New P.O. Box 789
Zealand, United Kingdom and the United 1099 Manila
States) have also prepared information Philippines
regarding the region, reflecting their
importance politically as trading partners and
suppliers of financial and technical assistance.
22
CaldwelI, Lynton K. Population and environment: inseparable policy issues.

Washington, D. C., the Environmental Fund, 1985. 26 p.
he two papers that follow in America since the arrival of European

relate to different aspects of colonists.
the population-environment
relationship. The first, People Pressure and For more than three centuries
Environmental Consequences is a statement Americans generally have explicitly or tacitly
on the issue of increasing the number of people assumed the beneficence of unlimited growth
in relation to quality of life and environment. of population and the economy. Until very
The second, Unrealized Possibilities of the recently, this growth supplied the conditions
National Environmental Policy Act points out and the opportunities sought by many, perhaps
that legislation that could initiate a national most, Americans. But by-mid twentieth
population-environment policy has already century the nation had reached a point where
been enacted and needs only political will to undifferentiated ever-increasing growth no
put it into effect. Additional legislation would longer provided unquestioned satisfaction.
be desirable, particularly to sharpen and Increasingly it appeared that growth, especially
reinforce national attention to the issue. of population, w a s l e a d i n g t o w a r d
consequences that could prevent the attainment
The thesis joining these papers is that or sustainability of environmental conditions
population and environment may be regarded that people were beginning to prefer.
as one issue, not two. Although presently
separated in the minds of many people and To some people, continuous growth
largely separated by law, population growth of population and the economy seems
and environmental quality are not in fact necessary for the survival of a modern free
separated. There are two reasons for failure society. It is assumed, with insufficient
to recognize their relationship. First, the evidence, that economic growth requires
relationship is complex and relativistic. population growth or is at least stimulated
Second, it contradicts assumptions prevailing by it. Given this premise, the proposition
that rapid, ramifying ever-increasing growth The objectives of constituency-

is a root cause of environmental stress and building toward a joint policy for population
damage is unacceptable. Pro-growth advocates and environment are neither negative nor
point out that Hong Kong, Singapore, and pessimistic; they are not elitist nor hostile in
the Netherlands’ are densely populated, but principle to freedom of enterprise. They are,
nonetheless enjoy environmental conditions however, based on the premise that the
better than those of many less populated places. warnings and projections of studies such as
The point is true, but does not support the Global 2000 and its predecessors in the United
argument that population densities have States and abroad deserve serious attention
nothing to do with environmental quality. and ought not to be dismissed as unfounded
They do illustrate another point, that the predictions of gloom and doom.
relationships between population levels and
environmental quality are not simplistic, and The paper advocates the need for a
their relationship requires in each case full nation-wide popular reexamination of beliefs
examination of all relevant data. and commitments which under present
conditions lead to consequences that no longer
The relationship of population to serve the interests of the American people.
environment is not wholly a matter of people- The effects of population growth in the years
pressure on preferred space and resources, of agricultural and industrial expansion prior
nor of carrying capacity at various levels of to World War II were very different from
technology. Allocation of available time, talent those of today’s so-called post-industrial, high
and money is also involved. To the extent technology, automated society. Analysts of
that a society must spend its energies on public opinion are finding that attitudes in
accommodating increasing numbers of people, America and abroad are changing; that long-
fewer resources will be available to enhance standing assumptions regarding population and
or protect the quality of an environment under environment are being increasingly questioned
the growing stress of human needs. A deeply as their consequences are perceived to be
flawed humanitarianism resists restrictions of contrary to preferred futures.
human reproduction, immigration, and
community growth, ostensibly on grounds of Descriptors:
morality and compassion. Many well-
intentioned individuals prefer not to see a Population Growth; Quality of Life;
connection between unlimited population Population Pressure; Environmentat Policy
growth and its consequences for the
environment and the ultimate well-being and Source: The Environmental Fund
freedom of people. 1325 G Street, NW, Suite
1003
U. S. A.
62
23
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Bali declaration
on population and sustainable development. Bangkok, 1992. 22 p.
he members and associate The gender selectivity of migrants

members of the Economic and is gradually changing as more and more
Social Commission for Asia women in the ESCAP region are migrating
and the Pacific (ESCAP) convened the Fourth independently. This phenomenon has opened
Asian and Pacific Population Conference in considerable opportunities to improve the role
Bali, Indonesia from 19 to 27 August 1992. and status of women. However, growing
Upon reviewing the population situation and numbers of migrant women work and live in
outlook they arrived at a declaration which situations in which they are vulnerable to
revolved around the following issues: exploitation.
There is an urgent need to bring into The increasing tendency for people
balance population dynamics, socioeconomic to concentrate in large metropolitan cities in
development, the use of natural resources and the region presents a number of new and
environmental quality. Special attention should important management challenges for policy-
be given to decreasing the demand for natural makers and planners.
resources that is generated by unsustainable
consumption and using those resources Family planning and maternal and
efficiently to minimize depletion and reduce child health (MCH) programmes linkage have
pollution. Although consumption patterns are played an important role in influencing
very high in certain parts of the world, the population growth and improving the quality
basic consumer needs of a large section of of life and human resources development in
humanity are not being met. the countries of Asia and the Pacific. There
is a pressing need to strengthen these
In many countries and areas, high programmes and adopt innovative approaches
rates of population growth and concentration and strategies. To a large extent the success
have caused environmental problems such as of these programmes depends upon
land degradation, deforestation, air and ether empowering individuals, families and
pollution, threats to biological diversity from communities to plan and decide for themselves,
habitat destruction and rising sea level due as well as to design and implement,
to the greenhouse effect. In some countries, programmes based on their own needs.
calamities and associated loss of life have
followed the extension of human settlements It is crucial, therefore, that countries
into marginal and vulnerable areas, especially ensure that all individuals be given the
along rivers, coasts and foothills. opportunity to make the most of their potential.
Such a policy, as noted in the Jakarta Plan of
Population movements in countries Action on Human Resources Development
and areas of the ESCAP region have greatly in the ESCAP region, will result in the
increased in scale and complexity. In enhancement of social and economic
particular, increasing demand for overseas development of the community as a whole.
workers in countries and areas of the ESCAP
region in which the demographic transition It is recognized that demographic
has been completed will be of increasing policy factors are strategically important in human
importance. resources development because of their
63
interrelationships with employment, education, most disadvantaged groups, and the

skill and capability development, health and achievement and maintenance of a higher
nutrition, and the status and role of women. quality of life.
Despite some progress, women in Population ageing is closely

many countries still do not enjoy equal status interrelated with the dynamic processes of
with men, have only a limited role in national demographic and socioeconomic change, with
socio-economic development and remain implications for the family, community and
unaware of their rights. For the achievement nation. With significant and rapid fertility
of sustainable development, the full and declines and improvements in mortality,
unfettered participation of women is essential, population ageing will assume greater
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n and importance in the future. The majority of
implementation of population policies and the elderly have considerable potential for
programmes, because they have as much, if both self-reliance and making contributions
not more, at stake as men in whatever action to their families and communities. They have
is taken in these areas. a right and a responsibility to make those
contributions. The family is still the principal
Population growth rates are faster in source of support for the elderly. However,
the least developed countries and areas where with rapid industrialization, urbanization and
poverty is severe and there is less access to the increasing frequency of both spouses
education and health services. At the micro- engaging in full-time paid work, traditional
level, the poor usually have large families family support systems for the elderly will
and are less aware of, and have less access be placed under considerable strain.
to, social services such as family planning
and MCH; this contributes to high infant, child Over the years, population
and maternal mortality. Among the poor, programmes have become more diverse and
children and women are especially vulnerable complex. National-level population
to exploitation. programmes have been established in many
of the countries of the region and have achieved
Mortality has declined significantly varying degrees of success. Nevertheless,
in most Asian and Pacific countries. In some much remains to be done, requiring large
countries of the region, however, the amounts of resources, both human and
expectation of life at birth remains below 55 financial. The need for mobilizing additional
years. Even in countries where mortality has resources is greater today than ever before.
declined, there are subregions and subgroups
exposed to high levels of mortality and Descriptors:
morbidity. Infants and children, and women
in the reproductive ages remain particularly Population Policy; Urbanization; Migration;
susceptible. Mortality and morbidity patterns Sustainable Development; Family Planning;
are expected to change in the future in a Women’s Status; Poverty; Maternal and
number of countries and areas owing to the Child Health; Development Planning;
increasing incidence of STDs and HIV/AIDS, Human Resource Development; Socio-
with grave consequences for the health, well- Economic Development; Environmental
being and productivity of the people. This Planning
would also hamper the reproductive potential
of the population. In addition, the incidence Source: Economic and Social
of degenerative diseases is increasing in the Commission for Asia and
developing countries of the region. the Pacific
Population Division
Further reductions in mortality and United Nations Building
morbidity will depend upon improvements in Rajdamnern Nok Avenue
the quality of health services delivery, Bangkok 10200
implementation of programmes targeted at the Thailand
24
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Report of the Fourth
Asian and Pacific Population Conference, Bali, Indonesia, 19-27 August
1992. Bangkok, 1992. 70 p. (Asian population studies series no. 11.5)
he Fourth Asian and Pacific programmes. Furthermore, the Conference

Population Conference was would draw attention to the major contributions
held in Bali, Indonesia from that regional cooperation and mutual efforts,
19-27 August 1992. It was organized by the including exchange of information and
Economic and Social Commission for Asia experience, c o u l d m a k e t o n a t i o n a l
and the Pacific (ESCAP) and the United development planning, particularly in the field
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). The host of population. Therefore, the theme chosen
facilities were generously provided by the for the Conference was Population and
Government of Indonesia. Sustainable Development: Goals and Strategies
into the Twenty-first century.
In its resolution 74 (XXIII) of 17
April 1967 on Regional cooperation in the The Asian and Pacific region is at a
field of population, the Commission decided turning point in its long history. The region
to establish the Asian Population Conference contains 56 per cent of the world’s population
as a statutory organ of the Commission, to crammed into less than a quarter of the earth’s
be convened every ten years synchronising land mass. With its population growing by
with the decennial population and related almost 18 million people every year, human
censuses, for the consideration of all aspects consumption alone during the decade of the
of population questions and of their impact 1990s will put an enormous strain on the
on economic and social development. The resources of the region, which is already one
Committee on Population at its second session, of the poorest in the world. Although
held in December 1978, recommended to the substantial economic gains have been made
Commission that it should thereafter be referred during the past two decades by some countries
to as the Asian and Pacific Population and areas, the large increase in population
Conference. The Commission, at its thirty- numbers still hampers the overall development
fifth session, held in March 1979, endorsed of the region. In fact, population growth in
the recommendations of the Committee on some parts of the region is actually beginning
Population. The Forth Asian and Pacific to exceed the ability of countries to sustain
Population Conference was held in compliance it. The relationship between population,
with these decisions. resources and the environment is all too visible
massive deforestation, land degradation, and
The Conference was convened to water and air pollution, to name but a few.
provide a forum in which the governments
of countries and areas in the Asian and Pacific Rapid population growth also
region would be able to review and appraise frustrates Governments efforts to improve the
population trends and policies in the region. nutrition of families, enhance the health of
It would also enable those governments to the people and increase educational
obtain a clearer picture of the strategic value opportunities for all.
of formulating multidisciplinary policies and
programmes, the need to integrate research The Fourth Asian and Pacific
and evaluation into programme planning and Population Conference enabled ministers and
implementation, and the role of population other senior representative of ESCAP members
data and information in the formulation of and associate members to review the
policies a n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f population situation in the region and plan a
65
course of action to deal with population and about sustainable social and economic
sustainable development issues into the twenty- development.
first century. They were joined by
representatives of various United Nations Descriptors:
agencies, intergovernmental and non-
governmental organizations in their Population Policy; Environmental
discussions. Planning; Sustainable Development;
Women% Status; Poverty; Development
Co-sponsored by ESCAP and the Planning; Socio-Economic Development;
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Asia; Pacific Region
the Conference is held once every 10 years.
The third Conference was held at Colombo, Source: Economic and Social
Sri Lanka; the second one, at Tokyo; and the Commission for Asia and
first, at New Delhi. With concerted action at the Pacific
the regional level, this conference hopes that Population Division
governments will take steps aimed at United Nations Building
improving the quality of life for their Rajdamnern Nok Avenue
populations by alleviating poverty and bringing Bangkok 10200
Thailand
25
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. The Fourth Asian
and Pacific Population Conference, Bali, Indonesia, 19-27 August 1992:
selected papers. Bangkok, 1993, 210 p. (Asian population studies series
no. 124)
q
he Fourth Asian and Pacific examined the major problems of planning for
Population Conference, held economic and social development in the light
in Bali, Indonesia, in August of current and prospective population trends.
1992, focused its attention on the continuing The Second Asian Population Conference
importance of population-related issues in the convened at Tokyo in 1972 aimed at providing
developing countries and areas of Asia and a better understanding of the central role that
the Pacific. It was the fourth in a series of population plays in achieving development
decennial conferences of members and targets. It also sought to assist governments
associate members of the Economic and Social in determining and applying the most effective
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), means of influencing population trends. The
convened by the Commission to promote central theme of the Third Asian and Pacific
regional cooperation in the field of population Population Conference held at Colombo in
and to consider all aspects of population issues September 1982 was an integrated approach
and their impact on economic and social to population and related development issues.
development. The Conference was attended The Fourth Asian and Pacific Population
by high-level representatives of almost all Conference had as its theme population and
ESCAP members and associate members. sustainable development, focusing on
Some non-members, United Nations bodies population goals; population, environment and
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) development; urbanization, internal and
also attended. international migration; family planning and
maternal and child health; population and
The First Asian Population human resource development; women and
Conference, held at New Delhi in 1963,
66
population; population and poverty alleviation; During the forthcoming decade, the
mortality and morbidity; ageing; population secretariat, in collaboration with UNFPA, other
data, research and information dissemination; United Nations agencies and NGOs, will,
and resource mobilization. through various means such as training,
research, meetings and information, help
The Fourth Asian Pacific Conference ESCAP member and associate members to
enabled members and associate members of translate the goals and strategies of the Bali
ESCAP to set forth their views and Declaration into specific national policies and
recommendations o n p o p u l a t i o n a n d programmes.
sustainable development for incorporation in
a declaration that articulated the goals and The Report of the Conference and
strategies of the Asian and Pacific region that the text of the Bali Declaration on Population
was put forward at the international Conference and Sustainable Development have already
on Population and Development, held at Cairo been published by ESCAP. This publication
in September 1994. The responsibilities for contains a selection of papers prepared for
planning the Fourth Asian and Pacific the Conference. It presents the region’s
Conference rested mainly with the Preparatory population situation, problems, issues and
Committee which held three meetings during prospects. It should also serve as a useful
the period 1990-1992. Accordingly, three resource and reference for those concerned
pre-conference seminars were organized by with population and planning issues in Asia
ESCAP on 1) population, environment and and the Pacific as the twentieth century draws
sustainable development; 2) migration and to a close.
urbanization in Asia and the Pacific:
interrelationships with socioeconomic Descriptors:
development and evolving policy issues; and
3) planning and implementation of effective Population Dynamics; Development
family planning/family health and welfare Planning; Environmental Planning;
programmes: some lessons from the Asian Sustainable Development; Women’s
and Pacific region. Participation; Woman in Development;
Population Policy; Poverty; Family
The Conference was organized in two Planning; Migration; Mortality; Fertility;
stages: first, a five-day meeting of senior Asia; Pacific Region
government officials in which a draft set of
recommendations relating to population and Source: Economic and Social
sustainable development and a draft of the Commission for Asia and
Bali Declaration were drawn up; and second, the Pacific
a two-day ministerial-level meeting in which Population Division
the recommendations and the Bali Declaration United Nations Building
were adopted. Rajdamnern Nok Avenue
Bangkok 10200
Thailand
67
26
International Academy of the Environment. Round table on population,

environment and sustainable development. Summary report and
recommendation to the Secretariat of the International ,Conference on
Population and Development, Geneva, 1994. 9 p.
n 24-26 November 1993, ICPD, meeting at the United Nations in New

approximately 35 experts from York in April 1994.
different regions of the world,
with differentiated experiences and The meeting was chaired by
perspectives, from universities, research Ambassador Richard E. Benedick of the
institutes, governments, multilateral and International Academy of the Environment.
regional agencies, and local non-governmental Dr. Nafis Sadik, Executive Director of UNFPA
organizations participated in a policy dialogue and Secretary-General of ICPD, addressed the
to consider interlinkages between population meeting as the keynote speaker. A background
factors, environmental degradation, and paper entitled I s s u e s i n S u s t a i n a b l e
sustainable development. The meeting was Development: Population, Poverty and the
organized by the International Academy of Environment, prepared by Mary Barberis of
the Environment in close collaboration with the Population Reference Bureau (Washington,
the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), D. C.), provided a literature survey which
and with the support of the United Nations served as a point of departure for the
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the discussion. The paper focused, in particular,
Government of Switzerland, as part of the on five varying ecosystems where
preparatory process for the 1994 International environmental degradation and natural
Conference on Population and Development resources depletion is serious and where
(ICPD). poverty and population pressures appear to
be significant contributing factors. Regional
The Round Table was designed to experts led off the discussion of each of the
provide insights for the ICPD into these five ecosystems, and the experience of these
multiple and complex interrelationships, in subregions provided the Round Table with
order to assist UNFPA and other actors at useful analogues for the world as a whole:
intergovernmental, national, local and non- deforestation in Central America;
governmental levels in the formulation of desertification in Sub-Saharan Africa; coastal
programmes t o p r o m o t e s u s t a i n a b l e and marine degradation in the Bay of Bengal;
development. The Chairman’s Summary and forested uplands of Indonesia, Nepal, the
Recommendations of the Round Table were Philippines, and Thailand; and small island
submitted to the ICPD Secretariat and states in the South Pacific.
subsequently formed the basis for a draft
entitled Interrelationships Between Population, Now more than ever it is recognized
Sustained Economic Growth, and Sustainable that the phenomena of historically
Development, of the Draft Programme of unprecedented growth in human numbers,
Action of the ICPD. This paper, which is depletion o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , and
the draft final document of the Conference, environmental degradation are inseparably
was considered by national delegations and linked, while being themselves influenced by
observers from intergovernmental and non- widespread and persistent poverty, income
governmental organizations at the Third disparities, and wasteful consumption. The
Session of the Preparatory Committee for the Rio Declaration on Environment and
68
Development and Agenda 21, adopted by the them, elected t o h i g h l i g h t c e r t a i n

nations of the world at the highest political recommendations as most pertinent to restoring
level during the United Nations Conference a balance between population, environment
on Environment and Development (UNCED) and resources in the context of sustainable
in June 1992, reflect these complex modern development. The recommendations in the
realities. paper, which reflect a general consensus of
the meeting, are addressed for action by
The population-environment- international and regional organizations,
development nexus is admittedly characterized national governments, local communities, and
by complicated interactions in which the chains non-governmental organizations. Participants
of causality are often difficult to quantify. emphasized the urgent need for timely and
The impacts of population growth, structure, sustained actions, for integrated and
density, and migration are mediated through multisectoral approaches, and for international
political, economic, sociocultural, behavioural, cooperation in mobilizing financial and
and institutional factors. They can also vary technological resources.
with the environmental conditions and resource
base of a particular region during a given Descriptors:
time period. Nevertheless, it seems evident
from the large body of existing research as Population Growth; Migration; Sustainable
well as from the case studies examined here, Development; Ecosystems; Environmental
that population pressures can exacerbate Degradation
problems of environmental deterioration and
resource depletion and limit the options for Source: International Academy of the
sustainable development policies and actions. Environment
Policy Dialogue Programme
The Round Table endorsed the Chemin de Conches 4,
principles and guidelines for action embodied CH- 1231 Conches
in the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 and, Geneva, Switzerland
without attempting to reflect every aspect of
27
Keating, Michael. The Earth Summit’s agenda for change: a plain version of
Agenda 21 and the other Rio agreements, Geneva, Centre for Our Common
Future, 1993. 36 p.
q
he foundations for the Earth The Brundtland Commission said that
Summit were laid in 1972, the global economy had to meet people’s needs
when 113 nations gathered for and legitimate desires, but growth had to fit
the Stockholm Conference on the Human within the planet’s ecological limits. It called
Environment, the first global environmental for a new era of environmentally sound
meeting. In 1983, the United Nations created economic development, citing humanity’s
the World Commission on Environment and ability to make development sustainable to
Development. Four years later its landmark ensure that it meets the needs of the present
report, Our Common Future, warned that without compromising the ability of future
people had to change many of the ways in generations to meet their own needs.
which they did business and lived or the world
would face unacceptable levels of human In 1989, the United Nations began
suffering and environmental damage. planning a Conference on Environment and
69
Development to spell out how to achieve development in others. It offers policies and
sustainable development. For two years, programmes to achieve a sustainable balance
experts from around the world hammered out between consumption, population and the
difficult agreements along the road to Rio, Earth’s life-supporting capacity. It describes
where thousands of people from non- some of the technologies and techniques that
governmental organizations, businesses, need to be developed to provide for human
education, women’s groups, indigenous groups needs while carefully managing natural
and others contributed to the process in the resources.
Rio summit.
Agenda 21 provides options for
The Rio summit produced two combating degradation of the land, air and
international agreements, two statements of water, conserving forests and the diversity of
principles and a major action agenda on world- species of life. It deals with poverty and
wide sustainable development. The five are: excessive consumption, health and education,
The Rio Declaration on Environment and cities and farmers. There are roles for
Development whose 27 principles define the everyone: governments, business people, trade
rights and responsibilities of nations as they unions, scientists, teachers, indigenous people,
pursue human development and well-being; women, youth and children. Agenda 21 does
Agenda 21, a blueprint on how to make not shun business. It says that sustainable
development socially, economically and development is the way to reverse both poverty
environmentally sustainable; and a statement and environmental destruction.
of principles to guide the management,
conservation and sustainable development of The success of economic development
all types of forests, which are essential to is currently gauged mainly by the amount of
economic development and the maintenance money it produces. Accounting systems that
of all forms of life. measure the wealth of nations also need to
count the full value of natural resources and
Two major international Conventions the full cost of environmental degradation.
were negotiated separately from but in parallel The polluter should, in principle, bear the
with the preparations for the Earth Summit cost of pollution. To reduce the risk of causing
and were signed by most governments meeting damage, environmental assessment should be
at Rio. The aim of the United Nations carried out before starting projects that carry
Framework Convention on Climate Change the risk of adverse impacts. Governments
is to stabilize greenhouse gases in the should reduce or eliminate subsidies that are
atmosphere at levels that will not dangerously not consistent with sustainable development.
upset the global climate system. This will
require a reduction of gas emissions such as A major theme of Agenda 21 is the
carbon dioxide, a by-product of the use of need to eradicate poverty by giving poor people
burning fuels for energy; and the Convention more access to the resources they need to
on Biological Diversity which requires live sustainably. By adopting Agenda 21,
countries to adopt ways and means to conserve industrialized countries recognized that they
the variety of living species, and ensure that have a greater role in cleaning up the
the benefits from using biological diversity environment than poor nations, who produce
are equitably shared. relatively less pollution. The richer nations
also promised more funding to help other
Agenda 21 also explains that nations develop in ways that have lower
population. consumption and technology are environmental impacts. Beyond funding,
the primary driving forces of environmental nations also need help in building the expertise
change. It lays out what needs to be done to - the capacity - to plan and carry out
reduce wasteful and inefficient consumption sustainable development decisions. This will
patterns in some parts of the world, while require the transfer of information and skills.
encouraging increased but sustainable
Agenda 21 calls on governments to

adopt national strategies for sustainable
development. These strategies should be
I Descriptors:
Environmental Planning; $ustainable

developed with wide participation, including Development; Socio-Economic
non-governmental organizations and the public. Development; Development Planning
Agenda 21 puts most of the responsibility
for leading change on national governments Source: Centre for Our Common
but says that they need to work in a broad Future
series of partnerships with international 521 rue des Paquis
organizations, business, regional, state, 1201 Geneva
provincial and local governments and non- Switzerland
governmental organizations, and citizens’
groups. Finally, Agenda 21 asserts that only
a global partnership will ensure that all nations
will have a safer and more prosperous future.
28
Ness, Gayl D, Population and the environment: frameworks for analysis.

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1994. 36 p. (The Environmental and
Natural Resources Policy and Training Project working paper no, 10)
his working paper is one of a organization always moderates its effects and
series produced by the EPAT/ it is not expected that slowing population
MUCIA Population and growth will alleviate environmental pressures
Environmental and Natural Resources team. in the near future. Finally, achieving
It examines major ways of thinking about sustainable development will require a
the population-environment relationship over combined attack on population growth,
the past two centuries. The paper begins with consumption, and a variety of other human
Malthus and reviews developments to the patterns of production.
present. Then it examines in details six current
frameworks or models for analyzing Rapid population growth is one of
population-environment relationships. The six the most dramatic conditions of modern life.
models include Bongaarts’, Clark’s, and The world’s population is now about 5.4
Harrison’s attempts to identify the relative billion, and growing at just under 2 per cent
impact of population growth on a limited per year. This growth is both good and bad
number of forms of environmental degradation. news. On the positive side, it represents a
It also examines the more complex Meadows, major triumph over death and disease and
Meadows, and Randers WORLD3 dynamic the limits the earth might place on extracting
model of the global system and the its resources. Modern technology has kept
International Institute of Applied Systems people alive longer and in better health than
Analysis (IIASA) population-environment ever before. It has also made human labour
model now being applied to Mauritius. vastly more productive. Modern economic
development, based on fossil fuels,
A basic finding of these models is demonstrates the success of the human species
that population growth can have a major impact in carving out a niche for itself.
on the environment. However, the impact is
never simple and direct, and human However, the cost may be far greater
than the gains. Fossil fuel technology, and
the human growth that it implies, constitutes Association is not the same as
a massive assault on the natural environment. causation, however. Therefore, the question
Modern production and consumption greatly remains: What impact does population growth
increase the emission of greenhouse gases have on the environment? How much? In
into the atmosphere. This threatens to raise what ways? Furthermore, what policy options
the earth’s global temperature faster than in are available to deal with population growth
the past and to unprecedented levels. Other and to mitigate whatever environmental
unnatural gases, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), impacts it has? This paper addresses these
have dramatically reduced stratospheric ozone issues.
and increased ultraviolet radiation reaching
the earth’s surface. This threatens both human In this paper there is a basic argument
health by causing skin cancer and visual which is carried through subsequent papers:
impairment and, more importantly, by affecting There is no simple and direct relationship
the food chain. Thousands of new chemicals between population and environment.
are assaulting the earth, air, and water. Some Identifiable forms of technology and social
of the new chemicals are extremely toxic and organization mediate impacts in both
natural biological processes cannot degrade directions. It is only through these that either
them. Finally, increased population translates population or environment affect one another.
into increased demand for land. Deforestation
and desertification result when people invade Descriptors:
marginal lands with technologies that degrade
rather than protect the land. Population Growth; Population Pressure;
Environmental Planning; Natural
Thus, there is a clear historical Resources; Environmental Development;
association between population growth and Environmental Degradation
environmental degradation. The transformation
to a fossil fuel technology occurred at the Source: Communications Director
end of the 18th century, accompanied by the EPAT/MUCIA-Research and
development of modern urban industrial Training
societies and substantial population increase. University of Wisconsin -
This occurred first in the North Atlantic Madison
countries and eventually spread to the rest of 1003 WARF, 610 Walnut
the world. Historically, fossil fuel Street
consumption, urbanization and Madison, WI 53705-2379
industrialization, and population growth are U. S. A.
associated with one another.
29
New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment; and the New Zealand Local
Government Association. Securing the future: a guide to Agenda 21.
Wellington, 1993. 1 packet of materials (leaflets and booklets).
q
genda 21 is the major outcome Agenda 21 is not a legally binding document,
of the United Nations the commitment of 180 countries helps to
Conference on Environment give it a moral standing at an international
and Development (UNCED) which was held level as well as at a national one, in this
in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. It provides a case, New Zealand. This publication was
common framework of action for all countries published as a guide to Agenda 21 by the
to achieve sustainable development. Although Ministry for the Environment, New Zealand.
72
The challenge for New Zealand is Like Agenda 21, this guide is
how to translate this framework into actions designed to be an organic document - one
at the local and regional levels. UNCED which can change over time. The format
expects local communities and local authorities allows materials to be added as needed. For
to play a crucial role in the implementation example, case studies or examples that
of Agenda 21 since two-thirds of the activities illustrate the principles of Agenda 21 can be
proposed are at the local level. added at later. Other sections can also be
amended in light of experience with
In New Zealand, the local government
implementing Agenda 21. Readers may also
has responsibility for a wide range of functions
wish to add other materials they see as relevant.
which are relevant to the intentions of Agenda
21. Local communities make decisions and The outcomes of the Earth Summit
carry out activities that relate closely to those provide a unique opportunity for taking
outlined in Agenda 21. affirmative action on environmental and
This guide is designed to inform local development concerns. The process began
governments and communities about Agenda by the Earth Summit has the potential to bring
21 and to assist them to respond effectively together individuals, communities, sectoral
to the challenges it contains. The guide will groups and nations in a continuous and
help them to see their own concerns in a global constructive dialogue to establish partnerships
context, giving effect to the idea of thinking at the global, national and local levels.
globally and acting locally.
Business and industry are major
Agenda 21 is a complex document stakeholders in this process. They have a
of some 500 pages. The process of negotiation crucial role to play in bringing about
by consensus, and the need to reflect the hopes sustainable economic and social development
and aspirations of 180 diverse nations, has while helping to protect the environment. The
resulted in a document which is repetitive term eco-efficiency coined by the International
and contains difficult language. Some of the Business Council for Sustainable Development
repetition are a result of the holistic nature brings together the concepts of business
of sustainable development, and the excellence, environmental excellence and
interlinkages between different environment economic development.
and development issues.
The economic, institutional and
This guide has been produced to help legislative reforms in New Zealand over the
the reader to understand Agenda 21. It picks last decade provide a firm basis for achieving
out the main themes and messages and eco-efficiency. These reforms and the
summarizes some of the key issues that are directions provided by Agenda 21 mean the
relevant at the local level in New Zealand. possibility of moving ahead with the business
of sustainable development.
The structure of the guide is as
follows: The first section, Making Connections,
Descriptors:
provides an overview of the main themes and
messages of UNCED. The second section
Environmental Policy; Environmental
begins with a model of sustainable
Planning; Sustainable Development; Guides
development. Specific issues in Agenda 21
are then described under the headings provided
Source: Population Action
by the model. This helps to convey the global
International
and interdependent nature of Agenda 21. The
1120 19th Street, NW, Suite
third section relates these themes and issues
550
to various activities and functions at the local
Washington, D. C. 20036-
level. The intention is to prepare this section
3605
following regional and local workshops which
U. S. A.
will look at Making Agenda 21 Work.
73
he UN Economic and Social health, education and employment, with

Council, in its resolution particular reference to the access of women
1991/93 of 26 July 1991, to resources and provision of services; and
decided to convene an International Conference 6) family planning programmes, health and
on Population and Development under the family well-being.
auspices of the United Nations and decided
that the overall theme of the Conference would This issue of the Population Bulletin
be population, sustained economic growth and is devoted to a review of the six expert group
sustainable development. The Council meetings. It includes a synthesis of the
authorized the Secretary-General of the meetings and their reports and
Conference to convene six expert group recommendations. The synthesis gives a brief
meetings as part of the substantive preparations description of the organizational aspects of
for the Conference. the meetings, a s u m m a r y o f t h e i r
recommendations and an overview of issues
The six expert group meetings were of overriding importance which were examined
organized by the UN Population Division, in at more than one meeting. The order in which
consultation with the United Nations the reports are presented follows the order in
Population Fund (UNFPA), to discuss various which the meetings were held.
population and development issues which had
been identified by the Economic and Social Certain themes and issues are
Council as requiring the greatest attention common to all or nearly all of the expert
during the forthcoming decade. The meetings group meetings. Through this report, an
addressed the following clusters of issues: attempt has been made to summarize the
1) population growth, changes in demographic common themes which emerge when the
structure, including ageing of the population, recommendations are viewed collectively.
and the regional diversity of such changes,
The expert group meetings took the
with particular emphasis on the interaction
perspective of integrating population, sustained
between demographic variables an socio-
economic growth and sustainable development.
economic development; 2) population policies
The relevance of past experiences was also
and programmes, with emphasis on the
recognized considering how the work had been
mobilization of resources for developing
greatly facilitated by and made ample reference
countries, at the international and national
to the international experience accumulated
levels; 3) the interrelationships between
in the field of population, both through the
population, development, environment and
process of intergovernmental negotiations and
related matters; 4) changes in the distribution
through the process of formulation,
of population, including socioeconomic
implementation and evaluation of population
determinants of internal migration and the
policies and programmes.
consequences for urban and rural development,
and determinants and consequences of all types The meetings were also mindful of
of international migration; 5) linkages between the human rights dimension of population
enhancing the roles and socioeconomic status programmes and reiterated the central role
of women and population dynamics, including women played in development. They also
adolescent motherhood, maternal and child collectively recognized the vital importance
74
of the family, in its various forms, as a numerous recommendations involving the

cornerstone of society and the critical international donor community in partnership
importance of the accessibility of services, with governments and non-governmental
particularly in the area of reproductive health, organizations of recipient countries.
for promoting social equality and accelerating
development efforts. They generally paid Descriptors:
considerable attention to the rights and special
needs of sub-populations such as children, Population Dynamics; Development
the elderly, women and migrants, depending Planning; Population Growth; Population
on the theme of each meeting. Several Policy; Resources Development; Socio-
meetings addressed issues raised by the AIDS Economic Factors; Women's Status;
pandemic and most recommendations were Migration; Family Planning Programmes
addressed to governments, since the meetings
took place in the context of population for Source: United Nations
an intergovernmental conference. Overall, Sales Section
they emphasized the fundamental importance New York, N. Y. 10017
of research for policy and programme U. S. A.
formulation. All of the meetings adopted
31
Population Bulletin of the United Nations, Nos. 37/38. Special issue on: The five
Regional Population Conference and Meetings convened as part of the
substantive preparations for the International Conference on Population
and Development. 1994, 104 p,
n its resolution 199l/93 of 26 the Bali Declaration on Population and

July 1991, the UN Economic Sustainable Development.
and Social Council, in
preparation for the International Conference The Third African Population
on Population and Development (Cairo, 1994), Conference was hosted by the Government
i n v i t e d t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s regional of Senegal at Dakar from 7 to 12 December
commissions to convene meetings or 1992. The Conference was organized by the
conferences to review the experience gained Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), in
in population policies and programmes in their cooperation with the Organization of African
regions and to propose future action. Unity (OAU) and UNFPA. The theme of
the Conference was Population, Family and
Five conferences were held. The Sustainable Development. The Conference
Fourth Asian and Pacific Population adopted the Dakar/Ngor Declaration on
Conference, organized by the Economic and Population, Family and Sustainable
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Development.
(ESCAP), in cooperation with the United
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), was hosted The European Population Conference
by the Government of Indonesia at Denpasar was held in Geneva, from 23 to 26 March
from 19 to 27 August 1992. The theme of 1993. Organized by the Economic
the Conference was Population and Sustainable Commission for Europe (ECE), in cooperation
Development: Goals and Strategies into the with the Council of Europe and UNFPA, the
Twenty-first Century. The Conference adopted Conference involved countries in Europe and
North America. The principal themes of the of the more general concerns and priorities
Conference were: international migration, of the recommendations are summarized as
fertility and the family, health and mortality, follows:
selected consequences of population growth
and age structure, and international cooperation Human resources development should
in the field of population. The Conference be the focus for policies and programmes for
adopted a set of recommendations. sustainable development. People are the most
important and valuable resource that any nation
The Arab Population Conference was possesses. The family should be regarded as
hosted by the Government of Jordan at Amman the basic unit of society. Governments are,
from 4 to 8 April 1993. The Conference was therefore, urged to incorporate family concerns
organized by the Economic and Social into national development plans.
Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), in
cooperation with the League of Arab States Population policies and programmes
and UNFPA. The Conference discussed are considered an integral part of national
population, environment and development; development plans aimed at sustainable
population growth and demographic structure; socioeconomic development. Therefore, such
population distribution and internal migration; policies and programmes should be fully
international migration; population and women; formulated, implemented and integrated into
family planning, health and family well-being; all aspects of development planning and policy-
and population policies and programmes. The making.
Conference adopted the Second Amman
Declaration on Population and Development. Policies and programmes aimed at
sustainable development have been seriously
The Latin American and Caribbean hampered by the continuing prevalence of
Regional Conference on Population and extreme poverty among vast groups in the
Development was hosted by the Government developing world, particularly women and
of Mexico at Mexico City from 29 April to 4 children, and the inequality between and within
May 1993. It was organized by the Economic the states. Unless countries are able to make
Commission for Latin America and the substantial progress in alleviating poverty,
Caribbean (ECLAC) and co-sponsored by developmental policies and programmes -
UNFPA. The main theme of the Conference including population-related policies and
was Population, Social Equity and Changing programmes - are likely to fail.
Production Patterns. The Conference adopted
the Latin American and Caribbean Consensus It is the basic right of couples and
on Population and Development. individuals to decide freely and responsibly
the number and spacing of their children. In
This issue of the Population Bulletin
order to be able to exercise that right,
reviews the results of those regional population
individuals and couples must have free access
conferences. It includes a synthesis of the
to the necessary information and services. In
regional conferences as well as the
addition, population policies and programmes
declarations, recommendations and consensus
should respect fundamental and universal
statements on population and development that
human rights and treat people with dignity.
were adopted.
The recommendations of the five Notwithstanding the major differences

regional conferences are both general and existing among the five regions and the
specific on the formulation and implementation countries within the regions as regards
of population and development policies and demographic and development issues, the
programmes. Those recommendations were recommendations of the five regional
addressed to governments, intergovernmental conferences shared certain specific concerns,
and non-governmental organizations. Some opinions and priorities.
Descriptors: I United Nations

Sales Section
Population Growth; Sustainable New York, N. Y. 10017
Development; Family; Migration; Fertility; U. S. A.
Health Care; Environment; Population
Policy
32
Population Crisis Committee. Population and the environment: impacts in

the developing world. Washington, D. C., 1992, 34 p. (Population policy
information kit no. 6)
his Population Policy year 2000, 17 will be in the developing

Information kit was prepared countries. All these cities will have populations
by the Population Crisis of more than 11 million people. The rest of
Committee (PCC) in Washington, D. C. to the charts show that during the 1980s water
provide authoritative answers to questions supply and sanitation coverage failed to keep
about controversial population issues. It up with population growth in 20 countries in
consists of five sections: Questions and Africa. Even WHO targets for accelerating
Answers, Charts and Graphs, Abstracts and such coverage (after 1988) would take decades
Excerpts from Recent Scientific Literature, to catch up with population growth. Since
Excerpts from Official Statements on the 1945, between 14 per cent and 24.8 per cent
Environmental Impact of Population, and a of vegetated land have been degraded in the
Reference Guide. world’s developing regions. The rapid pace
of this land degradation is unlikely to be slowed
Among the questions the kit answers without action to reduce population growth.
are the following: Wouldn’t poor countries The final chart on growth in population and
benefit by cutting forests to stimulate economic fuelwood use production in selected countries
development and make room for their growing from 1977-1987 shows that with some
population? Didn’t most industrial countries exceptions, growth in the use of fuelwood
cut their forests as they developed? Isn’t the for energy closely tracks population growth.
potential warming of global climate the most
dangerous environmental problem the world The following is a list of excerpts
faces? And isn’t that risk mostly the result from Official Statements on the Environmental
of overconsumption of fossil fuels in the Impacts of Population provided in the kit:
developed world? Aren’t urban environmental 1) Agenda 21 (draft), United Nations
problems like air pollution most serious in Conference on Environment and Development
industrialized country cities like Los Angeles Preparatory Committee IV, New York, 2
and Milan? March-3 April 1992; 2) Our Planet, Our
Health, Report of the WHO Commission on
The charts and graphs in the kit Health and the Environment, World Health
provide relevant information on the following: Organization, Geneva, March 1992; 3)
Total and Per Capita World Grain Production Population Growth, Resource Consumption,
from 1950 to 2000. It shows that despite and a Sustainable World, joint letter by Sir
increases in total world production, per capita Michael Atiyah, President, the Royal Society
grain production appears to be stalling or even of London, and Dr. Frank Press, President,
declining. The chart on the 20 most populated the U. S. National Academy of Sciences, 26
cities in the World as projected for 2000, February, 1992; 4) European Agenda for
and their 1950 population shows that in the Action on World Population, agreed to by the
77
European Parliamentarians Conference on Countries, Report of the Secretary-General; the

World Population, London, 31 January-2 Population Commission, the Economic and
February 1992; 5) Major Population- Social Council, the United Nations, 27
Environment Problems in Africa, prepared by February-8 March, 1991; 12) Resolutions and
the Economic Commission for Africa for the Recommendations, 18th Session of the General
United Nations Expert Meeting on Population, Assembly of IUCN - The World Conservation
Environment and Development, New York Union, Perth, Australia, 28 November-5
City, 20-24 January 1992; 6) Latin America: December 1990; 13) Bangkok Declaration,
Notes on Population, Environment and declaration of parliamentarians from 21 Asian
Development, prepared by the Economic countries attending the Third Conference of
Commission for Latin America and the the Asian Forum of Parliamentarians on
Caribbean for the United Nations Expert Group Population and Development in Bangkok,
on Population, Environment and Development, Thailand, 15-18 October 1990; 14) The
New York City, 20-24 January 1992; 7) Challenge to the South: The Report of the
Population, Environment and Sustainable South Commission, Julius K. Nyerere,
Development, Economic and Social Chairman, May 1990, Oxford University Press,
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, prepared 1990; 15) Amsterdam Declaration: A Better
for the United Nations Expert Group Meeting Life for Future Generations, adopted by the
on Population, Environment and Development, International Forum on Population in the
New York City, 20-24 January 1992; 8) Twenty-First Century, Amsterdam, the
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations, Netherlands, 6-9 November, 1989; 16) Our
Global Change and the Human Prospect: Common Future, report of the World
Issues in Population, Science, Technology, Commission on Environment and
and Equity, Prepared by Sigma Xi Forum, Development, Gro harlem Brundtland,
Washington, D. C., 16-18 November 1991; Chairman, Oxford University Press, 1987;
9) Meeting the Challenge of Population 17) Report of the United Nations Conference
Growth and Sustainable Resource Use, on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5-6
Address by Dr. Nafis Sadik, Executive Director June 1972.
of the United Nations Population Fund, to
the Second Preparatory Committee, United Descriptors:
Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, Palais des Nations, Geneva, 4 Population Growth; Population Dynamics;
April 1991; 10) Statement on Population and Population Policy; Demographic Statistics;
Development, issued by participants of the Environmental Planning; Environmental
United Nations Population Fund’s Expert Policy; Sustainable Development
Meeting on Population and Environment, UN
Headquarters, New York, 4-5 March, 1991; Source: Population Action International
11) Follow-up to the Recommendations of the 1120 19th Street, NWE,
International Conference on Population, 1985; Suite 550
Interrelationships Between Population and Washington, D. C. 20036-3605
Environment in Rural Areas of Developing U. S. A.
78
33
Populi. Journal of the United Nations Population Fund, Vol. 21, No. 9. Special
issue on; The International Conference on Population and Development.
October 1994. 16 p.
he October 1994 issue of controversial during the negotiation process

POPULI, a UNFPA journal, - reproductive rights and reproductive health.
focuses on the International
Conference on Population and Development Chapter 8 examines and advocates
(ICPD) held in Cairo, September 1994. for primary health care, child survival, safe
motherhood and HIV/AIDS. It contains the
Among others, it includes a reflection paragraph that was most lengthily debated,
on the Cairo consensus as viewed by its which now states: . . . in no case, should
Secretary-General and UNFPA Executive abortion be promoted as a method of family
Director, Dr. Nafis Sadik. planning.. .
The journal, likewise, covers related Chapter 9 describes urbanization as

issues such as a call for ICPD funding, a intrinsic to economic and social development
conference on migration and the establishment and calls on countries to adopt strategies that
of Woman Watching ICPD, a body tasked encourage the growth of small or medium-
with monitoring implementation of the Cairo sized urban centres as well as development
Programme of Action and exposing violations planning in rural areas.
of its agreements by those who endorsed the
document. Chapter 10 focuses on the factors
resulting to international migration: poverty
Mainly, the issue features a chapter and environmental degradation, combined with
by chapter description of the ICPD Programme the absence of peace and security, and human
of Action. rights violations. Chapter 11 describes
education as a key factor in sustainable
The Preamble in Chapter 1 provides development and recommends providing
an overview of the main issues covered and universal access to it. Chapter 12 stresses
sets the context for action in the field of the importance of valid, reliable, timely and
population and development. Chapter 2 lays internationally comparable data on all aspects
out the documents’ fifteen guiding principles. of policies and programmes.
Chapter 3 focuses on the interrelationships
between population, sustained economic The last four chapters beginning with
growth, and sustainable development. Chapter Chapter 13 are dedicated to the implementation
4 calls on countries to empower women and of the Programme of Action. These chapters
eliminate inequalities between men and progress from national action to international
women. Chapter 5 describes the family as cooperation, partnership with the non-
the basic unit of society and defines its roles, governmental sector and finally, a call for a
rights, composition and structures. Population follow-up conference. They include estimates
growth and structure, as discussed in Chapter of the funding levels required to meet the
6, is divided into five sections namely, fertility, needs of developing countries and countries
mortality, and population growth rates; children with economies in transition in the period
and youth; elderly people; indigenous peoples; 2000-2015 for basic reproductive health
and persons with disabilities. Chapter 7 covers services including family planning and
some of the issues considered most prevention of STDs and HIV/AIDS. They
79
urge the international communities to fulfil Descriptors:

the target agreed upon for years of committing
0.7 per cent of gross national product for the Population Programmes; Population Policy;
overall official development assistance (ODA), Development Planning; Sustainable
and increasing the proportion of ODA Development; Socio-Economic
dedicated to population to the level necessary Development; Women in Development
to implement the Programme of Action.
Partnership with the non-governmental sector Source: Populi
calls on governments and development United Nations Population
agencies to integrate NGOs into their decision- Fund
making and facilitate the contributions NGOs 220 East 42nd Street
can make in implementing the Programme New York, N. Y. 10017
of Action. They also urge governments in U. S. A.
the North and South to respect and help
preserve the NGO’s autonomy.
34
United Nations. Earth Summit: agenda 21: programme of action for sustainable
development, Rio declaration on environment and development, and statement
of forest principles. New York, 1993. 294 p. (Final text of agreements
negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June 1992).
genda 21, a programme of they lack the force of international law, the
action for sustainable adoption of the texts carries with it a strong
development worldwide, the moral obligation to ensure their full
Rio Declaration on Environment and implementation.
Development, and the statement of principles
for the sustainable management of forests, Agenda 21 stands as a comprehensive
were adopted by more than 178 Governments blueprint for action to be taken globally, from
at the United Nations Conference on now into the twenty-first century, by the
Environment and Development, known as the governments, United Nations organizations
Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and independent-sector groups, in every area
from 3 to 14 June 1992. Together they fulfil in which human activity impacts on the
the mandate given to the Conference by the environment. The Agenda should be studied
United Nations General Assembly when, in in conjunction with both the Rio Declaration,
1989, it called for a global meeting to devise which provides a context for its specific
integrated strategies that would halt and reverse proposals, and the statement of Forest
the negative impact of human behaviour on Principles.
the physical environment and promote
environmentally sustainable economic Underlying the Earth Summit
development in all countries. agreements is the idea that humanity has
reached a turning point. Man has two options.
The agreements, which were He can continue with present policies which
negotiated over two and a half years leading are deepening economic divisions within and
up to the Earth Summit and finalized in Rio, between countries, which increase poverty,
are presented in this book in final form. While hunger, sickness and illiteracy and cause
80
continuing deterioration of the ecosystem on particular circumstances facing economies in

which life on Earth depends. Or he can change transition. It must also be recognized that
course. He can act to improve the living these countries are facing unprecedented
standards of those in need. He can better challenges in transforming their economies,
manage and protect the ecosystem and bring in some cases in the midst of considerable
about a more prosperous future for all of social and political tension.
humanity. No nation can achieve this on its
own. But together, it is possible, in a global The programme areas that constitute
partnerships for sustainable development. Agenda 21 are described in terms of the basis
for action, objectives, activities and means
The developmental and environmental of implementation. Agenda 21 is a dynamic
objectives of Agenda 21 will require a programme. It will be carried out by the
substantial flow of new and additional financial various actors according to the different
resources to developing countries, in order situations, capacities and priorities of countries
to cover the incremental costs for the actions and regions in full respect of all the principles
they have to undertake to deal with global contained in the Rio Declaration on
environmental problems and to accelerate Environment and Development. It could
sustainable development. Financial resources evolve over time in the light of changing needs
are also required for strengthening the capacity and circumstances.
of international institutions f o r t h e
implementation of Agenda 21. Therefore, Descriptors:
an indicative order-of-magnitude assessment
of costs is included in each of the programme Sustainable Development; Environmental
areas. This assessment will need to be Planning; Development Planning; Socio-
examined and refined by the relevant Economic Development
implementing agencies and organizations.
Source: United Nations
In the implementation of the relevant Sales Section
programme areas identified in Agenda 21, New York, N. Y. 10017
special attention should be given to the U. S. A.
35
United Nations. Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy
Analysis. Population and development: programme of action adopted at
the International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo,
5-13 September 1994 (Volume I). New York, 1995. 100 p.
his publication presents the debate on population and related issues and
programme of Action adopted their implications for social and economic
at the International development before it adopted, by consensus,
Conference on Population and Development a new Programme of Action that will guide
(ICPD) held in Cairo from 5-13 September national and international action in the area
1994. Under the overall theme of “population, of population and development during the next
sustained economic growth and sustainable 20 years.
development”, the ICPD conducted a general
81
This publication is in two volumes. more choices through expanded access to

An introduction by the Secretary General of e d u c a t i o n a n d h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , skill
the Conference appears in this volume. Volume development and employment, and through
1 Contains the Programme of Action of the their full involvement in policy- and decision-
Conference as well as oral and written making processes at all levels. Also one of
statements and reservations on the Programme the porimary goals of the Programme of Action
of Action. The Programme of Action has 16 is to make family planning universally
chapters. These include the following: available by 2015 as part of the broadened
preamble; principles; interrelationships approach to reproductive health and rights. It
between population, sustained economic also includes goals in regard to education,
growth and sustainable development; gender especially for girls, as well as goals to further
equality, equity and empowerment of women; reduce levels of infant, child and maternal
the family, its roles, rights, composition and mortality.
structure; population growth and structure;
reproductive rights and reproductive health; Volume II contains an overview of
health, morbidity, and mortality; population all the statements made at the Conference, as
distribution, urbanization, and internal well as the full text of those statements,
migration; international migration; population, including the opening and closing statements.
development and education; technology,
research and development; national action; Descriptors:
international cooperation; partnership with non-
governmental sector; and follow-up to the Socio-economic Development; Sustainable
conference. Development; Gender Equity; Women
Empowerment; Family Role; Population
The Programme of Action endorses Growth; Reproductive Health;
a new strategy that emphasizes the integral Reproductive Rights; Health; Mortality;
linkages between population and development Urbanization; Migration; Education;
and focuses on meeting the needs of individual Environment
women and men, rather than on achieveing
demographic targets. Source: United Nations
Sales section
The key to this new approach is New York, N. Y. 10017
empowering women and providing them with U. S. A
82
POPULATION-
ENVIRONMENT-
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
LINKAGES
ection
sl Five
Population-Environment-Sustainable Development
Linkages
The twenty-two selections covered in this section may be categorized into two. The
first group involves the arguments extended by individual authors which seek to examine the
linkages between population, environment and sustainable development. It may be possible to
synthesize their basis of contention but generally, the conclusions they arrive at only underscore
the complexity of the issue, and at times, the conflicting ideas prevailing upon this debate.
A more cohesive thought is supplied by the second group, which consists of selections
published by international groups such as the World Resources Institute, the National Audubon
Society, the Population Crisis Society, and the United Nations-related publications, which
largely comprise this category. Most of these selections have been published starting in the late
eighties and extending up to the present, postdating the earlier group. This may be interpreted
as an encouraging trend on how through case studies, proceedings of expert group meetings and
conferences, and documentation of other development efforts, current thinking on the linkages
between population, environment and sustainable development is leading to a unified conclusion
in addressing this triad.
In this compilation, attempts to link population, environment and sustainable development

date back as far as 1972 with the selection Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human
Ecology. The questions raised in some of the earlier debates have raised further arguments
regarding the complexity of the issue. The selection Population, Environment and the Quality
of Life, which compiles twenty-five articles presented several counterpoints. Paul Erlich and
John Holden categorically state that population growth is a major problem for the environment
to which Barry Commoner responds that technology is a more important problem. Garret
Harding argues that population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental
extension to include morality issues. Amos Hawley contends that man is situated in an ecosystem
which is more complex than a simple relationship between population and environment. All
these point out that population and environment are but two variables in a larger set of variables
that include technology, organization and human values.
Generally, there is an agreement in majority of the selections as to how population

pressure can be one of a range of proximate causes of environmental degradation and a critical
clement in the development equation. Their basic argument underscores the problem of gross
overpopulation in affecting the human limits of capably producing food by conventional means.
altering the balance of supply and distribution. As a result, increasing human demands are
damaging the natural resource base upon which all development ultimately depend.
85
36
Andelson, Robert V., ed. Commons without tragedy: protecting the environment
from overpopulation - a new approach. London, Shepheard-Walwyn, 1991.
198 p.
he central theme of the seven pressure. The contributors to the Andelson

papers making up the volume volume views Malthus’ central failure in a
under review is that the world different light. The shortcoming, the authors
may currently be considered overpopulated claim, w a s m o s t l y o n t h e s h o r t - r u n
because of the inequitable distribution of land. identification of diminishing returns. They
As a recommendation, the authors turn to a explained that a fixed supply of land generates
policy written by Henry George, a nineteenth the short-run Malthusian effects because the
century American. The premise of the policy land supply is artificially constrained. This
involves the imposition of a single tax on the is an element of the familiar debate over the
rental value of land. direction of causation in the population growth
- economic development relationship, with
The genesis of the book was the present development focus being on land
apparently a discussion between its editor, reform and the means for achieving it tax-
R. V. Andelson, and Garrett Hardin regarding based.
the meaning of commons in Hardin’s well-
known 1968 article in Science, The Tragedy Following Hardin’s lead, much of the
of the Commons. Hardin’s argument is widely argument in this volume is by analogy. Two
viewed as metaphoric, with the common examples used in this volume discuss shared
pasture land representing shared resources. resource in the context of black South Africans
Andelson and most other authors in Commons struggling on the marginal soil of tribal
Without Tragedy argue instead that what homelands vis-à-vis residents of Tokyo paying
observers since Malthus have analyzed as the ten years’ salary for housing. Obviously, the
harmful effects of population growth are political system has robbed the homeland
actually manifestations of the unequal residents of equal access to land, and obviously
distribution of land. What Hardin regards as land reform would make these people better
the effect of population growth, the authors off. Nevertheless, the question persists: would
see in part as the result of the enclosure of it lower their fertility? What about the
alternative grazing sites, thus reformulating congestion and its accompanying costs in
the problem as essentially one of property Tokyo? Tokyo is where jobs are, and it is
rights. The solution is the single tax that very hard to argue that these individuals are
will reduce the speculative holding of land forced off other land into Tokyo. Many of
in nonproductive use. The Latifundios of the accompanying costs of congestion, such
South America serve as recurrent examples as pollution, are in fact externalities reflecting
of the problem. the technologies of production, transportation,
and so forth.
This selection also discusses the role
played by Malthus in the debate. A revisionist In a large context, the common
view of Malthus, commonly associated with resources shared by all of us are degraded by
Julian Simon, is that he identified a short- many factors, few of which can be laid directly
run production problem but failed to see the at the door of population growth. While not
beneficial long-run spillovers of population denying the role birth control may have to
88
play, the authors of this selection question Descriptors:

whether problem i s r e a l l y o n e o f
overpopulation. They suggest that the present Environmental Planning; Environmental
environment and population crisis have a Policy; Land Use; Lund Tenure; Population
common cause in the inequitable access to Pressure; Natural Resources; Property
natural resources. Thus large numbers of Rights
people are forced off the land, which should
support them adequately and without threat Source: Shepheard-Walwyn, Ltd.
to the long-term viability of the planet. 26 Charing Cross Road
(Suite 34)
London WC2H ODH
The United Kingdom
37
Brookfield, H. C., ed. Population-environment relations in tropical islands:

the case of eastern Fiji. Paris, UNESCO, 1980. 226 p. (MAB Technical
n o t e s 1 3 )
•l
NFPA, UNESCO-MAB (Man programme. On this basis, there was some
and Biosphere Programme) justification, as a working hypothesis, for
and the Government of Fiji considering the eastern islands of Fiji as being
joined efforts to carry out a first pilot project overpopulated.
on population-resources-environment
interrelations in the eastern islands of Fiji. Within this context, the UNESCO/
The project was intended to reduce gaps in UNFPA population and environment project
existing knowledge and develop a set of aimed to understand the processes and to
reference information and guidelines for quantify the relations that link man and his
planners, decision-makers and research environment in the eastern islands of Fiji.
workers. The project was also expected to More specifically, the research aimed to
further the methodological tools needed for develop means whereby the carrying capacity
tackling problems in this field. of rural areas can be gauged. This objective
was expected to improve existing methods
Because of the innovative nature of which tend to be static and often unrealistic
the study, the planners decided not to select in their underlying assumptions.
areas with highly complex situations involving
population pressure and environmental An attempt was made firstly, to
degradation. Areas with strong multi-sectoral achieve a more objective basis for regional
economies and/or undergoing rapid economic planning and integrated programming in Fiji,
change were also ruled out. It was decided placing emphasis on management of the
to start with a baseline situation characterized available natural resources. A second practical
by relatively simple interrelationships. goal was to contribute towards a more
satisfactory methodology for the definition
The population of the eastern islands and assessment of population trends,
is small. Their economy is based on a particularly migration and its regulators.
monocultural use of land resources for copra Beginning in an island context, this may extend
production. The copra industry is beset by further to the agrarian sector of developing
very low prices in the world market. There countries in general. This way, the project
is economic decline and an important would help in the formulation of guidelines
outmigration. In 1962, the Government for migration control programmes.
introduced a nation-wide family-planning
89
Field work under the project started planning and decision-making. The Technical
in 1974 and ended in 1976. The project was Note documents the extent to which the project
headed by a Chief Technical Adviser. succeeded in fulfilling this exemplary function
UNESCO consultants undertook different and in testing new approaches to problem-
component studies. About 15 research workers oriented research.
from various disciplines took part in the
project. Among the fields represented were On the whole, the Technical Note
human and physical geography, demography, provides an overview of the Fiji project, its
soil science, marine biology, nutrition, approach, its results, and implications. The
agronomy and agricultural economics. The data described in this Note will mainly be of
experts stayed in Fiji for periods varying from interest to tropical island states and those
a few weeks to several months. Field research concerned with research and development in
was followed by a long period of desk analysis, these countries. The approaches and methods
synthesis and reporting which ended in 1979. outlined in this Note are useful to those dealing
with population/environment relations in rural
The UNESCO/UNFPA Fiji project settings in developing countries in general,
has played a unique role in the development as well as to persons in all regions seeking
of the MAB Programme as a whole. This insights for integrated planning and
project is the first large-scale pilot research programming in the fields of population,
project, implemented and supervised directly natural r e s o u r c e s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
by the international MAB Secretariat in environment.
UNESCO, to reach its conclusion. The project
was exemplary for MAB in several respects. Descriptors:
The problem orientation of its research, the
interaction of an interdisciplinary team Natural Resources; Population Pressure;
covering the natural, human and social Ecosystems; Environmental Projects; Fiji
sciences, the adoption of human systems as
the spatial units for research, the dialogue Source: UNESCO
with planners, decision-makers and the 7, Place de Fontenoy
populations concerned at all stages of the 75352 Paris 07 SP
project, and the particular efforts to transform France
scientific results into practical information for
38
Brown, Lester R. The twenty-ninth day: accommodating human needs and

numbers to the earth’s resources. New York, W.W. Norton, 1978,
363 p.
q
he purpose of the book is to The title of the book was adopted
shed some light on the from a French riddle. A lily pond, so the
interactions of the world’s French riddle goes, contains a single leaf.
ecological, economic and social systems and Each day the number of leaves double - two
to analyze important issues and bring them leaves the second day, four the third, eight
to the attention of busy decision-makers at the fourth, and so on. Question: If the pond
all levels, whether political leaders establishing is completely full on the thirtieth day, when
national priorities, foundation officers is it half full? Answer: On the twenty-ninth
allocating research funds or young couples day.
deciding whether to have a child or not.
90
The global lily pond in which four In this book, the author documents
billion people live may already be half full. the overfishing, deforestation and overgrazing
Although UN projections show the world that are gradually undermining human life
population continuing to grow until it reaches support systems. He also explains that with
ten to sixteen billion, Lester Brown, the author, energy shortages anticipated in the early
believes that this is unrealistic. In his analysis nineties, the world must quickly shift to
of the four principal biological systems on renewable energy resources.
which humanity depends - fisheries, forests,
grasslands and croplands - the author shows The deterioration of the earth’s
that the demands at the current levels of biological systems is not a peripheral issue
population and per capita consumption often of concern only to environmentalists. Our
exceed the earth’s long-term carrying capacity. economic system depends on these biological
systems which form the foundation of the
Discussions of long-term economic global economic system. In addition to food,
growth prospects in recent years have the existing biological systems provide
concentrated on nonrenewable resources, virtually all the raw materials for industry
especially minerals and fossil fuels. They except minerals and petroleum-derived
have been undergirded by the implicit synthetics. Anything that threatens the viability
assumption that biological resources were of these biological systems threatens the global
renewable therefore they were of little concern. economy. Any deterioration in these systems
In fact, both the renewable and non-renewable represents a deterioration in the human prospect
resource bases have been shrinking fast. for development.
Human beings with rising aspirations These accommodations constitute an

exert great pressure on biological systems, enormous challenge. They suggest a broad
often exceeding nature’s long-term carrying and profound change, one that will affect
capacity. The productivity of scores of oceanic virtually every facet of human existence. The
fishes is falling as the catch exceeds their coming transformation will surely give rise
regenerative capacity. In a protein hungry to new social structures and to an economic
world, overfishing has recently become the system materially different from any we know
rule, not the exception. Forest arc divindling today. Like any other periods of convulsive
with the onslaught of the firewood gatherer, change, it will put great stress on both the
the land-hungry farmer and international timber individuals and institutions.
interests.
Descriptors:
As the number of cattles, water
buffaloes, sheeps, goats and camels increases Natural Resources; Environmental
apace with human populations, the earth’s Policy; Population Pressure; Human
grasslands are being overtaxed. Denudation, Ecology; Food Resources
soil erosion, and desert encroachment result.
Croplands too are under pressure. The frontiers Source: W.W. Norton & Company,
have largely disappeared. Fallow cycles Inc.
everywhere are shortening and farmers seeking 500 Fifth Avenue
land are being forced up steeply sloping New York, N. Y. 10110
hillsides and into less fertile soils. U. S. A.
91
39
Ehrlich, Paul R., and Anne H. Ehrlich. The population explosion. New York,
Simon and Schuster, 1990. 320 p.
his book argues that evolution must be harnessed and directed so

unprecedented overpopulation as to amplify people’s awareness of the gradual
is substantially contributing to changes that threaten civilization.
problems as diverse as African famine, global
warming, acid rain, air and water pollution, The key to understanding
the garbage problem and even epidemics such overpopulation is not population density but
as AIDS. It contends that overpopulation in the number of people in an area relative to
rich countries such as the United States and its resources and the capacity of the
other industrialized nations is, in important environment to sustain human activities, i. e.
ways, more serious than rapid population the area’s carrying capacity. This carrying
growth in poor countries. capacity definition of overpopulation is used
heavily in this book. It is important to
Continued population growth and the understand that under this definition a condition
drive for development in already badly of overpopulation might be corrected with
overpopulated poor nations will make it no change in the number of people. For
exceedingly difficult to slow the greenhouse instance, the impact of today’s 655 million
warming, and impossible to stop or reverse Africans on their resources and environment
it, in the present generation at least. Even if theoretically might be reduced to the point
warming should miraculously not occur, where the continent would no longer be
contrary to accepted projections, human overpopulated. To see whether this would
numbers are on a collision course with massive be possible, population growth would have
famines anyway. to be reduced, appropriate assistance given
to peasant farmers, and certain important
The book begins by explaining the reforms be instituted.
difficulty behind making population
connections. People are basically designed If our society wakes up to population-
not to pay attention to the factors that are environment trends that now threaten
related to population growth. The authors civilization, what actions, the book asks, should
cite a number of evolutionary handicaps. be taken? The answer is embodied in the I =
Biological evolution has made human beings PAT equation: human beings ought to reduce
primarily sight animals with sensory systems all three sources of impact. But because of
designed to respond strongly to events. the time lag involved, first priority must be
Evolution seems to have made human minds given to population control.
perceive the environmental backdrop as
perpetually constant. Furthermore, human Redoubling existing efforts to bring
being’s evolutionary history prepared him population growth to a halt and begin a slow
primarily to survive as individuals in small decline through human programmes is
groups. imperative. Overpopulation contributes
directly to global problems such as climatic
If society is to come to grips with change and makes their potential consequences
the population explosion, it will have to do more dire. Civilization must plan and carry
so through cultural evolution which consists out as rapidly as possible a population
of changes in the body of nongenetic programme that will result in a number of
information that is passed from person to people that the earth can support in reasonable
person and generation to generation. Cultural comfort.
92
The book asserts that all efforts will Descriptors:

be futile without cooperation. To resolve
virtually any element of the human Exponential Growth; Population Pressure;
predicament, xenophobia must be overcome. Population Awarenes; Food; Ecology;
Worldwide cooperation is required to address Agriculture; Population Policy; Population
effectively the consumption and technology Control
elements of the human environmental impact.
In essence, the movement toward regulation Source: Simon and Schuster
of the global commons must be revitalized. Simon & Schuster Building
Successful international regulation has Rockefeller Center
historically been achieved by creating agencies 1230 Avenue of the Americas
to regulate in areas where national governments New York, N. Y. 10020
have no jurisdiction. U. S. A.
40
Ehrlich, Paul R., and Anne H. Ehrlich. Population, resources, environment:

issues in human ecology. 2nd edition. San Francisco, Freeman, 1972.
509 p
his selection is a revised of population growth cause major hindrances

edition of the same book in solving human problems. Of critical concern
published two years earlier. would be the human limits of capably
Aside from updated statistics, the book producing food by conventional means.
contained substantial additions which included Problems of supply and distribution have
entirely new sections on many topics such as already resulted in roughly half of humanity
forest resources, net reproductive rates and being undernourished or malnourished.
zero population growth, the impact of
population growth upon the environment, Attempts to increase food production
heavy metals pollution, ecological destruction further will tend to accelerate the deterioration
in Indochina. The material dealing with of our environment, which in turn will
energy, weather, pesticides, integrated control, eventually reduce the capacity of the world
the Green revolution, novel foods, radiation to produce food. It is not clear whether
hazards, air pollution, crowding, birth control, environmental decay has now gone so far as
abortion and population policies are all to be essentially irreversible; it is possible
presented in an expanded form. that the capacity of the planet to support human
life has been permanently impaired. The
The aim of this selection is to produce authors consider technological
a reasonably comprehensive and reliable accomplishments, such as automobile,
sourcebook for the study of questions related pesticides, and inorganic nitrogen fertilizers
to population, resources and the environment. as major contributors to environmental
This particular volume was designed to serve deterioration.
the needs of teachers and students as well as
the needs of general readers. There is reason to believe that
population growth increases the probability
The authors present the world of a lethal worldwide plague and of a
situation as grossly overpopulated, where the thermonuclear war. Either could provide a
large absolute number of people and the rate catastrophic death rate solution to the
population problem; each is potentially capable responsibility to halt the growth of the
of destroying civilization and even of driving American population. A massive campaign
homo sapiens to extinction. must be launched to restore the quality of
the environment in North America and to de-
There is no technological panacea
develop the United States. De-development,
for the complex problems comprising the
as termed by the authors, means bringing the
population-food-environment crisis, although
economic system (especially patterns of
technology, properly applied in such areas as
consumption) in line with the ecological
pollution control, communications, and fertility
balance and the world resource situation. With
control can provide massive assistance. The
regards to US international relations, the book
basic solutions involve dramatic and rapid
recommends a detailed appraisal of the risks
changes in human attitudes, especially those
of maintaining a balance of power in global
relating to reproductive behavior, economic
relationships.
growth, technology, the environment, and
conflict resolution.
Descriptors:
Although the conclusions drawn by
the authors seem rather pessimistic, they Population Dynamics; Population Growth;
emphasize their belief that the problems can Food Production; Environmental
be solved. A general course of action, Degradation; Ecosystems; Socio-Economic
addressed to the American people, was drawn Factors; Birth Control
by the authors as an attempt to ameliorate
the results of the current crisis. Population Source: W. H. Freeman and Company
control is absolutely essential if the problems 660 Market Street
now facing mankind are to be solved. Political San Franciso, California
pressure must be applied immediately to induce 94104
the United States government to assume its U. S. A.
41
Ehrlich, Paul R., and others. Ecoscience: Population, resources and environment.
San Francisco, Freeman, 1977. 1051 p.
ince the first edition of alerted. But being alert to the existence of a
Ecoscience: Population, crisis is not enough if a rational response to
Resources and Environment it is to be generated. One must also thoroughly
was published, the population of the world understand the elements of the crisis and how
has grown by almost one-half billion people. they interact. Thus, this selection is an attempt
Starting 1972, the world economy has been to provide a more thorough, up-to-date
rocked by both monetary inflation and understanding of the population-resource-
production recession. The significance of environment predicament and to discuss
environmental deterioration has become strategies for dealing with it.
inescapable, and its complex relation to
economics has been brought to the attention In this edition, there is a brief
of millions who had never previously paid introductory chapter designed to give the reader
attention to either. The realization has dawned a capsule overview of the predicament of
that seemingly disparate events in the humanity, a framework into which the more
economic, environmental, and political spheres detailed discussions that follow can be fitted.
are interconnected. Civilization has entered The first major section, consisting of three
a period of grave crisis and everyone is being chapters, gives a detailed review of the physical
94
and biological systems of Earth. This provides The material on environmental

background material for students who have disruption in the fourth section was updated
not previously been exposed to basic geology to include more comprehensive coverage of
and ecology. In this section, as in the rest of carcinogens, mutagens, climate modification,
the book, a great deal of numerical data and among others. The last section focuses on
some equations will be found. To grasp the social, economic, and political change,
problems humanity now faces, one must including the issue of population control.
understand both their magnitudes and the rates
at which they are changing. The vast majority Extensive footnotes with references
of these materials, however, call for no to the technical literature document key points
mathematical sophistication beyond arithmetic throughout the book. In addition, at the end
and the ability to read graphs. In some cases, of each chapter there is a brief list of references
high school algebra is required, and, in a few, and recommendations for further reading,
results from calculus are introduced. But the containing the author’s selections of the most
significance of the results is discussed in each generally useful works for further exploration
case, so knowledge of calculus is not required of the topics in the chapter.
for understanding.
Descriptors:
The second section covers population
and renewable resources-land, soil, water, Ecosystems; Renewable Resources; Food;
forests, and food. The coverage of all these Nutrition; Pest&ides; Energy; Population
topics were updated and considerably enlarged Policy; Reproduction; Birth Control
from that in the second edition of Population,
Resources, Environment. The third section Source: W. H. Freeman and Company
covers energy and materials far more 660 Market Street
comprehensively than previous books, with San Francisco, California
special attention paid to nuclear energy and 94104
other possible sources for the long-term, as U. S. A.
well as to the potential of energy conservation.
42
Johnson, Victoria, ed. Lifestyle overload: population and environment in the

balance. London, Action Aid, 1991. 67 p. (Action Aid development report
no. 5)
his selection is a report of the an overview of the main issues and some of
ActionAid seminar held at the the pitfalls in the debate.
Commonwealth House in
London on 20 November 1991. Action Aid Paul Harrison, a popular development
organized the seminar to further the debate writer, who has done extensive work for
about population and the environment and UNFPA and research for his book on the
promote better understanding of the issues. issues, starts on the series of papers by
The aim of the seminar is to get away from highlighting the importance of the three
the present polarization of views which is elements of the equation, Environmental
inhibiting the international environment debate. Impact = Population x Consumption x
Victoria Johnson, a policy analyst and Martin Technology. Population, consumption and
Griffith. the Director of ActionAids, provide technology are the only factors which impinge
95
directly on the environment. They are never determined by fertility, but having children
found separately and they always act together. is a personal matter, and the way that people
This does not mean that other factors are not think about having children can only be
important. There used to be a debate whether grasped by understanding local cultures.
social or biological factors were more
important in controlling women’s fertility and Colin Sage, a r e s e a r c h e r o n
the debate was cut short by the concept of international environment, looks into the links
proximate determinants, such as age at between micro-level decisions, as discussed
marriage, rate of intercourse, contraception by Lockwood and macro-level policies, as
and breastfeeding. It is possible to use exactly examined by Hurtado.
the same distinction in the population and
environment debate. Population, consumption The position paper of the Overseas
and environment are proximate determinants Development Administration (ODA) prepared
of environmental impact. Social, political for the third preparatory UNCED meeting
and economic factors are the indirect was written and presented by freelance
determinants. consultant Michael Flint. He puts forward
his analysis and draws his conclusion as
Former Director of Friends of the follows: Population pressures are one of a
Earth, David Gee, covers the complementary range of proximate causes of environmental
issues of lifestyle and consumption in the degradation and demographic factors are part
North. The North, he says, is responsible for of a complex nexus of cause and effect. He
most of the world’s consumption and pollution. breaks down specific policy conclusions into
It is obvious that the North must limit its research, integrated planning and analysis to
consumption and increase its energy efficiency synergistic intervention and population
so that the South can also increase its policies.
consumption without the global burden
breaching the sustainability constraints of the Population adviser to the UNCED,
earth. Louise Lassonde, made a statement that set
the scene and lead into the policy debate.
Maria Elena Hurtado, Director of the Major decision makers are put into the spot
World Development Movement, looks into with questions on how issues are dealt with
the complex relationship between population, in the international level and in their own
economic development and environmental government bodies and agencies. Lassonde
degradation. Drawing from the Latin recommends actions on these variables:
American and Caribbean perspective, she mortality and fertility to improve the quality
underscores the importance of tackling the of life; health and human development; and
underlying causes of population growth. She improving the distribution of population to
cites a World Bank project which recommends find solutions to urban migration.
that population policies should also focus on
increasing the demand for smaller families Descriptors:
rather than emphasizing exclusively the supply
of family planning services. Population Growth; Development Planning;
Environmental Planning; Socio-Economic
Matthew Lockwood discusses the
Development
population-environment relationship and
attempts to draw some implications by policy
measures. His paper is based mostly on Source: Action Aid
materials from African drylands and is more Hamilyn House
concerned with the local and rural perspective. Archway, London N19 5PG
The pace of world population growth is largely The United Kingdom
96
43
King, Jane. Beyond economic choice: population and sustainable development.

Paris, UNESCO, 1987. 40 p.
n 1980, UNESCO began to it and serves to explore the outcome of long-

explore possible ways of term policies which may be contemplated,
bringing population-resource- before such policies are actually introduced.
environment interactions into development It evaluates the physical feasibility of actions
planning. Its aim was to identify strategies considered, matching means with needs,
for the enhancement of a country’s carrying establishing capital and operational
capacity. It also involved the selection of requirements, identifying inconsistencies
politically acceptable development options between and within different economic sectors,
which would allow for a match between rates and determining the consequences for future
of population increase and the rates at which development as the impacts are traced into
the economy could satisfy the needs of the the future.
population while maintaining the sustainable
yield of the resource base. Based on these The criteria against which policy
criteria, the resource accounting approach was outcomes are judged are set by the country
developed. This selection documents the concerned. They may include the level of
application of the resource accounting approach material standard of living to be achieved,
to long-term development planning in the the degree of self-sufficiency desired with
context of population, resources and the regard to food or to energy, or the size of
environment. population which may be sustained at a given
level of material well-being.
The resource accounting approach
views the economy as an interlocking set of The resource accounting approach has
actions measured in physical resource terms been applied experimentally in three countries:
which takes into account feedback between Kenya, Mauritius and the United Kingdom
cause and effect. This way, the resource and is underway in others. The purpose of
implications of any economic activity can be the UK study was primarily to validate the
established, and competing demands between methodology using historical data. In the
different sectors ascertained. case of the other two countries a range of
policies was tested until a satisfactory result
One of the problems encountered in was obtained. In both countries this implied
long-term economic forecasting is that values a deceleration of population growth. In
assigned to goods and services, and represented particular, the results show that the earlier
in money terms, can change considerably with appropriate policies are put into effect, the
time. In resource accounting this problem easier it is to rectify past inconsistencies which,
does not arise since inputs and outputs are in turn, provides a greater number of
e x p r e s s e d a s physically measurable developmental options.
relationships set by thermo-dynamic limits
which are constant over time. Work still remains to be done to
develop the methodology and to improve
A systems dynamic framework for national data bases. However all three studies,
the operation of resource accounting is offered even at the present stage, provide insights
by ECCO - Enhancement of Carrying Capacity into future development prospects and into
Options. ECCO is structured according to the potential effects of population growth on
the specific physical, demographic and national prosperity.
economic characteristics of the country using
97
Descriptors: S ource: UNESCO

7, Place de Fontenoy
75352 Paris 07 SP
France
44
Marden, Parker G., and Dennis Hadgson, eds. Population, environment and
the quality of life. New York, AMS Press, 1975. 328 p.
q
he twenty-five articles in this are much more important problems. A direct
selection attempt to examine confrontation occurs between the two
the various environmental, perspectives in Ehrlich and Holdren’s review
ecological, and economic aspects of world of Commoner’s book, The Closing Circle; in
population growth. A separate section on Commoner’s response to their criticisms; and
the recommendations of the Commission on finally, in their reply. By considering the
Population Growth and the American Future two perspectives together, readers can make
outlines some of the problems confronting a their own judgments. There should however
growing nation that is rich in resources which be no question remaining as to the complexity
other countries will need but are in danger of of the issues.
facing environmental pollution.
The selection provides additional
It begins with a sampler of readings information on these perspectives, including
on the population crisis which reflect the three chapters from the report of the
confusion that exists over the role of population Commission on Population Growth and the
growth. Although some articles demonstrate American Future. Together, the selections
how easy it is to point to population growth elaborate upon the issues raised in the
as a culprit in environmental deterioration, Commoner-Ehrlich debate.
one article even advances a controversial view
that there is no population crisis. The tone The concluding section is comprised
of the arguments in the articles, when taken of four readings that call attention to the
together is very general and often alarmist context of large issues within which the
rather than carefully reasoned. The selections population and environment dialogue is
are characteristic of most writings on the topic embedded. The section opens with another
which are addressed for popular audiences. confrontation between Garrett Hardin and
Beryl Crowe. Using the analogy of the
The next section moves to a specific commons, Hardin argues that the population
point which popular articles fail to confront: problem has no technical solution, but requires
how does population growth contribute to a fundamental extension in morality instead.
environmental difficulties? This section is Crowe takes issue with Hardin’s contention,
organized around a controversy between two and in their exchange, problems of
viewpoints. One view, offered by Paul Ehrlich organizational forms and basic values are
and John Holdren, advances the idea that specified. Amos Hawley extends the
population growth is indeed a major problem discussion in a selection that places man in
for the environment. The other, presented an ecosystem that is more complex than a
by Barry Commoner and his colleagues, argues simple relationship between population and
that other variables, principally technology, environment - a relationship that has
characterized so much of the discussion in on population growth and environmental

this book. Together with a contribution by questions is extensive. It nevertheless assists
Keir Nash, Hawley’s presentation is a fitting the reader in moving from one point of
conclusion to this volume because it organizes discussion to another while guided by specific,
various other arguments in a systematic way. but selective details.
Population and environment are but two
variables in a larger set of variables that include Descriptors:
technology, organization, and human values.
Other selections in the collection have raised Population Pressure; Quality of Life;
similar points; some directly, some intuitively, Environmental Effects; Value Systems
some tentatively. Hawley’s article possesses Technological Change
the virtue of a general summary.
Source: AMS Press, Inc.
This collection of readings is an 56 East 13th Street
interesting guide to an important topic though New York, N. Y. 10003
it is not comprehensive because the literature U. S. A.
45
Meadows, Donella H., and Others Beyond the limits: global collapse or
sustainable future. London, Earthscan, 1992. 300 p.
El
his selection is the sequel to Overshoot is almost certain in the
The Limits to Growth which case of pollution. The world is already beyond
showed that if growth trends the limits for CFCs and greenhouse gases.
continue unchanged, the limits to physical In the scenarios presented in the book, the
growth on the planet would be reached within collapse is hard to avoid even with ambitious
100 years. With the new book, three of the measures. It happens even where resources
four original authors now marshall the evidence are assumed to be doubled, where pollution
behind their contention by showing how the and erosion are controlled, farming achieve
world has already gone beyond its limits and high yields and resource efficient technologies
warns of a global collapse, if present trends are used.
continue.
The only scenarios which avoid
The new study is based on the concept collapse involve early transitions to
of overshoot which means passing the limits replacement fertility. The best combines
without meaning to do so. Overshoot happens pollution and erosion controls and higher
when a system grows beyond the level that efficiency in resource use, with a two-child
limited resources and waste sinks can sustain. family norm adopted worldwide in 1995. With
all these measures taken together the world
The book contains a number of charts could make a smooth transition to a population
showing non-renewable resources heading of almost 8 billion, with an industrial
inexorably downwards. No allowance is made production 50 per cent higher than today.
for substitution, nor shifts to virtually
inexhaustible resources such as ceramics or Beyond t h e L i m i t s p r e s e n t s
solar energy. The other key assumption is alternatives by underscoring specific issues
that land will be degraded beyond all chance such as rapid and uncontrolled decline in food
of restoration, if production is pushed too production, industrial capacity, population and
high. life-expectancy. By using their computer
99
model as a unique tool to project the future, Finally, the authors argue that a
the authors describe a range of possible sustainable society is still technically and
outcomes, and show that a sustainable society economically possible. It could be much more
is technically and economically feasible. desirable than a society that tries to solve its
problems by constant expansion. The transition
The three conclusions drawn twenty to a sustainable society requires a careful
years ago were revalidated and rewritten as balance between long-term and short-term
follows: goals and an emphasis on sufficiency, equity
and quality of life rather than on quantity of
First, human use of many essential
output. It requires more than productivity
resources and generation of many kinds of
and more than technology; it also requires
pollutants have already surpassed rates that
maturity, compassion and wisdom.
are physically sustainable. Without significant
reductions in material and energy flows, there
Descriptors:
will be in the coming decades, an uncontrolled
decline in per capita food output, energy use,
Exponential Growth; Environmental
and industrial production.
Degradation; Population Growth;
Second, the book contends that the Environmental Planning; Natural
aforementioned decline is not inevitable. To Resources; Industrial Development; Wastes;
avoid it, two changes are necessary. The Pollution; Ozone; Poverty; Greenhouse
first involves a comprehensive revision of Warming
existing policies and practices that perpetuate
growth in material consumption and Source: Earthscan Publications, Ltd.
population. The second needs a rapid drastic 120 Pentonville Road
increase in the efficiency with which materials London N1 9JN
The United Kingdom
and energy are used.
46
National Audubon Society; and the Population Crisis Society. Why population
matters: a handbook for the environmental activist. Washington, D. C.,
National Audubon Society, 1991. 30 p.
his selection was published by earth is the only one with environmental
the National Audubon Society conditions capable of supporting life forms
and the Population Crisis yet the dramatic and unprecedented population
Committee with support from the Los Trigos growth is now a major contributor toward
Fund. It was designed as a handbook for the worrisome and perhaps irreversible changes
environmental activist and features direct in the environment.
questions and answers on why
environmentalists need to worry about the While explosion in human numbers
population. has contributed largely to environmental
degradation, it is not solely responsible for
The handbook argues that the single everything that has gone wrong with the
largest factor contributing to the degradation environment. Excessive consumption, waste,
of the earth’s environment, the alteration of mismanagement, and ignorance about the
its climate, and the loss of many plant and ecological costs of new technologies have also
animal species is overpopulation. The planet played an important part in the present
100
situation. But whatever their lifestyle, today’s the stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica,
5 billion people have a much bigger impact signify that all nations, rich and poor, are
on the environment than the 5 million people destined to reap the bitter fruits of
who populated the Earth in prehistoric times. environmental decay if corrective action is
The basic need for food, water, wood, shelter, not taken soon.
fuel and sewage treatment facilities has had
a significant impact on the earth’s environment The following are the specific issues
- and that impact continues to increase with which the handbook addresses to equip the
additional numbers. environmental activist with knowledge on the
population and environment linkage. What
In wealthy countries, the impact of is the earth’s carrying capacity? Does the
slower rates of population growth is current world population exceed it? What about
exacerbated by high levels of consumption over-consumption? Couldn’t most
and waste. The average American consumes environmental problems be solved through
forty times as much energy and other natural conservation and environmentally sound
resources as the average Pakistani. The technology than population stabilization? How
production, packaging, use, and disposal of would a global campaign for population
fast food, fast cars, plastics, fertilizers, and stabilization affect those poor women overseas
chemicals alter and pollute the countrysides who have few occupations or social roles
and animal habitats while rapid expansion of except motherhood open to them? Will
cities, suburbs, and freeways obliterates unique population control be achieved at their
ecosystems. Traffic jams, toxic wastes and expense? Haven’t some programmes proved
urban stress undermine the quality of life for coercive? Is immigration the major cause of
human beings as well as the long-term viability US population problems? In developing
of the planet. countries, isn’t poverty the major cause of
both population growth and environmental
In poor countries, during the last 40 degradation? Will some types of environmental
years, the very rapid growth of human degradation such as desertification make it
communities has resulted in tremendous
more difficult to feed a larger world
expansion of cultivated and inhabited areas,
population? Aside from humanitarian concerns,
contributing to the degradation of land and
what difference do population and
water and the rapid destruction of tropical
environmental problems halfway around the
rainforests with the loss of countless plant
world make to Americans?
and animal species indigenous to such forests.
Loss of forest cover is a major contributing Aside from providing direct answers
factor in global warming trends and rising to these questions, the handbook recommends
level of greenhouse gases. The overcropping, specific actions on what individuals and
overgrazing, and poor land management environmental groups can do to address the
practices which have beset ever more populous issues behind overpopulation and
poor countries have resulted to progressive environmental degradation.
salinization or desertification of large tracts
of formerly productive land. Rural people Descriptors:
fleeing the progressive impoverishment of the
countryside have helped make Third World Population Pressure; Environmental
cities mushroom in size, creating serious air Planning; Environmental Degradation;
and water pollution problems for which there Environmental Management; Population
are no simple or affordable solutions. Programmes; Family Planning
Programmes; Guides
These worldwide environmental
reverses can no longer be dismissed as Source: National Audubon Society
regrettable but faraway phenomenon. 666 Pennsylvania Avenue, SE
Changing global temperatures, rainfall patterns, Washington, D. C. 20003
and sea levels, as well as the growing gap in U. S. A.
47
Population and Development Review. Vol. 18, no. 3, September 1992. 198 p.
his issue of the Population or one of the heads, of a household depended

and Development Review on the context. While a more individualistic
includes six papers which seek notion of the family has developed, there is
to advance the knowledge of the relationship still considerable continuity in the conceptions
between population and development. of the family.
Geoffrey McNicoll’s The Agenda of
Population Studies: A Commentary and Heinz Fassmann and Rainer Munz'
Complaint, focuses on the increasing technical Patterns and Trends of International Migration
sophistication in the analysis of population in Western Europe focuses on the nearly 380
processes which has been accompanied by million people living in Western Europe in
an apparent lessening of interest by 1990 where fewer than 5 percent (or 17
demographers in the larger related questions million) are legally defined as foreigners. The
of social and behavioural change. It is argued main receiving countries of the international
that population studies contributes little to migration streams from which Western
any cumulative social scientific enterprise and Europe’s foreign populations originate are
often fails to draw on potentially relevant Germany, France, Great Britain, and
advances in neighbouring fields. With global Switzerland. Distinct geographical patterns
demographic transition seen to be well of European migration can be identified by
underway, population studies has been content linking sending countries to specific receiving
with a policy role. Yet the likelihood of countries. These patterns can be explained
departures from the smooth, surprise-free future by historical, linguistic, cultural, and economic
of the standard medium-variant population factors. In addition to these factors, patterns
projections is considerable. A more politically of immigration are shaped by internal political
turbulent world and one with intractable decisions (especially policies concerning
economic and environmental instabilities may foreign labour recruitment) and by economic,
well be in store. The agenda of population political, and demographic developments that
studies’ in theory, policy thinking, and even take place outside Western Europe.
technical analysis should be based on a much
wider-angled view of the future. In the paper Understanding Morbidity
Change, Christopher J. L,. Murray and Lincoln
Daniel Scott Smith examines the C. Chen focus on two fundamental types of
Meanings of Family and Household: Change morbidity measures, those that are self-
and Continuity in the Mirror of the American perceived and those that are clinically
Census. US census officials in the 1970s observed. Attempts to assess morbidity -
changed the label for the person listed first illness, disability, and other compromised states
in a household from head to householder. This of well-being - have grown in importance as
essay places this shift in terminology into life expectancy increases and mortality declines
historical perspective by examining the to very low levels in many populations.
meanings of family concepts held by census- Different morbidity indicators may capture
takers and by the Americans they enumerated. entirely different aspects of illness and health.
Even in the traditional era of the family, The authors developed an approach to
roughly before 1800, household headship was morbidity definition and measurement, review
more a consequence of other attributes than specific methods, and present a framework
an independent source of status or power. for classifying different types of morbidity
Both then and in the modern period that indicators. They examine various approaches
followed, the implications of being a head, to the interactions between morbidity and
102
mortality change, illustrating these with there have been considerable changes in the
selected data from India, the United States, pattern of urban migration since the founding
and Ghana. of the People’s Republic in 1949. Urban
migration during the period 1950-88 in
Nicholas Eberstadt and Judith Shanghai, a city that plays a special role in
Banister present a comparative study on China’s economic and social development,
Divided Korea: Demographic and typifies such a changing pattern. This article
Socioeconomic Issues for Reunification. North describes the overall trends and relevant
and South Korea, partitioned in 1945 and characteristics of Shanghai’s urban migration,
almost completely out of contact with each gives evidence of the existence of four distinct
other since the end of the Korean War, offer stages of the city’s migration history, and
the example of a single population under two discusses the consequences and implications
radically different political and economic of the pronounced changes in the pattern of
systems. For decades, it has been difficult to Shanghai’s urban migration.
compare the results of their contrasting
development strategies due to the lack of Descriptors:
information about North Korea. New
information, however, makes it possible to Population Studies; Population Analysis;
compare social and economic conditions in Family; Household; International
this divided nation. These comparisons also Migration; Morbidity; Urbanization;
point to a number of policy issues that might Europe; Korea; Korea DPR; China; United
arise in the event of a free and peaceful States
reunification of the Korean peninsula.
Source: Population and Development
Finally, Gui Shixun and Liu Shixun Review
tackle Urban Migration in Shanghai, 1950- The Population Council
88: Trends and Characteristics. As a One Dag Hammarsjold Plaza
consequence of the political swings and the New York, N. Y. 10017
economic variations in contemporary China, U. S. A.
48
Populi; journal of the United Nations Population Fund. Vol. 17, no. 3, 1990.
48 p.
he articles included in Vol. impact on human beings. He argues that some

17 no. 3 of POPULI, a of these changes are unavoidable. Even if
UNFPA journal focus on man-made emissions of greenhouse gases can
climate change, the population-environment be immediately cut back, the effects would
nexus, the Netherlands and the NGOs still last for hundreds of years. It is possible
environmental influences, women’s potentials, though to mitigate the problem by conserving
and creative and pragmatic population policies. energy, reducing consumption and developing
alternative sources of energy. Curbing rapid
Ambassador Crispin Tickell, in his population growth is critical in promoting
article on the effects of climate change, argues better understanding of the environmental
that the climate changes likely to occur in issues and supporting sustainable economic
the next few decades will have a tremendous development.
103
In his article, Paul Harrison examines reach their full potential. Investing in women
further the population-environment nexus. He will help address major global problems that
points out that environmental damage is the concern us all, such as poverty, hunger, rapid
product of three factors. First, consumption, population growth and environmental
and second, the technology needed to satisfy degradation. The changes that have been
that consumption and disposal of the generated achieved in the last decade in the status of
waste. The third factor is population. The women have been uneven and, in many
total level of damage can be calculated by countries, modest. Promotion and
multiplying damage per person by total implementation of programmes which focus
population. If population continues to grow on women as agents of change will contribute
rapidly, the total amount of damage is significantly to improving the role and status
obviously going to be bigger and faster. While of women.
slower population growth can contribute to
reducing environmental degradation, Harrison Jordan, which has recently adopted
strongly advocates the need for changes in creative and pragmatic population policies,
lifestyles, consumption, technology and land is the subject of the article by Ian Williams.
reform and reduction of rural poverty. The population programmes promoted by the
National Population Commission and
Ambassador Robert J. van Schaik implemented, among others, by the Jordan
outlines the role that the Netherlands has Family Planning Association, seek to appeal
played in promoting international co-operation to the enlightened self-interest of individuals
on population issues and, in the context of and families faced with rapid economic and
the results of the Amsterdam Forum, suggests social changes. Above all, the absence of
how non-governmental organizations (NGOs) any hint of compulsion or coercion and the
can play an important role in promoting emphasis on using and reinforcing traditional
population activities and mobilizing resources values appear to be highly effective.
for those activities. NGOs, by using their
advocacy role, c a n p r o m o t e g r e a t e r Descriptors:
understanding of population issues and
influence the direction of government policy Environmental Degradation; Environmental
through innovative programmes. International Planning; Climate; Weather; Deforestation;
NGOs can also provide valuable technical Pollution; Population Pressure; Women’s
assistance, particularly in the areas of research, Status; Socio-Economic Development;
training and contraceptive development. As Women’s Rote; Equal Opportunity;
NGOs expand their role in programme International Cooperation
implementation, it is important to ensure that
their efforts are fully coordinated with those Source: Populi
of governments in developing countries as United Nations Population
well as with bilateral and multilateral donors. Fund
220 East 42nd Street
Kava Gulhati’s article draws attention New York, N. Y. 10017
to the urgent need to invest in women in order U. S. A.
to ensure that they have an opportunity to
104
49
Populi; journal of the United Nations Population Fund. Issue on: Population and
environment. Vol. 18, no. 3, September 1991. 48 p.
his edition of POPULI is including population growth, economic and

devoted mainly to population social purposes and international security.
and environment related
issues. It was published to anticipate particular Protecting the global environment will
issues to be discussed in the 1992 United require an unprecedented level of North-South
Nations Conference on Population and cooperation, the author maintains. He proposes
Development (UNCED). a six-point international action agenda. It
includes an extensive campaign for integrated
Maurice F. Strong, the Secretary- land resources management. He urges
General of UNCED, discusses salient points governments, intergovernmental organization
on the significance of the event. He points and non-governmental organization to look
out that the Earth Summit, as the conference into sustainable energy strategies. Likewise,
is termed, offers a chance for governments the preservation of tropical forests and
to join in a new global partnership to create biological diversity should be highlighted in
sustainable development which will protect every debate. He encourages advocacy for
the environment for future generations and financing debt relief and trade liberalization
improve their prospects for a better life. In for the South as well as international
making the transition to a more secure and technology transfer. Finally, he writes that
sustainable world community in the twenty- it is important to strengthen the role of
first century, the Secretary-General urges for international institutions concerned with the
a balance between environmental environment and development.
considerations and developmental priorities.
In the Need to Balance Population
The author identifies population as with Resources: Four Case Studies, the author,
a critial element in the environment- Don Hinrichsen, notes the lack of systematic
development equation. The relationship analysis of population carrying capacity among
between population dynamics and the developing countries struggling with rapidly
ecosystems on which the survival and well- growing populations and dwindling resource
being of people depend is decisive in achieving stocks. The article examines population
sustainable development. The author is pressures, resource degradation and family
particularly concerned in addressing the needs planning in Pakistan, the Philippines, Kenya
of women and children in developing policies and Mexico, urging them to evolve strategic
for sustainable development. Women development plans that will integrate
especially must have success to education and population and development.
employment opportunities, especially outside
the home and have a say in planning the size Based on a UNFPA publication
of their families on an equal basis with men prepared for the United Nations Conference
and finally, to have access to modern, safe on Environment and Development (UNCED)
and effective means of contraception. in Brazil, the article Population and the
Environment: The Challenges Ahead, reviews
Mohamed T. El-Ashry, in his paper critical resource issues, from land degradation
International Cooperation, the Environment to dwindling water supplies, and offers
and Global Security, provides an overview of suggestions for international, regional and local
the environmental situation a n d i t s action to stem population growth.
interdependence with a myriad of issues,
105
Descriptors: Source: Populi

United Nations Population
Environmental Planning; International Fund
Cooperation; Environmental Management; 220 East 42nd Street
Population Growth; Population Pressure; New York, N. Y. 10017
Natural Resources; Development Planning; U. S. A.
Case Studies; Pakistan; Philippines; Kenya;
Mexico
50
Porter, Gareth. Resources, population and the Philippines’ future: a case

study. Washington, D. C., World Resources Institute, 1988. 68 p. (World
Resources Institute paper no. 4)
n the developing countries, erosion of the resource base due to

ominous environmental trends environmental mismanagement, the greed of
are directly and profoundly some politicians, and population pressure.
influencing the way people live and the hopes Whether the Philippines can avoid the collapse
they harbor for economic growth. Denuded of free institutions will depend largely on the
slopes start the now-familiar chain of connected country’s ability to orient its growth to
destruction: soil erosion, silting of streams sustainable development and, in some cases,
a n d d a m s , downstream flooding and to restore and rehabilitate the resource base,
destruction of coastal marine resources. The and to distribute more equitably the peoples’
result is diminished production-in the face of access to productive resources.
rapidly growing population. The author has
skillfully documented this chain of events in The author’s analysis of the
the Philippines, and he relates it to the Philippines’ resources, population profile, and
Philippines’ hopes for growth and security environment is a product of the World
and to the U. S. interests in that country. He Resources Institute’s (WRI) project on the
shows why American concern about the global U. S. Stake in Global Resources. This five-
environment should also be related to year policy research project has demonstrated
environmental degradation, population that the United States has concrete interests
pressure, and sustainable development in the - economic, national security, and global
Philippines. environmental interests - in helping developing
countries solve their growing environmental,
Aquino’s triumph over Marcos in the population, and resource management
mid-eighties and the return of democracy to problems.
the Philippines raised great hopes in the United
States as well as the Philippines, but the future This study on the Philippines was
looks threatening at best. It is not just the prepared originally as a background paper
debt burden, the persistent leftist rebellion, for a 1987 WRI conference. It was one of a
and the right-wing vigilantes in Negros that group of similar studies of developing countries
are worrisome. It is also the deep, strong, important to the United States - Mexico, Costa
and unrelenting currents of environmental Rica, Egypt, and Kenya. For each, teams of
degradation and lessened productivity flowing U. S. and developing-country colleagues -
together with growing waves of population. political scientists, economists, and resource
The Philippines’ economic and political crisis specialists - analyzed and documented how
is related to a larger ecological crisis: the environmental degradation and population
growth influence the economic and political o f u n i v e r s i t y scientists a r e g e t t i n g

viability of these countries, which are consideration. Environmental organizations
representative of important U. S. allies in Latin in the urban areas and university campuses
America, Africa, and Asia. are growing, as peasants and tribal people
organize to protect their own meager resources.
The Philippine study is only one of
the five country studies that WRI has published Descriptors:
in full. These are times of exciting change
in the Philippines. The enormous economic Population Dynamics; Lund Development;
and political difficulties the media presents Forest Resources; Land Resources;
are real but so are many of the positive currents Fisheries; Environmental Policy; Natural
s u r f a c i n g i n the Philippines. The Resources; Philippines
environmental movement, quiescent and fearful
like all other popular movements under the Source: World Resources Institute
Marcos regime, has come alive again. 1709 New York Avenue, NW
Outspoken advocates of natural resources and Washington, D. C. 20006
professionals in government agencies are U. S. A.
providing real leadership. Excellent researches
51
Sadik, Nafis. Safeguarding the future. New York, United Nations Population
Fund, 1989. 40 p.
his selection, authored by the In industrialized countries urban growth and

Executive Director of the industrial development had the effect of
United Nations Population relieving the pressures of rural poverty and
Fund calls for an urgent need for action. The population growth, but a high cost to the
selection presents a global scenario where environment. Today, the environmental costs
unprecedented growth rate is largely confined of hazardous industrial technologies and
among developing countries who are least processes are mounting. There are fears that
capable of coping with it. Furthermore, the damage may already be irreversible. To
increasing human demands are damaging the escape from poverty through industrial
natural resource base upon which all development may no longer be an option,
development ultimately depends. unless such development contributes to the
Industrialized areas contribute to environmental sustainability of the resources upon which it
degradation by their insatiable demands for is based.
resources, their production of wastes, and the
cumulative effects of their activities. High The author examines the dual
fertility and rapid population growth in responsibility that which industrialized
developing countries also contribute to the countries must shoulder. They have to take
process. the lead in introducing new and safer
technologies, and to assist developing countries
The industrialized countries, on the in their search for safer industrial growth.
other hand, contain less than 25 percent of They also have a responsibility to provide
the world’s population, yet they consume 75 continuing assistance to solve population
percent of the energy used, 79 percent of all problems as part of the search for sustainable
commercial fuels, 85 percent of all wood development.
products and 72 percent of all steel production.
107
The author does not confine the as economic development, particularly as

effects of resource use within national borders. regards women. Women in these countries
To establish a sustainable relationship between are generally better educated, stay longer in
growing human needs and available resources, school, and marry later. They are healthier,
action will be needed at all levels, from the and so are their children. They have fewer
international to the individual. Rapid children, but also lose fewer. They are more
population growth, giant cities and the tide likely to work outside the home and have
of international migration are the result of more rewarding jobs than their counterparts
millions of decisions by individuals. elsewhere. They are nearer to the mainstream
Frequently the agents of destruction have little of economic development.
real choice. They are driven by the utter
necessities of poverty, or the decisions of The author concludes by discussing
others. integrated policy responses for population and
resource management. It examines the
Some developing countries have methods that are being developed and elevated
succeeded in slowing population growth. Their into the economic level such as status reports
experience shows how individual decisions and forecasts the true costs of resource use
affecting family size respond to national policy. and abuse; the economic effects of population
But it also demonstrates how national growth and concentration, and their impact
development policy and planning can respond on natural resource capital; the availability
to the needs of individuals and communities and condition of critical resources such as
- and put the power of choice in the hands of arable land, potable water forest cover, wildlife,
those making the decisions. and mineral reserves; and the effect of
proposed development activities on all these
The successful countries are not the areas.
richest or most favoured by natural conditions.
The bottomline is commitment to slower Descriptors:
population growth and translating this
commitment into effective developmental Population Growth; Population Dynamics;
policies. Countries with slower growth Population Pressure; Urbanization;
generally have a narrower income gap between Migration; Industrial Development; Natural
the richest and the poorest groups in the Resources; Socio-Economic Development;
population. Literacy is higher, infant mortality Resources Development
lower, nutrition better and society in general
more stable. They pay more attention to rural Source: United Nations Population
development, and to stemming unplanned Fund
urban growth, than countries with higher 220 East 42nd Street
population growth rates. They tend to New York, N. Y. 10017
demonstrate a commitment to social as well U. S. A.
52
Sauvy, Alfred. Zero growth? New York, Praeger Publishers, 1976. 266 p.
n this comprehensive book the most important problems facing modern

surveying the environmental man: the population crisis, the exhaustion of
crisis, Professor Alfred Sauvy, mineral resources, and the degradation of the
the noted French demographer, investigates natural environment.
108
After presenting a historical summary in methods of birth control, further research

of views on social and economic growth from into the problems of old age, and above all,
Plato to Lenin, Sauvy shows that a sudden keeping the public well informed of the effects
termination of population growth would of rapid population growth.
perpetuate a series of problems with
consequences even more serious than the With regards to administering the
present threat of overpopulation. He stresses earth, Sauvy cites major obstacles such as
that the reduction of the world birthrate must the opposition between rich and poor countries,
be gradual, akin to the braking of a car, and which is still relatively benign but which could
he provides statistical evidence that the become particularly virulent if the conflict
birthrate is, in fact, already beginning to decline turned into issues. The very existence of
in many countries. impoverished countries would then be balanced
against the welfare of countries that are well
His chapters on population take into supplied but perpetually dissatisfied.
account ignorance, minority group, fear of
genocide, and entrenched reverence for Toward the end, the author formulates
fertility, as well as problems of longevity, some propositions: Although no gloomy
mortality, employment and nutrition. It is projection can be specifically made on any
on the subject of population that the public point, the situation is serious. The population
has received most information in the last problem is less important than the opposition
twenty-five years. But, particularly in the between rich and poor countries and too often,
United States, this information has more or the exploitation of the latter by the former.
less been one-sided, drawing attention to the Wide ranging and deep research should be
danger that poor countries, through their undertaken to specify the dangers, to establish
exuberant vitality, constitute for rich ones. their intensity and priority when they occur,
On the other hand, there exists currents of and then find ways of overcoming them. The
right-thinking, which suggest that any increase increase, for instance, in per capita
in number is a gift from heaven, and therefore consumption above a certain threshold, i. e.,
good in itself. Even in the realm of economic development is more harmful than
demography, ignorance has remained almost population increase.
the general rule.
Sauvy concludes that an abrupt end
Sauvy pleads for individualized to technological progress is undesirable
treatment of the problems rather than a because only innovation is capable of dealing
population policy applicable to the whole with the consequences of its own excesses.
world. His section on the natural environment
includes both alarming facts on the limits of Descriptors:
the earth’s raw materials and hopeful news
about alternative energy sources. This Population Growth; Population Pressure;
balanced view is the basis of his speculation Natural Resources; Energy Resources;
that some of the world’s social ills may result Women's Role; Environmental Planning
from the degradation of the natural scene than
directly from overpopulation.
Source: Praeger Publishers, Inc.
Zero Growth outlines the difficult 111 Fourth Avenue
choices that lie ahead and offers some practical New York, N. Y. 10003
suggestions. Sauvy urges educating all women U. S. A.
109
53
Simon, Julian L. The ultimate resource. Princeton, NJ., Princeton University

Press, 1981. 415 p.
his book challenges views that bright as that of other natural resources, though
are widely h e l d a n d political manoeuvring can temporarily boost
influential. The author argues prices from time to time. The long-run impact
that the real shortage is people thereby of additional people is likely to speed the
challenging those who sound alarm against development of a cheap energy supply that
population growth and resource use. Using is almost inexhaustible.
statistical evidence, he demonstrates that
contrary to popular belief, the world’s food Although the book agrees on the
supply is improving, the amount of available complicated issues behind population it
farmland has been increasing worldwide, maintains that population growth is not the
natural resources and energy are becoming villain in the creation and reduction of
less scarce and pollution is decreasing. pollution. The key trend is life expectancy,
which the author asserts is the best overall
Contrary to popular impression, the index of the pollution level.
per capita food situation has been improving
for three decades since World War II. Famine Population forecasts are publicized
has progressively diminished for at least the with confidence and fanfare, but the record
past century and there is strong reason to of even the official forecasts made by U. S.
believe that human nutrition will continue to government agencies and by the UN is hardly
improve into the indefinite future, even with reliable. For example, experts in the 1930s
continued population growth. Agricultural foresaw the U.S. population as declining,
land is not a fixed resource, as Malthus and perhaps to as little as 100 million people,
many since have thought. Rather, the amount long before the turn of the century. And
of agricultural land has been, and still is, official UN forecasts made in 1970 for the
increasing substantially, and it is likely to 2000, a mere thirty years in advance, were
continue to increase where needed. five years later revised downward by almost
Paradoxically, in countries that are best 2 billion people, from 7.5 billion to 5.6 billion.
supplied with food, such as the U. S., the The science of demographic forecasting clearly
quantity of land under cultivation has been has not yet reached perfection. Tens of
decreasing because it is more economical to millions of U. S. taxpayers’ money is being
raise large yields on less land than to increase used to tell the governments and people of
the total amount of farmland. other countries that they ought to take strong
measures to control their fertility. But no
The book contends that the world’s solid economic data or analyses underlie this
supplies of natural resources are not finite in assertion. Furthermore, the book questions
any economic sense. Nor does past experience such acts as an unwarranted interference in
give reason to expect natural resources to the internal affairs of other countries.
become more scarce. Rather, if the past is
any guide, natural resources will progressively Other millions of U. S. taxpayers’
become less scarce, and less costly, and will funds go to private organizations making up
constitute a smaller proportion of our expenses the population lobby, whose directors believe
in future years. Population growth is likely that, for environmental and related reasons,
to have a long-run beneficial impact on the reduced birth rate should be encouraged. These
natural-resource situation. The long-run future funds are used to propagandize with the views
of the world’s energy supply is at least as of such organizations as the Population Crisis
110
Committee, the Population Reference Bureau, Descriptors:

the Worldwatch Institute, the Environmental
Fund, and the Association for Voluntary Population Growth; Food Shortage; Energy
Sterilization. Resources; Environmental Protection;
Pollution; Natural Resources; Population
Control
Source: Princeton University Press

41 Williams St.
Princeton, N. J. 08540
U. S. A.
54
United Nations. Department for Economic and Social Information and

Policy Analysis. Population, environment and development. Proceedings
of the United Nations Expert Group Meeting on Population, Environment
and Development, United Nations Headquarters, 20-24 January 1992. New
York, 1994. 285 p.
he Economic and Social critical linkages and relevant high priority

Council in its 1991/93 issues, in particular; the triad of rapid
resolution, decided to convene population growth, increasing environmental
the International Conference on Population degradation and pervasive poverty; and, on
and Development in 1994, with population, that basis, to make recommendations for action
sustained economic growth and sustainable by governments and intergovernmental and
development as the overall theme. nongovernmental agencies that would enhance
Furthermore, the council authorized the compliance with the World Population Plan
Secretary General of the Conference to of Action and increase its effectiveness. The
convene, as part of the preparations for the following is a summary of their
1994 International Conference on Population recommendations:
and Development, six expert group meetings
corresponding to the six group of issues that Because there are strong linkages
it had identified as requiring the greatest between population, development and the
attention during the coming decade. One of environment, governments are urged to
those meetings was on population, environment establish or strengthen mechanisms to
and development. It was convened at United coordinate policies and programmes and to
Nations Headquarters from 20 to 24 January give unified direction for integrating
1992. environmental and population concerns into
development policy-making and planning.
Included in this volume are the report
and recommendations of the Expert Group Governments should support the
Meeting on Population, Environment and development of technologies to achieve
Development and the papers submitted to this sustained economic growth while maintaining
meeting. a balance between population and resources,
with particular attention to replacing fossil
The central task of the Expert Group fuels with renewable energy resources. Policy-
Meeting was to examine demographic, socio- makers should create incentives for promoting
economic and environmental trends, their their application.
To avoid further environmental International organizations should

degradation and, where possible, to improve increase their assistance to countries in the
environmental conditions, governments are fields of population, sustainable development
urged to identify areas subject to acute and environment, especially in training,
population pressures, such arid lands, tropical research, policy formulation and the integration
forests, watersheds, coasts and coastal waters, of population and environment-related factors
and to institute policies, such as integrated into national planning. Greater awareness of
population and development policies, that will the interrelated issues of population,
alleviate the pressure on the environment. environment and development should be
pursued through the educational system and
Governments should encourage the other existing demographic training
implementation of ecologically beneficial institutions. Databases should be strengthened
labour-intensive projects, such as reforestation, and developed to make them available to
contour-leveling, terracing and small-scale policy-makers and programme managers.
irrigation and drainage, not only for their
environmental benefits but the employment In devising strategies for sustainable
opportunities it generates as well. development, special attention should be given
to improving the plight of indigenous
Community-based population and populations.
environment programmes should emphasize
the participation of women as environmental Finally, to implement these
managers, including the employment of women recommendations, governments and
in government conservation programmes. international organizations should identify and
openly analyse the conflicting goals between
Given the increasing scarcity of water, countries and regions to make fruitful
especially under conditions of rapid population negotiation possible.
growth and urbanization, governments should
develop the best uses of available water, Descriptors:
maximize the productivity of biomass and find
options for water-saving industrial production Sustainable Development; Population
of goods, improve scientific and planning Pressure; Development Planning;
capacity and develop an integrated approach Environmentat Degradation; Demographic
to land and water management. Factors; Environmental Policy; Greenhouse
Warming; Socio-Economic Factors;
Because poverty is closely related
Developing Countries
to high fertility and rural and urban
degradation, governments are encouraged to Source: United Nations
enhance the access of the rural and the urban Sales Section
poor to employment opportunities, credit and New York, N. Y. 10017
social services, such as education, health and U. S. A.
family planning. Likewise, national
governments should provide additional
resources to local authorities for the
management of cities.
112
55
United Nations Population Fund. Population and the environment: the challenges
ahead. New York, 1991, 44 p.
his booklet focuses on two distribution and environmental degradation

important development issues: enter the economic equation, the prospects
First, despite much effort, no for future development are altered profoundly.
solution has been found for the deepening
poverty of individuals and nations. Second, While searching for a better future,
the social sector, including health, family one which incorporates the notion of
planning, housing and education, continues sustainable development, the international
to be underemphasized in national and community of nations will have to evolve
international development programmes. new ways of measuring economic growth and
human welfare. As part of this process, the
As the twentieth century draws to a vast gap between developed and developing
close, the world is confronted by a daunting countries, between rich and poor, must be
challenge: the urgent need to bring human narrowed. Because of the broad nature of
numbers and growing needs more into balance the challenges facing humanity, comprehensive
with available resources, while limiting the solutions r e q u i r e a comprehensive
pace of environmental destruction. Choices understanding of the problems and their inter-
made during the next 10 years will have connections. Trade imbalances and debt also
tremendous implications for the future loom behind population and resource issues.
habitability of the earth. The hard edge of
the struggle to balance population with As part of an overall resource
available resources will be concentrated in management and population programme, it
developing countries, where human numbers is vital that national and international
may already be reaching the red line of institutions be strengthened. Integrating
resource use. population and resource concerns into a
national development strategy can help buy
The environmental dimension to time for beleaguered governments of
population is also firmly grounded in developing countries trying desperately to
economics. It is widely recognized that the balance the needs of ever-growing populations
current world economic system does not with available resources and services. Also,
promote sustainable development. Quite the it will give them time to develop and
contrary, it uses up the earth’s store of natural implement programmes to conserve soils and
resources at demonstrably non-sustainable rates water, safeguard watersheds, manage coastal
triggering immense damage to the biosphere zones, protect forests and improve access to
in the process. One of the greatest failures family planning services and maternal and
of the twentieth century has been the frustrating child health care which are necessary
inability of governments and international prerequisites for sustainable development.
development agencies to manage resources
in such a way that present needs are met, One important choice is the
without compromising the needs of future fundamental right of every family to decide
generations. on how many children to have. Policies
formulated to deal with population and
The environmental costs of doing so resource problems need to be integrated, and
have never fully been taken into account when require cooperation and coordination between
nations assess their economic standing. When and among ministries often at odds with each
the linkages between population growth and other over priorities and budgets. Even more
113
fundamental, women’s role in the development Descriptors:

process must be reassessed and given
primordial importance.
There are multiple sets of dynamic

interactions involved between population
growth and environmental deterioration. Both
are central to the cause of sustainable
development. However, strategies that attempt Source: United Nations Population
to promote sustainable economic development Fund
must integrate population and environment 220 East 42nd Street
concerns, if they are intended to work. Without New York, N. Y. 10017
such strategic policy integration, sustainable U. S. A.
development will remain nothing more than
a paper proclamation.
56
United Nations Population Fund. Population, resources and the environment:

the critical challenges. New York, 1991. 154 p.
q
he main focus of this selection critical constraints on the development process,
is to present through detailed as well as unsustainable burdens on the
examples, the intricate inter- environmental resource base that underpins
relationship between population, resources and much economic activity in developing
the environment. How far population pressures countries. In addition, it overwhelms the
constitute as a determining factor in this planning capacities of governments to cater
linkage, and how much environmental decline to fast-growing communities. There is
contributes to population pressures is important generally not enough time to supply the socio-
in drawing the recommendations and policy economic infrastructure, notably in the form
directives also contained in the book. They of basic services and amenities, to
may need further refinement and far more accommodate increasing numbers of people.
extensive funding at the regional, national
and local levels. Population growth is particularly
significant for the poorest of the poor, the
Two key demographic factors that bottom billion who cause environmental
reflect the pressures generated by population degradation in their pursuit of survival and
growth are its rate and the absolute numbers who cannot afford to engage in resource-
of additional people added to the global total conserving measures. These people feature
each year. While the first has been declining the highest population growth rates, and have
for the last several decades (apart from a slight least access to information. education and
recent upsurge), the second will continue to services in maternal and child health care and
increase for some time into the future. During family planning.
the 1990s there will be an annual increment
of almost 100 million people, the highest ever. The most disadvantaged of all
developing-world people tend to be women.
This unprecedented rapid growth in Their social status should be thoroughly
human numbers, plus their distributional enhanced as a matter of basic equity. At the
patterns and urbanization trends, induces same time, women offer much potential as
114
environmental managers, in addition to their population impacts through incisive

obviously vital part in population programmes. interventions and the kinds of policies needed
Both environmental and population causes can to bring about more comprehensive solutions.
be markedly advanced through efforts to
upgrade the overall status of women. In sum, population factors are among
the many forces that serve to undermine the
Much environmental degradation environmental resource base upon which
stems from developed nations too, notably in sustainable development ultimately depends.
the form of atmospheric pollution and global In many countries there is a pronounced
warming with their worldwide impacts. While imbalance between the growth and distribution
this is primarily a problem of inappropriate of population on the one hand and the natural
technologies and excessive consumerism, it resource endowment on the other hand - albeit
also reflects the population growth factor. with much differentiated impact according to
countries and development sectors. Hence,
The adverse environmental impacts there is a premium on slowing population
of population growth, high fertility levels, growth with all due dispatch as a pre-eminent
uneven distribution and other factors, measure to safeguard the global environment.
particularly in developing countries, derive
from a range of factors, both direct and indirect, In response to these population and
both overt and covert, working through environment challenges, there is extensive
linkages that are both proximate and ultimate. scope for policy interventions, plus action-
Among the complex mix of variables in oriented programmes to remedy imbalances
question are deficient development strategies in population growth and distribution. Policy
and such exogenous factors as international measures undertaken during the 1990s will
debt and inequitable trade-and-aid relations go far to shape the world for much of the
between development and developed countries. next century. There is a premium on urgent
and vigorous action, if only because the
There has been much theoretical resource scarcest in supply is time itself.
debate about the purported linkages between
population growth and environmental Descriptors:
degradation. Yet the linkages involved have
received all too little attention in the way of Population Growth; Population Pressure;
rigorous analysis and detailed documentation. Environment; Natural Resources; Quality
Nor have they been adequately addressed of Life; Population Policy; Population
through policy initiatives and programme Characteristics; Women’s Status
measures. It is the aim of this study to identify,
define, clarify and evaluate the linkages in Source: United Nations Population
question. In doing so, the study provides a Fund
comprehensive review of the impact of 220 East 42nd Street
population on natural resources and the New York, N. Y. 10017
environment so as to communicate the issues U. S. A.
involved, the prospects for remedying
115
57
q
he chapters in this selection consumption also confirms and documents that,
have been reprinted from on a per capita basis, consumption in the
World Resources 1994-95 as industrial countries is far greater than in
a special contribution to the 1994 United developing countries; that natural resource
Nations International Conference on Population consumption among industrial countries has
and Development. The lead chapters in the had by far the greatest impact on global
book explore a closely linked set of issues environmental problems such as changes to
related to people and the environment. The the earth’s atmosphere; and that poverty and
issues focus on two contributing factors behind the inability to meet basic needs often compels
the problems associated with the interaction the use of natural resources in ways that can
between human populations and natural lead to their degradation.
resources. The first factor involves those
caused by taking resources from the The issue on the environmental
environment or putting waste products into impact of population growth identifies other
the environment; the second associates the factors other than the size of populations, such
problem with the sheer growth in human as social factors. It matters, for example,
populations. A third perspective intersects whether population growth takes place in rural
these two views: the role of women in or in urban areas. The education and health
sustainable development. level of the population is also worthy of
consideration. Similarly, how rapidly growth
These issues on natural resource occurs, whether through natural increase or
consumption, the environmental impact of migration, can be viewed significantly. A
population growth, and women’s role in number of case studies (two in developing
sustainable development gathered significant countries, one in an industrialized country)
conclusions for consideration during the show that such factors as poverty or wealth,
Conference. government policies regarding natural resource
management, land tenure and land use
The issue on natural resource planning, and overall economic circumstances
consumption concludes that consumption of play a major role in determining whether
life styles or the scale of industrial activity, population growth leads to environmental
although both are important factors; geographic degradation and what form that degradation
patterns of production, terms of trade, level takes. The selection also takes note of the
of technology, and the extremes of wealth close links between resource degradation,
and poverty also play a role. A careful poverty, and further population growth.
examination of natural resource consumption
patterns reveals that compared with non- One critical factor in both alleviating
renewable sources, it is renewable resources poverty and in finding development paths that
that are most in danger of depletion. Likewise, are environmentally sustainable is the role of
findings identify export of manufactured goods women. Findings reveal that women in
from developing countries to industrial developing countries are often primary
countries as growing much more rapidly than managers of natural resources on a local level,
the export of raw materials. On the other in addition to providing food, health care,
hand, the issue on natural resource child rearing, and a wide range of subsistence
116
work for their families; that women often face connected. Apart from this, it also identifies
an unusual number of barriers that inhibit many specific opportunities for both industrial
their contributions to their societies; and that and developing countries to adopt policies
elevating the education, legal rights, economic that would help to further sustainable
opportunities, and cultural status of women development.
is critical to the achievement of sustainable
development. The record shows that Descriptors:
developmental projects that do not include
women as participants and that are not designed
with women’s needs in mind often fail. And
the evidence is quite clear that investments
in the education and health care of women -
as well as in increasing access to family
planning services - are among the most
important factors in slowing population growth.
Source: World Resources Institute
All the issues and findings in this 1709 New York Avenue, NW
selection support the idea that environmental Washington, D. C. 20006
and developmental issues are intimately U. S. A.
117
POPULATION/
ENVIRONMENT
PROGRAMMES FOR
SPECIAL INTEREST
GROUPS
ection
six
Population/Environment Programmes for Special

Interest Groups
------_-_ _..- ___._ -__-_ -_.___ __----
The six selections under this section deal with the population-environment-development
linkage in relation to special interest groups. Three selections address women viewed under the
ens of this triad, while two focus on children and the environment. A final selection documents
he cross-cultural experience of wildlife managers as they match wildlife sites with sanctuaries
from developing countries.
All three selections which address women in the population-environment-development

perspective share similar findings on the reciprocal effects of this triad which has likewise
drawn holistic proposals and strategies for action. The varied assertions of each selection can
be attributed to the different approaches they have employed. The selection Women, Environment
and the Third World focuses on a compilation of examples and case studies to illustrate the
effects of environmental degradation to women and compares their reactions with current
global responses. The selection Women, Population and the Environment goes further by
examining how the role and status of women affect each point of the population-environment-
development triangle to draw complex interacting points on how women, in turn, is affected by
these factors. The selection Women, Environment and Sustainable Development, offers on the
other hand, an attempt to synthesize these issues theoretically by compiling debates presented
in an international workshop. It offers platforms on mutualism, sustainability, holism, justice,
equity, autonomy, self-reliance and peace.
The linkages they have identified are determined by the lens in which they have
examined the subject. The theoretical approach employed by the selection Women, the
Environment and Sustainable Development owes much to feminist thought, considering women’s
positions vis-à-vis subjects which may be interpreted as dominantly patriarchal. Focusing on
the population-environment-development triangle, the selection Women, Population and the
Environment has enumerated connecting points, identifying the following relationships. Women
influence environment directly in the performance on their daily chores. They influence population
directly through their reproductive behaviour. They have a direct influence on development
through their role in the household, the economy and at various political levels. The selection
also identifies poverty as an overriding factor which intensifies the positive or negative nature
of this web of relationships.
All three selections draw policy actions on environmental conservation, highlighting

the importance of a worldwide reorientation in fully recognizing women as a resource. They
also see the need for women to receive priority in the field of research. Owing to its theoretical
methodology, the selection Women, the Environment and Sustainable Development calls for
new epistomologies which contribute to the analysis of hierarchy and power in general, and
- - - -
development issues in particular, such as deep ecology, social ecology and ecofeminism. Among
the strategies of action presented include women’s active participation in the design and
implementation of population and environment programmes, access to educational opportunities,
employment, maternal and child health care and family planning services. Where women are
he heads of households and principally responsible for the land, they must be allowed to hold
legal titles and given access to agricultural extension and credit schemes. Training of women
n resource management and conservation must be given high priority. Women’s traditional
knowledge of environmental resource management must be utilized when formulating development
strategies. Likewise, women’s groups and non-governmental organizations must be utilized in
all aspects of the development process.
The two selections on children and the environment both focus on the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and as such, complement and supplement each other; one compiles,
he other reviews. Environment, Children First is a compilation of UNICEF related documents
while Children and the Environment: A UNICEF Strategy for Sustainable Development is
a UNICEF policy review.
The documents compiled include children’s issues for the 1992 United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development as well as its history, process and progress; an article on
child mortality; the Brundlandt Commission’s concept of sustainable development which brings
children to the fore; lessons taken from the Convention on the Rights of the child and the World
Summit for Children; an in-depth analysis of UNICEF’s environment programmes; country
reports and scenarios from Ethiopia, Honduras, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Kenya and the
Philippines; and finally, views on alternative development policies and the potential of the
Earth Summit in setting the course for sustainable development.
The selection Children and Environment: A UNICEF Strategy for Sustainable

Development, reviews UNICEF policy to show how environmental threats affect health, malnutrition
and ignorance to perpetuate the cycle of poverty. It examines how the environment and
sustainable development can be undermined by natural and man-made disasters caused by
poverty as well as the wasteful consumption patterns of the affluent. It reviews how environmental
considerations are reflected in on-going UNICEF assisted programmes and what can be done to
strengthen them. Finally, it makes recommendations to address explicitly environmental concerns
in the situation analysis, country programming and evaluation, as well as adding or strengthening
environmental components in on-going programmes and future recommendations. It strongly
urges UNICEF to collaborate and coordinate with other agencies of the United Nations as well
as with multi-bilateral donors and non-governmental organizations.
The final selection, Sharing the Earth, presents the cross-cultural experiences of the
National Audubon Society’s wildlife managers as they match wildlife sites with sanctuaries
from developing countries. All of the paired project sites involve water resources: three arc
coastal system, two have major rivers, and three relate to other freshwater wetland. In examining
the themes which run through all the stories of the exchanges, each study has in common the
issues of economics and ethics, population growth and resource use, and water and wildlife. In
most cases, it was found that, although the developing countries are economically poorer, the
United States’ natural resources are more degraded. Although each of the case studies are
unique, the resulting stories send a common message: strategies must be carefully examined to
redirect the effects of human activity on the environment.
122
Braidotti, Rosi, and others. Women, the environment and sustainable

development: towards a theoretical synthesis. London, Zed Books, 1994.
220 p.
s early as 1982, INSTRAW and provided insights for both reflection and
has been involved in action. A framework emerges emphasizing
programmes aimed at not only mutualism, sustainability, holism,
promoting the involvement of women in the justice, equity, autonomy, self-reliance and
solutions of problems related to water, peace, but also the different ways in which
sanitation and energy. The sectoral focus of individuals approach the topic depending on
these programmes at the time of their their own situation. It is a framework that
development responded to the critical problems owes much to feminist thought and calls for
that developing countries faced in satisfying very specific research methodologies and
their water and energy needs. As the need to policy actions.
establish the link between these sectoral
problems and other environmental issues Although issues of development and
became evident and more important items on the environment in general are raised, the focus
national and international agenda, INSTRAW, remains on the links between women, the
launched a new programme in 1990 on Gender, environment, and sustainable development.
Environment and Sustainable Development. Some of the questions addressed arc as follows:
This programme is concerned with What is the intimate link between women
environmental problems related to water and and nature considering both are objectified
energy, including specific issues of immediate as the Other of a patriarchal, dominant,
relevance to women such as waste disposal, supposedly rational subject? Are women,
the effects of pesticide use, and nuclear testing, especially poor women in the South, and nature
to name a few. simultaneously subordinated by a male drive
for progress? Are women special victims of
This study is one output of the the destruction of their environment? Is this
programme. It was commissioned by linked to their special status as victims of
INSTRAW to compile a report on debates male domination, or does it have more to do
around the issue of women, the environment with the fact that women are such excellent
and sustainable development. caretakers, that they turn out to be the experts
who are called in to repair the damage? Or
In mid- 1991 an interim international are they simultaneously caretakers and victims
workshop entitled Women, the Environment because they are trapped in a certain gender-
and Sustainable Development: Towards a based division of labour? How do these
Theoretical Framework was held in the material conditions influence women’s sense
Netherlands in which activists, researchers of identity, especially their relationship to
and development experts were invited to technology and development? Is it the
present their views. The reports on the various ideological structure that combines domination
perspectives, views and positions upheld by with masculinity and women’s subordination.
the major actors in the field of women, the that needs to be criticized from a feminist
environment and sustainable development, perspective, as well as its epistemological and
were revised and expanded for publication. philosophical underpinnings? What does the
It included a platform for various positions new feminist epistemologies have to contribute
123
in analyzing hierarchy and power in general for a New Era or DAWN, a Southern women’
and development issues in particular? These s network. Environmental reforms within
questions are the starting point for the research political and developmental institutions,
and form the axis along which the authors changes within the field of economics toward
have structured their analysis of the debates sustainable development, a discussion of the
around women, the environment and concept of sustainability as well as a section
sustainable development. on the interrelation between environment,
development and population are presented in
Following the questions that were Chapter 7. Deep ecology, social ecology and
posed in Chapter 1, Chapter 2 provides a brief ecofeminism as proposals for epistemological
description of the nature of the crisis. Chapter changes and a re-evaluation of the human/
3 explores different positions within feminist nature relation are described in Chapter 8.
critiques of science as they provide important
insights and suggest some important proposals
Descriptors:
for transformative epistemologies and politics
based on multiple subjectivities. The debates
in feminism on the relationship between Women’s Rote; Women’s Status;
women and nature outlined in Chapter 4 help Sustainable Development; Environmental
to highlight the potential pitfalls for women Planning; Women in Development;
identifying themselves with nature. The field Economic Development
of women in development (WID), its historical
overview and description of the main ideas Source: Zed Books, Ltd.
circulating in the field are discussed at some 57 Caledonian Road
length in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 introduces London N1 9 BU
alternative proposals to development, including United Kingdom
the one provided by Development with Women
59
Dankelman, Irene, and Joan Davidson, Women and environment in the third
world: alliance fur the future. London, Earthscan, 1988. 210 p,
omen, particularly those Because of the complex cycles of poverty,

living in the rural areas of inappropriate development and environmental
Third World countries, play degradation, poor people have been forced
a major role in managing natural resources - into ways of living which induce further
soil, water, forests and energy. Their tasks destruction. Third World women often have
in agriculture and animal husbandry as well no choice but to exploit natural resources in
as in the household make them the daily order to survive, even though they may have
managers of the living environment. They the knowledge to promote sustainability.
have a profound knowledge of the plants,
animals and ecological processes around them. The links between poverty and the
Women also participate in the commercial state of the environment have only recently
sectors of society and the raw materials they begun to be recognized by environmentalists,
use in rural enterprises are vulnerable to development specialists and those engaged
environmental degradation and contamination. in raising the status of women. In international
As farmers and traders, then, women agencies, a number of significant events reflect
experience environmental problems as directly this increased awareness: the highlighting of
undermining the basis of their daily lives. the issue of women and environment by the
124
conference held at the close of the UN Decade The first part of the book explores
for Women in 1985; Women Nurture the women’s involvement in the use and
World, a series of workshops organized by management of natural resources - their role
the Environment Liaison Centre at the NGO in agriculture, water supply, forestry, collection
Forum’85 in Nairobi; the establishment of and use of fuelwood and development of other
the Committee of Senior Women Advisers energy sources. The special problems women
on Sustainable Development by the United face in human settlements are also discussed
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in here. Examples and case studies illustrate
1986; a caucus on Women, Environment and the effects of environmental degradation on
Sustainable Development at the International women and the initiatives they take.
Conference on Conservation and Development,
implementing the World Conservation In the second part of the book, the
Strategy, sponsored by IUCN and held in position of women in environmental
Ottawa, Canada, in 1986; the establishment conservation is examined, with an emphasis
of a Working Group on Women, Environment upon their practical activities and their role
and Sustainable Development under the aegis in education and training, family planning and
of IUCN in 1987. More important, in practical local organizations. The activities and policies
terms, has been the growth of environmental of international agencies are described and a
action by women’s groups around the world. final chapter sums up the picture and presents
The Chipko movement in India and Kenya’s a strategy for action.
Green Belt Movement arc just two examples
of many new initiatives designed to help To restore and conserve the
women tackle the problems of environmental environment, a world wide reorientation of
devastation. Many of these are described in development towards sustainability is needed
the book’s later chapters. at all levels of society - from the grassroots
to international action. Women are among
The project on which this book is the most important and best experienced actors
based was financed by the Netherlands in bringing about that sustainability.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and carried out
under the auspices of the Netherlands IUCN Descriptors:
Committee. The aim of the volume is
threefold: first, to examine the relationships Women's Role; Women’s Status; Energy;
between women and their natural surroundings; Natural Resources; Family Planning;
second, to show how women deal with the Women’s Programmes; Human Settlements
environmental crises they face; and third, to
look at the response of international and Source: Earthscan Publications, Ltd.
government agencies. 3 Endsleigh Street
London WC1H 0DD
United Kingdom
125
60
United Nations Children’s Fund. Children and environment: a UNICEF strategy

for sustainable development. New York, 1989. 35 p. (UNICEF policy
review)
his policy r e v i e w o f own needs. Children, naturally, have a stake

environment and sustainable in sustainable development. As the world’s
development discusses the lead agency for children, UNICEF’s actions
impact of environmental degradation on the must contribute to environmentally sound and
health and well-being of children and women. sustainable development.
It analyses how environmental threats such
as deforestation, atmospheric pollution, global Deforestation, global warming, ozone
warming, etc., add to the already precarious depletion and industrial pollution have emerged
environment of ill health, malnutrition and as major environmental concerns, part of what
ignorance to perpetuate the cycle of poverty. UNICEF categorizes as the loud emergencies.
It examines how the environment and From the UNICEF perspective, there is also
sustainable development can be undermined an ongoing silent emergency of environmental
by natural and man-made disasters caused by degradation that effects the environment in
poverty as well as the wasteful consumption which children are born, grow up and often
patterns of the affluent. It reviews how die prematurely. This is the environment,
environmental considerations are reflected in for example, of the malnourished, sick and
ongoing UNICEF-assisted programmes and illiterate mother. on whose care an infant is
what can be done to strengthen them. Finally, totally dependent from conception up to about
it makes recommendations to address explicitly six months of age; an environment marked
environmental concerns in the situation by unsafe drinking water, unsanitary
analysis, country programming and evaluation, surroundings, prevalence of such deadly or
as well as adding or strengthening crippling diseases as diarrhoea, malaria,
environmental components in ongoing pneumonia, measles, polio and tetanus, and
programmes and future recommendations. It deficiency of iodine, vitamin A and other
strongly urges UNICEF to collaborate and micro-nutrients vital for health.
coordinate with other agencies of the United
Nations system as well as with multi-bilateral The protection of children from the
donors and non-governmental organizations. negative consequences of these silent
It suggests that UNICEF should not only environmental threats is no less important than
strengthen environmental components in efforts to deal with the louder environmental
country programmes, but that it should also emergencies. In fact, lasting success in dealing
advocate and promote sustainable forms of with some of the louder environmental
development w i t h o t h e r p a r t n e r s i n emergencies is very much dependent on
development. improvements in the silent emergencies.
Economic and social development - In particular, Chapter II of the report,

in both developing and industrialized countries discusses how UNICEF-assisted actions in
- must rest on the bedrock of sustainability. support of child survival, development and
This is the central premise of the Brundtland protection respond to environmental concerns
Commission, which defines sustainable and how they might be improved further.
development as development that meets the Specifically, this section deals with the more
needs of the present without compromising general threats to children caused by poverty
the ability of future generations to meet their as well as affluence; the degradation of forests,
126
land and water; global warming and With such a breadth of organizational
environmental pollution; and natural and man- concern in both its official mandate and
made disasters. practical actions, there is a need for UNICEF
to deepen its analysis to ensure that its actions
UNICEF’s concern for children take the environmental impact into account
encompasses the totality of the child’s and make a positive contribution towards the
environment. It includes all factors that sustainability of development. In preparation
influence the child’s survival and subsequent for this report, a preliminary review was
physical, psycho-social and intellectual undertaken to determine the extent to which
development. Considering the critical environmental considerations, such as the ones
importance of women, both as mothers and mentioned, were reflected in existing or
educators and as productive members of proposed programmes of UNICEF cooperation.
society, the UNICEF sphere of action also The review revealed the existence of a varying,
includes the environment surrounding women. but quite significant, range of environment-
related components in current UNICEF-
The traditional areas of UNICEF
assisted programmes. Although environmental
cooperation (health and nutrition, water supply considerations are not always explicit in many
and sanitation, education and social services) country programmes, their relatively low use
have always emphasized preventive rather than of capital resources and high reliance on social
curative measures. The relatively simple, cost- mobilization, community participation and
efficient and, at the village level, sustainable, appropriate technology makes most
traditional, UNICEF-supported activities programmes environmentally sensitive and
geared to improve environmental conditions gives them a built-in element of sustainability.
for children and families consist of the
following: immunization; protection of water Descriptors:
sources; personal and food hygiene; keeping
the home and its surroundings clean; utilization Environmental Planning; Socio-Economic
of local foods; building food storage facilities; Development; Children; Programme
constructing dry pit latrines; using biogas,
Planning; Programmes
solar energy and fuel-efficient stoves; and the
inclusion of environmental issues in practical UNICEF
Source:
school curricula. Some of the more recent Programme Publications and
policy-oriented advocacy of UNICEF such Library Section Programme
as adjustment with a human face, debt relief Division
for child survival and support for the 3 UN Plaza
Convention on the Rights of the Child also New York, N. Y. 10017
seek to improve the economic, social and legal U. S. A.
environment o f c h i l d r e n a n d o t h e r
disadvantaged groups.
61
United Nations Children’s Fund. Environment: children first. New York,

Division of Information, UNICEF, 1992. 84 p. 1 packet of booklets and
photographs.
roduced by the Division of compilation of articles divided into six sections:

Information, UNICEF New Children and the Environment, UNICEF and
York, this media kit is a the Environment, Programme Profiles,
127
Children in their Environment and Summit people can take action on environmental issues
Signals. The kit begins with an introduction at home.
outlining how children’s issues can be
Under the section Programme
addressed by the 1992 United Nations
Profiles, articles were collected comprising
Conference on Environment and Development
country reports of UNICEF’s programmes: a
(UNCED).
UNICEF-supported family development
Under the section Children and the project improves the quality of life in an
Environment, authors Lloyd Timberlake and Ethiopian village. In Honduras, residents plant
Laura Thomas underscore the significance of trees and learn to take care of their timber
child mortality or why the deaths of 14 million through a UNICEF-assisted environmental
children a year are a critical concern for world education project. A new environment-friendly
leaders. Furthermore. they explain how the water system brings water virtually to the
Brundtland Commission’s concept of doorsteps of people in a Myanmar village.
sustainable development brings children into Nepal’s UNICEF-assisted Environment Project
the centre of the development and environment replenishes the forests and provides better
debate. Philip Alston, on the other hand, sanitation and health. A rural women’s
draws on lessons from the Convention on the organization in Sri Lanka trains women in
Rights of the Child and the World Summit environmental sanitation, and benefits multiply
for Children to show why children’s well- as these women train others.
being must be addressed in the Earth Charter.
Two stories about Kenya and the
Koy Thompson, a member of the Philippines comprise the section, Children and
British delegation to the United Nation’s their Environment. Kenyan village children
Conference on Environment and Development realize that their health is contingent upon
(UNCED) offers his view on the process and the condition of their environment and in the
progress of UNCED while Ricardo Bayon Philippines, a child in Manila becomes
describes the history of popular participation concerned about the future of the environment
that have led to UNCED and other through experience and what she learns in
opportunities for involvement in the Earth civics class.
Summit activities.
Finally, in the section entitled Summit
Under the section UNICEF and the Signals two prominent figures present their
Environment, the articles provided an in-depth views on children and the environment. Hazel
analysis of environmental programmes Henderson, an international consultant on
conducted by the organization. Maggie Black alternative development policies, argues that,
reports on how UNICEF’s strategies to as the world becomes more interdependent,
improve children’s lives combat the new ethical standards are needed to ensure
environmental degradation that threatens the the future; while Trevor Davies, Secretary-
future of all children. Another report describes General of Defense for Children International,
how UNICEF is helping developing countries sees the Earth Summit’s potential as enormous,
establish sustainable water supply and one that could set the course for sustainable
sanitation systems. Bill Myers describes how development.
new ideas for primary environmental care fit
in well with the programming experience of Descriptors:
UNICEF and can help meet goals set by the Environmental Planning; Children;
World Summit for Children. An overview Environmental Management; Human
of several UNICEF programme activities that Rights
address the interrelated problems of
environment and human health is also Source: UNICEF
provided. Following the spirit of the Jomtien Division of Information
Declaration on Education for all, Susan 3 UN Plaza
Fountain makes suggestions on how young New York, N. Y. 10017
U. S. A.
62
United Nations Population Fund. Women, population and the environment. New
York, 1992. 19 p,
ver the past 30 years, and maternal and child health care services.
patterns of socio-economic Women have a direct influence on development
development have strikingly through their role in the household, the
underscored the fact that there can be no economy and at various political levels.
sustainable development for anyone without
development for and by women. They have It should be noted that there is a
shown that generally, economic growth and reciprocal relationship between the centre of
improvement in the quality of life tend to be the triangle, women, and the three points of
fastest in those areas where women have higher the triangle: environment, population, and
status and slowest where they face the greatest development. Poverty is an overriding factor
disadvantages. If developing countries arc which intensifies the positive or negative nature
to achieve their economic and social goals, of this web of relationships. In poor countries
then the gender gap must be narrowed. with high rates of population growth, large
Women must be given the opportunities that increases in human numbers can quickly over-
will enable them to take more active roles in stress natural resources needed for sustained
development decisions affecting their families, economic development. Rapid population
their villages or cities, and their countries. growth and urbanization can also outstrip a
Efforts must be made to ensure that women society’s ability to generate viable employment
are involved in the articulation and opportunities and provide needed services.
implementation of policies addressing issues This, in turn, can offset the benefits of
essential to their well-being. development, deepening poverty and
forestalling other options.
The interrelationships between
women, population, environment, and In societies where women are better
development trends are complex and educated, enjoy better health and have
sometimes not readily apparent. One way to employment opportunities, their fertility rates
understand this complicated interaction is to tend to be much lower. This reduces
put women in the centre of the population- considerably the overall negative impact of
environment-development triangle. The role population on environment and development.
and status of women in a society affects each In societies where there is greater equity
point of the triangle and is, in turn, affected between women and men, women tend to have
by each of these three factors. Women more opportunities and more choices. Choice
influence environment directly in the affords them greater options, and thus women
performance of their daily chores - collecting are generally better able to contribute to
fuelwood and fodder, herding domestic economic development and environmental
animals, tending crops and fetching water protection.
Their ability to manage resources on which
their families and communities depend, is Half of the world’s population
critical for everyday survival. Women consists of women - some 2.7 billion persons.
influence population directly through their They are central and essential to the well-
reproductive behaviour. A women’s fertility being of the family, to the functioning of the
is determined, to a large extent, by social community, and to the management of the
and cultural factors, her educational level, and environment. Unfortunately, women’s
health and economic status. It is modified centrality is often not recognized by policy-
considerably by her access to family planning makers. Women’s health and education are
129
neglected, their identification of problems and all levels of decision-making. Although

solutions are not sought and their contributions women grow much of the developing world’s
to the community and household are often food, they receive little in the way of
taken for granted or overlooked. government assistance. Where women are
the heads of households and principally
The disadvantaged state of women responsible for the land, they must be allowed
in the developing world becomes more to hold legal title to land and given access to
compelling since their role is key to the agricultural extension services and credit
achievement of population, development and schemes. Ways and means must be found,
environmental goals. Women’s educational, within the development context of each
work and health status are important factors country, to allow women to better manage
that influence their fertility levels, their critical resources. Education and training of
capacity to manage the environment, and their women in resource management and
contribution to development. If real progress conservation must be given a high priority.
is to be made in resolving the plethora of Women’s t r a d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e o f
environmental and development problems environmental resource management must be
facing the world today, women as a resource utilized when formulating development
must be fully recognized. strategies. Women’s groups and non-
governmental organizations must be utilized
If sustainable development is to be
in all aspects of the development process.
more than just a slogan, then women must
They must be incorporated into overall
participate actively in the design and
development strategies, including resource
implementation of population and environment
management, as well as in the design and
programmes. Furthermore, resources will be
implementation of quality family planning and
better managed if women’s status is improved
maternal and child health services.
and they are allowed to contribute substantially
to the development process. Women must
Descriptors:
have more access to educational opportunities
and jobs, as well as maternal and child health
Women's Role; Women’s Status; Population
care and family planning services. They must
Growth; Population Change; Development
become partners in development.
Planning; Environmental Planning;
In addition, the book argues and Sustainable Development; Women's
recommends that it is essential for women to Programmes; Women in Development
receive priority on both research and action
agenda. Women’s needs and concerns must Source: UNFPA
be properly addressed from the beginning in 220 East 42nd Street
all population-environment-development New York, N. Y. 10017
projects, and women must be represented at U. S. A.
130
63
Waak, Patricia, and Kenneth Strom, eds. Sharing the earth: cross-cultural
experiences in population, wildlife and the environment. Washington,
D. C., National Audubon Society, 1992. 167 p.
ince the turn of the century, forward approach to dealing with rapid
the National Audubon Society population growth.
has been in the forefront of
wildlife conservation through the establishment Audubon’s experience was a little
of a nationwide system of wildlife wardens. different. After the establishment of a
At present, the Society supports a sanctuary population policy in 1979, it began a modest
department with almost one hundred years public education programme. But most of
of experience in wildlife management, these activities remained isolated from the
responsible for a system of 100 wildlife broader agenda of the organization. It was
sanctuaries, of which 34 are managed by in 1985 that new efforts were made to firmly
professional wildlife biologists. establish a place for the population issue at
Audubon which included extensive
In 1979, Audubon established its programmes in public education, advocacy
Population Programme, recognizing that birds and coalition-building.
and other animals and their habitats could
not be preserved indefinitely without also As an organization, Audubon has two
dealing with population growth and their ever- outstanding strengths: (1) an extensive
growing use of the earth’s resources. In 1988, membership network organized into local
Audubon’s Population Programme and chapters, and (2) a tradition of land
Sanctuary Department set out jointly to explore management carried on by the society’s
the human population problem in its fullest sanctuary department. With more than 600,000
dimensions. It aimed to understand and members, 600 chapters, 9 regional offices,
demonstrate the effects of population growth 7 education offices, 5 state offices, and
and resource use on the environment, whether 51 state councils, the organization is a powerful
in a rich industrialized country or a poor force for the conservation of wildlife and
developing country. It was discovered that natural resources. This activist network and
the United States, with its technology and professional expertise enabled Audubon to
wealth, has degraded its natural habitat much develop and implement a unique programme
more extensively and dramatically than many to investigate the problem of population
developing countries with high rates of impacts on wildlife and to apply these findings
population growth. to citizen and government action.
In the early days of environmental In Sharing the Earth project, eight

activism there was considerable debate about Audubon wildlife sanctuaries that were affected
human population. The gloom and doom by human population pressures were matched
forecasts of catastrophes resulting from with eight wildlife sites in developing countries
rampant population growth offered chilling where wildlife and habitat are threatened by
scenarios which frightened many and alienated high population growth. Several chapters in
many others. Although some environmental the book document the experiences of fifteen
groups tried to rally around the population men and two women working together across
issue, it proved easier to organize and motivate continents and oceans to understand each
citizens to conserve energy and recycle others’ problems and to share ideas leading
consumer goods than to find a simple, straight- to possible solutions.
131
The Audubon wildlife managers the effects of human activity on the

visited their partners’ international settings environment. In Mexico, Guatemala, Brazil,
and then hosted their counterparts at their Kenya, Zimbabwe, Pakistan, Thailand, and
own sanctuaries in the U. S. Each participant Indonesia there are similar problems and
returned with an array of factual discoveries solutions to those of the threatened wetlands
and personal insights. Antonio Dutra of Brazil in North Dakota, Nebraska, Texas, Louisiana,
was shocked to witness the decimation of Florida and South Carolina. The effort to
wildlife habitat that occurs when the save the Platte River in Nebraska from extreme
agricultural economy takes precedence over human pressures that threaten to degrade and
wet-land values in North Dakota. Otto destroy the habitat for millions of migratory
Sandoval of Guatemala was stunned by the birds is providing important lessons which
deforestation of South Texas. Otto’s Audubon apply to river habitats in India, Nepal, Pakistan
counterpart, Rose Farmer, made a very and other places throughout the world.
different pragmatic discovery that knowledge
of the Spanish language is not only essential In examining the themes which run
to working effectively with Guatemalan through the stories of all of the exchanges,
wildlife experts but is also vital to gaining each study has in common the issues of
the involvement of 85 per cent of the economics and ethics, population growth and
population of the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. resource use, and water and wildlife.
All of the paired project sites involve Descriptors:

water resources: three are coastal systems,
two involve major rivers, and three relate to Environmental Management;
other freshwater wetlands. In most cases it Environmental Planning; Environmental
was found that, although the developing Degradation; Wildlife; Water Resources;
countries are economically poorer, the U. S. Conservation; Population Pressure
natural resources are more degraded.
Source: National Audubon Society
Although each of the case studies 666 Pennsylvania Avenue, S. E
are unique, the resulting stories send a common Washington, D. C. 20003
message: ways must be examined to redirect U. S. A.
132
CURRICULUM
MATERIALS
fold structure while the other features innovative teaching approaches. Human Needs and
Balance examines food, water and energy source issues by discussing its key global achievements,
its environmental costs and its potential to be managed sustainably. Earth Matters, on the other
hand, offers an interdisciplinary approach to include broad curriculum areas. It employs innovative
teaching approaches such as role playing, simulation, laboratory experiments, problem-solving,
mathematical exercises and values classification activities.
The selection Population Education Sourcebook and Social Studies Teacher’s Guide
for Junior Secondary Education in Population and Family Life Education, were both published
as a result of recent developments in Nigeria’s educational system and concurrently, as an
attempt to address the population education objectives of the country.
Both selection highlight family issue in relation to its population dynamics or growth,
size and productivity and its patterns of resource, demand and consumption of goods. The
Social Studies Teacher’s Guide concentrates on the family to include the rest of its units on
health care, environmental quality and responsible parenthood. In addition, the Population
Education Sourcebook, which was published as a monograph series, addresses the increasing
gap between birth and death rates in relation to either the provision or lack of basic facilities
and services. It also provides a micro-macro analysis to allow comparison of the national
situation with other countries. Finally, they discuss the importance of self-sufficiency and the
dangers of dependence on food import and aid.
64
Crews, Kimberly A. Human needs and nature’s balance: population, resources

and the environment. Population Reference Bureau, Inc., Washington,
D. C., 1987. 13 p. (Population learning series)
rrl
his booklet is part of the produced in North America, Europe, Australia,
Population Learning Series and New Zealand.
published by the Population
Reference Bureau, Inc. It contains an article, The article concludes by arguing that
a selection of additional resources, and while it is not necessary for each country to
exercises. be able to grow enough food to feed its
population, it is necessary to have other
The article examines achievements resources or products to trade for food if it
in global food production, the use of water can not be grown. In addition, in order to
resources, and harnessing resources for energy. attain global food security, or the assurance
It also examines the environmental costs of that all the world’s future people can be fed,
these achievements and discusses the potential it is necessary to improve agricultural output
for managing the world’s resources and with methods that can be continued without
environment to sustain future population harming the environment. The key to
growth. It begins by reviewing trends in achieving this goal is through government
population growth and distribution since policies which: 1) promote the establishment
population change is a basic determinant of of a balance between cash crops and food
resource use. crops; 2) encourage crop production and
provide favourable returns for the small farmer
Considering the growing population in the developing countries; 3) support
of the developing countries and the practices which conserve resources and protect
consumption patterns of the people of the the environment; and 4) provide ample
more developed world, the article poses the employment opportunities to eliminate poverty.
following questions on how the world’s
population will be sustained through the The demand for future water
coming years. Will enough food be grown resources will continue to increase as the world
and distributed to those who need it? Will population grows and as developing countries
land be sustained for continued agricultural expand their agricultural and industrial
use? Will water resources be sufficient for activities. However, because the distribution
future generations? Will energy resources be of global water resources does not correspond
affordable? Will future generations be able to the distribution of the global population,
to survive in the environment carved by their providing water in some regions may prove
ancestors? difficult. And while governments struggle
to supply basic drinking water, most of the
Among the accomplishments cited water resources in these countries will be used
under food production include improvements to meet agricultural and industrial demands.
in agricultural technology specifically the Proper management of water USC in these areas
Green Revolution during the 1960s. Industrial will be vital to sustaining water resources
agriculture - capital and input extensive using and human life. While efficient techniques
machinery, chemicals and extensive irrigation for using industrial water and efficient
- has currently increased the amount of food irrigation practices exist, they are applied and
137
utilized by only a few countries. In order to Descriptors:

protect the global water supply, it will be
necessary to expand the utilization of Instructional Materials; Population
conservation techniques. Trends; Urbanization; Food Production;
Environmental Impact; Water Resources;
The future of energy resources, on Energy Resources; International
the hand, may lie in the conservation of the Cooperation
traditional energy resource - wood, and the
further use of other renewable energy resources Source: Population Reference Bureau,
- hydropower, wind power, solar power, and 1875 Connecticut Avenue,
biomass. N. W.
U. S. A.
65
Crews, Kimberly A. Making connections: linking population and the environment

- elementary teacher’s guide. Washington, D. C., Population Reference
Bureau, 1992. 148 p.
q
he book provides elementary that is necessary for understanding global
teachers with materials and issues. In the remaining lessons, students
strategies to teach about examine specific environmental concerns,
population and environmental issues. On one focusing on specific world regions.
level, the materials provide content in basic
population dynamics and specific Descriptors:
environmental concerns such as water use,
deforestation, desertification, and urban
Population Education; Instructional
problems. The second goal is to help students
Materials; Teacher’s Guide; Primary
begin to understand the complexity of these
Grades; Environmental Education;
issues, the relationship between population
Demography; Social Studies; Geography
growth and environmental degradation, and
the interdependence of the world’s nations and
people. This teaching guide consists of 28 Source: Population Reference Bureau
1875 Connecticut Avenue,
lessons reproducible student handouts, resource
materials, and data tables. It provides teachers N. W.
with lessons that provide the background in Washington D. C. 20009
population growth and geographic analysis U. S. A.
138
66
ECO Education. Connections: teachers manual - a companion guide to the

student guidebook. Saint Paul, MN, ECO Education, 1994. 171 p.
q
his manual is a comparison Chapter 2 and 6. Class activities in each
guide for “Connections: chapter are divided into three types:
student guide to a healthy demonstrations, explorations and critical
environment”. A variety of thinking exercises.
information and activities to supplement the
student guidebook are provided. The Focus Descriptors:
Section at the beginning of each chapter lists
learner outcomes that are addressed in either Population Education; Environmental
the guidebook or the activities. A vocabulary Education; Ecosystems; Instructional
list is included prior to the background Materials; Teacher’s Guide; Primary
information in each chapter and includes terms Grades; Secondary Grades; Environment;
from the corresponding guidebook chapter. Atmosphere;, Pollution; Deforestation;
Subjects supplemented are founded in the Population Growth
chapter Teacher Background Sections. At
the end of Teacher Background is a Pre-Test Source: ECO Education
with answers following. Guidebook Worksheet 275 East Fourth St.
with answers following that can be used as a Suite 821, St. Paul,
quiz are provided following the Pre-Test; MN 55101
Summary Tests are included at the end of U. S. A.
67
ECO Education. Connections: guide to a healthy environment. St. Paul, Minnesota,

EGO Education, 1994. 75 p.
he book is designed as a encouraged. Topics include pollution,

supplementary resource for ecosystems and wildlife endangerment.
middle school science
curricula, this textbook is unique in that it Descriptors:
encourages students to illustrate and
personalize their textbooks to increase Population Education; Instructional
involvement and interest, as well as to Materials; Environmental Education;
underscore the belief that conservation and Resource Materials; Textbooks and
change begin with individual choices. Students Workbooks; Primary Grades; Secondary
trace and illustrate their own family tree, and Grades; Pollution; Reforestation;
calculate population growth at current growth Population Growth; Environment;
rates. Each chapter ends with an assignment Ecosystems
that focuses the student’s attention on his or
her own pattern of consumption and its effect Source: ECO Education
on the environment. Parental involvement is 275 East Fourth St., Suite 821
St. Paul, MN 55101
U. S. A.
139
68
Nigerian Educational Research Council. Population education sourcebook.

Lagos, 1985 and 1987. 436 p. (Population education monograph series
nos. 1 to 13 and 15)
igeria’s overriding concern, as teachers and students. Thus, population

can be gleaned from the education, in the Council’s view, is an
different National De- educational process which provides for a study
velopment Plans since Independence, has of the population situation in the family, the
always been the improvement of the living community, the nation and the world with
conditions of its people through the use of the purpose of developing in the citizens a
resources, human and material, with which rational and responsible attitude and behaviour
the country is so richly endowed. toward improving the quality of life now and
in the future.
Desirous to contribute to the process
of achieving these objectives, the Federal The general goal of the population
Ministry of Education, through the Nigerian education programme in Nigeria is to involve
Educational Research Council (NERC), started citizens in a learning process and to make
in February 1981 to look into issues of the people aware of the interrelationships between
relationship between resources and population population change and quality of life at all
change in Nigeria, and how education can levels.
help address this relationship.
It is a recognised fact that there are
Between 1982 and 1983, the Council national and international dimensions to
in response to a perceived need initiated moves population issues and that the individual, the
to introduce population education into the family, and the nation are affected by and
Nigerian educational system. The need for also contribute to population problems. All
population education in the country is as development policies and programmes, politics,
pronounced in 1985 as it was in 1983 when and planning are concerned with people and
the Federal Government endorsed the resources.
implementation of the Population Education
Programme for Nigeria, as a result of the Initially, the focus of the population
precarious state of the economy, the continuing education programme in Nigeria is directed
feed deficit situation, the increasing demand toward students at the secondary school level.
on national income for servicing external debts, The decision to focus at this level is based
the ever expanding school population, and on the assumption that students at this age
the unprecedented rate of unemployment, group and above are presumably more mature
among other problems. Moreover, in recent emotionally and intellectually to understand
times, many Nigerians have begun to focus the general objectives of the programme.
attention on the problems of population in
general and family size in particular. The The population education objectives
impact of population change is being felt more at the secondary school level in Nigeria seek
acutely by the average Nigerian family. to help the students to: 1) recognise the
implications of the increasing gap between
It was in recognition of this felt need birth and death rates for the provision of such
that the Council embarked in 1983 on a course basic facilities and services as schools, health
to bring the relationship between resources institutions, water and housing; 2) relate growth
and population change to the consciousness and size of family to demand for available
of policy-makers, school administrators, food and other facilities, health and
140
productivity of members of the family; The chapters in the sourcebook are

3) explain how population structure at the preliminary studies that the Council hopes to
household and national levels affects the update in the future as more information is
patterns of demand for and consumption of received or becomes available. Since they
goods and services; 4) recognise the various do not pretend to be exhaustive, overlaps in
ways in which population growth, the the treatment of subject matter are inevitable.
constraints on resource development and the However, care has been taken to reduce such
pattern of consumption at the family level, overlaps to a minimum. These chapters are
have contributed to the present state of serious initially printed singly, in monograph form
food deficit and quality of life situation in to enable them to be accessible to specific
the country; 5) compare and contrast the types of audience that the Council intends to
population and resource situation in Nigeria reach in its dissemination campaigns. Similar
with that of other countries so as to have an campaigns have been mounted by the Federal
insight into the international dimensions of Ministry of Health through its Population
the population problem; 6) highlight the Policy and Development project and the
importance of self-sufficiency in food Council has been requested to collaborate in
production and the dangers of dependence implementing them.
on food imports and food aids; and 7) identify
the various use of population data and develop Highlights of the monographs
an understanding of the importance of included in the population sourcebook which
population census enumerations and the are related to the issue of environment are
registration of vital statistics. the following:
A study on curriculum contents 1. Nigerian People and Population

conducted for the Council reveals that Issues
population education concepts already exist
in many subjects taught in Nigerian secondary The first monograph discusses
schools. The same study also found that these Nigeria’s ethnic groups and examines some
concepts are, however, not organised or of the features of the present population
focused to students. Thus, there is need to situation, touching especially on their
emphasize some concepts, orientations, and geographical, demographic and socioeconomic
arguments in a more orderly and logical characteristics. In broad terms, the discussions
manner to bring the relationship between also look into some of the population issues
resources and population change into a sharper that arise, exist and confront the country, or
focus. that may be reasonably expected in the future
in its bid to achieve sustainable development,
In an attempt to assist educators and high standards and improved living conditions
policy-makers to acquire the necessary for the people, better quality of the
knowledge, the Council invited experts to write environment, national unity, viable policies
on various issues that are related to population. and nationalism. This is followed by a review
Individual writers endeavoured to address the of population action programmes and options
above-mentioned goals, working on general related to present and future population-related
outlines agreed upon at a planning workshop. issues and other developmental problems.
The result was a collection of fifteen chapters
that was intended for a sourcebook on Nigeria is a large country based on
population education. Each chapter in the its land area, environmental resources,
sourcebook became a theme in the population population size and human resources. The
education curriculum materials that were country is still largely underdeveloped due
subsequently developed during the first quarter to its low level of technology and overall
of 1985 and later approved by the National population-development situation.
Council on Education (NCE) in July 1985.
141
Nigeria’s population issues are This has meant a growing imbalance between
examined in terms of its social and societal urban population and the available social
development, economic and political services and economic opportunites.
development, as well as living standards, the According to a United Nations report, the
quality of the environment and the rights and problem of urbanization in the developing
responsibilities of the people. In this case, countries of the world is ranked very high
the monograph demonstrates the among the world demographic problems.
interrelationships between population situation,
trends and change and how it has contributed Urbanization itself as a demographic
largely to the national socioeconomic and process needs to be defined for conceptual
political underdevelopment. More clarity. Also, there is a need to define several
significantly, variations in standards of living, other terms and concepts regarding the
average quality of life and overall development urbanization phenomenon in popular usage
of the country, tend to be connected with because these are often misconstrued and,
variations in individual population behaviours, generally, poorly conceptualized. Clarification
household demographic situations and of such concepts is the major concern of this
community population circumstances. monograph.
Likewise, this monograph attempts The historical evolution of

to present the facts and information on how urbanization is also discussed, followed by
Nigerians can relate to these issues and an assessment of the nature of relationship
perceive their roles and the consequences of between population growth and urban
their attitude toward the overall population- development. Factors influencing city growth
development situation. It also gives an are analysed and the features of an urban
overview on how the country can plan and population are described. This is then followed
manage its population and facilitate change by a treatment of rural-urban interaction.
in order to attain its developmental objectives. Finally, the problems of urbanization and
policy measures are assessed.
2. Population and Urbanization
3. Population and Sociocultural Life
The phenomenal growth of population
since the end of World War II has been the On the whole, it is felt that since at
major pre-occupation of scholars and least 60 percent of the Nigerian population
government planners the world over. Emphasis resides in the rural areas, the major efforts at
has been placed mainly on how to overcome positively effecting sociocultural change should
the undesirable consequences of rapid be directe toward rural development such
population growth among the poor nations as the provision of social services,
of the world. In particular, the poverty of infrastructure facilities and creating rural
nations has been traced to the inhibiting forces industries. This transfer of resources from
of rapid population growth and its demographic urban to rural areas can considerably curb
dimensions. the rural-urban migration and its attendant
social ills.
It is now becoming increasingly clear,
however, that while rapid population growth The view that developmental
per se is a limiting factor in economic and problems are inextricably linked to the
social transformation, progress in development adoption of foreign western values are
can further be retarded by an imbalance questioned in this monograph. This perception
between population distribution and availability dictates a strategy of curbing cultural
of resources. Urbanization of the population imperialism by reducing or banning
has been increasing at a much faster rate than importation of foreign items, including food,
the rate of increase of national populations drinks, clothing, or entertainment programmes.
in the poorer countries of the world today. In addition, there is now a concerted
142
stigmatization campaign a g a i n s t t h e fifteen to twenty years because of the built-

materialistic, conspicuous style of life or in momentum. Policies to reduce population
squandermania of Nigerians as displayed in growth will, however, make an important
expensive apparrels of lace, damask, silk, gold contribution to development in the long-run.
and lavish funeral and birth ceremonies as
well as frequent travels to western countries 5. Population and Environmental
in order to purchase these items. In Quality
conjunction with these measures, Nigerians
are encouraged to pursue cultural revival and The Nigerian environment has been
neo-traditionalism instead of the materialistic considerably affected by the population
style of life. These forced changes in situation. The people themselves have acquired
behavioural patterns can undoubtedly, in the or improved on their various behaviour
long-run, be accompanied by attitudinal characteristics over the years. They have in
changes and culminate in peoples’ re- the process come in close contact with and
socialization into values and behaviours thus interacted with the environment in several
consonant with positive growth and ways. They have modified the natural
development. environments and created their own forms of
environments as their needs and expectations
4. Population and Economic increase and their technologies improve.
Consequences Consequently, their various decisions and
actions, or through their inactions and neglects,
Increasing attention is being focused Nigerians have brought about healthy and
on the relationship between economic unhealthy impacts on the environment. In
development and population growth in recent turn, there have also been some uncomfortable
time. A number of economists and non- or even threatening consequences for the
economists have spoken at length on the people themselves arising from their
undesirable consequences of rapid population environmental decisions, actions and inactions.
growth. While some attribute almost all the
world’s economic and social evils to excessive This situation has awakened global
population growth, others feel that population fears and responses. In response, the United
growth is not a real problem. Whatever Nations Organization (UNO) through its
argument one holds will, however, depend Environmental Programme (UNEP) established
on a nation’s state of development. in 1972, has declared that to defend and
improve the environmentfor present and future
The effect of population growth may generations has become an imperative goal
vary widely, depending on the economic and for mankind (1977 TBlLISI (USSR)
cultural setting. Nevertheless, the evidences DECLARATION). UNEP has also advocated
discussed in this monograph point programmes on environmental education and
overwhelmingly to the conclusion that training in many countries. Furthermore,
population growth at rapid rates common in UNESCO has carried out a Programme on
most developing world slows development. Man and the Biosphere (MAB) which studied,
It makes it harder to tackle because poor people among other things, the effects of environment
tend to have larger families. It weakens macro- quality on man. Studies carried out in this
economic performance by making it more Programme called attention, in particular, to
difficult to finance the investments in education different environmental hazards (natural and
and infrastructure that ensures sustained man-made) and the damage and loss of
economic growth. Even though population (human) life associated with environmental
growth eventually declines as parents decide quality situations.
to have fewer children, the effect may not be
positively felt in developing countries. Decline Moreover, UNO declared and
in fertility, for example, will cut the growth celebrates the 5th day of June, every year as
of the labour force in these nations only after World Environment Day. This is meant to
draw the attention of governments, non- With r e f e r e n c e t o Nigeria,

governmental organizations, development environmental influences in human existence
decision-makers, and all other people in various are discussed, as well as the ways in which
countries of the world, to the state of the man affects and creates impact on the
environment and various environmental issues environment. After reviewing the different
and problems threatening mankind today. environmental problems, the various policies
and actions so far embarked upon are
Nigeria has participated in this enumerated and analyzed at the end of the
celebration, while several Nigerians have been monograph.
involved in UNEP. This involvement is mainly
a recognition of the increasing environmental Descriptors:
problems in the country, the threat that these
problems pose for the population and thus Instructional Materials; Population
the need for increased environmental awareness Dynamics; Human Reproduction; Family
among Nigerians. Life Education; Urbanization; Sociocultural
Factors; Economics; Education; Labour
This monograph starts with an outline
Force; Nutrition; Health; Environmental
of the different types and elements of the
Quality; Population Policy; Politics;
Nigerian environment with the main emphasis
Demographic Data; Nigeria
on the environmental units in which the
Nigerian population may be living, migrating Source: Nigerian Educational
to, or working, as well as the environmental Research Council
resources available. Thereafter, the nature of 3 Jibowu Street
the environmental process is discussed Yaba - Lagos
emphasizing the role of Nigerians. Nigeria
69
Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council. Population

Education Department. Social studies: teacher’s guide for junior secondary
education in population and family life education. Lagos, 1990, 151 p.
(Supplementary material for the population education programme in Nigeria)
his teachers’ guide for environments in which they live. The

Population and Family Life curriculum units Family and Population
Education in Social Studies Dynamics, Family and Health Care, Family
was developed for use by teachers at the Junior Needs and Resources, Family and the
Secondary School (JSS) level (Years 1 and Environment; and Responsible Parenthood
3) under Nigeria’s new educational system. explore this interaction at the family level.
The relationship between family life education
and Social Studies is of significant importance. The unit on Family and Population
Family life education focuses on assisting Dynamics revolves around the family as the
Nigerians in developing their ability to reproductive nucleus of society and the basic
understand themselves and the various unit of social life. As such, the family is
144
central in population dynamics. This unit importance of family budgeting and explains
addresses two factors that produce population the relationship between family income, family
change in any given society: fertility and expenditure and overall family welfare.
migration. It shows how high fertility and
the spacing of children influence the The unit on Family and
availability of resources, the provision of basic Environmental Quality describes the factors
amenities, and the quality of life of family that affect the quality of the family
members. It also highlights various social environment, including family size, family
and environmental issues associated with habits and practices, family resources, child
migration and the effects of such movement birth spacing and the provision of adequate
on the individual, family unit and the nation. waste disposal facilities. This unit treats the
issue of environmental quality at the personal
The Family and Health Care unit level in terms of personal sanitation or hygiene;
focuses on the development potential of a at the residential level in terms of overcrowding
family as considerably influenced by the and waste disposal; and at the community
quality of its members which, in turn, basically level, in terms of pollution and community
depends on the health status of the family. It waste disposal.
stresses the fundamental importance of primary
The unit also describes the factors
health care in improving the quality of life.
that affect the quality of the community
The unit describes the types, causes and effects
environment, including the patterns of
of common household diseases and accidents
population distribution, provision and
that affect the health of family members. It
m a n a g e m e n t o f s o c i a l u t i l i t i e s , and
also explains methods of disease prevention
environmental awareness.
and accident treatment. Finally, the unit
examines the traditional and modern health The Responsible Parenthood unit
care delivery systems in Nigeria, their defines the concepts of single and foster
respective preventive and curative measures, parenthood. It examines the various reasons
and their relationship to the overall welfare for the increasing incidence of single
of the family. parenthood and the resulting effects on child
development and family stability. The
Family Needs and Resources
advantages and disadvantages of foster
highlights the quality of life of the family as
parenthood are also examined. Finally, the
largely dependent on its ability to satisfy needs
unit discusses the duties and responsibilities
which, in turn, depends on the resources of parents toward both disabled and gifted
available to the family. This unit examines
children, in order to encourage the proper
the basic needs of a family, including food, development of the children and the welfare
housing, education, and energy consumption. of the entire family.
It shows how family resources are limited,
while needs are unlimited, and how both are Descriptors:
influenced by events at different stages of
family life. Family Needs and Resources Instructional Materials; Family Life
stresses the importance of planning family Education; Social Studies; Teacher’s Guide;
size and the spacing of child birth in order to Responsible Parenthood; Family; Health
maximize family resources and constrained Care; Population Dynamics; Environment;
budgets. Nigeria
The unit also addresses the positive Source: The Centre for Development
contribution of family goals, values and and Population Activities
traditions to the promotion of good quality 1717 Massachusetts Avenue,
family life. In particular, the unit identifies NW, Suite 202
the traditional values and beliefs that influence Washington, D. C., 20036
such factors as family size, age at marriage U. S. A.
and child spacing. Finally, it discusses the
145
he kit aims to introduce upper

elementary students (grades 4-
6) to population and
environment issues. The readings in the
Student Resource Guide are divided into
geographic units: the world, Africa, Asia
and Latin America. Within each unit is an
article on the region, and when available,
articles on specific countries in that region.
Terms that appear in the glossary, located at Source: Population Reference Bureau,
the back of the Student Resource Guide, are Inc.
highlighted in colour in the text. Units of 1875 Connecticut Ave,
measure that may be unfamiliar to the Wasington D. C. 20009
students are defined in the margin. Page- U. S. A.
size versions of the World Population Data
Sheet and World Environment Data Sheet can
be found at the end of the book.
71
Population Reference Bureau, Inc. Connections - linking population and the

ed. by Kimberly A. Crews, and Patricia
environment: teacher’s guide,
Cancellier. Washington, D.C., 1991. 80 p.
El
his Teacher’s Guide contains books, articles and audiovisual aids can be
27 lessons that complement found at the beginning of each section.
the articles, expand on
selected concepts and issues and help students Descriptors:
make the connections between population
growth, environmental concerns and Population Education; Instructional
sustainable development. Some of the lessons Materials; ‘Teacher’s Guide; Population
are specifically tied to a particular region or Growth; Primary Grades; Environmental
country. Others are more generic and can be Education; Population Dynamics;
used when studying any of the regions and Population Pressure; Sustainable
countries in the package. The lessons can be Development
used alone or as a unit. Accompanying
worksheets can be found at the end of the Source: Population Reference Bureau
lessons. A learning matrix, showing the 1875 Connecticut Avenue,
countries, topics and skills that are covered N. W.
in each lesson and reading, can be found on Washington D. C. 20009
pages 6-9. A resource list containing additional U. S. A.
146
72
Wasserman, Pamela and Andrea Doyle. Earth matters. Washington, D.C.,

1991. 177 p. (Studies for our global future)
hrough 12 readings and 32 complete unit on global environmental and

innovative activities, Earth social issues, each chapter or activity can stand
Matters introduces high alone to emphasize one particular topic or
school students to the issues on global idea.
environment and society, while challenging
them to evaluate these issues critically and All of the activities in Earth Matters
motivating them to develop solutions. are designed to engage students. A variety
of teaching strategies including role-playing,
Today’s students inhabit a rapidly simulations, laboratory experiments, problem-
changing world where daily headlines warn solving challenges, mathematical exercises,
of problems such as hunger, poverty, global cooperative learning projects, research,
warming, pollution and deforestation. Central discussion and values clarification activities
to many of the pressing environmental, social are employed to meet the needs of different
and economic issues of our time are people - educators and their individual teaching styles.
our numbers and our activities. The range of activities has been designed to
develop a number of student skills including
Most of the threats to our global critical thinking, research, public speaking,
ecosystems and social structures are human- writing, data collection and analysis,
made, and are worsened by increasing numbers cooperation, decision-making, creative
placing stress on finite resources and fragile problem-solving, reading comprehension,
economies. Earth Matters helps students conflict resolution and values clarification.
explore these connections by linking human
population growth and lifestyles to the health Twelve of the 13 chapters in Earth
and well-being of the planet and all its matters address specific issues of the global
inhabitants. society and environment, such as hunger,
deforestation and energy consumption. The
Because the issues covered in Earth final chapter on Finding Solutions includes
Matters are interdisciplinary, this book is several activities which encompass all of the
designed for use in several curriculum areas. preceding topics. These activities encourage
The readings and activities develop knowledge personal decision-making and individual
and skills applicable to high school social actions on critical issues that shape our lives.
studies, science, math, language arts and family In this way, Earth Matters aims not only to
life education, and can be easily integrated enlighten students, but also to build skills,
into existing curriculum plans. The charts concern and commitment for effective global
included in the book briefly describe each citizenship.
activity, indicating which skills and subject
areas are emphasized in each. Many of these The thirteen chapters in the book
activities also lend themselves to a team- include Population Dynamics, Climate Change,
teaching approach, where educators from Air Pollution, Water Resources, Deforestation,
different disciplines can help in facilitating Food and Hunger, Waste Disposal, Wildlife
the activity. Endangerment, Energy Issues, Rich and Poor,
Population and Economics, The World’s
There are a variety of ways to use Women and Finding Solutions.
Earth Matters. Although the book forms a
147
73
World Resources Institute, Teacher’s guide to World Resources 1992-93:

comprehensive coursework on the global environment. Washington, D.C.,
1992. 43 p.
his Teacher’s Guide is a Descriptors:

companion handbook to
facilitate use of World
Resources 1992-93 in high school social
studies, geography, science, and environmental
curricula. It contains step-by-step lesson
plans to teach about six critical issue areas,
sustainable development, global warming,
watershed pollution, deforestation and bio-
diversity, population, poverty, and pollution,
and citizen action. For each of these vital
topics, the Teacher’s Guide provides an Source: World Resources Institute
introduction to the issue, learning objectives 1735 New York Avenue, N. W.
and critical skill building techniques, lesson Washington D. C. 20008
plans for one or more class periods, student U. S. A.
enrichment activities, reproducible student
hand-outs, transparency masters, suggested
reading lists, and more.
148
74
Zero Population Growth. Multiplying people, dividing resources. Washington

D. C., 1994. 1 packet of looseleaf sheets.
q
his kit contains a collection Descriptors:
of population, environment
and resource activities Population Education; Teacher’s Guide;
designed for middle school math teachers. Instructional Materials; Mathematics;
The kit provides 19 innovative math activities Secondary Grades; Demography
which closely adhere to the National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTN) standards. Source: ZPG’s Population Education
They use percentages, graphs, multiplication, Programme
and data interpretation to study the status of Zero Population Growth Inc.
the environment, and compare various 1400 16th Street, N. W.
solutions. Explanations of how the activities U. S. A.
apply to the real world are included with
interesting follow-up questions. The kit also
includes a World Population Data Sheet and
computer software review.
149
INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
(Refer to abstract number)
Agriculture 39 Family planning 06, 10, 14, 23, 25, 59

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Family planning programmes 15, 30, 46
Syndrome) 12, 17 Family size 10
Air pollution 08, 72 Fertility 10, 11, 13, 17, 25, 31
Atmosphere and climate 03, 05, 48, 66, 72 Fertility decline 10
Deforestation 48, 66, 67, 72 Fisheries 50
Demographic statistics 7, 12-15, 32 Food and food production 01, 03, 09, 13,
Demographic transition 10 18, 38-41, 53, 64, 72
Development planning 01, 09, 14, 21, Forest resources 01, 03, 50
23-25, 27, 30, 33, 42-43, 49, 54, 62 Gender equity 35
Economic development 19, 58 Global arena 04
Economic policy 19 Global security 03
Economics 68, 72 Greenhouse warming 07, 10, 45, 54, 73
Ecosystems 26, 37, 39-41, 67 Hazardous substances 03
Education 13, 35, 68 Health care and conditions 01, 31, 35, 55,
Educational status 10 68, 69
Energy 01, 03, 09, 18, 40, 43, 52-53, 59, 64, Household 47
72-73 Human reproduction 68
Environmental challenges 05 Human resources development 23
Environmental change 07 Human rights 15, 61
Environmental conditions 05 Human settlements 09, 59
Environmental degradation 26, 28, 40, Hunger 72
45-46, 48, 54, 57, 63, 73 IEC 14, 15
Environmental development 19, 28 Industrial development 09, 45, 51
Environmental economics 43 Industrial pollution 02
Environmental education 65-67, 70, 73 Instructional materials 64-74
Environmental health 09 Primary grades 65, 67, 70-71
Environmental legislation 05 Secondary grades 65, 67, 73-74
Environmental management 01, 09, 21, 46, International cooperation 48-49, 64
49, 61, 63 International migration 47
Environmental planning 01, 05, 18, 20, Land 36, 50
23-25, 27-29, 32, 34, 36, 42, 45-46, Maternal and child health 06, 14, 23
48-49, 53, 57-58, 60-63 Migration 11, 13, 15-16, 23, 25, 30-31, 35,
Environmental policy 01-02, 22, 29, 36, 38, 51
43, 50, 54 Migration policy 16
Environmental problems 01-09 Minerals 03
Environmental protection 04, 06, 18, 53 Morbidity 68
Environmental quality 68 Mortality 12, 17, 25, 35
Environmental strategy 02 Natural resources 01-02, 21, 28, 36-38, 42,
Environmental surveys 21 45, 49-53, 55-57, 59
Environmental technology 0.5 Nuclear energy 08
Environmental trends 05, 08 Nutrition 41, 68
Exponential growth 39, 45 Occupational hazards 09
Family 31, 35, 69 Ozone and ozone depletion 05, 45
Family life education 69 Pesticides 41
153
Policy statements 21-35 Sociocultural factors 68

Politics 68 Socio-economic conditions 13, 18, 21
Pollution 02, 04, 11, 45, 48, 53, 65, 67, 73 Socio-economic development 03, 06, 18-19,
Population composition and dynamics 01, 23-24, 27, 33-35, 42, 48, 51, 60
03, 10, 13, 16-17, 22, 25-26, 28, Socio-economic factors 30, 40, 54, 57
30-32, 35, 40, 42, 45, 49-57, 62, 64, Solar energy 18
66-72 Solid waste management 03
Population control 40-41, 53 Sustainable development 01, 06, 18-21,
Population education 65-67, 70-71, 73-74 23-27, 29, 3l-35, 54, 57-58, 62, 70-71
Population/environment programmes 58-63 Teacher’s guide 65-66, 69, 71-74
Children’s programmes 60-61 Biology 73
Women’s programmes 58-59, 62 Geography 65
Population growth 01, 03, 11, 15-17, 22, 26, Mathematics 74
28, 30-32, 35, 40, 42, 45, 49-53, Social studies 65, 69, 73-74
56-57, 66-67, 70-71 Transboundary movement 09
Population policy 13-15, 23-25, 30-33, 39, Tropical forests 03
41, 55-56, 68 Urbanization 09, 15-16, 23, 35, 51, 64, 68
Population pressure 18, 22, 28, 36-39, 41, Value systems 44
43, 46, 48-49, 51-52, 54-56, 63, 70-71, Wastes 18, 45, 72
73 Water resources 02, 09, 63-64, 72
Population problems l0-17 Wildlife 63, 72
Population programmes 15, 33, 46 Women empowerment 35
Population projections 11, 13, 17 Women in development 06, 14, 25, 33, 58,
Poverty and poverty alleviation 06, 13, 62
23-25, 45, 73 Women’s programmes 58-59, 62
Quality of life 20, 22, 44, 55-56 Women’s role 16, 48, 52, 55, 57-59, 62
Refugees 16 Women’s status 23-24, 30, 48, 55-56,
Reproductive health 35 58-59, 62
Reproductive rights 35
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX
(Refer to abstract number)
Africa 14, 43, 49, 68-69 Korea, Republic of 47

Arab countries 14 Latin America 14, 49, 57
Asia 02, 05, 19, 24-25 North America 47, 57
China, People’s Republic of 10, 47 Pacific region 05, 14, 19, 21, 24-25, 37, 43
Europe 43, 47 Pakistan 49
India 57 Philippines 06, 49-50, 57
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of 47 Thailand 10
154

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Regional Clearing House on Population Education

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the

SECTION I : Environmental Problems ............ 11

A. Review and Synthesis.. ......................................... 13

01 State of the world .................................................. 16

SECTION II : Population Problems ................... 29

A. Review and Synthesis.. .........................................

10 Relationship between population and socio-

SECTION III : Sustainable Development.. ...........

A. Review and Synthesis ...........................................

18 Shaping an environmentally sustainable global

SECTION IV : Policy Statements and World

A. Review and Synthesis.. ......................................... 57

21 Environment and development in the South Pacific 60

A. Review and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

36 A new approach to protect environment from

45 Global collapse or sustainable future.. .................. 99

A. Review and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

58 Women, environment and sustainable development 123

SECTION VII : Curriculum Materials . . . . . . . . . . 133

A. Review and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

64 Population, resources and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Organization and How to Use

This Abstract-Bibliography series of 73 publications is grouped under seven sections,

Overview of the Population, Environment and Sustainable

I n general, the world’s population growth rate declined

Some family planning programmes have suffered setbacks

The recent AIDS epidemic and its impact on life expectancy

The unprecedented period of rapid population growth at present

In recent years, international migration has become

is important to recognize the common roots of refugees and other

C urrent issues on environmental problems pose new

Among developed countries, the fixation on mobility has

The earth’s carrying capacity in terms of its food resource is

I n many developed and developing countries, efforts to

Development experts and national leaders increasingly

Adopting the principle of sustainable development requires a

Experts in sustainable development argue that long-term

While the concept of sustainable development appears simple,

ow does population growth endanger the environment?

promote environmental safeguards and to introduce new technologies.

The links between population and environment are especially

Much of the world’s current environmental dilemma, however

Urgently needed actions include resource and energy

The role played by women in both alleviating poverty and

olicy Implications of the

H ow much have the aforementioned issues influence

The public and key professionals such as planners, economists,

A wide range of programmes addressing this linkage need to

Two major world meetings have addressed such programmes

On the other hand, the Earth Summit in Rio produced two

T he vast knowledge and information provided by the

An important vehicle that can be used to transform these

Thus, this issue of the Abstract-Bibliography Series has been

n State of the World 1994, linked to a service-oriented distribution system,

Safeguarding public health is Human demands are approaching the

Carter, Brandon, and Ramesh Ramankutty. Toward an environmental strategy

The World Bank’s role as described

he decision we make - as The Global Tomorrow Coalition has

Furthermore, it cites successful efforts Descriptors:

Finally, it proposes alternative

~____ - ------ _-._____