Statistical Mechanics
UKM
STATISTICAL MECHANICS
(SESSION 2018/2019)
WEDNESDAY 26th SEPTEMBER 2018
Thermodynamics Cases:
STATISTICAL MECHANICS 1
Mohd Hafizudin Kamal
Statistical Mechanics
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Law of Thermodynamics:
1) 0th Law
2) 1st Law
3) 2nd Law
4) 3rd Law
0th Law stated that the system is undergo equilibrium to each other.
For example:
1 2
Equilibrium System
3
1st law stated that at equilibrium microstates of a system can be characterized by a quantity
of internal energy which has property that for an isolated system, 𝐸 = constant. If the
system is allowed to be interact, that means the ∆𝐸 = −𝑊 + 𝑄 where the 𝑊 is a work done
by the system and 𝑄 is the heat absorbed by the system.
2nd Law stated that: Entropy, 𝑆. The change of entropy, ∆𝑆 ≥ 0 for the case of isolated
system. If the system is not isolated and undergoes a quasi-static process and it will
absorbed heat, 𝑑𝑄. From the equation below, we can define the Entropy,
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇
Where the 𝑇 is the absolute temperature and 𝑑𝑄 is the heat absorbed. When the cases where
∆𝑆 = 0, that’s mean the process is reversible process. Instead of that, it also can be written
as
𝑆 = 𝑘 ln(𝛺)
Where the 𝛺 is the number of possible state.
3rd Law stated that the entropy of a system lies a limiting property (isolated)
𝑆𝑇→0𝐾 → 𝑆0 where the 𝑆0 is constant.
STATISTICAL MECHANICS 2
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Statistical Mechanics
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And
𝑆 = 𝑘 ln(𝑍)
𝐸
− 𝑟
= 𝑘 ln (∑ 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
________________________________________________________________________
And
By comparing equation (1) and (2), then:
𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸
𝑇= | 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 = − |
𝜕𝑆 𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑆
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From
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕2𝐸 𝜕𝑇
| = =
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑆 𝑉 𝜕𝑉𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑉
And
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕2𝐸 𝜕𝑝
| = =−
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑉 𝑆 𝜕𝑆𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑆
Note 2: Enthalpy, 𝐻
𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑 (𝑝𝑉 ) − 𝑉𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑑 (𝑝𝑉 ) + 𝑉𝑑𝑝
Thus,
𝐻 = 𝐸 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝
It gives the relation of:
𝐻 = 𝐻(𝑆, 𝑝)
Therefore:
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
𝑑𝐻 = | 𝑑𝑆 + | 𝑑𝑝
𝜕𝑆 𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑆
STATISTICAL MECHANICS 4
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Thus:
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑝
| = |
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉
Note 4: Gibbs Free Energy, 𝐺
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑(𝑇𝑆) − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 − 𝑑(𝑝𝑉 ) + 𝑉𝑑𝑝
𝑑 (𝐸 − 𝑇𝑆 + 𝑝𝑉 ) = −𝑆𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝐺 = −𝑆𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉𝑑𝑝
Give the relation to:
𝐺 = 𝐺(𝑇, 𝑝)
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑉
=
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑝
| =− |
𝜕𝑉 𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝑉
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑉
| = |
𝜕𝑝 𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝑝
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑝
| = |
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑉
− | = |
𝜕𝑝 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑝
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∏ 𝜓𝑖 = 𝜓𝐴 𝜓𝐵
𝑖=1
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Thus,
1 𝜕𝑍 𝜕 ln 𝑍
𝐸̅ = − =−
𝑍 𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝛽
𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑇
= ∙
𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝛽
𝜕𝑍
𝐸̅ = −𝑘𝑇 2
𝜕𝑇
________________________________________________________________________
𝑍 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽𝐸𝑟
𝑟
1
Where, 𝛽 = 𝑘𝑇 .
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𝐹̅ = 𝐸̅ − 𝑇𝑆̅
= −𝑘𝑇 ln 𝑍
𝑍 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽𝐸𝑟
𝑟
𝑝2
−𝛽( +𝑈)
= ∑𝑒 2𝑚 … (2)
𝑟
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𝑝 2 𝑃2 𝑝2 𝑝2
𝑉𝑁 −𝛽𝑝[( 1 + 2 + 3 +.. 𝑁 )]
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑍 = 3𝑁 ∫ 𝑒 𝑑 3 𝑝1 𝑑 3 𝑝2 𝑑 3 𝑝3 … (3)
ℎ0
𝑉𝑁 3𝑁
𝑍= ( 2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇 ) 2 … (4)
ℎ03𝑁
3𝑁
= ln(𝑉 𝑁 ) + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇) 2 − ln(ℎ03𝑁 )
3𝑁
= 𝑁 ln 𝑉 + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇) − 3𝑁 ln ℎ0
2
Note 4: From the equation of pressure 𝑝, we can justify that
𝜕 3𝑁
𝑝̅ = 𝑘𝑇 [𝑁 ln 𝑉 + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇) − 3𝑁 ln ℎ0 ]
𝜕𝑉 2
𝜕 ln 𝑉
= 𝑁𝑘𝑇
𝜕𝑉
1
𝑝̅ = 𝑁𝑘𝑇
𝑉
Thus,
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇. . 𝑄𝐸𝐷
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Statistical Mechanics
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3𝑘𝑁
= 𝑘𝑁 ln 𝑉 + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇)
2
𝜕 3𝑁 𝜕 𝜕
− 3𝑘𝑁 ln ℎ0 + 𝑘𝑇 𝑁 ln 𝑉 + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇) − 3𝑁 ln ℎ0
𝜕𝑇 2 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
3𝑘𝑁 3𝑁 1
= 𝑘𝑁 ln 𝑉 + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇) − 3𝑘𝑁 ln ℎ0 + 2𝑚𝜋𝑘
2 2 (2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇)
3𝑘𝑁 3𝑘𝑁
= 𝑘𝑁 ln 𝑉 + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇) − 3𝑘𝑁 ln ℎ0 +
2 2𝑇
3 3
= 𝑘𝑁 [ln 𝑉 + ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇)2 − ln(ℎ0 )3 + ]
2𝑇
𝑆̅ = 𝑘𝑁 ln 𝑉 + 𝜎 … (5)
3
3
Where, 𝜎 = ln(2𝑚𝜋𝑘𝑇)2 − ln(ℎ0 )3 + 2𝑇
But we look at the theorem, when the entropy is double, means that the volume also
doubles. But in equation (5), its violated. So, its need something to solve it. This is what
we called as Gibbs Paradox.
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𝑍 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽𝐸𝑟
𝑟
∞
1
= ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽(𝑛+2)ℏ𝜔
𝑛=0
∞
1
= 𝑒 −𝛽 2ℏ𝜔 ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽𝑛ℏ𝜔
𝑛=0
𝑒 −𝛽ℏ𝜔
𝑍=
1 − 𝑒 −𝛽ℏ𝜔
𝜕 ln 𝑍
𝐸̅ = 𝑘𝑇 2
𝜕𝑇
Put both side with log and reduce to:
𝑒 𝛽ℏ𝜔 ≪ 1
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Thus,
1 1
𝐸̅ = ℏ𝜔 [ + ]
2 (𝛽ℏ𝜔)2
(1 + 𝛽ℏ𝜔 + 2! + ⋯ − 1)
1
= ℏ𝜔 = 𝑘𝑇
𝛽ℏ𝜔
Therefore,
𝐸̅ = 𝑘𝑇
How about 𝐶𝑣 at high temperature 𝑇,
𝜕𝐸
𝐶𝑣 = | =𝑘
𝜕𝑇 𝑉
At low temperature 𝑇,
𝛽ℏ𝜔 ≫ 1
1
𝐸̅ = ℏ𝜔 ( + 𝑒 −𝛽ℏ𝜔 )
2
The heat capacity 𝐶𝑣 is given by:
𝜕𝐸
𝐶𝑣 = |
𝜕𝑇 𝑉
𝜕 1
𝐶𝑣 = [ℏ𝜔 ( + 𝑒 −𝛽ℏ𝜔 )]
𝜕𝑇 2
𝜕 1 ℏ𝜔
𝐶𝑣 = [ℏ𝜔 ( + 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 )]
𝜕𝑇 2
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We noticed that:
𝜕𝛽 1
=
𝜕𝑇 𝑘𝑇 2
Thus, the specific heat 𝐶𝑣 is given by:
𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐸 2 𝑒𝑇
𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑇 ( ) 2
𝑇 𝜃𝐸
(𝑒 𝑇 − 1)
We know that: 𝑅 = 𝑁𝑘
Therefore;
ℏ𝜔𝐸 𝑘𝐵 𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐸 = , 𝜔𝐸 =
𝑘𝐵 ℏ
Note 2: What is the Higher temperature limit for the Einstein Model
When the higher temperature limit, the specific heat will be
𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑅
By taking:
𝜃𝐷
≪1
𝑇
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𝜃𝐷 𝜃 21
2 (1 + + ( 𝐷) + ⋯)
𝜃𝐷 𝑇 𝑇 2!
𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑅 ( )
𝑇 𝜃 𝜃 21
(1 + 𝑇𝐷 + ( 𝑇𝐷 ) 2! + ⋯ − 1)
𝜃𝐷 2 1
𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑅 ( )
𝑇 𝜃 2
( 𝑇𝐷 )
Therefore:
𝐶𝑣 = 3𝑅. . 𝑄𝐸𝐷
𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐷 2 𝑒 𝑇
= 3𝑅 ( ) 2𝜃𝐸
𝑇
𝑒 𝑇
𝜃𝐷 2 −𝜃𝐸
= 3𝑅 ( ) 𝑒 𝑇
𝑇
It’s strange! It must consider
𝐶𝑣 ≈ 𝑇 3
One good example is Diamond.
The 𝜃𝐸 = 1320𝐾
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1
𝐸2 = ± ∆
2
∆
1
𝐸1 = ± ∆
2
So, the partition function 𝑍 is given by:
1 1
𝑍 = 𝑒 +2𝛽∆ + 𝑒 −2𝛽∆
1
𝑍 = 2 cosh ( 𝛽∆)
2
To get the energy 𝐸,
1 𝜕𝑍
𝐸=−
𝑍 𝜕𝛽
1
𝐸=− 2∆ 1
∙ 2 sinh ( 𝛽∆)
1 2
2 cosh (2 𝛽∆)
1 1
𝐸 = ∆ tanh ( 𝛽∆)
2 2
To get the specific heat 𝐶𝑣 ,
𝜕𝐸
𝐶𝑣 =
𝜕𝑇
1 𝜕𝐸
=−
𝑘𝑇 2 𝜕𝛽
1 𝜕 1 1
=− [ ∆ tanh ( 𝛽∆)]
𝑘𝑇 2 𝜕𝛽 2 2
∆ ∆ 1
= 2
sech ( 𝛽∆)
2𝑘𝑇 2 2
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From:
2
2
2
sech 𝑥 = ( 𝑥 )
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
Therefore,
∆
∆2 1 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝐶𝑣 = 2 ∙ ( ∆
)
𝑘𝑇 2 1
𝛽∆
1
− 𝛽∆
(𝑒 2 + 𝑒 2 ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
∆
∆2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
= 2
𝑘𝑇 2 ∆
(𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1) }
{
For 𝑁 particles,
∆
𝑁∆2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝐶𝑣 = 2
𝑘𝑇 2 ∆
(𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1) }
{
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𝜀0
𝑁
= ∫ 𝐻 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝜀0 𝑘𝛽 2 𝑇 2
0
Given that:
𝑥 2𝑒 𝑥
𝐻(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)2
𝜀0
= ∫ 𝐻(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐻0
0
Thus,
𝐶𝑣 = 𝛼𝑇
𝑁 (𝑘𝑇)3
= [ ] 𝐻0
𝜀0 𝑘 𝑇 2
Where
𝑁𝑘 2
𝛼= 𝐻
𝜀0 0
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𝐸 = 𝑇𝑆 − 𝑝𝑉 + 𝜇𝑁
𝐹 = 𝐸 − 𝑇𝑆 = 𝜇𝑁 − 𝑝𝑉
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𝐺 = 𝐸 − 𝑇𝑆 + 𝑝𝑉
𝐹 + 𝑝𝑉 = 𝜇𝑁
Given that:
𝑇𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝐸 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉 − 𝜇𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑉 𝜇
𝑑𝑆 = +𝑝 − 𝑑𝑁
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝜕𝑆 1
| =
𝜕𝐸 𝑉,𝑁 𝑇
𝜕𝑆 𝑝
| =
𝜕𝑉 𝐸,𝑁 𝑇
𝜕𝑆 𝜇
| =−
𝜕𝑁 𝐸,𝑉 𝑇
𝜇𝑖 𝜇𝑗
𝜇𝑗 Equilibrium State
The 𝜇𝑗 can be written in 3 cases:
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑁𝑖 = 𝑑𝑆 = 0, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
𝜕𝐸
𝜇𝑗 = |
𝜕𝑁𝑗 𝑆,𝑉,𝑁
Given that:
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𝜕𝐹
𝜇𝑗 = |
𝜕𝑁𝑗 𝑇,𝑉,𝑁
Given that:
𝑑 (𝐸 − 𝑇𝑆 + 𝑝𝑉 ) = 𝑑𝑄
𝜕𝐺
𝜇𝑗 = − |
𝜕𝑁𝑗 𝑇,𝑝,𝑁
When it equilibrium,
𝜇𝑖 = 𝜇𝑗
𝜕𝐺 𝜕𝐺
=
𝜕𝑁𝑖 𝜕𝑁𝑗
𝑃𝑟 ∝ 𝑒 −𝛽𝐸𝑟 −𝛼𝑁𝑟
1
𝑃𝑟 ∝ 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 (𝐸𝑟 −𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
𝑒 −𝛽(𝐸𝑟 −𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
𝑃𝑟 =
∑𝑟 𝑒 −𝛽(𝐸𝑟 −𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
Given that, grand partition function 𝛯
𝛯 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽(𝐸𝑟 −𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
𝑟
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𝜇 𝜕 ln 𝛯 𝜕 ln 𝛯
̅𝑟 − 𝐸̅ =
𝜇𝑁 −
𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝛽
1 1 𝜕𝛯 1 𝜕 ln 𝛯
̅𝑟 =
𝑁 =
𝛽 𝛯 𝜕𝜇 𝛽 𝜕𝜇
1 𝜕𝛯 𝜕 ln 𝛯
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝜇𝑁 − 𝐸 = 𝜇𝑁̅ − 𝐸̅ = =
𝛯 𝜕𝛽 𝜕𝛽
𝜕 ln 𝛯
𝐸̅ = 𝜇𝑁
̅−
𝜕𝛽
𝜇 𝜕 ln 𝛯
̅=
𝜇𝑁
𝛽 𝜕𝜇
𝜇 𝜕 𝜕
𝐸̅ = ( − ) ln 𝛯
𝛽 𝜕𝜇 𝜕𝛽
𝑑 (𝑝𝑉 ) = 𝑆𝑑𝑇 − 𝜇𝑑𝑁 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝜕 ln 𝛯
𝑆 = 𝑘 ln 𝛯 + 𝑘𝑇
𝜕𝑇
𝜕 ln 𝛯
̅ = 𝑘𝑇
𝑁 | … (1)
𝜕𝜇 𝑉,𝑇
This equation (1) is used to derive the Fermi-Dirac Distribution and Bose-Einstein
Condensate
𝜕 ln 𝛯
𝑝̅ = 𝑘𝑇 |
𝜕𝑉 𝜇,𝑇
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Thus,
𝜕 ln 𝛯
𝜇𝑗 = −𝑘𝑇 |
𝜕𝑁𝑗 𝑁,𝑉
In equilibrium where 𝜇𝑖 = 𝜇𝑗
Ideal Gas in 3D
Laser
From the equation of 3D:
𝑝𝑥2 𝑝𝑦2 𝑝𝑧2
𝐸= + +
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚
And for the equation of 2D:
𝑝𝑥2 𝑝𝑦2
𝐸= + − 𝜀0
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝜇3𝐷 = 𝜇2𝐷−𝜀0
We know that:
𝜕𝐺
𝜇=
𝜕𝑁
** Consider an ideal gas with 𝑁 particles, each with mass 𝑚 in a volume 𝑉 and temperature
𝑇. Use classical approximation for the partition function and assume that the particles
indistinguishable. Determine the chemical potential 𝜇.
𝜉 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽𝐸𝑟
𝑟
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Mohd Hafizudin Kamal
Statistical Mechanics
UKM
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Statistical Mechanics
UKM
Binding
Energy, 𝜀0
𝜉 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽𝐸𝑟
𝑟
𝑝𝑥2 +𝑝𝑦
2
1 −𝛽(
2𝑚
−𝜀0)
= 2∫𝑒 𝑑 𝑝𝑑 2 𝑟
2
ℎ0
+∞ 2 𝑝2
𝑝 𝑦
1 𝛽𝜀 −𝛽( 𝑥 ) −𝛽(2𝑚 )
= 2𝑒 0 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑒 𝑑𝑝𝑥 𝑑𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
ℎ0
−∞
1 𝛽𝜀 2
= 2𝑒
0 𝐴(√2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇)
ℎ0
1 𝛽𝜀
= 𝑒 0 𝐴(2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇)
ℎ02
Thus:
𝐴 𝛽𝜀
𝜉= 𝑒 0 𝐴(2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇)
ℎ02
For N-particles:
𝑁 𝑁 𝛽𝑁𝜀0
2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝜉 =𝐴 𝑒 ( )
ℎ2
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Mohd Hafizudin Kamal
Statistical Mechanics
UKM
Then:
𝜉 𝑁 𝐴𝑁 𝛽𝑁𝜀 2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇 𝑁
𝑍= = 𝑒 0( )
𝑁! 𝑁! ℎ2
When it at equilibrium:
𝜇2𝐷 = 𝜇3𝐷
Use the distribution to determine the average number of particles per unit area and absorbed
when the pressure of 3D gas is 𝑃. and the total number of particle absorbed is 𝑁.
Thus:
𝐴 2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇 𝜀0 𝑉 3 2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇
−𝑘𝑇 [ln + ln ( 2
) + ] = −𝑘𝑇 [ln + ln ( )]
𝑁 ℎ 𝑘𝑇 𝑁 2 ℏ2
2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇 𝜀0 𝑘𝑇 3 2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇
−ln 𝑛 + ln ( ) + = ln + ln ( )
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇 𝑝 2 ℏ2
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Mohd Hafizudin Kamal
Statistical Mechanics
UKM
𝛯 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽(𝐸𝑟 −𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
𝑟=0
𝛯 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽(𝑁𝜀−𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
𝑛=0
∞
= ∑ 𝑋𝑁
𝑛=0
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
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Mohd Hafizudin Kamal
Statistical Mechanics
UKM
1 1
𝛯= =
1 − 𝑋 1 − 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
Thus, to get the
̅ = 𝑓(𝜀 )𝐵𝐸
𝑁
1 𝜕 ln 𝛯
=
𝛽 𝜕𝜇
1 1 𝜕𝛯
=
𝛽 𝛯 𝜕𝜇
11 𝜕 1
= [ ]
𝛽 𝛯 𝜕𝜇 1 − 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
1 − 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) 𝜕 1
= [ −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
]
𝛽 𝜕𝜇 1 − 𝑒
1 − 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) 𝛽𝑒 −𝛽𝜀 𝑒 𝛽𝜀
= [ ]
1 − 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) (1 − 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) )2
𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) 𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
= ∙
1 − 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) 𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
1
=
𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) −1
Therefore:
1
𝑓 (𝜀 )𝐵𝐸 =
𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) −1
𝛯 = ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽(𝑁𝜀−𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
𝑛=0
= ∑ 𝑒 −𝛽(𝑁𝜀−𝜇𝑁𝑟 )
𝑛
= 1 + 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
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Mohd Hafizudin Kamal
Statistical Mechanics
UKM
Thus,
1 1 𝜕𝛯
𝑓(𝜀 )𝐹𝐷 =
𝛽 𝛯 𝜕𝜇
1 1 𝜕
= −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
(1 + 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) )
𝛽1+𝑒 𝜕𝜇
1 1
= (𝛽𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) )
𝛽 1 + 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) 𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
= ∙
1 + 𝑒 −𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) 𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇)
1
=
𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) +1
Therefore:
1
𝑓 (𝜀 )𝐹𝐷 =
𝑒 𝛽(𝜀−𝜇) +1
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