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Lambda-CDM model
The ΛCDM (Lambda cold dark matter) or Lambda-CDM model is a parametrization of the Big Bang
cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant, denoted by Lambda (Greek Λ), associated
with dark energy, and cold dark matter (abbreviated CDM). It is frequently referred to as the standard model of Big
Bang cosmology because it is the simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of the following properties
of the cosmos:

the existence and structure of the cosmic microwave background

the large-scale structure in the distribution of galaxies
the abundances of hydrogen (including deuterium), helium, and lithium
the accelerating expansion of the universe observed in the light from distant galaxies and supernovae
The model assumes that general relativity is the correct theory of gravity on cosmological scales. It emerged in the late
1990s as a concordance cosmology, after a period of time when disparate observed properties of the universe
appeared mutually inconsistent, and there was no consensus on the makeup of the energy density of the universe.

The ΛCDM model can be extended by adding cosmological inflation, quintessence and other elements that are current
areas of speculation and research in cosmology.

Some alternative models challenge the assumptions of the ΛCDM model. Examples of these are modified Newtonian
dynamics, entropic gravity, modified gravity, theories of large-scale variations in the matter density of the universe,
bimetric gravity, and scale invariance of empty space.[1][2][3][4]

Contents
Overview
Cosmic expansion history
Historical development
Successes
Challenges
Parameters
Missing baryon problem
Extended models
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Overview
Most modern cosmological models are based on the cosmological principle, which states that our observational
location in the universe is not unusual or special; on a large-enough scale, the universe looks the same in all directions
(isotropy) and from every location (homogeneity).[5]

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The model includes

an expansion of
metric space that is
well documented both
as the red shift of
prominent spectral
absorption or
emission lines in the
light from distant
galaxies and as the
time dilation in the
light decay of
supernova luminosity
curves. Both effects
are attributed to a
Doppler shift in Lambda-CDM, accelerated expansion of the universe. The time-line in this schematic
electromagnetic diagram extends from the Big Bang/inflation era 13.7 Byr ago to the present
cosmological time.
radiation as it travels
across expanding
space. Although this expansion increases the distance between objects that are not under shared gravitational
influence, it does not increase the size of the objects (e.g. galaxies) in space. It also allows for distant galaxies to recede
from each other at speeds greater than the speed of light; local expansion is less than the speed of light, but expansion
summed across great distances can collectively exceed the speed of light.

The letter (lambda) represents the cosmological constant, which is currently associated with a vacuum energy or
dark energy in empty space that is used to explain the contemporary accelerating expansion of space against the
attractive effects of gravity. A cosmological constant has negative pressure, , which contributes to the stress-
energy tensor that, according to the general theory of relativity, causes accelerating expansion. The fraction of the total
energy density of our (flat or almost flat) universe that is dark energy, , is currently (2015) estimated to be 0.692 ±
0.012, or even 0.6911 ± 0.0062 based on Planck satellite data.[6]

Dark matter is postulated in order to account for gravitational effects observed in very large-scale structures (the "flat"
rotation curves of galaxies; the gravitational lensing of light by galaxy clusters; and enhanced clustering of galaxies)
that cannot be accounted for by the quantity of observed matter. Cold dark matter is non-baryonic, i.e. it consists of
matter other than protons and neutrons (and electrons, by convention, although electrons are not baryons); cold, i.e.
its velocity is far less than the speed of light at the epoch of radiation-matter equality (thus neutrinos are excluded,
being non-baryonic but not cold); dissipationless, i.e. it cannot cool by radiating photons; and collisionless, i.e. the
dark matter particles interact with each other and other particles only through gravity and possibly the weak force.
The dark matter component is currently (2013) estimated to constitute about 26.8% of the mass-energy density of the
universe.

The remaining 4.9% (2013) comprises all ordinary matter observed as atoms, chemical elements, gas and plasma, the
stuff of which visible planets, stars and galaxies are made. The great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is
unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10% of the ordinary matter
contribution to the mass-energy density of the universe.[7]

Also, the energy density includes a very small fraction (~ 0.01%) in cosmic microwave background radiation, and not
more than 0.5% in relic neutrinos. Although very small today, these were much more important in the distant past,
dominating the matter at redshift > 3200.

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