Engineering

Thermodynamics
 Engineering
Thermodynamics
SI Edition

Dwight C. Look, Jr.

Harry J. Sauer, Jr.
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI-ROLLA

51 Edition prepared by
GRAHAM I. ALEXANDER
Liverpool Polytechnic

International
First published in the USA by
PWS Publishers, 20 Park Plaza, Boston, Massachusetts 02116

© 1986 PWS Publishers, Wadsworth Inc., Belmont, California 94002

© 1988 SI edition Van Nostrand Reinhold (International) Co. Ltd
ISBN- \3: 978-0-278-00052-0 e-ISBN- \3: 978-94-010-9316-3
001: 10.1007/978-94-010-9316-3

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered

by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used
in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic,
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping, or information storage or retrieval systems-
without the written permission of the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Look, Dwight, C.
Engineering thermodynamics.-SI ed.
I. Heat engineering. Thermodynamics
I. Title II. Sauer, Harry J. /935-
621.402' 1
 Preface

Energy-its discovery, its availability, its use-concerns all of us in general and

the engineers of today and tomorrow in particular. The study of
thermodynamics-the science of energy-is a critical element in the education of
all types of engineers. Engineering Thermodynamics provides a thorough intro-
duction to the art and science of engineering thermodynamics. It describes in a
straightforward fashion the basic tools necessary to obtain quantitative solutions
to common engineering applications involving energy and its conversion, conser-
vation, and transfer.
This book is directed toward sophomore, junior, and senior students who
have studied elementary physics and calculus and who are majoring in mechanical
engineering; it serves as a convenient reference for other engineering disciplines
as well. The first part of the book is devoted to basic thermodynamic principles,
essentially presented in the classic way; the second part applies these principles to
many situations, including air conditioning and the interpretation of statistical
phenomena.
Chapters 1 through 4 discuss the fundamentals and basic concepts of
thermodynamics with emphasis on the properties of common liquids, vapors, and
gases. Chapter 5 presents the first law of thermodynamics in its various opera-
tional forms. This is one of the most important chapters of the book. Chapters 6
and 7 deal with the elusive second law of thermodynamics and its restricting
nature. Chapter 8 consists of examples of simple thermal systems using
thermodynamics principles, and Chapter 9 introduces some of the complications
of systems in use today. The quality of energy is the subject of Chapter 10. This
subject is not new, but it is not emphasized sufficiently in most beginning courses.
Chapter 11 is probably the most mathematical chapter in the book. It presents
various relationships among properties and discusses Maxwell's relations and the
criterion of equilibrium. Chapter 12 covers mixtures and psychrometrics and their
relationship to environmental control. Reacting systems (combustion) are briefly
covered in Chapter 13. Chapter 14 presents the engineering applications of
v
vi Preface

thermodynamics in heating and air conditioning, and Chapter 15 covers thermo-

fluid mechanics.
Chapter 16, the last chapter of this book, is devoted to the statistical
interpretation of thermodynamics. At first glance, it may seem somewhat un-
orthodox to present this topic in a predominately classical thermodynamics book.
Nevertheless, we believe that this brief coverage should be made available to
those who wish to examine statistical evidence that the results conform to the
rules, laws, and definitions presented in classical thermodynamics.
The appendices are divided into three sections: A, B, and C. Appendices
A-I to A-6 are tables of physical constants and properties; of particular impor-
tance are the abbreviated steam tables (in both SI and English units). Appendix B
presents some historical notes about famous people who contributed to the
science of thermodynamics. Appendix C comprises nomenclature and conversion
tables.
SI units are used in conjunction with English units in this text. Our intent is
to allow the student to become comfortable with both systems. In addition, the
text promotes computer use for thermodynamic analysis, which is becoming
increasingly common among today's engineers.
To truly understand thermodynamics and its applications, one must be able
to efficiently solve related problems. For this reason, we have provided homework
problems at the end of each chapter. The text also includes a large number of
examples, which should be studied carefully. Our approach in this regard is based
on what Confucius reportedly said:

I hear, and I forget ...

I see, and I remember ...
I do, and I understand

Acknowledgments
It is impossible to acknowledge all the people who have, in one way or another,
contributed to this book. Occasionally, the sources of many good ideas, examples,
problems, approaches, and techniques have long been forgotten. However, we
trust that adequate recognition is given throughout the text to informational
sources.
Special thanks go to Carl MacPhee, Director of Publications of the Ameri-
can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, for per-
mission to make extensive use of ASHRAE's developments in applied thermo-
dynamics and psychrometrics. Moreover, we appreciate the efforts of the teachers
and many students who assisted the development of this text and its classroom
testing. Their suggestions and their encouragement contributed greatly to the
completion of the book. Thank you. Also, we especially thank the following
manuscript reviewers for their many helpful suggestions: O. Arnas, Louisiana
State University; Peter Botros, South Dakota State University; Nicholas P.
Cernansky, Drexel University; Mario Colaluca, Texas A&M University; George
Craig, San Diego State University; Philip Gerhart, University of Evansville;
Ramon Hosler, University of Central Florida; Peter E. Jenkins, Engine Corpora-
 Preface vii
tion of America; P. E. Liley, Purdue University; Robert Lott, Vanderbilt Univer-
sity; Eugene L. Keating, United States Naval Academy; Eugene Martinez, Lamar
University; Robert Peck, Arizona State University; Edward Perry, Memphis State
University.
D.C. Look, Jr.
H.J. Sauer, Jr.

Preface to 51 Edition
In this SI edition, much of the text remains unchanged, except the appendices
which have, of course, been fully converted. A table of critical constants has also
been added.
Obviously, the short section on units had to be completely rewritten, and the
useful concept of 'unity brackets' has been introduced. Furthermore, wherever
appropriate, the worked examples in the text now make use of unity bracket
manipulations. Although SI units are used throughout, one or two non-SI terms
have been retained in view of their hackneyed or established use. These include the
familiar 'ton of refrigeration' and EER (energy efficiency ratio). Both these terms
are widely used in industry and thus, although a little incongruous, it would seem
unwise to exclude them; their definitions being fully described in the appropriate
section of the text.
All the previous worked and unworked problems have been retained and
converted fully to SI units. However, it must be pointed out that in very few cases
have simple conversions been made. The majority of problems, particularly those
involving steam or refrigerants, have been given new data. The solutions have been
completely reworked using, where possible, data in the appendices. Teachers can
thus be confident when extracting problems for class use from the wealth of
unworked examples (averaging over 50 per chapter) at the end of each chapter.
The preparation of this SI edition has also afforded the opportunity to make
any necessary corrections, although the character of the original book remains
unaltered. Inevitably some errors will have escaped detection and notification of
these together with, of course, any constructive criticism will always be greatly
appreciated.
Acknowledgement of help received in the preparation of this edition is due to
my colleagues, Mr C. J. Tate at Liverpool, for many helpful discussions, and
Dr J. R. Nichols at UMIST, Manchester, for his many useful suggestions and
provision of software to help convert the appendices. Furthermore due gratitude
must go to John Wiley and Sons, Publishers, for their kind permission to reproduce
some tables and charts in SI units. Finally I wish to thank my wife and family for
their forebearance during my absent-minded presence, over the period of pre-
paration of the manuscript, which of necessity involved a lot of work in a relatively
short space of time.

G. I. Alexander
School of Engineering,
Liverpool Polytechnic

1 Fundamental Concepts and
Definitions 1
1-1 The Nature of Thermodynamics 1
Some History 2
Uses of Thermodynamics 3
System and Surroundings 3
Analysis and Problem Solving 7
1-2 Definition of Units 8
1-3 Properties 9
Specific Volume or Density 10
Pressure 11
Temperature and Temperature
Scales 13
Internal Energy 20
Enthalpy 20
Entropy 21
1-4 States 22
1-5 Processes 23
Reversible Process 23
Process Indicators 24
Irreversible Process 25
Polytropic Process 26
1-6 Point and Path Functions 28
1-7 Conversation of Mass 29
1-8 Chapter Summary 32
Problems 33
2 Physical Properties 37
2-1 Phases of a Pure Substance 37
2-2 Equilibrium of a Pure Substance
Contents
2-3 Equilibrium Thermodynamic Properties:
An Example 39
2-4 Thermodynamics Surfaces 41
Phase Diagrams 42
Other Useful Diagrams 42
Typical Values of Characteristic
Points 43
Table of Properties 45
Steam ,47
Closure on Steam 49
Refrigerant: R-12 51
2-5 Specific Heats and Latent Heat of
Transformation 53
2-6 Chapter Summary 56
Problems 57
3 Gases 62
3-1 Ideal Gas 62
Equation of State 63
Properties of Ideal Gases 65
3-2 Alternate Approximate Equations of
State 73
Clausius Gas 74
van der Waals Gas 74
Other Forms 74
3-3 Real Gases 77
Reduced Coordinates 81
3-4 Mathematical Preparation 85
38 Basic Operations and Definitions 85
ix
X Contents

Coefficients of Thermal Expansion, 6-4 Processes and Cycles-Reversible and

Compressibility, and Isothermal Irreversible 163
Bulk Modulus 88 Reversible Processes 164
3-5 Fundamental Relations 91 Causes of Irreversibility 164
3-6 Chapter Summary 96 6-5 The Carnot Cycle 164
Problems 97 Cycle 164
Efficiency 167
6-6 Chapter Summary 171
4 Forms of Energy 101 Problems 172
4-1 Forms of Energy 10 1
4-2 Work 102
l:l-3 Closure on Work 110 7 The Second Law of
4-4 Heat 112 Thermodynamics 175
4-5 Reversible Adiabatic Process 112
7-1 The Second Law of Classical
4-6 Heat Capacity 113
Thermodynamics 175
4-7 Stored (Possessed) Forms of
7-2 Corollaries to the Second Law 177
Energy 116
7-3 The Second Law and Statistical
Thermal (Internal) Energy, U 116
Thermodynamics 181
Potential Energy, PE 116
7 -4 The Physical Meaning of
Kinetic Energy, KE 117
Entropy 182
Chemical Energy, Ee 117
7-5 More on Corollaries A, B, and
Nuclear Energy, EN 117
C 183
4-8 Chapter Summary 117
7-6 More on Corollary D 184
Problems 119
7-7 More on Corollary E 186
7-8 More on Corollary F 188
7-9 Entropy: The Working
5 The First Law of Definition 191
Thermodynamics 121 Second Law for Closed Systems 191
Entropy Used as a Coordinate 192
5-1 The First Law of
Relevant Thermodynamic
Thermodynamics 121
Relations 195
First Law for Closed Systems 121
Computing Entropy Changes from
Consequences of the First Law for
Measurable Properties 200
Closed Systems 129
A Word about Irreversible
Consequences of the First Law for
Processes 203
Open Systems 129
Principle of the Increase of
5-2 Guidelines for Thermodynamics, or
Entropy 203
Energy, Analysis 143
Open System 207
5-3 Alternate Forms of u and h 143
7-10 Chapter Summary 212
Appendix for Chapter 5 148
Problems 215
5-4 Chapter Summary 151
Problems 153

8 Basic Systems and Cycles 223

6 Thermodynamic Systems and Cyclic 8-1 Elements of Thermal Systems 223
Expansion or Compression Work in a
Processes 159 Cylinder 226
6-1 Heat Engines and Thermal The Porous Plug and the Joule-
Efficiency 159 Thomson Coefficient 228
6-2 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 161 Turbines, Pumps, Compressors, and
6-3 Reservoirs 163 Fans 232

Heat Transfer Equipment (Heat
Exchangers) 244
Nozzles and Diffusers 251
Throttling Devices (Valves, Orifices,
Capillary Tubes 254
Summary of Component
Operation 256
8-2 Rankine Cycle 257
The Cycle 261
Thermal Efficiency 263
Improvements in the Cycle 263
8-3 Air-Standard Cycles 268
Brayton Cycle 268
Otto Cycle 277
Diesel Cycle 281
Other Cycles 283
8-4 Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Cycles 287
Vapor-Compression Cycle 289
Heat Pumps 292
Ammonia-Absorption Cycle 295
8-5 Additional Applications 295
8-6 Chapter Summary 297
Problems 299
9 Power Cycle Improvements and
Innovations 308
9-1 Review of Basic Information 308
9-2 Improving the Rankine Cycle 308
Reheating 308
Regeneration 317
9-3 Improving the Brayton Cycle 323
Regeneration 323
Multistage Improvements 324
Two-Shaft Arrangements 330
Heat Recovery Systems 330
Brayton Cycle Systems with
Compressed Air Energy
Storage (CAES) 330
9-4 Combined Steam and Gas Cycles
(STAG, COGAS) 333
9-5 Cogeneration/Total Energy Systems
(TES) 336
Prime Movers for Cogeneration 338
Modular Integrated Utility Systems
(MIUS) 339
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) 340
Waste Heat Recovery from
Engines 342
Contents xi
9-6 Nuclear Thermal Power Cycles 344
Fission Plants 345
Breeder Reactors 345
Fusion Plants 350
9-7 Solar Power Systems 351
Solar Thermal Power Systems 352
Photovoltaic Systems 354
Wind Energy 355
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC) 357
Hydroelectric Power 358
Biomass Energy Systems 358
9-8 Geothermal Power Systems 358
Dry-Steam Systems 359
Hot-Water Systems 359
Hot-Rock Systems 361
9-9 Improving the Vapor Compression
Cycle 361
9-10 Chapter Summary 362
Problems 363
10 Availability and Irreversibility 372
10-1 General Concepts 372
10-2 Available Part of Internal
Energy 375
10-3 Available Part of Kinetic and
Potential Energy 376
10-4 Available Part of How Work 376
10-5 Availability of Closed Systems 376
10-6 Availability in Steady How 376
10-7 Availability of Heat 377
10-8 Reversible Work 378
10-9 Irreversibility and Lost Work 379
10-10 Measures of Efficiency 388
10-11 Comments on Dead State-
Selection 394
10-12 Availability-Irreversibility Analysis of
Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration 395
10-13 Availability-Irreversibility Analysis of
Air Conditioning Systems 401
10-14 Summary 405
Problems 406
11 More Thermodynamic
Relations 411
11-1 Maxwell's Relations 412
11-2 Property Relations 415
xii Contents

11-3 Characteristic Function 420 Solid Fuels 485

11-4 Changing Phase-Clapeyron
Equation 420
11-5 Equations of State 426
11-6 Developing Thermodynamic Property
Tables 427
Determination of Entropy 427
Determination of Internal Energy and
Enthalpy 429
11-7 Specific Development of Refrigerant
Property Values 429
11-8 Criterion for Equilibrium 432
11-9' Chapter Summary 434
Problems 435
12 Mixtures and Psychrometries
12-1 Mixtures 437
Ideal Gases 437
Real Gases 444
Closure 445
12-2 Psychrometrics 446
Basic Definitions 446
The Psychrometric Chart 453
12-3 Basic Air Conditioning
Processes 462
Psychrometric Representations 462
Absorption of Space-Heat and
Moisture Gains 464
Heating or Cooling of Air 464
Cooling and Dehumidifying of
Air 464
Heating and Humidifying Air 465
Adiabatic Mixing of Two Streams of
Air 466
Adiabatic Mixing of Moist Air with
Injected Water 466
Moving Air 466
Approximate Equations Using
Volume How Rates 467
12-4 Chapter Summary 470
Problems 471
13 Elements of Combustion 481
13-1 Background 481
Fundamentals of Combustion 482
13-2 Fuels 483
Vapor Fuels 483
Liquid Fuels 483
13-3 Combustion Equations 486
13-4 Combustion Calculations 491
The Mol 491
Stoichiometry 492
13-5 Thermochemistry 496
First Law for Reacting Systems 497
Adiabatic Hame Temperature 505
13-6 Chemical Equilibrium and
Dissociation 507
Reversible Reactions 507
Gibbs and Helmholtz Functions and
Equilibrium 508
Equilibrium Constant and the van't
Hoff Equation 509
13-7 Combustion Efficiency 518
437 13-8 Fuel! Air Cycle Approximation 519
13-9 Other Considerations with
Combustion Processes 523
Air Pollution 523
Corrosion and Acid Rain (Pollution
on Exterior Surfaces) 523
13-10 Chapter Summary 524
Problems 525
14 Refrigeration Systems and Heat
Pumps 529
14-1 Vapor-Compression Cycle and
Components 529
Heat Pumps 534
Annual Cycle Energy System
(ACES) 537
Compressors 539
Condensers 543
Evaporators 547
Expansion Devices 551
14-2 Absorption Refrigeration and Heat
Pumps 553
Absorption Cycles 553
Lithium-Bromide-Water
Equipment 556
Aqua-Ammonia (Ammonia-Water)
Equipment 560
Absorption-Cycle Heat Pumps 563
14-3 Air-Cycle Refrigeration 567
Aircraft Cooling 569
14-4 Vortex Tube Refrigeration 574
14-5 Ejector Refrigeration (Hash
Cooling) 577

Automotive Applications 581
Solar-Powered Jet Refrigerator 582
14-6 Chapter Summary 584
Problems 584
15 Thermofluid Mechanics 592
15-1 Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow 592
Types of Fluids 593
Continuity Relation 594
Reynolds Number 594
Mach Number 594
Flow Regimes 594
Boundary Layers 595
Bernoulli Equation 596
Euler Equation 596
Nonisothermal Effects 597
Stagnation 597
15-2 Velocity of Sound 598
15-3 Isentropic Flow 600
Ideal Gases 602
15-4 Applications of Isentropic Flow 608
15-5 Constant Area Adiabatic Flow with
Friction 612
The Momentum Relation 613
Ideal Gases 617
15-6 Constant Area Flow with Heat
Exchange 618
15-7 Shock VVaves 620
Ideal Gases 622
15-8 Propulsion Principles 624
Momentum Principles and
Thrust 624
Propulsion Devices 626
15-9 Turbomachinery 629
Turbines 629
Axial Flow Compressors 638
15-10 Chapter Summary 641
Appendix for Chapter 15 643
Problems 645
16 Introduction to Kinetic Theory and
Statistical Thermodynamics 648
16-1 Kinetic Theory 649
Equipartition 653
16-2 Distribution of Particle
Velocities 656
16-3 Microstate and Macrostate 663
16-4 Thermodynamic Probability 664
Contents xiii
Maxwell-Boltzmann Model 665
Bose-Einstein Model 665
Fermi-Dirac Model 666
16-5 Equilibrium Conditions 667
Maxwell-Boltzmann Model 667
Bose-Einstein Model 668
Fermi-Dirac Model 668
16-6 Relationship of the Three Types of
Statistical Models 671
16-7 Most Probable Distribution
Stability 672
16-8 Entropy and the Statistical
Approach 673
16-9 Partition Function and Entropy 673
Maxwell-Boltzmann Entropy 674
Bose-Einstein Entropy 676
Fermi-Dirac Entropy 677
16-10 The Partition Function and
Thermodynamic Properties 678
'16-11 Compilation of the Partition
Functions 679
Heisenberg's Uncertainty
Principle 679
Degeneracy in Phase Space 681
Particle Energy, £, 682
16-12 Monatomic Particles 683
16-13 Simple Oscillating Particles 686
16-14 Diatomic Particles 687
16-15 Closure on Specific Heats of Solids-
An Improved Theory 689
16-16 Closure on Specific Heats of Gases
(Ideal Gas) 692
16-17 Specific Heat of Electrons in
Conductors 694
16-18 Photon "Gas" 698
16-19 Chapter Summary 702
Problems 705
Appendices 709
A-I Steam Tables 711
Table A-I-I Saturated Steam:
Temperature Table (SI) 712
Table A-I-2 Saturated Steam:
Pressure Table (SI) 716
Table A-I-3 Superheated Steam
(SI) 720
Table A-I-4 Thermodynamic
Property Calculations of Steam 726
A-2 Refrigerant-12 Tables 737
Table A-2-1 Saturated Refrigerant-12:
xiv Contents

Temperature Tables Table A-4-2 Superheated Nitrogen

(SI) 738 757
Table A-2-2 Superheated A-5 Critical Constants Table
Refrigerant-12 Table (SI) 740 A-6 Approximate Values of c12 ' cv ,
A-3 Air Tables 744 and R 760
Table A-3-1 Low-Density Air B More History 761
(SI) 746 C Nomenclature and Conversion
Tale A-3-2 Saturated Air: Factors 767
Temperature Table (SI) 751
Table A-3-3 Saturated Air: Pressure
Table (SI) 753
Table A-3-4 Superheated Air Bibliography 771
(SI) 754
A-4 Nitrogen Tables 756 Answers to Selected Problems 773
Table A-4-1 Saturated Nitrogen (N 2):
Temperature Table 756 Index 777