RADIATION

Thermal Radiation

Objectives:

• Study certain laws which will be use to

calculate what is the heat exchange by
radiation between surfaces

• Basic concepts about thermal radiation

 Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
1. Solid and liquid surfaces at all temperatures emit thermal
radiation.

Any surface whether it be solid or liquid whatever be its temperature level,

it will be emitting thermal radiation, if we want to know the overall amount
emitted then use Stefan Boltzmann Law

Stefan-Boltzmann Law :
q
Rate of emission per unit area aT 4
A
T : Absolute temperature (K)

Gases also under certain conditions of temperature emit

radiation
Radiation: The energy emitted by Radiation differs from conduction
matter in the form of electromagnetic and convection in that it does not
waves (or photons) as a result of the require the presence of a
changes in the electronic configurations material medium to take place.
of the atoms or molecules. Radiation transfer occurs in
solids as well as liquids and
The hot object in vacuum gases.
chamber will eventually cool
down and reach thermal
equilibrium with its
surroundings by a heat transfer
mechanism: radiation.

Unlike conduction and convection,

heat transfer by radiation can occur
between two bodies even when
A hot object in a vacuum they are separated by a medium
chamber loses heat by colder than both.
radiation only. 4
e.x. Radiation from Sun
Two theories have been proposed to explain phenomenon of radiation:
1. Wave theory
2. Quantum theory

Quantum theory
The energy values of the radiation so emitted are not continuous but in the
form of successive and discrete quantities called quanta.

The quantities are of different sizes.

The energy E of a quantum may be represented by

E=hγ
Where, h = plank’s constant
γ = the frequency of the emitted quantity.

The higher the frequency, the larger the energy of quantum. Also higher
the temperature of emitter, the larger frequency of the quantum.

The term photon is often used for the above quantum of radiation. A
photon is believed to be particle having no mass, having energy hγ and
momentum hγ /c where c is the velocity of the light.
THERMAL RADIATION
The type of electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent
to heat transfer is the thermal radiation emitted as a
result of energy transitions of molecules, atoms and
electrons of a substance.
Temperature is a measure of the strength of these
activities at the microscopic level and the rate of
thermal radiation emission increases with increasing
temperature.
Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter
whose temperature is above absolute zero.

Everything
around us
constantly
emits thermal
radiation.

The electromagnetic wave

spectrum.
6
Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906)

All objects above absolute zero emit

radiant energy and the rate of emission
increases and the peak wavelength
decreases as the temperature of object
increases

7
Light is simply the visible portion of
A body that emits some radiation in the
the electromagnetic spectrum that
visible range is called a light source.
lies between 0.40 and 0.76 mm.
The sun is our primary light source.
The wavelength ranges of The electromagnetic radiation emitted by
different colors the sun is known as solar radiation and
nearly all of it falls into the wavelength
band 0.3–3 mm.
Almost half of solar radiation is light (i.e.,
it falls into the visible range), with the
remaining being ultraviolet and infrared.

The radiation emitted by bodies at room temperature falls into the infrared
region of the spectrum, which extends from 0.76 to 100 mm.
The ultraviolet radiation includes the low-wavelength end of the thermal
radiation spectrum and lies between the wavelengths 0.01 and 0.40 mm.
Ultraviolet rays are to be avoided since they can kill microorganisms and cause
serious damage to humans and other living beings.
About 12 percent of solar radiation is in the ultraviolet range. The ozone (O3)
layer in the atmosphere acts as a protective blanket and absorbs most of this
ultraviolet radiation. 8
 In heat transfer studies, we are interested in
the energy emitted by bodies because of their
temperature only. Therefore, we limit our
consideration to thermal radiation.

Food is heated or cooked in a

microwave oven by absorbing the
electromagnetic radiation energy
generated by the magnetron of the oven.

The electrons, atoms and molecules of

all solids, liquids and gases above
absolute zero temperature are constantly
in motion and thus radiation is constantly
emitted as well as being absorbed or
transmitted throughout the entire volume
of matter.
That is, radiation is a volumetric
phenomenon.
Radiation in opaque solids is
considered a surface phenomenon
since the radiation emitted only by the
molecules at the surface can escape the
solid.
9
Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
Continuous spectrum of all wavelengths and not a discrete
spectrum.
Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
2. In addition to emitting radiation, the surface of a body has
the capacity for absorbing all or part of the radiation
emitted by surrounding surfaces and falling on it.

A surface is at a certain temperature, it will give off radiation

by virtue; it will emit radiation by virtue of being at that
temperature
Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
A surface of a body also has the capacity to absorb all are part
of the radiation which is emitted by surrounding surfaces and
falls on that surface
Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
 Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
So many watts, whatever it is going to be greater than the quantity 2.

The amount that It intercepts and absorbs which is coming from the
other walls of the enclosure because 1 is going to be greater than 2
because Ts is greater than Te.

Therefore, what will happen is the body will cool.

So this is how the process of heat exchange by radiation take place if

we have 2.

If we have 2 bodies- an enclosure and a solid body.

They are at different temperatures then each gives off emits radiation.
The body which is hotter will emit more than it receives and absorption
the other body, therefore the hotter body will cool because of the
exchange of heat by radiation. That is how radiant heat exchange takes
place between the surfaces of bodies which are at different
temperatures.
Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
3. Directional nature of thermal radiation. A surface emits
radiation in all directions encompassed by a hemisphere.

4. We shall be concerned only with situations involving

radiation exchange between surfaces in which the space
between the surfaces is a vacuum or it is occupied by a
gas which does not participate in the radiative exchange in
any way.
 Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
• Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic wave, it does not require a
material medium for its transmission.

• Most thermal radiation is in the 0.1 to 10 micron range.

• All surfaces at all temperature levels emit thermal radiation and the
amount emitted or the rate of emission is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature of the surface.

• Every surface apart from having the capacity to emit radiation by

virtue of its temperature level also has a capacity to absorb
radiation falling on it which has been emitted by surrounding
surfaces and falls on it. So whenever radiation exchange takes
place between a surface and another surface there is emission and
there is also absorption of radiation which is emitted by other
surfaces and falling it. That is how radiation heat exchange takes
place.
 Basic concepts of Thermal Radiation
• When radiation exchange takes place between surfaces we need
to consider often that there is a directional nature to that radiation;
that means the radiation given off from a surface is in all directions
and compassed by a hemisphere.

• Radiation heat exchange, we will assume that there is a vacuum

between the surfaces which are exchanging it by radiation by virtue
of their different temperatures or we will assume that if there is gas
or air in that space between the 2 surfaces that air or gas is not
participating in the radiative heat exchange in any way
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES
At any given temperature the quantity of radiation emitted per unit wavelength is
different at different wavelengths.

Monochromatic emissive power: The energy radiated per unit time per unit area of
the radiating surface per unit wavelength range
The curve shows that the major part of
radiation is emitted within a narrow
wavelength range on both sides of the
wavelength at which the monochromatic
emissive power is maximum.

A body at 1000 0C emits most of the

radiation between 1 and 20 µ.

Sun whose surface temperature is nearly

5600 0C emits 90% of its radiation between
0.1 and 3 µ.
Radiation of energy at different
wavelengths
 Irradiation, G:
Radiation flux
incident on a
surface
(amount of
radiation per
unit time per
Absorptivity, unit area of a
surface)
Reflectivity, and
Transmissivity

for opaque surfaces

The absorption, reflection and

transmission of incident radiation by a
semitransparent material. 19
Monochromatic absorptivity αλ:
Monochromatic absorptivity αλ is the fraction of the incident energy in the
wavelength, range λ to λ +d λ which is absorbed,
(G a ) l
al =
Gl
Where
Gλ = part of incident radiation G which is in spectral range λ to λ+dλ
(G ) = amount absorbed in spectral range λ to λ+dλ
a l

G a = ò (G a ) dl = ò a l G l dl
¥ ¥

0 l 0

Ga 1 ¥
a= = ò a l G l dl
G G0

Monochromatic reflectivity ρλ: 1¥

r= ò r l G l dl
G0

Monochromatic transmissivity : 1¥
t= ò t l G l dl
G0

20
 21
Transparent Body :
A transparent body is one which transmits part of the radiation falling on its
surface.

Opaque Body :
If it does not transmit any radiation at all it is called an opaque body.
t= 0
α+ρ=1

Black body:
A body which neither reflects nor transmits any part of the incident radiation but
absorbs all of it is called a black body.
ρ=0 , t =0
α=1
a perfect black body does not exist.

White Body :
White body is one which reflects all the incident radiation and does not absorb or
transmit any part of it.
α=0,t =0
ρ=1
 22

Gray body:
If the absorptivity of a surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of
the incident radiation, it is termed gray body

For Gray body:

a = (a )l = cons tan t

Coloured body:
If the absorptivity of a surface varies with the wavelength of radiation waves it
is termed coloured body.
Monochromatic emissive power of black body, Plank’s Distribution Law

A black body does not emit the same amount of radiant energy at different
temperatures.

At a given wavelength the radiant energy emitted by a black body increase as

temperature is increase.

At a given temperature, the amount of radiation emitted by a black body varies

with the wavelength.

Monochromatic emissive power (Eλ)

The energy emitted by a surface in all directions at a given wavelength is called
the monochromatic emissive power of the surface.

Monochromatic emissive power of black body (Eλ)b

Eλ and (Eλ)b increases with increase in temperature of the surface.

24
 Monochromatic emissive power of black body, Plank’s Distribution Law

Wien proposed (short wavelength)

ch
(E l ) b = 2pc 2 hl-5 exp(- )
lkT

Rayleigh-jeans proposed (long wavelength)

(E l ) b = 2pkTl-4

Plank Law l-5

(E l ) b = 2pc h
2 joule
æ ch ö ( El ) b =
ç exp ÷ -1 cm 2 - s - cm
è lkT ø
Where
c = Velocity of light = 2.998 ×1010 cm/sec
h = Plank’s quantum constant = 6.6237 × 10-34 joule-sec
k = Boltzman constant = 1.38 × 10-23 joule/ K
λ = Wavelength, cm
T = Asolute temperature, K
l-5
( E l ) b = C1 C1 = 2πc2h = 37.404 ×10-17 j m2/s and C2 = ch/k = 1.4387 ×10-2 m K
æ C ö
ç exp 2 ÷ - 1
è Tl ø
 26
Plank’s Distribution Law

Close agreement with

experiments.

It correctly predicts the

entire energy versus
wavelength curve and the
shift of the maximum
towards shorter
wavelengths at higher
temperatures

Plank’s Distribution Law

Monochromatic emissive power of black body Plank’s Distribution Law

(i) if λ is small or λ≪ 1;expæç ch ö÷ ff 1

è lkT ø
Hence Plank equation
l-5
(E l ) b = 2pc h
2

æ ch ö
ç exp ÷ -1
è lkT ø
Reduced to Wein 2pc 2 hl-5
(E l ) b =
exp(ch / lkT)
= 2pc 2 hl-5 exp(-ch / lkT)

≪ 1 and expæç
ch ch ö
(ii) if λ is large or λ ≫ 1 , ÷ can be expanded in a series
lkT è lkT ø

ch c2 h 2
exp(ch / lkT) = 1 + + + ....
lkT 2l2 k 2 T 2
» 1 + ch / lkT
2pc 2 hl-5 Plank’s equation reduce to
(E l ) b =
ch Rayleigh-Jeans
1+ -1
lkT
» 2pckTl-4
 Stefan Boltzmann Law
Total Emissive Power:
The total emissive power E of a surface is defined as the total radiant energy
emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire wavelength range per unit
time.

E= cal/sec cm2
J/m2
Total emissive power of given radiating surface depends on temperature of the
surface.
Stefan using exp. data of Dulong and Petit and Tyndall, discovered in 1879 that
the total emissive power of a radiating surface is proportional to the emissive
power of the absolute temperature of the surface.

Boltzmann furnished a theoretical proof of the empirical equation of Stefan.

This proof is base on principles of thermodynamics.

Boltzmann’s proof was confined to black radiating surfaces.

The result of the above work is called Stefan & Boltzmann law for the total
emissive power of the black.
 29
Stefan–Boltzmann law

s = 5.670 ´ 10-8 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity e : A measure of how closely a
surface approximates a blackbody for
which e = 1 of the surface. 0£ e £ 1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from
a surface at a specified temperature.
 Emissivity

The emissivity ε of a surface is defined as the ratio of the emissive power of the
surface to the emissive power of a hypothetical black body at the same
temperature.

Emissivity of substance may depend both on temperature and wavelength.

(a) monochromatic emissivity

(b) total emissivity
(c) normal total emissivity

Monochromatic emissivity ελ: monochromatic emissivity ελ is the ratio of the

monochromatic emissive power of a surface to the monochromatic power of a
black body at the same wavelength and temperature.
e l = (E l ) /(E l ) b
 Emissivity

Total emissivity ε: Total emissivity ε is the ratio of the total emissive power of a
surface to the total emissive power of a black body at the same temperature.
e = E / Eh

Normal total emissivity εn: Normal total emissivity εn is the ratio of the normal
component of the total emissive power of a surface to the normal component of the
total emissive power of the black body at the same temperature.
e n = E n /(E b ) n

For Black (e l ) b = 1
body (e b ) = 1
(e n ) b = 1

Emissivity of a surface is a property of the surface.

It depends only on the nature or characteristic of the surface and is

independent of the nature or wavelength of the impinging radiation waves.

The absorptivity of a surface is not a property because it is depend on the

nature of incident radiation.
Kirchoff’s Law

A black body does not emit the same amount of radiant energy at different
temperatures.

Wien’s Displacement Law

Wien’s Displacement Law

A black body does not emit the same amount of radiant energy at different
temperatures.