AL-

RĀFI
DĀN Vol
.XXXI2010
　　1

1)
‘
AQAR QŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942

m CLAYDEN*
Ti

Intr
oduc t
ion
Themo und so f‘Aqa rQū fliec .30kmst ot henort
h-westofBa g
hdad .Ther ui
nsa r
et hoseofDūr-
Ku r
igal
zu,ac i
tyb uil
tb yt h
eKa ssitek i
ngKu r
iga
lzu(x-1375B.C.).Ex ca
v a
ti
o nsbe g
ana tthesi
te
in1942a ndh av econtinue dmo reo rlessconti
nuousl
ye versi
nce.Fo rma n
yc entur
iesb ef
oreitwas
excavat
ed,ther emain so fthez iggu r
ats er
v e
da salandmarkfortrave
ller
sont helandr ou
tebetween
theMe di
terraneanco asta ndt heAr ab i
anGu l
f.Itwasv a
rious
lyidenti
fie
da stheTo wero fBabyl
on;
Nimrod’sto wer;al o okou to rb eaconp latf
orm;theb ur
ialmo undo fpre-
Sasaniank i
ngs;ormo re
poet
ical
lyac oolspo tinwh icht or el
axf ortheCa l
iphsofBa ghdad
.
Oo ghe[ 2007]h ash ig hl
igh t
edt heimp ort
anceofe xami
n i
ngthea ccount
so fearlytrave
ll
ersto
the NearEa sta ndo fu nde r
s t
and i
ngt h e
cont
extinwh i
cht he
ywe rewr it
ten.Re views
ofearl
yt r
av ell
erstoI raq2)h aveb eenma de,
buttheyprov ideonlyt hes can t
iesthist
o r
ical
backgrou
nd[ e.g.Ro gers1 901:1 06–1 25;
Hilpr
echt19 03:1–6 9;Fo ssey1 904:I ,
6–2 8;
Fagan1979:1 6–47;Ll oyd1 98 0:7–2 1].Th is
paperrevi
ewst he‘history ’of‘ Aq arQū fi n
thepostancientBa bylon i
a np eri
od .Its ee
k s
top l
acei nc on t
extt her ef
eren cest o,an d
descr
ipt
ionso fthes itewh icha p pearina
vari
etyofwr ittensou r
ce sf r
omt heAb basid
peri
odu nt
ilex c
a va
ti
o nsc omme n c
e din1 942. Fig.1　Ma pofcentr
alIraq.

Pre-Is
lami c
Thel a
s tdo cumen t
arye vid
e n
cef orthecit
yo fDū r-
Ku r
igal
zuwa sinthen eo-Babyl
o nia
np er
iod[cf.
Zadok1 9 85:121]b ywh ichti
met henameh adb ee
na bbr
eviat
edtoDū r-
Galzu.Th eexcavatedremai
ns
suggestthato ccu
p at
ion,especial
lyintheareaaboutthezi
gguratmound,continue
dint heAc ha
eme ni
d
peri
od[ Salma n1 969:e-f;Juma i
ll
y1 971:83–84].Th eevi
denceforacti
vit
ya tth
es i
teintheSeleuci
d
(323–63B. C),Part
h ia
n( 247–224A. D)a ndSasani
an( 2
24–651A. D.)per
iodsisconfinedtoac oppe
r
coi
no fVo logasesIII[Ba qi
r1 944:13,n o
.11];andsomePa rthi
an/Sasani
anp ott
eryfo undintombs
[J
asime tal.2006:1 62–1 64,fig.
8].Ca sualvis
it
orstothemo unda l
sorefe
rt oRoma na ndPa r
thi
an
coi
n swa sh edo utoft heruins,butnof ir
me v i
dence(e.g
.ill
u s
tr
ati
ons)isp rovi
ded[ St
evens1 92
3:
115;Sta rk1 951:12 4].
Th erea renoi denti
fiabl
er ef
erencesto‘Aq a
rQū finthewr it
te
nr ec
ordso fthesep e
riod
s.

　 　
* D.
Phi
l.
,Un
ive
rsi
tyo
fOx
for
d,U.
K.
1)I
nprepari
ngt
hispaperIam gr
ate
fult
oDr.StJohnSi
mp sonforhishel
pfulc
ommentswhic
hgr e
atl
yi mpr
ovedi
tsqua
lit
y.Al ler
rors
t
hatre
ma i
naremine.
2)Iusethemoder
nge ogr
aphi
calter
mf orea
seofref
ere
nc e.Ofc our
setheAbbasi
da ndIl
khani
dr ul
erswoul
dnothaver ec
ognise
d
t
heter
m.I ntheOttomanperi
odas e
nseofIr
aqasage ogra
phic
alunitdideme
rge,butwasnotformal
is
ed[se
eTikr
iti2009].
2　Ti
m CLAYDEN

Ear
lyIsl
amicperi
od
The
reisnoexcav
atedo
rdo
cume
nta
rye
vid
enc
efo
roc
cup
ati
ona
t‘Aq
arQū
fint
hee
arl
yIs
lami
c/
Umayy
adp e
rio
d.

Abba si
dpe riod
In7 62A. D.Ab ūJ a’fara l-Ma ns
ū r,thes econdCa lipho ft heAb bas idd y nasty,fo undedBa ghd ad3).
Variousa ccounts[ cf.Strang e1 900:1–1 4;La ssne r19 83:4 5]o ft hise v ente x i
st,bu tpe rh apst he
4)
mo stg raphi
ca ndc omp letea ppearsi nt h eh is
to r
yo fa l
-Ta b a
rī[ a l-Tab arī1 995:2 44–2 5 0].Th e
newc it
yl ayo ne st
ab l
ishedc aravanr ou t
e s[cf.Gr iffi
n1 99 6:1 16]a n dAl -Ta barī[ibid.
,2 4 6]r epo rt
s
t
h atal-Ma nsūrsaid‘ Thisisap lacewi t
hwh i
chIa ms atisf
ied .Su p pl
i esc anr eachi tviatheEu phrates
andTi gris.It’sag oodp lacet ob uildac ity’
.
Al-Tabarī’
sd et
aileda ccountr eferst ot hee xistenceo fs ma llv ill
a geso rf armsn eart h esiteo f
t
h ef utu
rec it
yo fBa ghdad ,butth erei sn oo b viousr ef
e r
e ncet o‘ Aq a rQū f.Att hes it
ei ts el
ft here
i
se x cavatedev i
de nce[Ba qir1 944:1 1,1 3n o1 1]f oro cc up at
ioni nt h eAb basidPe r
iodi nt hea rea
adjacenttother u
ino ft h
ez iggurat(b ytheno vertwot hou sandy ea
r sold ).Th oughwec annot b ecertain
asd etail
so ff i
nelyd at
eda r
tefact
s( e.
g .c oins)f ounda t‘ Aq a
rQū fh aven otb eenp ublish ed,i tis
l
ike lythatt here newa lofo ccupationa tth esitet ookp lacea to rs h or
tlya ft
e rthef oun d ati
o no f
Bag hdad.‘ Aq arQū fwo u l
dh aveb eeno neo ft hen ume ro uss ettl
eme ntst hats upp or
tedt h el argely
admi nis
trati
vec entret ha
twa sBa gh dad[ c f
.Ad ams1 965:9 9].
An earco nt
e mp ora
ryo fAl -Ta bari’s,IbnMi shawa j
l( d.1 030) ,r eferst o“ Ag rgūfs omet wo
5)
parasangs from Ba ghdad”[ Ma rgo l
iouth1 921:2 0].Th isi sthee arliestr ef
e r
e ncet othes i
te.Of
noteisth atth
en ameo fthes it
ewa sa sitist odayami ll
e nnium l a
te r
.Ov erac enturya ft
erAl -Tab ari
’s
deathI bna l-
At hirwr oteh is‘comp l
eteh is
toryo fthewo rld’.I tma yi ncludear eferencet o‘ Aq a r
Qū fa ndBu dges ugg est
st hatitp ro videse vi
de nce‘ t
h ataf lourishingc itys toodt here( i
.e .‘Aq a r
6)
Qū f)int heearlyc en t
uri
eso ftheHi j
rah ’[Bu dg e1 920:2 8 1,f n
.2] .
‘AqarQū f/‘ Ak arkūfa ppear
si nt heg eo gra
p hicalgaze t
te er
so ftwo1 3thc ent
u ryAr abics c holars-
Yâk ût(d.1 224)a n da l
-Ka zwîni( d.1 28 3).Bo thr ecorded[ Mu sil1 92 7:4 8,f n.35]t hat‘ Aq arQū f
7)
was‘ as ett
leme ntint hea dmi ni
str
a ti
v ed ist
ricto fDu gejl,fo urp arasan gsf r
o m Ba gh dad.Cl o
s eb y
ri
sesak no l
lwh ichc anb es eenf r
om ad istanceo ff i
vep arasang s’[ Op pert1 86 3:2 58;Mu silibid.].
8)
Yâk ûta l
sos uggestedt hatthes it
ewa sth eb uri
a lsiteo fp r
e -Sasa ni
a nk i
ng s[ Op pertibid.] .
Thesee arl
yr eferencesto‘ Aq arQū fa reing eo gra
p hicalg azetteersi nwh icht oponymsa relisted
th
andd i
scussed.Ot h erexamp lesinc ludet wo1 0c e nt
uryb oo kswh ic hl i
stt own si nIraq-t heHu d ūd
al-
‘ ālam[ 1970:1 38–1 40]a n dal-Mu qad dasī[2 001:9 5–1 0 4].Al -
Mu qadd asī’
swo rka lsoc ontains
as hortg uideforv i
sitor
st oI raqo ni tss yst
emo fg overnme nt
,t ax es,c ustomsa ndc a r
av a ns tages
[i
bid .
,10 4-114].Th es t
yleisd rya ndi sr at
h erlikethata dop tedc enturiesl aterint heBr it
ishI mp eri
a l
t
h t
h
Indiana ndAf gha nGa zet
teersp ublishedi nt hel ate1 9a n de arly2 0c en turi
es .
Byt he9thcen t
ur yBa ghdadwa sa tthea po geeo fitssu ccess.Th ere aft
e ritde cl
ined[ cf
.Ame droz
191 3;Wa ines1 977;La ss
n er1 983:4 7] .Th er easonsf ort hisd eclinea reb ey ondt hes co peo fthis
pape r
.I ns umma rya sth eAb basida dmi ni
strat
ives ystemf ai
leds ot ood idt hei rri
gations ystems
ands et
tl
e mentsa bo utBa g hdada n dmo rewi d el
yi nI raqa ndwe red e sert
e d[ seeAd a ms1 9 81:
225–2 28].Byt he1 1thc enturyov er9 0% o fthel andt hath a dbe eno ccup i
e di nth eSa sa
n ia np eriod

　 　
3)SeeJoff
ee[ 1998:563–565]f oradi s
cuss
ionofBa ghdad,oneofagr oupofnewlyfoundedcapi
tal
sinIr
aq.
4)AbūJ a
’farMu hamma dbinJ arī
ral-Taba
rī(A.D.839–923)s pentmuchofhisl
ifeinBa ghda
d,buttr
ave
lle
dext
ens
ive
ly.Hi
shi
st
ory
cove
redthea ncientwor l
da ndr a
ndownt o915A. D.
5)Onepa r
asangi sequivale
ntt oc.5.48k ms.Thustwopa r
asangsise
quival
entt
oc .11kms .
6)Iha venotbe ena bleindependentl
yt overi
fythi
sr ef
erence
.
7)Fourpa ras
angsi sequivalenttocirca22k ms( c
f.footnote5).
8)Not e:NottheSa saniankingsa ssuggest
edbyBe wsher1867:164.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　3

wasaba
ndo
ned[
ibi
d.:2
18]
.Th
e13th c
ent
uryr
efe
ren
cest
o‘Aq
arQū
fsu
gge
stt
hati
tdi
dno
tsh
are
t
hisf
ate
.
t
h t
h
Mus l
im,Chr i
st
iana ndJ ewishpi lgrims ,10 –1 5 c enturies
Pilgri
ma get os acreds itesi sani mp or
tante leme nto ftheth reeg r
e atre l
igionso fthemi ddl
ee ast
[Shu i
skii198 7;Gil1 987;Ho usl
ey1 987].Fo rMu slimstheha j
jtoMe ccai sano b li
gationo nalladul
ts,
subjecttoc ert
ainc on dit
ion s
.Fo rCh rist
ians,th oughn oto bligat
ory ,visit
st ot heHo l
yLa nda r
e
und ert
akene ithera sap enan c
e( lesss os incet hemi ddleag es)o rsimp lyt owo r
shipa tthes i
teo f
9)
signifi
cante ventsintheBi b l
e[ cf
.Mo nga1 999:1 6 2–163;He lf
e r2005:2 3 68] .Fo rJewst her e
ma ins
oft heSe condTe mp l
ei nJ erusalema retheh o l
iests i
teinthewo rld
.
Fora l
lt hre
er eli
g ionsJ er
usalem wa simp o r
tant,butatthisp eri
o da ccesswa sac o ntes
tedissue.
Th eCr usadese nforcedaCh r
ist
ianp resen c
ei ntheLe vantbetwe en10 96a nd1 291,b uttheCr usader
s
didn oth ol
dJ er
u s
a l
emf ora l
lo fthatt i
me .Du ringt hi
sp e
riodCh ri
stianp il
g r
imsc ouldwi thg r
eater
ease( arelati
v eterm)v i
sittheHo lyLa nd,bu tJewi shandMu slimp ilgrimswe red enieda ccessthat
bothh adwh enMu slimp owe r
sh el
dt hec i
ty.On cetheCr u sader
sa ndt heirk i
ngdomsh a db e
en
remo vedf rom t heLe vant,a cc
e s
st oJ erus
ale mf o rChrist
ianp i
lgr
imsb ecamemo red iffi
cult
,b ut
theys t
il
lma det hejou rneya ndr ecordedt heirimp ressi
ons[c f
.Wr i
gh t18 48;Th ePa le
stinePilgri
ms ’
Tex tSoc i
ety,1 884–18 96;Ha chi
c ho1 9 64:16–1 8;Da y1 980:2 02–2 03].
Byt hee ndo fth e1 6thcenturys uc hwe ret hen umb er
so fp il
grimst ravellingf rom En gl
a ndthat
transport
ingt hemh adb ecomea‘ co vetedb usinesse nt
erpri
se’a ndp i
lg r
ims‘ a na rti
cleofe xportat
ion’
[Ho ward1 9 14:3] .Th ed e gr
eeo finterestinp i
lgrimagest ot heHo lyLa n dma yb ei ndicat
edb y
thef a
ctthato neo fthee arl
iestbo oks( i
n3e di
tions)t obep r
intedinEn glandwa sag uidef orpil
grims-
10)
Informac onf orp y l
gry mesp ubli
sh edb yWy nkind eWo rde i
n1 478. No te veryone,h owever,
regardedp ilgri
ma geswi t
hf avou ra ndEr asmu sd e s
cribe
dt hema sa‘ di
ssipation ’[Ho ward1 914:6;
cf.alsoHo u sele
y1 987:6 61] .
11)
Eng l
is
hp il
g r
imsd idn otven t
u r
ef urthere as
twa rdsthanth eLe van t .Bu t
,J ewisha ndMu sl
im
pilgri
msd i
d .Be tween1 165a nd1 1 73aSp anishJ ewishscholar,Be njamino fTu dela,tr
a vel
ledround
then eare astinc l
u d
in gBa ghdad[ Ad ler1 907:5 4–65].Hi sa c
c ountisd etai
leda nda ccurat
e,b ut
wa sn otforma ll
yp ublishedu nti
l1 543.Hev isi
te dthea nci
en tsit
eo fBa by l
o n[ ibi
d.,6 5–67].He
ma den oi dentif
iabler efer
e nceto‘ Aq arQū f
.
TwoAr a bi
cb ibli
o graphieso fth ep eri
odl ist3 2Mu sli
mp ilgr
ima cco u
n tso fjourn eys–r ihl
a-
ma deb etween8 50a nd1 25 0[Sh uiskii
:1 987:6 51;He l
fer200 5:2 370].On eo ft hee arl
iestaccount
s
wa sb yIbn- J
u bayr[20 01]wh ob etwe en1 183a nd1 1 85tra
ve l
ledt oMe ccaa ndMe di
na ;andt hr
ough
Iraqwh e r
eh ev is
itedBa ghd a
d[ ibid.,2 26–23 9].Hema kesn ome n ti
ono f‘ Aq arQū f.A 1 50o r
12)
soy earslaterin1 325I bn-Ba t
tūta beg anaj o u
rn eythrought heMi ddleEa st.Hev isit
edBa ghdad
[Ibn-Battūt
a1 962:3 2 6–3 35],bu tma kesrefe r
en cene i
thertoa‘ To we rofBa bylon’n orto‘ Aq ar
Qū f.Ne i
thert ravel
lerwa sp arti
cu l
a r
lyi nter
e st
edi na ncientr emains.Sc h olars,rel
ig i
ousf i
g u
res,
mo squesa ndt het omb so fh olyme nwe retheirc hiefint
erest
s .

Emis
sari
es,mis
sio
nari
esandme r
chantsi
nt heMongolper
iod
TheCrus
ades
,thoughdr
amat
icandexte
nded,wer
elimit
edgeog
rap
hical
lyan
dh adli
tt
lei
mpacti
n
t
he wid
er Mu s
li
m wo r
ld. Ho
we ve
r,thee mer
gen
c eo ft
he Mo n
gols,und
er Gengh
is Kha
n

　 　
9)SeeRunc iman[1965:38–50]f
oradisc
ussionofearly(i.
e.pre
-Crusa
de s
)Chri
sti
anpil
gri
ms.
10)DeWo rdedie
dc .1534andwasoneofCa xton’
searli
estsucc
essor
s.
11)JohndeMa ndevi
ll
e’sbook,whic
hhedi c
ta t
eddrawingone arl
ieraccount
s,wasproba
blybase
donhe ar
sayra
the
rthanpers
onal
exper
ience.
12)IbnBattut
a(1304–1368/
9)wasborni
nMo r
oc co.
Hisjour
neylast
edfor29ye a
rsa
ndhedict
ate
dtheacc
ount
dra
wingonear
li
era
ccount
s.
4　Ti
m CLAYDEN

13)
(1167–1 2 27) wa stoh av eaf arre achinga ndd eva stat
ingi mpacto nt hef abrico fthel and sea s
t
14)
ofCa io .Th
r ea tt
acki n1 218o nKh wārazm[ Bira1 9 98:2 52–253]ma r kedth estartoft heMo ngol
camp ai
g n sa ndo n lyGh eng i
sKh a n’
sd e
a t
hi n12 27b roughtat emp oraryh al
tt othewa rs.
In1 2 38as econdwa veo fMo n gola t
tacksintoEa sternEu rop eb rou ghtt heMo n gol
st ot he
horr
ifiedc losea t
tenti
o no fthev ar
iou skingso fWe sternEu ropeandt hePo pe.En vo ysfrom Mu sli
m
rul
ersa sk ingf o rh el
pa ct
u al
lya rr
ivedi nWe st
ernEu rope,b utwe red ismi sseda ndt heBi s
h opo f
Winc hester( En gland)c omme n t
edt ha ttheys hould‘ allowt hesed og stod evou ro nea no t
her’–a n
enemyo fth eMu slima rmieswa saf r
ien d,oratleas
ta nu ncert
ainall
y, t
ot h earmie sofCa th ol
icEu rope
[J
acks one tal .1 990:1 5].I nd eede a r
li
e rreport
so ft heMo ngola tt
ac kso nt hee asternr each e
so f
t
heMu slim wo rldh adb eeng arbledi nt r
ansmissionb eforetheyr eac hedEu ropea ndi nt he1 220s
t
herewa se venab e l
iefthatthea rmiesa tt
ackingtheIslami cwo r
ldwe reth oseo faCh risti
ank ing, David
[i
bid.,14–1 5]o rPr es t
erJo hn.
Itwa sn o tu nti
l1 241,t hey e a
rKh anOg ot
aid ied ,thatthePo p efin al
lya ccep t
edt h erealit
yo f
t
heMo ng olth reata ndaCr usad ea gainstthem wa sd e cl
ared,b utitfizzledo u t
.I twa sa tthi
sp oi
nt
t
hatth ePo ped ecid e
dt os e
n de mis s
aries[ibid.
,28–3 2]t ot heMo ngolstos eewh atitwa st heywa nted
andtop ro videa ccurateinforma ti
o na boutthem.An u mb ero freal
lyb rav etraveller
swe rese nteast-
amon go th er
sFr i
a rJohno fPi and eCa r
pini(1245–1 2 47)a ndFr ia
rWi ll
iamo fRu b r
u ck(1 253–1 255)
[J
acks one ta l.1 990].Th eys u ccessful
lyt ra
velledt ot hec ourto fth eMo n golKh ana ndr eturned
wit
hi n f
o rma tiona bo
u ttheMo ngoli nte
n t
ions.
In1 22 4an e w Kh anwa s‘ elected’a ndthep lant oa ttackIraqa ndBa ghda dwa se venk nown
t
oWi ll
iamo fRu bruck[ i
b i
d.,22 2–2 23].I n3we eksi nFe bruary1 258, t
h eMo ngola rmyu n derHü legü
15)
Khanc on quere dI ra
qa n db r
u t
a l
lys ackedBa ghdad .Twoa rmiesa tt
ac kedt hec it
y.On eadv anced
fr
omt hee astd ownt heKh ursanr oad ;andt heo t
h erf rom thewe stfrom An ba ralongt hero ut
eo f
t
heNa jrI sac ana l[Strange1 90 0:3 41].Th eAra bh istori
esd isagr
eeo nlyi nh ow ma n ywe r
ek i
ll
ed,
16)
andn otth atallthei nhabitantswe rewi pedo ut.Iftherewa sa nysett
leme n tat‘Aq arQū fa tthattime ,
i
tismo s tu nlikelyt hatitwi llh aves u r
v i
vedt heMo n gola t
tacka nd1 25 8p robablyma rksth ee nd
offorma lo ccu pationa tthes ite.Th ed estruc
tionwa sco nsi
derable[ Strange1 900:3 3 4–345] ,but
notasc omp l
etea stheAr a bh ist
o r
iog r
ap her
sd escri
b ea ndi tb eca
met h es eato fthemi norMo ngol
dynasty–t heI lkh anids[cf.ib i
d .
,3 45–3 48;Wi et1 9 71:1 66a nd1 71–1 72].Fu rt
her,t hrought he
NestorianCh u rch,Ch r
ist
ianityh adb eena ccept
edb ys omeo fthel eadin gMo ng ol
sa ndt heirwi ves
[J
acks on1 990:2 2–24;c f.a l
soRy an1 998]a ndth i
ss avedth eCh rist
ian sa ndth ei
rc hu rchesint he
sac
ko fBa ghd ad.
Att h es amet i
met ot hewe st
,o l
dt radingrouteswe redisrupt
eda n dth eCr usadersa ndBy za nt
ines
usedt os ervet hec onfli
cti
n gtra di
ngi n t
erest
so fGe n oaa n dVe ni
ce.I n1 19 9aFo urthCr usad ewa s
ass
emb l
edwi tht hea imo fa t
tackingt heMa mluksi nEg y pt
.I nt woy e ar
sf rom 1 20 1t o1 203t he
Crusaderswe rel oc kedinn eg oti
ationswi ththeVe netia nsov e
rt r
ansp ort
ationf eeswi thth eVe netia
n s
.
Thisc ulmi nate di nth eCr us a
d ersu nwi t
tingl
ys ervingVe net
ianc omme r
cialin te
restsb ya t
tacking
Constantin ople[ Ru ncima n1 96 5:iii,1 09–122].Th eVe n et
iansh adf alleno utwi t
ht heBy z ant
ine
rul
ers;a ndi na nyc a
s eh a
dn ev erwa ntedwa rwi thEg y ptwi t
hwh om t heyh adas ecret-f r
om t he
Crusaders-t radea greemen t
.I na dd i
tiont hePo pewa n t
edt ob ri
ngt h eOr thod oxCh urchu nd erthe
17)
cont
ro lo fRo me .Ac cordinglyi n1 20 4theFo urthCr usadec apturedCo nst
an t
inop l
ewh icht hey
sac
k edf orn ined ays[ i
bid.,1 23–1 24].A La t
ink i
n gd om ru l
edCo n st
a ntinopleu nti
lJ uly1 261wh en

　 　
13)Theprecis
eda t
eofGe nghi
sKha n’
sbi r
thi suncer
tai
n[ cf
.Jacksonetal.1990:10,f n.3].
14)Forareview ofthecamp ai
gnsoftheMo ngolsupunt i
lcir
ca1251s eeJ a
cksone tal.1990:10–21.
15)Forasumma r
yoft heAr abwrit
tensourcesforfallofBaghdads eeStr
ange[ 1900:340–343] .
16)SeeAdams[ 1981:225–228]forasumma ryoft heevide
nce(wr i
tt
enandfroms urfacesurveys)f
orther
educ
tioni
nthes
izeofBa
ghdad
andthelowerlevel
sofs e
tt
lementinthes urr
oundingareaintheLa t
eAbba si
da ndIlkhanidPeri
ods.
17)In2004PopeJ ohnPa ulIIapol
ogisedfort hesackofCons t
anti
nople800ye arspr e
viously.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　5

t
h eBy zan t
ines,withth ea s
sist
anceo ftheGe n oesetowh omt heyg aveap refe
re nt
ialtr
adinga greeme nt
,
regainedc ontroloft hec it
y[ ibi
d.,2 87].
Thec omb i
nationo ftheCr usad erwa rsa lo
n gtheLe v
antinelit
toral;theMo ng
ola tt
a cksf r
om
t
h ee ast;a ndt hec o nfl
ictb et
we ent heBy za nt
inesa n dt hes ucces
s orstot heFo ur
thCr usadei n
Co nsta
n t
inople,me a ntthattradet hrought heMi ddleEa stwo uldh aveb eenh azardous.
Butt ravell
erss ti
llr i
skedt hej ourney.Th emo stfa moust ravel
lero ft heag ewa saVe net
ian
me rchant,Ma rcoPo lo18)wh oina2 4y earjourney( 1271–1 295)travelledasf arastheMo ngo lemp i
re
i
nCh ina.Hi sb ooka ch i
evedwi ded istr
ibuti
ona ndwa sak eytextforo t
herex plor
ers[Ve r
linden19 88:
27;Ry an1 993:6 49] .I twa sfirstp ri
ntedin1 477,b utmo rethan1 40ma n usc
riptco pi
esp r
ed at
ed
19)
i
tsp u bl
icati
o n[ i
bid.,6 50].Hi sd escri
pti
ono fBa ghdad( ‘Baldach o rBa gadet,ancientlyc all
ed
Bab i
lonia’[ibid.]
)5 0y earsafte
ri t
ss a
ck i
ng20),isab b
re viat
eda ndh ep robab l
yd idn otvisitthec i
ty
[Ma rcoPo lo2 008:3 6] .Hema den ome nti
o no f‘Aq arQū f
.
Ma r
c oPo lo’sa cco untd i
ff
ersf rom t hato fBe njami no fTu delaa ndI bnBa t
tuta.Wh i
lstthe
l
aterwe rec hiefl
yc o ncerned withr el
igiousma tte
rs,Ma rco Po l
of ocusedo nh i
storic
a le vents
;
i
n t
ern a
tionalre l
ati
o ns;a ndmo stimp ort
antl
yo ntr a
de.Ma rcoPo l
o’sb ooka l
soh ighl
ightedt hef a
ct
t
h atthea pp ar
e nt
lyt olerantMo ng olswo uldwe lcomeCh r
ist
ianmi ssionari
es[ Ry an19 93:6 51].I n
t
h ec ent
uryt hatfoll
o we dan umb ero fmissiona r
iestravell
e dtoIndiawh e r
eso onan umb erwe rea cti
ve
ande stabli
shingc ommu ni
ties[cf
.Ry an1 993;1 998] .
Ones u chmi ssionarywa saFr ancisc
anp ri
est,FriarOd or
icuso fUd i
ne .In1 318h ewa ssent
easta sp artofa ne xtendedmi ssion ar
ymo ve me nt
.Her e
turnedt oUd i
nei n1 3 31h avi
n gv isi
ted
India,Suma tra,Bo r
n eo,Ch inaandPe rs
ia.Het ravell
edf rom northtos ouththroughI r
aqa ndr ecorded
t
h at‘fromt hen c
e( i.
e .no r
thernMe sopotamia)It ravell
e dintoCh aldaea,wh ichisag reatk i
n gdome,
andIp assedb yth eTo we ro fBa be l…’[ Od ori
c us19 04:4 11].I tisn otc learwh etherOd ori
cus
sawt hez igguratru i
n sa tBirsNi mru do rat‘ Aq arQū fa nde it
hera r
ep oss
ib l
e.
Inth elate1 4th ande arly15th centuri
est hea r
myo fTimu rd evastat
edt heg reatc i
tieso fthe
Ne arEa s
terntrader ou t
es.I n1 3
99/1 400Timu rsackedBa ghdad,Alep poa ndDa ma scus.On cea g
ain
t
h eo verlandr outest oI ndiaandCh i
nawe red isrupt
eda ndt r
avelma ded i
f f
icultandu np rofi
table
.
Bag hdadwa sreduc edtoa ni mp overishedruino fi t
sAb basi
dg loryan ditwo uldb e5 00y earsbe f
ore
i
tb eg antor ecover.
t
h t
h
Overlandt radewi ththeNe arEa stinthe1 6 a nd17 c enturi
es
th
The16c e n
turyan dtheRen a
issa
nc ewa saperi
odo fext
ra-ordinar
yc ha
n g
ei nEuropeandtheMi d
dle
Eas
t.Po l
iti
call
yi twa sthetimeo fSu lei
ma ntheMa gnifi
cent( 152
0–1 566)wh os
ec o
n q
u es
tstook
hi
mt ot heg atesofVi enna;contr
o lovermo stoftheMi d d
leEa st(Syri
ai n1 51
6,Eg yptin1517,
an
dI raqi n1 533/4);captur
eo fth ee a
ster
nMe di
ter
raneana ndNo rthAf ri
ca;andsuccessagains
t
t
hePe rsi
a nstot h
ee ast.InEu r
opet hewa rbetweenSp ain/Ha ps
burgEmp i
rea ndFranceranfor
mostoft hec ent
ury.I nn or
thernEu ropetheNe t
herl
andsf oughtforindependencefr
om Sp ai
na nd
t
h s
t
Engla
nde mergeda sar eg
ionalp oweru nderHenryVIII andEl i
zabethI .
I
twa sthecenturywh e
nt hehe gemonyo ft
heCa tho
licCh urchwa sbrokenwh eni
n1 517Ma rt
in
Lut
h e
rp ubli
shedh is95FiveTh ese
sa nde s
tabl
is
hedProtesta
ntism;andin1 526theEngl
ishParli
ament
pa
ssedth eAc tagains
tthePo pe’
sAu t
horit
y.Re l
igi
onb e
ca meas eri
ousissueinthevar
iousEu r
opean
warsoft hece n
tury.

　 　
18)Thea ut
henti
cityofthema nus
criptpubli
shedi n1997a s‘Thec i
tyofl
ight’andwhi c
hc laimstobetheme moi
resofaJewishmerchant
,
JacobofAnc ona,whot ravel
ledt oChinaa ndr e
turnedtoItalyin1272,isdi s
cus se
dbyBoul noi
s[2008:356–361]
.
19)Baldachwa sac ommo nform ofBa ghdadi nEurope a
nwr it
ings.I
tgavei t
sna met oavi l
lageonlandowne dbytheKnightsTemplar
,
Baldock,inHe rt
fordshir
e,Engla nd[Jacksone tal.1990:216,f n2];andt oba ldechino-‘ anOrientalbr
ocadewit
hgolda ndsil
ver
thr
e a
dma deinBa ghdad’va l
uedbyEur opeanma r
ketsinthet i
meoft heCr usades[ Gr i
ffi
n1996:1 19].
20)Somer ebuil
dingmu s
tha vetakenpl aceasi n1274t heBishopofMo sulmo vedt oBa ghdad.
6　Ti
m CLAYDEN

Itwa sa l
sot hec enturywh ent hee xpedit
ion so fthel ate1 5th c
en t
u r
ye xplorersfrom Sp aina nd
Portugalwe ree xp l
o i
ted.I nterna t
ionalt ra
dea ndn ascentc o l
on i
alismb ecamei ssueso fs t
ra t
egic
concerntor ul
erst h r
o ughoutEu rop e.Ea chs oughtt oe stablis
he x cl
u s
iv i
tyofacce s
sf ortheirc ountri
es.
Th i
sresult
edi nas er
iesofs ma llsc a
lewa rsa ndp irac yth atwa s,inEn gl
and,d r
e s
se dupa slegitimate
acti
vit
y.
In1 498t hePo r
tugueses ailora ndn avigat
o r,Va s cod aGa mas uccess
full
yr ou ndedt heCa peo f
Go odHo pea ndma d eare t
u r
nt riptoCa l
icut.Wi thinj ustaf e wy earsPo rt
ug ueses hi
psl o adedwi th
spiceando t
he rg o odsfrom I nd i
aa n
db eyondwe res aili
n gd irecttoEu r
opeh a
v ingc omp l
etedt he
21)
t
riproun dAf ri
c a .Fo rther esto fthec ent
uryth eyd omi natedt hes earoutestothev a l
ua blema r
kets
ofthes ub-contine nt.
Inp aral
leltot h etra
dings uc cessoft hePortug ue seint heEa stI ndies
,theSp anishwe r
ee x pl
o i
ting
t
h e‘dis
co very’o fAme ric
ab yCh ristopherCo l
umb u si n1 492.Wi thin4 0y ear
so fCo lumb us’vo yage
theSp anis
hc onq uestsinc entr
a la nds outher
nAme ricawe rep rodu ci
n gvastq ua nt
iti
eso fb ulli
on.
22)
Th i
ssup pl
yc o ntinu edu nt
ilth ee ight
ee nt
hc entu y .
r
23)
Ag ainstthisb ack gr
ou ndo fSp anish,Po r
tugu ese an d,toamo r
el i
mi t
ed( geographica l
ly)e xtent
,
Ven e
tia
na ndFr en chc omme rcials uccesstheEn g lisha ndt heDu t
chwe refrustrate
do utsiders.I n
ane f
forttob reakt hes tr
an gleholdo nth esearo utest ot hee a s
tI ndies,theEn gl
ishs ough ttod iscover
awa yt hrought hen ort
hwe stp assage( Hu ghWi l
lo ug hbya n dRi chardCh ancellorin1 5 53a ndJ ohn
Da vi
si n1 585)o r
,mo res uccessfully,throughRu ssia( Ri chardCh ancell
or,Ri chardJ o hnsona nd
An t
honyJ e nkinso ni n1 553–1 5 58).Eu ropeans e t
tleme n tinNo rthAme ricanwa sb egu n.A n ew
conceptini nterna t
ion a
ltrad eeme rge
di nNo r
the rnEu rop ea ndi nEn gl
and–t h ejo i
nts tockt rading
comp any–e .g.inEn g l
andTh eMu scovyComp an y( traded1 5 55–1 917),TheLe v a
n tComp an y(traded
1581–1 825),Th eVi rgini
aComp an y(16 06–162 4),Th ePl ymo u t
hComp any( 1
6 06–1 620) ,andmo st
success
fullytheEn g l
ishEa stIndiaComp any(160 0–1 8 74)a ndi ntheNe t
herl
an dstheDu tc hEa stIndia
Comp any( 1 6
0 2–1 7 98).
Eu r
o peex por t
edma nufac t
uredg oo dsandb u ll
io n.En gland’se xportswe r
ek erseywo ollenc lo
th,
t
ina ndl ead[ Inal ci
k1 994:3 69] .Th ec ommo diti
e ss ou ghtb yt heEu ropeanma rket
si nt hes ub-
conti
nentwe r
es p ices(e.g.p epper)wh ichc oul
db eb ough tinI ndiaa nds ol
da thug ep r
o fi
ti nEu rope;
ands i
lkf r
om Pe rsia.Th es cal
eo fp r
o fi
tstob ema dema yb eg aug edfrom thep epperma rket.I n
1586,fo rex amp le,Po rtugueseme r
cha nt
swe r
ea bl etos ellIndianp epperinEu ropewi t
hap rofi
t
ma rg
ino fo ver5 0 0% [ i
bid.,3 52].I n1 570Ko nra dRo tto fAu gsb er
gu ns
uccessfullytriedt oc orner
t
h eEu r
opea npe pp erma rket.Asp artofh i
sb usi
n essp lanh ec alculatedthatinay earEu rop eco nsume d
280 00q uintal
s( c ir
c a2.8mi ll
ionk gs.
)o fp eppe r[ i
b i
d.].
Un ti
l1 498t heo v e
rlandr outesthrou g
hAl exa nd riaan dAl eppot oI ndi
awe rewi thoutrival.Al ong
withtheSi lkRo utet oCh i
n at heywe retheywe ret heme diumb ywh ic
ht rade,wi thg ood sa nd
me rc
hantsc arri
e do ng reatc ar
a vanso fc ame l
s,b etwe enEu ropea ndt hesub- c
o nti
nen ta ndCh ina
wa sconduc t
ed.Th ec ara
va nst hroughSy ri
ac ong reg at
edi nAl eppob ef
oreh eadi
ngs outhe astd own
t
h ecourseo fth eEu phrat
e se i
thero nt her i
veritse l
ft oAn a /Fa l
lujaha ndtheno v erl
andt oBa g hdad

　 　
21)In1501f i
vePor tugueses hipsunl oa ded380t onsofpe pperands picesa tFa lmouth[ Braudel1975:I .544] .By1510ape r
mane nt
sett
lementa tGoaha dbe ene sta
bl i
she dbyt hePor tugue se.
22)Estimatesoft hea mountofs i
lvere xtract
edf r
omt hemi ne satPotosi,Peru,ande xporte
dt oSpa inva r
y–51 100me tr
ictons,or81%
ofwor ldproduc tiona tthet i
me[ Habi b1999:34–35] ;and45000t onsbetwe en1556a nd1783[ Ferguson2008:23] .By1600Spa in
wa sdrawinga na verageof40mi l
lionduc atspe ryea rfrom Ame rica[Ca lder1998:38] .Thebul lionne ve
r ,howe ver
,a mounte
dt o
mo rethen25% ofna tiona lneeds[ Gr een1970:212] .Thi swe al
thdi dnots t
op,a ndma ye venhavec ont
ri
but edto,Spa i
n’sdefault
oni t
sinter
na ti
ona ldebtsi n1557,1560,1575a nd1596.ThePot os isil
veri nturnwa suseda sthetradingcur re
nc ywiththema rkets
oftheI ndi
e sa ndFa rEa stcausingi nflat
ionint hoser egions[Habib1999:35] .
23)Suchwa sther iva l
rybe twe e
nSpa i
na ndPor t
uga lthatinJ une1494PopeAl exanderVIpr esi
dedove ras et
tleme ntbetweenthet wo
kingdomsunde rwhi c
hanor t
hs outhl inerunningt hroughBr azi
lt hewor ldwa sdividedintotwot radingbloc ks–Spa i
nwe stofthe
li
nea ndPor tuga lthee ast.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　7

andt hed ownt h eTig rist oBa sr

ah;o rwe sto ft heEu phra
tesd irectlytoBa srah[ cf.Pa rish1 860;
Wa rd18 97;Ha ndb ooko fMe so pot
ami a1 91 7;Ca r
ruthers1 918;1 929;Ra ndolph1 928;Gr an t1937].
Ther outewa sdomi natedb yVe neti
ana ndFr enchme rchantswh oint hee leventhc enturywe r egrant
e d
‘ca
p i
tul
a ti
ons’(ther i
gh ttot rad e)byth eBy zant
in ee mp er
ors–r igh t
sth atcontinu e
da ftertheOt toma n
conquesto fCo nstant
in oplei n1 453.
Be tween1 5 11an d1 55 3En gli
shme rc hantst r
iedt ob r
ea kin t
ot h eLe van t
inema rket[ Hakluyt
1907:5 0–5 1;Br aude l1 975:I .613–6 15].I n1 5 35Fr ancisIo fFr an cesig nedat radea gre
eme nt
withSu lei
ma nt heMa g nifi
c en t
.On ec lauseo ft h etreat
ywa st hatits houlda lsoa pplyt oEn gl
an d
ifshesowi sheda ndi fth etr eatywa sr ati
fiedinLo ndonwi thin8mo nths–i twa sno t[Wo od1 935:
2
4)
2] .2 0y earsl at
eri n1 5 53a nEn glishme r
cha nt,An thonyJ enk i
nso nr ec
eive df r
om t heSu lt
ani n
Aleppoa u t
horit
yt ot radeo nt ermsma t
ch i
n gth osea lr
eadyg ra nt
e dtoFr enc
ha ndI t
a l
ianme r
chants
inregion[ Ha kl
u yt19 07:3 6–3 8;Ha c hico1 964:2 0–2 1],thea greeme ntwa sn ev e
re x pl
o it
ed.Th e
ext
e ndede conomi cre cessiont heninEn glan dma yh aveb eent her easonwh y25).Eq ua l
lyt hethreat
ofp i
racy,an dth efactt hatVe n i
cea sa ni nterme diaryt r
adingp artywa sc heapa nds uccessfulwe re
conside
r abl
ef actors[Wo od1 9 35:3;Wi ll
a n1 95 5:4 02].
Th er e
c es
sioni nEn glan dp r
oduc edamo v et on ati
onali
s tan dre st
rict
ivet radep olici
e s.Tr a
d e
andc ol
o nis
a t
ionwe r
er eg ard eda sp ossibles ol
u t
io nstot heec onomi cd ecli
ne[ cf
.Wi lliams on1 945:
125–1 33;Ca l
de r1998:1 4–1 1 3].Th i
sp layedar o leinthet hi
n ki
n go fa nEn gli
shc ler
g yma n ,Richard
Hak l
uytwh oin1 58926)p ub lishedh isf ir
ste diti
o no fac ol
lec t
iono ftravel
lera c c
ou nts[ Scamme ll
1974].Ha kluytd i
edi n1 61 6,b uth i
swo rkwa sc o nt
inuedb ySa mu elPu rchasi nthreep ub l
icat
ions
[1613,1 616a nd1 625].Ane ar
lie
ra n ds i
mi la
rc omp endium o ftrave laccou ntswa sp rodu cedb ya
27)
Ven e
tia
n ,G.B. Ra mus i
o[ 155 0–1 559] , wh oalsop r
od ucedhisb oo kina ne f
forttoi nformme r
chants
ands t
imu la
tetra de.Th eb oo k sofRa mu s
io ,Ha kluyta ndPu rchasa reg oode x amp l
eso fsu chwo rks
bei
n gp ubli
shedi nEu rope[ cf.Mo nga1 99 9:1 67;He l
fer2 005:2 3 71].
In1 571a ttheBa ttl
eo fLe pantot heOt t
oma nn avywa sd e f
e at
e db ya na l
li
an ceo fSp ani
sh,
Ven e
tia
n ,Ge noesea ndPa pals h i
ps.Th eb attl
ewa sp artofthec on fl
ictb et
we ent heOt toma nEmp ire
andtheCa t
h ol
ick ingdomso fEu rope.Be twe e
n1 5 37a nd1 540a nda gainin1 5 70an d1 57 3Ve nice
andCo nstanti
nop lewe rea twa r.Itwa sd uringth es econdwa rth a
tth eSu lt
ans ough ttr
a depa rtne
rships
28)
outsi
det heLa ti
nc onfede r
ac ya nda pproach edEn gland[ I
n a
lcik1 9 94:3 65] .Th eOt toma nswe re
seekin
g,a mo ngo therg oa l
s,t h estrat
eg i
ca imo fma int
a i
ningt hei
rmi dd l
ema np o
siti
o ninEu ropean/
India
n/Pe rsiantrade[ ibid.,3 5 4].
Att hes amet i
met hee co nomicc risisinEn g l
andwa sfo rci
n gth eh ig
ho ffi
cers( Bu r
g hleyan d
Wa ls
ingham)o fth elan dt of inds ol
ut i
on s[ e.
g.Wi ll
iams on1 94 5:5 0–5 2;St one1 9 49;Ta wneye t
　 　
24)SeeJ ens en’s[ 1985]discussionont heba c kgr oundt o,a ndout c ome soft heFra nc o-Otto mana lliance.
t
h
25)Thee xtenta ndc a
usesoft heEngl ishe cono mi cde pr essi
oni nt hemi ddleoft he16 c ent
urya rede bate
di ss
ue s[seeWo rdi
e1997
forar eview].Se veralindicatorssugge sttha tt he r
ewa sar eces si
on–c urr
encyde va l
ua ti
on[ Fis her1990:85;c f.alsoTawne ye tal
.
1951:I I,186–187,193–203;I II,346–359f ort heTudordoc ume nts;J ordan1966:64,f n.47;70,f n.7177,f n.98;80–81,f n.113
forthedi ar
ye nt
riesofEdwa r
dVIa boutc ur renc yde baseme nt];ac oll
a pseofe xpor t
st ot heLow Count ri
es,parti
all
ybe causeofwa r
ont hema inland[ Tawne ye tal.1951:89;J or dan1966:1 16,23Ma rch1552;168–173f orpr obl emsi nther e
ignofEdwa rdVIa nd
hisunr e al
isedpl anforde alingwi tht heiss ue ];a30% de clinei nt hec lothtrade[ Fis
he r1990:90] ;five-f
oldi nfl
ati
onr atebetween
1530a nd1640[ Ca l
der1998:18;c f.alsoTa wne ye tal .
:1951:I I,189–192f ortheTudordoc ume nts]
,thoughWo rdie[1997]c oncl
udes
thatthepr icer i
seswoul dha vebe enwor sebutf orde f
lat
iona ryf ac t
ors .Hoyle ’s[ 1998]r evie w oft axati
oni nt hepe r
iods uggest
s
thatthe rewa sar ece
ssionbe t
we en1520a nd1570[ ibid.
,650] .ThePor tBooksf ort hema i
nEngl i
shpor t
sr ecordnos hipsa r
ri
ving
fro
m orgoi ngt otheLe vanti nthe60sa nd70soft he16thc e ntury;nordot herea ppe art ohavebe e
na nyHi ghCour tcas
e sinvol
ving
Leva ntinet ra
debe t
we en1550a nd1583[ Wi l
lan1955:400] .Thede athofHe nryVI IIin1547f ollowedbyt hemi norityruleof
Edwa r
dVI( 1537–1553,a ndki nga t9ye a rsol di n1547) ;t hec ont rove r
siesofQue enMa ry’st enureont het hrone(1553–1559)
andt hee ar
lyye ar
sofEl isabe t
hI ’
sl ongr e ignwoul dnotha vehe lpe dc reat
ee cono micorf i
na nc i
alstabil
ityinEngl and.
26)Thes econde d it
ionappe are
di n1 598–1 60 0.Se eDa y[ 19
80:9 0–9 2]f o ras umma ryo fHa kluyt’slife;andi bi
d.[ 105–142]f oralis
t
ofa llthea c c
ount spublishedbyHa kluyt.
27)The rei samo de r
ne dit
ion,1978–1988,whi c hi sa va il
ableonl inea t–ht t
p:/
/ww. liberliber.
it
/bibl i
oteca/l
ice
nza.
28)Fort hehi stori
c albackgroundt ot heOt toma npos iti
oni nthe1580ss eeGr ee
n[ 1970:361–369] .
8　Ti
m CLAYDEN

Fi
g.2
　Thec
ara
vanr
out
esf
rom Al
eppoa
ndDa
mas
cust
oBa
sra
.

al
.1 951:I I,1 24–1 27;III,3 11–3 45],thoug hth ePr ivyCo uncilma yn o th aveh adf u llco nt
rolof
t
heo u
tcome s[ Pank o1 968:3 2–4 4,esp .43,fn .13 4].
In1 57 9Wi l
li
am Ha r
bo rne,aLo ndonme rcha ntledas ma l
lp art
yo fh isfe l
low En glishtrade
rs
t
oCo nst
an ti
nop leessentia
llytos couto utthep ossibili
tiesfo rtr
a dewitht heOt toma nEmp i
re[Bent
1893:v i
i-v i
ii
].Wh attheyfo unde n c
o uragedth emt oj udget hats uchtr
ad ewo uldb ep r
o f
itabl
ea nd
s
t
pro
mp t
edt heSu lt
ant oo penn eg ot
iati
o nswi t
hEl izabethI t
oe stabl
ishat ra
dea g reeme ntb etween
t
het wok i
n gdoms .Th ep ot
e nti
alb enefit
so fs ucha na greeme ntwe r
ee x aminedb yWa l
singhami n
asubmi ssi
o ntot heQu een[ Eps t
ein1 908:2 45–2 51].Be twee n15 79and1 5 80therewa sa ne xchange
st
oflett
ersb et
we ent heSu lt
ana ndQu eenEl izabethI culmi nati
ngi nab i
lat
e raltr
a dea gr
e eme ntsigned
i
n1 580[ Ha kl
u yt1907:5 2–6 3;Be ckingh a
m1 974:1 84–1 86] .Th eagreeme ntp r
ecipitat
e dt hecreat
ion
ofTh eLe v antComp anyi n1 5 81,ac omp anyth atwa st oc o n
tinueu nt
il18 2
5[ Be nt1 890;Ep ste
in
1908:1–1 9;Wo od1 9
3 5:1 5–4 1].Na tur
allyn eithert heVe net
iansn ort heFr enchwe lcomedt he
ar
rivaloft heEn gl
ishinCo nstantin
o plean damb assado r
so fb ot
ht ri
edu n s
u ccessf
ullyt oc o nt
ainthe
29)
f
irstEng l
isha mb assadortot hec ourto fCo nstanti
n op l
e,Wi lli
am Ha rborne[ ibi
d .
,1 4] .I nLo ndon
i
n1 590Th eVe niceComp any,wh ichh adh i
thertoha dt hemo n opolyonimp o r
trightso f‘c urr
a nt
s,wine
ando i
lf r
om t h eVe net
iand omi nions’[ i
bid.,18]wa sme rgedwi thTh eLe vantComp a ny .Th efirs
t
Ott
o mana mba ssadortoLo ndona rrivedin1 607[ Be nt1 893:x i]
.
30)
Byt h emi d1 580sTh eLe vantComp any,f avouredb yEl i
zab et
hIst ,wa sma k i
n gp rofit
ss a
id
31)
t
ob e30 0% u sing1 9s hips[Ep stei
n1 908:1 8–1 9] ,i n cl
u di
ngt helarg estme rchantv esselinthe
world[ibid .
,1 7].A Po rt
ug ueset r
avellera ndme rchan t
,Te ixi
era,recordedt hati n1 6 05i nAl eppo
t
hea nnu altrademe asuredind ucat
sf ore achn ati
o nwa swo rt
h1. 5m t ot heVe netians ;80 000 0to
32)
t
heFr ench ;3000 00toth eEn glisha nd1 500 00t oth eDu tch[ cf
.Ha rri
s1 96 0:66] .Th eComp any
　 　
29)Thesecretdespat
c hesoft heVe net
ianAmb a
ssador,GiovaniMo r e
sin,toCons ta
nti
noplef orthepe riodApr il1583–Se pt
ember1584
rec
ordthepe ti
ti
onsbyt heFr enchAmb a s
sadortot hePa shatoha vet heEngl i
shAmb as
sador,Wi ll
iam Ha r
eborn,reje
cte
dbyt he
Sult
an;andt henhi suns uccess
fula t
te
mp tstoha veHa rebor ne xpelle
d.Thede spat
chesa lsorec ordt heva r
iouss pi
estheVe ne
tian
ambassa
dorha dint hec ourtoftheSulta
n[ Brown1894:48–104;onl i
nea thtt
p:/
/www. bri
ti
sh-history.ac
.uk].
s
t
30)In1582El i
zabethI l
oane dthec ompany10000poundsofs i
lver[ Wo od1935:16]
31)In1588t heHe rculesa ndf ourothershipsunloade dcargowor th£55000–ahuges o mei nt hos edays[ Willa
n1955:408–409]
whena nunskill
edl abour erear
nedc i
rca£10–£15p. a.[
St one1961:103] .
32)Thelet
terbookfor1598–1602ofa nEnglishfact
ora tAleppo, Wi ll
ia
mCl a r
ke ,gi
vesaninsightint
ohowt ra
dewi thIndiawasconduct
e d
[Harr
is1960].Ba rr
e t
’ss umma ry
,wr i
tt
eni n1584,ofc us tomst arr
ifs,exc hangerate
sa ndwe i
ghtsa ndme asuresinusei nBaghdad,
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　9

al
sop laye da nimp ortantro l
ei ne xpandi
ngk nowledgea b ou ttheNe arEa sti nEn gland.Ma nyo f
t
heo ffi
c i
a l
swe r
ee du cat
e dme nwh owe rein t
erest
edi nt h elan dsi nwh icht h eyl ive
db eyondj ust
t
radema tter
s.
st
Ag ainstthisb ackgroundi n1 583Qu eenElizabe t
hI commi s
sione daLo ndonme rchant,John
Newb erry,tot r
aveltoI nd i
aa ndCh inawithle t
ter
sf rom h erselfs eekingt hee stab l
ishme nto ft
r adi
ng
3
3) 3
4)
re
lati
ons[ Hak l
uyt1 907:2 6 9–2 71].Ne wb errya ndt woo thers,Ra l
phFi tch a n dJo hnEl dred ,
35)
sa
iledo nt h eTige r t
oTr ip ol
ia ndt hent r
a ve
lledo v er
lan dt oBa srahv iaAl epp oa ndBa g hdad.
Theyt henwe ntbys eat oGo a( havingo nthewa ytod ealwi thf alseac cusa t
io nso fsp yi
ngl evell
ed
agai
n s
tt hemb yaVe netianc omme rci
alrival
).
Ne wb erry’
sa ccou ntoft het ri
pi sscrappy,butt hoseo fh i
st woc omp anio ns,Fitcha ndEl dred,
ar
emo rei nf
orma t
ivea ndb othc on t
aindescript
ionso ftheir1 8h ou rjourne yf r
om Fa lluj
aht oBa ghdad
ando fther uinsa t‘Aq arQū f.
Eld r
e d’
sd escri
p t
ioni sv ivi
d:-‘ …h erea l
soa restand i
n gth er uineso ft heo l
d etowero fBa bel,
whichb eingu ponap laineg r
oun ds ee
me thaf arreo ffv eryg reat,bu tt hen earery ouc omet oit,
t
hel ess
e ra ndlesseritap peareth;su n
d r
yt i
me sIh av eg onet hit
h ertos eei t,a ndf o undther emn ants
yetstandinga boveaq u
a rt
ero fami leinc omp asse,an da lmo sta sh i
g ha st hes t
o newo rko fPa uls
36)
st
eeple inLo ndon,b utitsh owe thmu chb i
g ger
.Th eb ri
ck sr e
ma i
n ,inth ismo sta nci
e n
tmo nume nt
beha l
feay ardthicke,an dthreeq u a
rter
so fay ardlon g,bein gd riedint heSu nn eo nely,andb etween
ever
yc o urseo fbricksth erel i
ethac our
seo fma t
tesma deo fc anes,wh i
c hr ema ines ounda n dno r
37)
peri
sheda sthought heyh a
db eenl ayedwi t
hino ney e
e r
e…’[ Eldred1 9 04:5] .
Fitch’sd es
cripti
oni ssho rt
er:-‘ …t heTo wero fBa belisb uiltont hiss i
d eth eriverTigristowa r
d s
Arabiaf rom thet own e( i.
e.Ba g hdad)a boutsev e
no re i
g htmi les,wh icht owe ri sru i
natedo na ll
si
des,an dwi tht hefallth er
e ofh athma dea sitwe real i
ttlemo un t
a i
ne,s ot h atith athn os hapea t
al
l;itwa sma deo fbrickesd riedi ntheson ne,andc ertai
nec anesa n dlea veso ft hep almet reelayed
bet
wi xtth eb ri
ckes.Th erei sn oe ntra
ncet ob es ee n
et og oei nt
oi t.I td oths tandu ponag reat
pl
aineb e
twi xttheriverso fEu phrat
esa ndTi gri
s…’[ Fit
ch1 90 4:4 67].
In1 5 87aVe netianme r
c hant,CaesarFred er
ick,wh ot ravelledt heSy rian /Iraql andr out
es everal
3
8)
t
ime sbe t
we en1 56 3a nd1 58 1,pu bli
sheda na ccounto fh ise xpe r
iences .I n1 59 0Ga sparoBa lbi,
　 　
Basraha ndtheI ndieswa sme anta swor kingdoc ume ntf orme rc hants[ Barret1904] .TheCo mp anye xportsofEngl ishbr oadc l
ot h
andwool lenma terialwa si nc reas i
ngl ys uc c
e ssfulint hee arly17th c entury[ cf.Da vis1961:1 17–126] .
33)Forbi ogr a
phiesofRa lphFi tch( d.161 1)s eeEdwa rde s[1973]a ndDi ckie[2008] .
34)JohnEl dr ed(1552–1632)wa sas uc ce s
s f
ulLondonme rcha nt.Hebe camef a mo usi nhi slifetimebe co mingr ichbyt r
a dingins pi
c es
fromt heEa s
tI n di
e s.Th el argeh o u s
eh eb oug hti n1 59 7i nGr eatSa xha m wa sk n
o wnl ocallyas‘ Nu t
me gHa ll’
.Fo ras umma ryo f
hislif
es eeBa ldwi n[ 2008] .
35)Forthec ir
cums t
anc esoft hevoya ges eeFe rgus on[ 1902:xxv–xxx] .Se ea lsoRows e[ 2003:197–200]f ora na ccountoft hevoya ge;
Loo mis[ 1956]a ndTa ylor[ 1964:1 11–1 13]f ort hei de nt
ificationoft heTi grisi nSha kespea r
’sMa cbetha ndTwe l
thNi ght.
36)Thiswoul dha vebe ent he‘ oldStPa ul’s’bur ntdowni nt heGr eatFi r
eofLondoni n1666.
37)SeeHoe ns el
aar s[ 1999:35]f oradi scussi
onofhow El dred’sa ssociati
onbe twe enStPa ul’sa ndt heTowe rofBa be linfl
ue nc ed
contemp orarywr it
e r
s .
38)Frederick’sac countwa sinc lude dbyRa mu sioi nhi sc omp endi um.
39)Sponsor edbyhi sbr other-in- law,be twe en1573a nd1576Le onha rtRa uwul f
,adoc torf rom Aus bur g,t r
avelledthrought heNe ar
East.In1575hevi s
itedBa ghda da ndt he nt r
a velledwe sttoFa llujah.Hegi vesa na ccountofr uinshes awa ndwhi chhei dent i
fies
astheTowe rofBa bylon:-‘ … j ustbe f
oret hevi ll
ageofEl ugo( i
.e.Fa ll
uj a
h) ,ist hehi llwhe ront hec as
tledids t
a ndi napl ain,
whe r
eonyouma ys til
ls eet her uine soft hef orti
f i
cation,whi chi squi tede mo li
s heda nduni nhabi ted:be hindi tpret
tyne artoi t
,di d
sta
ndt heTowe rofBa bylon,whi cht hec hildrenofNoa h( whof i
rstinha bit
edt he sec ountriesa ft
e rtheDe l
uge)be gant obui l
dupt o
heaven;t hiswes ees til
l,a ndi ti sha l
fal eaguei ndi ame ter,buti tiss omi ghtil
yr ui ned,a ndl ow,a nds of ullofve rmi nthatha ve
boredhol esthroughi t,thatonemi ghtnotc omene ari twi thinha l
fami l
e,butonl yi ntwomo nthsi nt hewi nterwhe nt heyc ome
notoutoft heirhol es…’[ Budge1920:282] .
　　I tisdi ffi
c ulttoi dentifyt her ui nsRa uwul fs aw.‘ Aqa rQūfi sont heFa ll
ujah-Ba ghda dr outea ndi t
she ightma dei tal and ma rk
andc ouldbewha tRa uwul fs aw[ e.g.Pa r
rot1954:1 1] .ButRa uwul fde sc
ribest her uinsa sl ow a ndne arFa l
lujahandnotBa ghda d.
Budge[ ibid.]a rgue dtha tther uinswe reoft hez iggura tatBor sippa.Howe ve r
,Bor s
ippai snotont hedi rectroutebetwe enBa ghda d
andFa llujaha ndt he‘ Aqa rQūfr ui nsma yha rdl ybede sc
ribe da s‘ l
ow’ .I tisa lmo stc ertai
nt hatt her uinshes aw wereofAl -Anba r
10
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

afellow Ve netia na ndaj ewe ll

er,wh oh a
dma des imila rjourneyst oI ndiap u bl
ishedad escri
ption
ofhist rave l
s[ Ch arpen t
ier1 920:1 48].Ba lb i’
sa ccoun ti sles
sr eli
a bl
ea ndh ep ro bablyp lagi
arised
Frederick’swo rk[ ibi
d .,1 57–1 61].
39)
Fr ederick’ sa cco un to fther uinsa t‘Aq arQū fisu namb iguouslyad es cri
ptiono ft hes it
e :–
‘…t h etowe ro fNi mr odo rBa beliss it
uatedo nthats ideo ftheTy g ri
st hatAr abiai s,a ndinav ery
greatp l
ained istan tfrom Ba b ylonsev eno re ightmi les:wh icht owe risr uinatedo ne v er
ys i
de,a nd
witht hef all
ingo fitt herei sma deag r
eatmo u nt
aine:s ot hatith at
hn ofo rmea ta l
l,y etthereisa
greatparto fits tand i
ng ,wh i
chi scomp a s
seda nda lmo stco vere
dwi t
ht hea f
ore saydfa l
lings:thisTo we r
wasb ui
lde da n dma deo ff oursquareBr ickes,wh ichBr ickeswe r
ema deo fe art
h ,an dd ri
e dint he
Sunn einma ne ra ndf romef oll
o wing:firstt
heyl ayedal a yo fBrickes,thenaMa tma deo fc anes,square
astheBr i
c kes,a ndi ns teado flime,th eyd aub editwi the art
h :theseMa tso fCa ne sar eatt hi
st i
me
sostrong ,tha titi sat hingwo n derf
ulltob eh olde,bein go fsuc han t
iqu it
y:Ih aveg on ero unda bou t
it
,an dh a ven otf o unda nyp lacewh e r
et hereh a
thb en eanyd ooreo ren t
ran ce
:i tma yb einmy
j
u dgeme nti nc i
rc uita bou tami le
,a ndr at
h erl es
set henmo re. .
.’[Fr e
d eri
ck1 904:3 6 9–3 70].
In1 60 3a n oth erEn glishme r
ch a
n t
,J ohnCa rtwrig ht,visi
tedI raqa ndh isa ccou nto fh i
st rip,
i
n c
lud i
n gh isd esc ri
p t
iono f‘Aq arQu fwa sin cludedinPu r
chas’co l
lectiono fp ubli
sh edma nuscri
pts:-
‘…t wop la ceso fg reata ntiquiti
ed idwe et ho r
o ughl
yv iewi nt heCo untr
ey :theo n ewa s
,th eruine s
oftheo l
dTo we ro fBa be l(asth eInhabitant
sh o l
du ntoth isday)b uil
tb yNi mr od,theNe phewo fCh am,
Noah sso nne .An dn owa tthisd ay,t
h atwh i
chr ema yne thisc a
lled,ther emn anto ftheTo we ro fBa bel:
the
rei ss tandin ga smu ch,a si saq uar t
ero fami leinc omp asse,anda shig ha sth esto n
e -
wo rkeo f
PaulsSt eeplei nLo ndo n.I twa sbuiltofb urn tBrickec imenteda ndj oinedwi t
hb i
tumi nousMo rtar,
tothee nd ,tha tits ho uldn o treceivea nyc l
efti nthes a me .Th eBr icke saret hreeq uarterso fay ard
inleng t
h,a n daq uarteri nt hickness,a ndb etwe enee ver ycour s
eo fBr i
cke s,therel i
ethac our
seo f
Ma t
sma d eo fCa n esa n dPa lme -tr
eel eavess of resh,a siftheyh adb eenl ay dwi thino ney e
ere…’
[Cartwrigh t1 90 5:5 21] .
Inab riefn otei n1 604Pe droTe ixier
a,aPo rt
ug ue seme rchantwh oj ou r
n e
y edf rom Ba gh dad
t
oAl eppoi n1 6 04–0 5,d escribedt her ui
nsa t‘ AqarQū f .Th emo stinteresti
n ga specto fth etexti s
t
h a
ti tin clude st hef irstr eferencei nawe s t
e rnp ubli
c ation(o r
iginall
yi nt h ePur cha sp ublic
ations
ofth ee arlys ev entee nthc e nt
u r
y )tot hemo dernn amef ort hes i
te:-‘ … OnTu es day,the1 4th
(Dece mb er1 60 4),j ustb efo res unri
se,wema rchedf rom t hewa t
erwh eels,h eadingwe sto verg ood
andl evelc ou ntry,wi thaf ewl it
tleh i
lls.Af terthreel ea guesma rchwee nteredt her uinso fag r
e at
40)
cit
y,wh erea rey ets t
an ding ,onet al
lmo n
a r
ao ralroran , andtwof r
a gme ntso fath i
cks trongr amp art
ofbu rntb ricka ndmo rt
a r
.Th eAr absc al
li tKa rkuf…’[ Texiera1 9 02:74] .
41)
Be twe en1 6 14a n d1 62 6awe alt
h yRoma n,Piet
roDe l
laVa ll
e ,ma dea ne xtraord i
naryj ourney
thr
ou ght heMi dd l
eEa sta n dIn di
a.Wh atb egana sap ilgri
ma get ot heHo lyLa ndb ecameama j
o r
expediti
o n.Het rav el
ledt h r
o ughEg y pt,t
heHo lyLa nd, Co nst
an t
inoplea ndt henb yt hed esertcaravan
rout
et oBa gh da d.I nBa ghd adh ema rrie
d .Hea l
sos ou ghto utandf o
u ndt hec orrects i
teo fanc i
en t
Baby lon[Re a de2 008:2 5–2 6].Fr om Ba ghd adh ewe n tthroughPe rsiat oInd i
aa ndt henf inall
yh ome
toRo meb ys ea .Th rou gho uth ewr ot
el ength ylett
erst oaf r
iendi nRomea ndt hesef ormt heb asis
oftheb ook sp u blishedb yh iss onsa ft
erh i
sd eath[Va lle1 990].Sa dlyfo rth estud yo f‘Aq arQū f,
DellaVa lled o esn ota pp eartoh avev isit
edt hes it
ewh ic hhadh ed o nes o,h ewo uldh aved es
cribed
iti
no neo fh i
sl ett
ers .

　 　
whic
ha r
ec losetoFa l
luj
ah[cf.al
soReade2008:22and24]
.Pos
sibl
yRa
uwul
fwa
stol
dtha
tthe‘
Towe
rofBa
byl
on’wa
sont
he
r
oadtoFa l
lujah,andhec onf
usedthes
it
eoftheruins
.
40)Minar
et.
41)Dell
aVall
el ived1586–1652.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　11

42)
In1 644,int hec ourseofal ongjourneytot heeastTa ver
n ie
r ,aFr enchme rchan
t,s a
w‘ Aqar
Qū f.I nh is1 678(8 6–8 7)pu bl
icat
ionh edescri
bedt hes it
ea sfollows :–‘ …a tad is
tancea lmost
equalb et
we enTi gr
isa n dEu phrat
es,thereappearsav astheapo fe ar
th,wh i
chthep eop l
ec allto
thi
sd ayNi mr od.I ts t
an d
si nthemi dsto fawi dep laina ndma yb ed iscover’
dag r
ea twa yo ff
.
Thev ulgarso r
tb e
lievei ttob etherema i
nso ftheTo wero fBa bel;b utthereismo rep r
ob abil
it
yo f
theAr a bi
ano pi
nion,wh ocallitAg art
ouf,andb el
ievei ttoh aveb eenb u i
ltbya nAr abianPr i
nce,
wh oa lwa ysk eptab ea cono nthet o
pt oa s
semb l
eh iss ubj
ectstog etherint i
meo fwa r
.Th eh eap
ofe art
hwa sa boutth r
e ehun dr
edp acesinc i
rcui
t;b u
ti tisnote asietog uessatthea nc
ienth eight
,
there stbeingf al
l’ntor u i
nes,buto nl
ye ight
eeno rtwen tyfat
h om.I tisb uil
to fbri
ckd ry’dint he
sun,e veryb ric
kb eingt eninch e
ss quar
e,a ndthr
eet hi
ck .Th eb uildingist husrais
ed.Up one very
rowo fc anesonr eedsb ruis
’dt opiecesandmi xedwi thwh eat-st
raw,a nds preada nincha ndah a
lf
thi
ck ,lies e
v eno r
de r
so fthesebrickswithal it
tl
es t
rawb et
we ene a c
h ;thena nothe
rb edo fr ee
ds,
ands ixr owso fb ri
ck s;thenat hir
dwi thfiverows ;decreasi
ngi nt hatma nnerti
llyouc omet ot he
top.Th ef ormo fi tsee mstoh a
veb eenr at
hersq ua
ret hanr ound;a ndi nt heh i
ghestpa r
to fthat
wh i
chr emainst her
ea ppearsah olelikeawi ndow;i fi twe r
en otrathera no utl
etforwa ter,ora
holef orthes caffo
lding .Ins hort
,a cco
rdingtothed escript
iono fMo sest her
ei snolikeli
h oodthat
thi
ss ho uldb ethea ncientTo wero fBabel’.
Th ekeyp o i
ntint hisaccountisthatTa ver
niercorrectl
ya r
g uedt hatthez i
gg u
ratrui
n sa t‘Aqar
Qu fco uldno tbetho seo ft
heTo we rofBa byl
on.I nd oi
n gsoh ewa sf oll
o wingDeVa l
lewh ov isi
ted
4
3)
Bag hdadi n1 620[ 1990:1 02]a ndwh oc or
rect
lyidenti
fiedBa belwi thBa b y
lon[ i
bid.
,106] .Wi th
thec orrectid e
n t
if
icationo fthes i
teo fBa bylo
n( seeRe ade2 008f oras umma r
yo fthep roces
s)
‘Aq arQū f’sd aysast heTo we rofBa byloncamet oa ne nda ndwi tht hatinter
estinthes it
ea ndits
rui
n sd ecli
ned44).

TheGr andTo ur
t
h
The16c enturyalsosawtheb e
ginningo fwh atlate
rb ecameknowna sthe‘Gra ndTo ur
’[cf.Ho ward
1914:1 41–1 77;Le hmberg1999;Mo nga1 99 9:1 63–164].Th efir
stg ui
detot ravel
lingp ubl
ished
i
nEn glisha ppearedin1 575andwa sat ra
nslationf r
om theGe r
ma no fHiero
n ymu sTurlerer
s‘ The
t
ravel
iero fJe r
omeTu rl
er’p ubl
ishedi n1 57 4. Ina ne ss
ayp ubl
ishedin1 625 Franci
sBa con
summa rise
dt hee s
senceofsuchjourneys.Th ea imwa stoeducat
et h
erichy o
ungme nofthek in
g dom.
Inamo ngth eitemstheywe r
ee n
co u
ragedt oreco r
dint r
aveldia
rieswereancien
tr ui
nsa ndantiqui
tie
s.
Greecea ndI t
alywe reth
ek eyd e
sti
na t
ionso naGr andTo ur
,butthea dvent
urousdidtraveltoEg ypt
andtheHo lyLa n
d.Be yondt hattr
av e
lt oBa ghdadrema i
nedd anger
o u
sa ndt hepreserv
eo fme n
whoh adt oma kethetri
p–me rchantsande mp l
oyeeso fTheLe vantandEa stIndiaComp ani
es.
Ane xcepti
o ntothiswasaGe rma ns c
h olar
,Ge orgFe r
nbergerwh o,bet
we en1 588a nd1 593,
j
o u
rneye dthroughEg ypt
,then e
are a
sta ndInd ia.Hek e
ptatraveldia
ry(inLatin).Th enea reast
ern
andIn dians ecti
onso fh i
sd iar
y we ren otp ubl
ishedu nt
il199 9ands oh adn oi mpacto nt he
t
h
under
standingo ftheregi
oninthe1 6a ndlaterc e
nturie
s.Hiswo rkd o
es,howev er
,refl
ecttwop oint
s.

　 　
42)Jean-Bapti
steTavernier(1605–1689)wa sprima r
il
yas uc cessfulme rchantwhobe t
we en1631a nd1668ma deseveraljourneyst oPersi
a
andI ndi
a.Hepubl ishedhi saccountofhi sjourne ys[1678]f orthee xpress
edpur poseofs er
vingasana idtoot hertravell
e r
s.
43)TheDe l
laVa l
lewa st hefirs
tEur opeant opublishac une iformt ext[ Budge1920,I :283,fn.1].
44)Ofc oursenoteveryonewa sawa reoft hecorrectidenti
ficationoft hes it
eofBa bylon.Be t
we en1672and1674AbbéCa rr
ét r
avelle
d
toIndiaviaSyr iaa ndI raqunde rthei nst
ructi
onsofMi nisterCol bertinthea dminis
tra
tionofLouisXI Va ndoft heFr enchEa st
IndiaCo mpany.Ca rré’saccounto fhistri
pwa spub l
is
h edi n1 699.Ca rr
ésail
edu ptheTigr i
stoBaghdada ndstat
e sthath esaw‘ t
he
Towe rofBa belwhi chi sonlytwoda y’sjourneyf romt hispl ace(i.e.SalmanPa k)[Carré1948:858].Ea rli
erin1671Ca rrés t
ates
thathevi s
itedtheTowe rofBa be lfr
o m Baghda d[ i
bid.
,588,f n.1] .Hes t
atesthathedi dsoi nadaya ndt hattoge tt oitheha d
toc r
ossanu mb eroff loodedcana lsandditches.Thi swoul da ppea rtobe‘Aqa rQūfr at
he rthanBi
rsNi mrud.I talsos uggeststhat
the‘Towe r’hes awa shes ai
le
dupt heTi griswa sa l
s o‘ Aqa rQūfwhi chwoul dha vebee nat woday’sjourneyf rom Sa l
ma nPa k
[ibi
d.].
12
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

Fir
st
lyitil
lus
tra
testhegrowinginte
resti
ntravel
li
nga saneducat
oryproce
ssandnotinsuppor
toftr
a de
orrel
igi
o n.Ass uchh ewaso neo ftheearl
ye xpl
orersintheregi
on.Se cond
ly,Fernbe
rgervis
ited
Baghdadi n1589travell
ingo nthee st
abl
ishe
dr outefrom Anat oFell
ujaando ntoBa ghdada nd
sawther u
insofthez i
gguratat‘AqarQū f
.Hed oesn otd
e s
cri
betheruinsi
nd et
ai
l,butdididen
tify
th
ema st he‘t
urri
m Ne mroth’[Fernber
ger1999:5 9].Fe r
nberg
era l
sotookab ri
ckf r
om theruins
oftheziggur
atbacktoEu rope[Oo gh
e2 007:237]an dthuscol
lect
edthefir
stre
cordedart
efac
tfrom
th
es i
te.Th einscr
ibedb r
ickc oul
dn otber e
ada ndi tcoul
dn otser
vea sacatal
ystfordisc
ussio
n
ofthetrueiden
tit
yo ftheru i
ns.

Adv enturo ustrav elint he1 8th century

By1 600t heEn gli
sha ndDu tchh a db r
o kent heVe netian45) a
n dFr en ch46) mo nopolyo fthel and
th
r
ou tet r
adet oI ndia.Tr a
d ea l
o ngt heo ve r
landr outet oI n di
ac o nti
nu edt hrou ght he1 7 a nd1 8th
centurie
s[ Amb rose1 93 1],butth ee st
ablishme ntin1 600o ftheEn gli
shEa stI ndiaComp an yma rked
t
hee ndo ft hec entr
a lroleTh eLe vantComp an yh adwi thI ndia,th oughi tc o
n ti
nuedt of unct
ion
until1825.Du r
ingt hattimeTh eLe vantComp a nya ppo intedan dp aidc on sulsan damb assadorsin
an umb ero fc i
ti
esi nth en eare ast[Hac hicho1 964:4 0–4 2] .Th eEn glis
hEa stIndiaComp anywa s
oneo fmo sts uc
ce s
sfulc orporationsi nh ist
ory.Byt het imeo fi t
sd issolutioni n1 874i th ads een
i
tss uccessest oha vei ncludedh u gep rofi
tsa ndi tsestab l
ishme nta st hed ef act
or ulerso fI ndiato
t
heb orderso fAfg hanistan.I tb ecamet hej ewe linGr e atBr it
ain’sI mp erialCr own .
Bothc omp aniese mp loyedo ff
icerswh owo uldh av eap rofou ndi mp acto nt hes c i
entif
ica nd
ar
c haeologicalst
ud i
eso fmo d
e rnd aySy ri
a, I
raqa ndmo dernd ayI ran.Wi t
h out t
h eseme ni ti
su nli
kely
t
ha tthes t
u dyo fan ci
e ntMe so potamiawo uldb ea sa dva nceda si tist oday.
InEu ropea ni ncre a
singlya cademici nterestint her egiond e vel
o ped47).Ast he1 8th c
en t
ury
wo reo nthe r
ewa sad evelopingc uri
osit
ya bouta nci
e ntEg ypt.Tr a
v ela l
sob ecamee asi
e randt he
Gran dTo urb ecamef ash i
o na
b le,thought h i
swa sg ene r
a ll
yc onfi
n edtoEu ro pe.Tr avela sawa yo f
educ at
ingo neselfa ndt hent her ead e
rshipo ft hea ccou ntst r
a vell
ersp ubl i
sh edon cet heyr e
turned
becamev eryf ashionab le[We ber1 953:1 04–1 86;Ha ch i
ch o1 9 64:4 1–9 1] . So meo ft her i
che r
t
rav el
lerstookwi t
ht hemt hep u bli
cati
o nso fthe i
rp redec essorsa ndi nth eiro wnb ook ssome time s
pl
a giari
sedt heearlierac countsg ivingr i
seo ccasionallyt or epeti
tion.
4
8)
Thoug hma nyo fthesetra vell
ersp assedth r
o ughBa gh dad,fewv isi
ted‘ Aq a
rQū f .A n ot
a bl
e
49)
excep t
ionwa saBr i
tishn avys urgeon,Ed wa rdsIv es wh owa sinBa ghd adi n1 758a ndv isit
ed‘ Aqa r
Qū fd es
cribinghistripa sfoll
o ws–‘ Att hreethismo rning ,allthep arty… l e f
tBa g hdadf orNi mro d’s
t
owe r
.I tlieswe stbyn ort
h,d istantabo utninemi l
es… t h egrou ndb ega nt orisei nag entl
ea scent,
fo
rh al
faq uart
ero fami l
eb eforewer eac hedthet owe r,o ccasioned,a swei ma gined,b yth erubb i
sh
oft heo l
db uil
dingswh icho n ces t
o odh ere.Wh et
he rth et owe rwa sa tf irsto fas qu aref or
m,i s
nowd if
ficulttod etermi ne,thou ght hef orme rismo stp r obable,b ecausea l
lt her ema ini
n gb ri
ck s
ar
ep laceds quar
e,a n dn otint h eleastc irc
ular.Th eb ricksa rea lltwe lvei nchess qu are,andf ou r
anda nh alft hi
ck.Th ec eme ntiso fmu do rs lime,mi xedwi t
hb rokenr eeda swemi xh ai
rwi th
mo rtar
;wh ichs l
imemi g h
th aveb e enfrom o neo ftheg rea tri
v er
s,o rtak eno uto fo neo fthes wamp s
i
nt h ep l
ain… Be t
wi xte ver
ys eventho re ighthb ri
cki nt het ower,isal a yero freeds ,ofwh i
chI
　 　
45)Shakespear ’
sMe rchantofVe nic
ereflec
tsther i
valrybe t
weenEngl anda ndVe niceinthelate16th/eary17th c
l entur
ies.
46)SeeHor nike r[1946]f oras urveyofthec omme rci
alr i
val
ryint heLe vantbe t
weenFra nc
ea ndEngl and.
47)Seefore xa mp l
et hedia r
ye nt
rybyJ ohnEve lyn(1620–1706) ,af ounderme mbe roftheRoya lSoci
etyinLondon,f or20De cember
1673:-‘ Iha ds omedi sc
oursewithc e
rta
ines tr
angers,notunlearned,whoha dbenbor nnotf arfr
om oldNi ni
veh:The yassur
'dme
theruinesbe ings t
illextant
,& vast
,wonde rfulwast hebuil
dings,Va ults
,Pi l
lars
,& ma gni
ficentfrag
me ntsnow buri
ed,& remaini
ng:
butlit
tlec ouldthe ysayoft heToureofBa belthatsati
sfi
edme…’[ Bédoyère1995:200].
48)Seehowe ve r
,thegi ftofamu chcrumb l
e dbrickfrom‘ AqarQūfgi ventot heBr i
ti
shMu s
eu mi n1768f romthe‘ suppos
edTowe r
ofBa bil
on’[ Re ade2008:25] .
49)SeeLa ught on[2008]f oras u
mma ryoft hef ewfactsknowna boutEdwa rdIves.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　13

t
o okaf ewf orthes akeo fc ur
iosit
y ,alsos omeo fth eslime,an dap ieceofb othsortso fbrick,the
hardera nds ofter;fo rthosewh i
chl ieint herub bi
sha reo famu chh ar
dersub st
ance,thanwh atnow
rema i
n sint h etowe r.Th eh e
ighto fth er ui
ni s1 26f eet;thed i
ame teroft helargesta ndmi ddle
parta bout1 00f eet.Wej udgeitt ob es olidtot hec ent
re;y e
tn eart hetopthereisar egu l
aro pening
ofa no va lform,b u taswec ouldn otc limbu ptoi t,ita ppearsh owe verfr
om t hep resentlookt o
haveb eenawi nd ow.Th ec i
rcumf erenc eo fthatp arto fthet o werwh i
chr ema i
ns,a ndwh i
chi s
abovet h er ubbish,i sa bout3 00f ee t
,b u tprob a
b l
yc ouldthef o undat
ionb ec omea t
,i two uldb e
foundo ffa rg r
eatere x t
en t
.MrDo idge ,from wh o sed raughtwi thap enci
l,thec opper-pla
teh ere
i
n ser
ted,wa st aken ,calculatedthev is
ib l
er uinso ft hetowe rtoc ontai
na bout1 000 00c ubicf eet
.
Thep r
esen tTu r
k s,Jewsa ndAr abians,a refondo fb eli
evingthistob etheidenti
calruino fthean ci
ent
t
o wero fBa b el
,f orwh icht heya ssignav ar
ietyo fr easons;b uta l
ls ov oi
doft hea ppearanceo f
t
ruth… Ia mc learlyo fth eo pi
nion ,from i t
ss it
uation,a ndma nyo thercir
cums ta
nces,th a
titn ever
couldh av eb eent het owe ro fBa bel,b utr at
hers uspectittoh a veb eenab eac onorwa t
ch-towe rto
given oticeo fth ea p pr
o acho fa ne nemyo rp er
hap su s
e dasa no bservat
oryt oinspectthev a r
ious
mo ti
o nso ftheh e ave nl
yb odi
es…’[ Ive s1 773:2 97–29 8].
Thea cco u
n ti sd et
a i
leda n da c
c urate,b utt he mo st
i
mp ort
an ta specto ft hep ub l
icat
ionwa st h ed ra
win go ft he
zigguratr uins.Th istooi sa ccurat
e .No to nlyisi tthef ir
st
pub l
ishedd r
awi ngo fthez igguratru i
ns ,itwa sa l
sot heb est
i
llustrat
iono fther u i
nsu n t
ilthato fKe rPo rt
e r(seeb el
o w).
Ivesk newt hat‘Aq arQū fwa sn ott heTo wero fBa bela nd
hea scribedamo remo de r
nd at
et ot h er uinsa swe l
la sa
dif
ferentf unction.
In1 76 1Fr ed erickV,Ki ngo fDe nma r
k ,spon sor
e da
sci
e nti
fice x pedi
tiont o Eg ypt,Ar ab i
aa ndt heNe arEa s
t.
Hed ids oo nth ea d vi
c eo fPro f
es sorJ ohannMi ch ael
iso f
Gö tt
ingenUn iversitywh op roposed,ina2 35p ageb ri
ef,that
Fig.3　Thez i
gguratat‘AqarQūf[ aft
er
t
h ee xped it
ionc o ulda n swerq uestions,ma inlyBi blica
l,i n Ives1773,opposit
epa ge297].
region. Th ee xped it
ionc o nsi
stedo fsixa cademicso neo f
wh om wa sCa rst
e nNi eb uhr,ama t
h ema ti
cian.Af t
erj ourneyi
ngt hr
o ughEg yptandAr a bi
aNi ebu hr
,
t
h eo nlyme mbe ro ft hep art
ys ti
lla l
ive,t rave
lledth roughMe sopo t
amiai n17 65.Inh isp ubli
c a
tion
ofh i
sj ou rneyNi e buhrn o t
est hath ev isit
edt her uinsat‘ AqarQū fa ndd i
smi ss
esi t
si dent
ifi
c a
tion
astheTo we ro fBa by lo
n :-‘Plusieursv oyag eur
so ntprisAg erkufp ourlatourdeBa bylone.Ma i
sc ell
e-
ciétoitsansc ontred i
td anslev oisi
n aged el ’
Eu phrat
e ,etAg erkufn ’estpasloi
nd uTig r
e.Ce pendenat
onn ep eutp asb iend ec i
dera ujourd’hu iàq uel
led essei
nc ete dificeàé téelevé.Pe ut-êtr
ee toi
t-ce
l
et errai
ns u rleque lu nd esp r
emi ersCa lifesdeBa ghdad,oume meu nd esRo isdePe rseq uiresi
d oi
t
àElMa d eien,av oitu ndema is
o nd ec a mp agne,p ourp rendréu na i
rf r
aixe tfroi
d,s urlah auteur
…’[ Nieb uhr1 776:i i,2 48].
t
h
19 c entury
Byt heb eg
inni
ngo fthe1 9th c
en t
urytherewa sag ener
alunders
tandingthattherui
n sat‘AqarQū f
weren otthos
eo ftheTowe ro fBa byl
on .Th evari
ousn on-
indi
genouss ugg
e s
ti
on sastoitsfunct
ion
wereth a
titwa sanAb bas si
ds truct
urewh ichtheCa l
iphsusedasar ec
reat
ionp oi
ntt oescapethe
heatofBa ghdad[Niebuhri bid.
];a nIsl
amic( uns
pecif
ieddate)watch-t
owe rorb ea
co n[I
v e
sib i
d.]
;
theruinsofaPa rt
hiancity[ Ra wli
nson1 862:28,fn];andtheruinso fana nci
entBa byl
oniancit
y,
Du r
aba[ Ains
wo r
th1 83
8:1 72;Ra wlinson1 86
2:2 7]orAc cad[KerPo rt
er1 821:279].Th elocal
in
h ab
itant
sthoughtitwa sat owerb ui
ltbyNi mrod[e.g.Fern
b e
rgeribid.
;Fitchibid.
;Eldredibid.
;
Taverni
eribid.et
c.]orev enmo r
ea n
cientl
ya stheb ur
ialpl
aceo fp r
e-Sasani
ank i
ng s(Yâkût)[cf
.
14
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

Bewsh e
r1 8 67:1 64].Th eis s
u ewa sn ott ob es ettl
edu nt
il1 86 1wh enc uneifor
m wa sd ecyp he
re d
(s
eeb el
o w).
Fromt hee ndo ft he18thc enturya ndi ncreasinglyi nthe1 9thc ent
u r
yas eriesofBr it
isht ra
v el
lers
madet hejo urneyo ve r
landf rom t hee a st
ernMe dit
e r
raneant oBa ghd a
da ndb eyo
n d.I raqwa sth e
subj
ecto fan umb ero fg eogra phic
ala ndh ydrolog i
cals urveysb yBr itisho rInd i
a nGo vernme nt
spons
o r
ede xp edi
ti
o ns.Th ep ossibil
it
yt h attheEu phratesandTi g ri
srive rsmig htbeu sedf orriveri
n e
t
radewa sani mp ortantissueint hef i
rsth alfofth ec entury.Th ef ir
stscien t
ifi
cv isi
torswe re,howe ve r
,
th
ar
chaeologist
s .Att h ee ndo ft he1 8c enturyt heEn gli
shEa stI ndiaComp anyo rderedi tsresident
50)
i
nBa srahtos endac o l
lecti
o no fo bj
ectsb earingc un ei
formi nscriptionstoLo ndon[Llo yd1 980:1 0] .
In18 01t heEa s
tI nd i
aComp a nyr esiden tinBa gh dads ents e ver
alb ri
cksa nda nI nscript
iono f
Nebuchadn ezzarItoLon don[ Fos sey1 9 04:i.15].Th ef i
rstsusta i
neds t
u dyo fa nci
en tIr
a q,howe ve r
,
51)
wasb yCl aud i
usJ ame sRi ch,a pp oi
ntedt h eBr it
ishr esidentinTu rki
shAr abiai n1 807.
Inthec o ur
seo fh iswo r
ke xploringBa bylon i
al oo ki
ngf ora ncientr ema i
n s
,Ri chv isit
ed‘ Aq ar
Qūfin1 8 11a ndh ep u bl
ishedh isdesc ri
p t
iono fther u i
ns4y ea r
sla t
er:-‘ … Ak erkouf,o r,asiti s
moreg enerallycalledNi mr od’sTo we r,fort hei nha bi
tantso fth es
ep art
sa rea sfon do fa tt
ribut
in g
ever
yv esti
g eo fan t
iqu i
tyt oNi mrod,a st hoseo fEg y ptaretoPh aroah .I tiss i
tuatedt enmi lest o
t
heN. W.o fBa gdad,a ndi sat hickma sso fu nbu rntbrick-wo r
ko fa ni rr
egulars hape,risingo uto f
abaseofr ubbish;thereisal aye rofreed sb etwee ne veryfift
ho rs ixt
h( forthen umb erisn otregulat
e d)
l
ayero fb r
ick s.Iti sp erforat
e dwi ths ma lls quareh oles
,a sth eb rickwo rka ttheBi rs -
Ne mr o
u d,
andab outh a
lfwa yu po nt hee asts i
dei sa na p erturelikeawi n dow;th el ayersofc eme nta reve ry
t
hin,wh ich,co ns
ideringi tisme remu d,isa ne xtra
o rdinar
yc ircums tance.Th eh ei
g hto fthewh ole
i
so neh und r
e da ndt we nt
ys i
xf eet
;d iame tero ft hel arges
tp a rt
,o neh undredf e
e t
;c ircumf er
enc e
ofthefooto ftheb rick-wo rka bo vether ub bis
h ,threeh undredf e e
t;ther ema i
n softh eto werc ontain
onehu ndredth ous
a ndc ubicf eet(videI ve s’
st r
a vels,p.298).Tot hee asto fitisad epend entmo un d
52)
r
esemb l
ingt hosea tth eBi r
s,a n dAlHh eima r… [ 181 6:41] .
Itisn otc l
earb ywh omo re v e
np reciselywh en,b utani n scr
ibedb ri
ckwa stak enf r
om ‘ Aq ar
QūftoLo ndo nbefo r
e1 816wh enTh oma sMa u ri
c ewr oteh i
sc omme nt
a ryont heh istorya ndr ui
n s
ofBa byl
o na ndide nti
fiedth eb rick[Ma urice1 81 6:1 25].
5
3)
In1 818–1 819t hee xoticf igureo fSi rRo bertKe rPo rter tr
av el
ledt hroughI raq.Ke rPo rter
wasan otedp aint
er,diploma twh owa sk nightedi nfou rd i
ff
erentc ountrie
s ;ma r
riedaRu ssianp r
incess;
pai
ntedSi mo nBo livar;an dwa sp re
se nta ttheb a t
tleo fCo ruña.Hev isitedBa ghda dan dma deth e
daytripo utt o‘Aq a rQū f[ 18 21:I I
.2 75–2 80].Hes t
atesth atther uin swe rec all
e db yt hel ocal
Arabp opulationTe llNi mroo da ndb yt heOt toma nTu r
ksNe mr oodTe passé[ibid.
,2 75] .Hea dd s
t
hatthen ameAk arkouffwa su sedtoi n dicateth ea reaa boutther uina n dma yh aveb eent hen ame
ofana ncientBa bylon i
anc ity[ ibid.
,2 75–6] .
KerPo r
terd escribedt her uins:-‘ Ona rrivinga tt heh ugep yr
a mid alma sswh i
cha ppearedi n
t
hec ent
ero fthistr
a ct
, wef oundi tstandingu ponag entl
eg raduale le
v at
ion ,ascendingf r
omt heperfect
l
evelu pwa r
dso fsixtyy ards.Th i
sa p parentlyf oun dati
onh ill
,t houg hi nf a
c tonlyac ol
lecti
ono f
r
u b
bishr oundt hep il
ei t
self,co nsist
si floo sesa ndye arth,inter
mi xedwi thfragme ntso fb urntbrick,
pot
terya ndak i
ndo fh ardc layp a
rtiall
yv it
rifi
e d.Ime asuredo n eo ft heb akedb ri
ck sthatwa s
near
lye nti
re;itf orme das q uareo ft we l
v ein ches,int hicknesst woa ndt hreeq uarter
s,a ndwa so f

　 　
50)Hager[ 1801]publishedil
lust
rat
ionsofcunei
for
mi ns
cri
pti
onsfromt hecoll
ect
ionsoft heEastIndi
aCo mpa
ny,Cardi
nalBor
giaa nd
Dr.Hul me .
51)ClaudiusJame sRich(1786–1821)wasagift
edli
nguis
tandanintr
epidtr
avele
rande mployeeoftheEastI
ndi
aComp a
ny[cf.Al
exander
1928;Ll oyd1980:12–13,16–21;La ne-
Poole2008]
.
52)Afterhisde at
hRi ch’swifepubl
ishedmoreofhispaper
sincl
udinge xt
rac
tsfro
m Ri c
h’sdiaryshowinghow muchhedrewfrom his
dia
ryi nhi spubli
shedwor k[Rich1839:2–3].
53)Fors u
mma ryofKe rPort
er’
s(1777–1842)li
feseeBarnet
t[1972].
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　15

ane xces sivel

yh ar
ds u bst
a nce.Noc ha r
acterswh ateverwe r
et race
a bleo nth i
ss pecime n,n oro na ny
ofthef ra gme ntswes aw.Fr om t heg entl
ee lev a
tionj ustdescribed,risesa ne nourmo u sso l
idly-buil
t
ma ss,cro wn i
n gitlikear ock,a ndc omp o
sede nt
irelyo fsun-d r
iedb rick.I tsp r
esenti rregularshape,
wo rna wa yb yt i
me ,a ndf ur
ro we db yt her aino fa ges,lea vesn op o ss
ibili
tyo fd o ingmo ret han
conjecturin gitso r
iginalfo rm.I tss idesfacet hec ardinalp oi
n t
s… Ne it
hermo u ndsn ora nyr ubbish
ofa ncientd ecay,trac kitsmo red ist
antv ici
n i
tyi na nyd ir
ectione xcep ttoth eea s
t,wh ere,no tma ny
pacesf rom t hef ooto ftheTe pessé,ac oupl
eo fex t
e ns
ivea ndh i
ghh eapso fruins,c omp o se
do fthe
samema teria
lswi tht hoseo ft heirmo reg i
g anti
cn eighb our
,v aryt hep erfectflato fth ep l
ain .Th e
heighto ft heTe pessé,from t hes ummi to ftheg r
adu alslope,from wh i
cht hemo rep ond er
o usf abr
ick
shootsu p wa rd,tot heto we r
ingi rregulartopo fth ewh o l
e,ma yb ea bouto n eh undreda ndt wenty-
fi
veo rth ir
tyf eet
;a ndi t
sc i
rcumf e
renc eatth eb ott
om o fth i
su ppe rstruct
u re,isthreeh undredf eet
;
wh i
chh ug ep il
e,ata bou ttenf eeti nap e
rpe ndicul
a rli
n efrom thei tsb ase,me asuresah u ndredfeet
i
nt heb rea dt
ho fi tsface.Fr omi tsfo undati
o n,an dthewh o l
ewa yu pt oi t
ss ummi t,thed iffer
ent
l
a yerso fs un-driedb ricko rc l
ay ,ofwh ichiti scomp o
s ed,ma yb et racedwi thg reatp recisi
o n.Bu t
t
h es evera lcou r
sesv arys omu chi nh eight,thats omea retwe lve,o t
h e
rse ighteen,o rt we n
tyf eet,
;
wh i
lee v eryb r
icki ne achl ay ero ft hec oursei su nit
e dtoi tsn eighb ourb yat hinl ini
n go fp ure
sli
me ;n oo there l
eme ntwh ateverb eingv i
sible;thoug heachh o r
izontald i
visionb et
we e nthe s
ec o ur
ses
i
sma r
ke db yas t
ratum o fr eeds… t h eyb ede veryf ift
ho rsixthl ayero fb ri
c k
,t oat hickn es
so f
t
woi nch es,lyingre gular
lyo n eo vertheo ther,unmi xedwi tha nyo t
h ers u
b s
ta nce;and,a sth ead ja
cent
parto ft h eb ri
ck sg raduallyc rumb l
eda way ,theses trat
ap roj
ectf rom t hes u r
face,a n da rev ery
dist
ing uishablea tac onsiderabled ista
n ce… Id rew al argeq uantityo ut
,a ndf oun dma n yo fthem
t
wof e e
ti nlen gt
h.I td oesn ota ppearth a
ti nc o nst
ructingt heses un-driedb ricks,a nys traw wa s
mix edwi tht hefabrick;an dine xami ningv ar
io usfragme ntsofb urntbrick,Is oughtinv ainf oramo rs
el
ofb itume n. Th ewh oleo ft hisc uri
o usp il
es ee mst ob es oli
d,e x cept
in gwh er
ec ertains quare
perforat
io ns,g oi
n gd ir
ectlyt hroug h,mu stintersecteacho theri ntheh e a
rto ftheb uilding,a ndwe r
e,
probab l
y ,intendedt op rese r
vei tf rom d amp ,b yth eco nst
an tsucce s
siono ffreea i
r.Th e r
ei sa l
so,
oni t
sn o rthernface( wh i
c hisv irtuall
yp e
rpe ndicul
a r
,)an datac onsiderabl
ee l
ev a
tionf rom th eb as
e,
ano p eningo fano valfo rm,r atherl a
r ge
rt hanac ommo n-sizedwi ndow;b utitd oesn otp enetr
ate
f
a r
the rin tothep i
let hans ixo re ightf ee
t. .somet races
ofaf or
me rc i
tya rec ert
ainlya p parent… t h erema inso f
aca nalo fg r
eatma g nit
ud eares ti
llv i
siblesome wh attoth e
northo fAk arkou f
f…’[ ibid.
,2 7 5–27 9].
KerPo r
ter’sd escr
iptiono ft heru i
nsi sa ccuratea s
areh i
si ll
u str
ations,thoug hthe yd idn otgaint hecu rr
ency
t
h att hel a t
erd rawi ngp ubli
sh edb y Ch esneyd i
d( s
e e
below) .I nh isd i
scu s
siono ft hep ossibl
ei dent
itya n d
natureo ft hes i
te,Ke rPo rt
e rs ugg e
sts[ i
bid.,2 79]t hat
i
tmi g htb ei dentif
iedwi tht hec ityAc cadwh icha ppears
i
nGe nesis,Hef urt
h erno testha tther uinsma yb et hose
ofSittaceme ntionedb yXe nep hona ndt hatitsb r
icksma y
haveb ee nu s edt ob ui
ld Ba ghd ad[ ibi
d .
]. Hef i
rml y
dismissedt hes uggesti
o nth atitwa sBa bylon .Ast oth e
r
u i
n so ft hez iggurath es uggestst hatitwa st he‘ baseo f
somel oftiers uperstruct
u re,p rob abl
yd esignedf o rth e
doub l
eu seo fat e mp l
ea nda no b s
ervatory;as tyleo f
sacrede d ifi
cec ommo nwi t
ht h eCh aldeans,a ndl ikely Fi g.4　Fourvi ewsoft hez i
gguratr ui
na t
t
of ormt h ep ri
ncipleo bjectine veryc it
ya ndt ownd e vot
ed ‘Aqa rQūfbyKe rPor ter[1821:II.
t
ot hei d o l
atoryo fBe l
usa ndt hewo rshipo ft hes tar
s’. Pl.LXVI II
.a-
d].
16
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

[ibid.,2 80] .
Iti si nteresti
ngt h atofa llthee arlyv isitorsto‘ Aq a
r
Qū fitwa st hed iploma ta r
tistKe rPo rt
e rwh oc a me
clo ses
tt oc orrect
lyi dentifyingt h ea gea ndo rigi
n al
fu ncti
o no fth er ui
n sa tthes ite.
Ja me sBu ckingha m54)wa saj ou r
n ali
stwh oint he
ea rl
y1 820st ravell
edt hr oughI raqwh enh ev isi
ted‘ Aq a
r
Qū fan dp u blishedh isimp r
e s
sionsi nc l
ud i
n gt hoseo fthe
site[ 182 7:3 9 4–4 02]:–‘ … Th er uine dmo nume ntcalle
r
Ak kerko of,a n d mo reg ene r
a l
ly Ka sr Ni mr oodo r
Fig.5　Bu cki
n gham’s[ 1827:39 4]ill
u st
rat
ion N im rod ’s p alace, is a shapeless m ass of brick-w ork,
ofthez igguratruinsat‘ Aqa rQūf . r isingf rom ab roadb ase,n ows owo rna wa ya stob ea
me reh eapo fr u bbish… t hep artt h atr e mainsi s
comp o se
do fu nbu r
ntb ricks,o fal ar
g esize,c eme n tedt o getherb yt hinla yerso fmu d,a ndb et
we en
everyf iveo rs ixr owso fb r
ic k,o ra tinterva l
so fa bo utt hreef eet,arel ayerso fr ee ds.Th esel ast
we rep l
aceda crosse acho theri nfo ursep ar
at elay ers,t hati s
,t hef ir
sta ndt hirds hewi n gt hei
re nds
outwa rds,andt hes econda ndf o urt
ht heirsides, asint h ewe avi
n go fas trawma t.Th es oftersub s
tance
oftheb ric
kh avingg radua l
lyc rumb l
eda wa yb yt heo p erationo fthee leme nts,thesel ayersn o wp roject
beyo ndt hes urface,a ndf ormd is
tinctr i
d ges,wh icha res eena tac onsi
d erabled istanc ei nreg ula
r
li
ne s… … Th ewh olema ss… Asi ts t
oo d,re s
e mb le dt her ema inso fab rickp y r
a mi d,mo r
et han
anyo t
herk indo fbu il
ding.I tsb aseo ccup i
eda ne xtento fnea r
lyt h r
eeh undredf e etsq uare.Fr om
thence,as lopewe ntu p,a so nah eapo fru bbish,wh ic h,h owe ver,wa se videntlyp a r
to ft heo ri
g i
n a
l
wo rk;forb e neatht hes urface ,n ow wo r
ni ntomu db yt hewi nda ndwe a
ther,t hel ay erso fb ri
cks
andr eedsc ouldb ep lainlytra ce d.Th isslopewa ss ufficientlyg entle,inmo stp laces,tob ea scended
onf ootwith outd i
fficult
y, and, afterap erpendic ul
a rh eigh tofa boutf if
tyf eet
, i
tl edtot hemo rep erfect
ma ss,wh ereth eb ri
ck- wo r
ki ss t
il
lf i
rma ndd i
stinct.Th isrisesinat allh e
a p,n earertoap yrami dal
thana nyo therf orm,t hou ghi tma y,witht hes tri
cte stp rop r
iety,b ec all
eds h apeless,a siti sd es
tit
u t
e
ofr egular
ityi ne veryp artofi tso u t
line.Somep ortion so fit,ind eed,risep erp e
n dicularly,a ndthe r
e
area ppearanc eso fh olesa ndc han nel
so nt hep rese nto u t
e rsurface… Ont hen o r
th-e asts i
de,a nd
abou th a
lfwa yu pt heh e i
gh to fth emo r
ep erfectp orti
o nt hatre ma ins,isap assag el i
k ea na rched
win dow,s t
illo pen,itst ermina tionn otb eingv isiblef rom a nyp arto ft heh eapo nwh ichIs tood…
Tho ught heinterioro fthissolidma sso fbu i
ldingwa sc omp osedo fu nbakedb r
ick s
, it
se xteriorsu r
face
seemst oh aveb eenc oa t
edwi thf ur
n ace-burn ton es,ma nyo fwh ich ,bo t
hwh olea n db ro ken,a r
e
scatt
e r
eda b outt hef ooto ft hep i
le,a nda res ai
dt or es emb l
ei ns izea nds ha pet hosea tBa by l
o n,
thoug htheya r
en everwr itt
eno na satt hatp lace.
Aroun dt hisd et
a chedr uin ,ind if
ferentd irections ,b utmo rep arti
cu l
arlyo nt h es outha ndwe st,
arelo ngmo und sa nds ma l
lerh eapse videntlya ma s sedf rom t hewr ecko ff orme rb uilding s,str
ewe d
overwi t
hb u rnta ndu nb urntb ricks,a ndp laing laz edp ottery
.St on eisn owh e res een… Su f
fici
e n
t
vesti
g eso fth eser ema i
n ,top rovet hatth i
sTo we ro fNi mr od,a si tisc all
e d,d idn o tstan da l
o ne,
buth adn eariteitherac ity,orac onsiderablen umb e ro fsma l
lerb uil
d i
n gsofs omek indo ro the r
.Th e r
e
ares t
illtr
ac eso fal argec ana lt ob es een,run ningt h rou ght hep rinciplep arto fther ema ins… Th e
i
n definit
en atureo fthisma sso fb ri
c k-wo r
ki nt heTo we r,h asrende r
e ditd i
ffi
c ultev entoi ma g i
newh at
wast hep recisek indo fe dif
iceo fwh ichi tisap art… Th ec a
n alsee nh ereis,d ou btl
ess ,ther ema i
ns
oft hec analo fI sa… Fr om t h ee xtenta ndn atureo ft h emo un dsa tAk k erfoof,th erei sn or eason
t
ob el
ieveth atthec i
tyt herewa sv erylarge.I n deed ,thep ri
n ci
pler uiniss ou nli
k eap l
a ceo fresidence
ofa nyk ind,t hatthec onclusiont owh ichwec ameo nt hes potwa s,thati tmu stb eth er ema i
n sof

　 　
54)J
ame
sSi
lkBuc
kingha
m(1786–1855)
.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　17

somei s
o l
atedmo nume nt,eithero fas epulchralo rr el
igiousn at
u re;few mo tivese xcepti
n gthoseo f
devotiona ndr es
p ectfort h
ed ead,b eingsu f
ficientl
yp owe rfultoind ucet heerec t
iono fsuchma sses
,
wh enp urelyo famo nume n t
alk ind,a sth i
ss eeme dt ob e…. ’
Bu ck i
ngh am wa sth efirstv i
sitortoo bser vethemo undsth atsurroun dedth ez i
ggu r
atwh ichh e
corre
c tl
yt ooktob ee videncef orb uildi
ngswh icho nces u r
roun dedther uin[ibid.
,3 98].Bu cki
ng ham,
l
ikeKe rPo rt
er,alsoo bservedt her ema i
n sofac ana lrun ni
n gthroug hth esit
e[ ibid.
,3 98]a ndwh i
ch
hei denti
fieda stheNa hrIsa[ ibid.,399] .
I n1 827a nothero ffi
ceri nt hee mp loyo ft heEa stIndiaComp any,Ro bertMi gnan,d e
cidedt o
exploreBa byl
o ni
a.Hej ou r
n eyedo nf ootf r
om Ba srat oBa gh dada n do nn o r
thwa rds.Wh il
ei n
Bag hdadh ev isi
ted‘ Aq arQū fs pen di
ngt woh our
sa tthes it
ea fterwh ichh ep u bli
shedh isnoteso n
t
h esiteanda nill
u s
trati
o n[18 29:1 02–1 08,illus.page1 06].Mi gn anh adintendedt oco nductalimi t
ed
excav at
iona ndh a
dh ed ones owo ul
dh aveb eent hef irsttod os oa tthes it
e,b utb adwe at
her
f
o rce
dh imb a cktoBa gh dad[ ibid.
,1 08].Mi gnand escri
b esthes itea sf o
llows :–‘ … weg ained
t
h es ummi to fap ond er
o usma sso fr uin,wh i
chi sc all
edb yth eAr ab sTu llAk erfkouf,v ul
g ar
ly
Ag er
g oaf,andb yt heTu r
ksNe mro udTe pe s
s y,bo tho fwh icha ppellati
onss ign i
fyt heMo undo f
Ne mro ud,orNi mro d,n ottheTo we rofNe mro uth,a sith asb eentranslated.Ou rp at
hwa sp a
rtial
ly
str
ewe dwi t
hl oosep ieceso fb urnta ndu nb urntb ri
c ka ndt il
e… Th er uinso fac i
tya r
eh erev ery
apparent,e xt
ensiveu n dulat
ingmo undss tr
e tc
h ingt owa rdst heSo utha n dEa st;wh iletot heNo r
th
and We sttheya r
ec omp arativelys ma l
l,a nde xten do nly as hortd ista
nc ef rom t hei
rg iantli
ke
neighbo ur
s.Th i
sru i
ns we epsirregularl
yu pwar ds,andi tsforma pp ear
stoh avebe enoriginal
lysq uare
,
f
o rtheb ricksarep laceds oa st ofav ourthiso p i
nion ;itd oesno t
,h owe ver,exac t
lyf acethec a
r din
al
points,ass omef orme rt r
a velle
rsa ss
ert.
I
ti se nti
rel
yc omp osedo fs un- dr
ied
bri
cks ,ma deo fclaymi xedwi t
hc h opped
str
aw,e achme asuri
ngas qu areo fn ine
i
n chesb yf ouri nt hickness. Ate very
seventhc ourseo fb ri
cks,al aye ro freeds
i
sp l
a cedb et
we ent heh o r
izon talco ur
ses
oft heb r
ickwo r
k ,wi thouta n ya p par
e nt
ceme nt.Th eselayersarev eryr egul
a rfr
o m
t
o ptob ott
om;b utt heb ri
ck sc omp os
ing
t
h i
sc olossal ma ssa reo fu ncommo n
beauty,wh enwec onsiderth ema t
er i
alo f
wh i
cht heya rec omp osed .Th i
ss truct
u r
e
cert
ainlyh asb eent heh abitat
io no fsome
i
mp o
r t
antp ersonage;n ay,Ia lmo s
tf ancy
Fig.6　Mi gnan’s[1829:106]i ll
ustra
tionofthez i
gguratrui
ns
Ib eh el
dt her esidenceo fa r i
cha nd at‘ AqarQūf .
powe rfulsovereign.
Th er uiniswi t
ho utd oubt,s ol
id,a ndi sp iercedwi ths mallh oles,wh icha ppeart oh aveb een
designedf orthep u r
po seo fa dmi t
tingaf r
eec urr
en to fa i
r… Ont heNo r
th-ea s
ternfa c
e,n earl
yi n
t
h ece ntr
e,isa na perture,some wh atr e
semb lingaGo t
hicwi ndow,f orwh atp ur
p oseitwa sintend e
d,
i
tisn o wimp ossi
b l
et od ete
rmi ne… Fr om th es ummi toft heb r
ickwo rk,itiso neh und r
eda ndtwe nty
f
ivef eet,thec ir
c umfe r
en ceisf ourh undredf eet,a ndf rom t h
eb ri
ckwo rkt ot hef oundati
ono fthe
r
u bbish,wh ichn owf ormsi tsp edes t
al,itist we ntyf eet… Id on ott hinkt hi
sr uine verex hibi
ted
t
h ewr it
tenc haract
er,o rtheb itume nwh i
chi su sedt h r
ou ghoutBa by l
on i
a nrema ins;no rinsearching
amo ngt hesurroundingmo und s,couldIt r
a c
ev e st
igeso fb uil
d i
ngi na nyma ssrese mb l
ingtheremn a nt
s
ofare gulararchi
tecturalstr
u ct
u re;thought hesu rfa
c eo fthesemo u ndswa ss t
rewe dwi thb r
okenb ri
c ks
,
eart
he nwa r
ev essels,vitri
fiedp ieceso fc la
y ,ma nyp erfectl
yb lack;a nds ma lls t
ones,o nceformi ng
18
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

ap ort
iono f,bu tnows urvivingt hec l
ayt hatforme dth ep ri
ncipali ngredien tofe veryb ri
c k…’[ ibid.
,
102–1 08].
I
n1 82 9Fra nci
sCh e s
n ey55)surveyedth epo s
sibler outeso fwh atwo uldb ecomet heSu ezCa n al
.
Twoy earslaterh el obb iedt heBr iti
shg ove r
nme n ttod eve l
o par i
v eri
n er outet hroughI raqu sing
theEu phrates.I n18 36–1 837u si
ngt wos teamsh i
ps,on eo fwh ichs unk,h et ravel
ledu ptheEu phrates
gatheri
ngt hed a t
awh ichh es u bsequent
lyp u bl
ished[ 18 5
0a nd1 8 68;c f.Ll oyd1 9 80:8 2–86].Th e
proposalwa sn evert ake nu p56),b utthep ublishedr esultsd oc ontai
nmu c
ht h ati sofi nter
estt o
archaeologist
s.Th ee xp edit
io nv isi
ted‘Aq arQū finAp ril1 836:–‘ … So ona ft
e rleavingFe lujah
inthemo r
n ing,weh adp assedSu idiaorKu sh,andi nt hea ft
e r
no onweh alteda tAk er
-Ku f–wh ich
grandmo n ume nth adb eeno u rlandma rkfors everalho urs
.Th iswa st heAk aréNi mr údo ftheAr abs,
andt hesiteo fth ethirdp rime valc it
yo ftheBi bl
e( footnoter eferstoGe n esi
sX,8, 9–a ct
uallyX,
10wh i
chr eferst o‘Ba be l
,Er ech,Ac c
ada ndCa lnehi nth elan do fSh in a
r’)a nde v ena ttherisko f
beingd el
ay edbe yonds un set
, wh entheg at
eso fBa ghda darea lway sclose d,wed e
ter minedt oexami ne
theseinter
e st
ingr ema ins.Th ec onspi
cuo uso bje
ctwh ichweh adn owb ee nwa tch i
ngf ors oma ny
hours,In o wf o undt oh aveb eenap yramid,b uilto fs undriedb ricks ,o nwh i
c hs ofta ndf r
iable
ma t
e r
ial
s.Ti meh adma d
es uchr avagesa st oh avep ar
tlyd efacedi tso r
ig i
nalf orm.I ts e
emst o
haveb eenc on s
tructedo flayerso ftheseb ri
c ks,placeda lt
erna t
elyu p ono n ea nothera tright-
an gl
es,
untilathick nesso f2f eeta nd1 1½ i nch esha db eena tt
a i
ne d.Ov ere a c
hp ort
ions ob uilt
,al ayer
ofr ee
dss eemst oh av eb eenc ar
riedq ui
tet hrought hes truct
u re,eachl ayerh avingad e pthof1¾
to2i nches.Ov ert hisa noth erlayero fb ri
ckswa sp l
aced–t hena n othero fr eed s–a nds oo n,
secti
onb ys ecti
o n,u nt
ilt hed esir
edh eightwa sa t
tained.Th ee xisti
n gre ma insofAk ar
-Ku fme asure
110f eetfrom e astt owe st
,a n d1 28f eetfrom n ortht os outh;a ndi th ass ti
lla ne levationo f1 28
feetabovet heg r
o u
n d,a lt
ho ughi tstoph aslon gsin c
ec r
umb l
eda way,a ndh asn owt hea ppearance
repres
en t
edi no neo fthep lat
e sinthee ar
liervolume so fthiswo rk.Ab ou tmi dwa yb etweent hegrou nd
andt hesummi tt he
r eisa ne ntr
anc edoor,p robablyth ep ortaloft het omb ,wh i
c h,a ccordingtot he
Arabt r
a di
tion,ist hato fNi mú dh imself.Un f
ortunately,Ih adn ome an so fg et
ti
n gu pt oth i
sh ei
g ht
,
anda stimea l
sof ailed,weh astenedo ntoBa ghdad…’[ Ch esne y1 868:8 2–83] .
I
n1 86 2twoBr i
tis
hmi lit
a r
yo ffic
ersma dead et
aileds urveyo ft hea reab etwe ent heTi gr
isa nd
Eup hr
atesr iverswh eret heya r
ec l
osesttoo nea nother[ Be wsh er1 86 7].Wh il
eCh esn ey[1 850]
publishedt hef i
rstma ps ho wingt hel ocat
iono f‘ Aq arQū f( identif
ie da sAc cad),the ma p
accomp a nyingBe ws her’swo rki sab et
ter
ma ps howi ngt hel ocationa nda pproxi
ma te
extento ft her uinso f‘ Aq arQū f. Fo r
decad es Be ws h er’s ma p wa st heb est
publishedc harto fthea reaa n dd eserves
closes t
u dye vent o daya sits howsmo unds,
areaso fc ul
tiva t
iona ndr i
vera n ds t
ream
beds.‘ Ak rKū fiss hownj ustt othen orth
ofther o adtoBa g hdadf rom theEu phrat
es.
Bews h e
rv i
sited‘ Aq arQū fa ndn ot
edt hat
i
tl ayo nac ana ltot hee astwh ichBe ws her
t
race db utlosti nt heSa kla wiyens wampt o
Fig.7 　Ch esney’s[ 1 850:Pl .VI I
I]i l
lust
rat
iono ft he t
h e no r
th. He de scr
ibed the sit
e: -‘ T he
zi
gguratruinsa t‘Aqa rQūf . l
a r
g ea ndc ons picuousr uinn owc all
edAk r

　 　
55)Forabiogr
aphyofGe ner
alF.Chesney(1789–1872)s
eeLane-
Poole1885.
56)Inre
port
ingthesuc
cessf
ulcomple
tionofthevoyagedowntheEuphra
testheTi
mesr
efe
rre
dtot
hepos
sibi
li
tyt
hatNa
pol
eoni
n1814
hadpla
nnedtothre
ate
nBr it
ai
n’scontr
oloftheroute[
Anonymous1841].
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　19

Kûfis1 0½mi les,al i

tt
len ortho fwe st
,fromt heBr i
dg eo fBo atsa tBag hdad.Th isruinisc omp osed
ofsun-drie
db ricks,1 4inche ss quarea ndn ear
ly4i nch est hi
ck .Be t
we ent helayerso fb ricksis
oneo freedso rma t
s,andb et weene verys event
ha nde ig hta nex t
r athic
kn essofthe s
er eedsc anb e
noti
ced.Th i
sma ssofs un-d ri
edb ricksiss oli
dt oa lla ppea r
anc e,isn earl
ys quarei ns hape,a nd
st
andso nar ui
no fapparentl
yk i
ln-burntbricksandlime .I tiss u
rrou ndedb yex t
ensiveru i
ns…’ [
ibid.,
163].
Inte
restint hea nci
entre ma insofBa by l
oniaa ndAs sy r
iad eve l
o pedou tofthea ccoun t
so fvisit
s
t
ot heregion.Th oughi nt
eres tinBa bylon,b e
causeo fitsBi b l
icalc onnect
ion,wa sinitial
lythef ocus
ofatt
ention,inthee ventMe s opotamiane xc a
vati
onb eg ana tNi nevehu ndert heFrenchCo nsul
,Emi l
e
Bott
a.I nl at
e18 42h eb egane xcavati
on smo vingtoKh orsabadi n1 843[ cf.Lloyd1 980:9 6–9 8].
In184 2Bo tt
aa ndAu ste
nHe nryLa yardme tinMo sul.Th eyb eca mef ri
en d
sa ndLa y ardsaw wh at
excavat
iona ttheAs s
y r
iansitesc ouldp r
od uce.In1 845h eo btai
n edp ri
vatefu ndi
ngf rom theBr iti
sh
Amb assadorinI stanbula ndb ega nex c
av ati
onsa tNimr ud .Th ere sul
tsofb o t
hBo t
taa ndLa y a
rd ’
s
workwe ret op rovetob es pe ct
acu l
ar.Int helate1 840say o ungEn gl
ishg eologi
st,Wi ll
iam Ke nn et
Loft
us,t ookl eaveo fabsen cef rom h i
sTu rc
o-Pe r
siang eologicala ndb o r
d e
rs urvey i
ngwo rkt o
excavat
ea tUr uk,Su saa ndLa rs
a .Th ep ubli
cati
o nofh iswo rka p pea
redi n1 857,they eara ft
erh e
hadd i
eda ts eao nh iswa yt oan e
wp ostinI ndia.Hed oesn o trecordwo rkat‘ Aq arQū f,bu ta
cont
emp orary[ Be wsher1 867:1 63]n otesthatLo ft
usd ide xc avat
ea tt
h esite.Ifthisi scorrectthen
t
h e
sewo uldh av eb eenthefirste xcavat
ionsa t‘Aq a
rQū f,bu tunfo rt
unatel
yt heywe ren otp ubli
she d.
Inp ar
a l
leltot hed e
v el
o pme ntofi nt
erestin,anda ctivec ond uctin
go fe xcavati
o n
si nI ra
qwo r
k
ond e
c i
pheringc un ei
form wa sma t
uri
n g.I n1839,b uil
d i
n go nt hewo r
ko fo t
h e
rs,He nryRa wl i
nso n,
ayoun goff
i c
eri ntheEa stInd ia
nAr my ,pu bl
ishedhisc opya n dtranslat
iono fthetri
li
n gualinscri
ption
atBesitu
n.Wi tht hec unei
for mi nscr
ipti
on sbeingr e
adt h eco rr
ecti denti
fi
c at
iono fsomeo fthes ite
s

Fi
g.8
　Pl a
noft heexcava
tedremainsoftheKassi
tet
empl
ear
eaandz i
ggur
atatanci
entDūr-
Kuri
ga l
zuormodern‘AqarQūf[compos
it
edrawi
ngbyt
heaut
horaft
erBa
qir1944:Pl
at
e
II
;Ba qi
r1945:PlateI;Baqir1946:Pl
ateXXII;J
uma
il
ly1971:97,Pl
an8;pe rs
onal
obse
rvati
on1986;GoogleEa r
th].
20
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

ofancientMe sopot
a miabeca mep o s
sible.On es uchi dentifi
cati
o nwa sma dep ossi
bleb yRa wl inson’s
publi
cati
o nin1 861( IR 4,n o.XI V 1)o fa ni nscr
ip ti
onf r
om ‘ Aq arQū fb asedo nthere ma inso f
tex
to nt hrees t
amp edb ri
ck s[ Brinkma n1 9 76:2 13,Q. 2.15.1,f n.2 0;Wa lker1 981:5 5,n o.
6 0]
col
lecte
da tth esit
e.
Thee arl
iestsumma ryo ft hee videncef orDū r-
Ku ri
ga lz
uwa sb yOp pert[18 63:255–2 5 8]wh o
ide
ntif
ied‘Aq arQū fasDū r
- Ku r
igalzu[ib i
d.,2 57].Op pertd r
ewn otjustont hebrickinscri
ption sfrom
‘AqarQū f,bu tals
oo nt het ext
se me rgingf romt hee xc a
v at
ion sinAs syri
aa ndt her ef
eren cesth ey
cont
a i
ntoDū r-Kurigal
zu.Th iswo rkwa ss umma ri
s edi n1 881b yDe lit
zsch[ 207–2 08]wh os tated
(i
ncorre
ctly)thattheb ri
cksp u bl
ishedb yRa wl ins
o nc on t
a i
nedar eferencet oDū r-Ku r
igalzu.Fr om
thi
sp ointmo sta ut
horsa cceptedt hei d e
ntificat
iono ft hes it
ea sDū r-Ku ri
g al
zua ndther uinsa s
thos
eo faz iggur
at.Some ,h owe ver,d idn ot[ cf.Pe ters1 897,I :1 89,wh os uggestedth atitwa s
‘t
her ui
no fa na nci
enttowe ro rfo r
tresswh i
c hg uarde dth ecan alcentre’int heAb basi
dp e ri
o d]
.
In18 69theSu ezCanalwa sop e
n eda ndwi thitth ed rast
icred uct
ioni njourneyti mesfromEu r
o pe
totheFa rEa st.Th eo verlandr outef rom Al e ppod i
d ,h owev er,rema i
ni nu serightupu n ti
lt he
Fir
stWo rldWa ran dvari
o usv isi
torstoBa ghd adp ub l
isheda c countso fjou r
n eyin c
ludi
n gt hel ast
l
e gfrom Fa ll
u j
aht oBa gh dad[ e.g.Wa rd1 897:3 53–3 56;Ha rper1 892;Pe ter
si n1 88 8,1 89 7:
182–190;Co wp erin1 89 1,1 8 94:2 2 7–23 7;Ba ede ker1 906:4 11–4 12;Mu si
li n1 91 2,1 92 7:
125–128].Ast r
avelb ec
amee asie
ra n de xc a
v at
ionwo rki nI raqinc re
ased ,sights e
eingv isi
tst o
Dūr-Kurigalzub ecamec ommo np lace.‘ Aq arQū f,i den ti
fie
da sDū r-Ku r
igalzu,featuredi nt he
5
7)
Baedekerg uidetot heregion[ Ba edeker1 9 06:4 12] .Th er uinsh adb ecomeat ouri
sta tt
ra ct
ion.
Atth esamet i
met hel ar
ged epressiont ot hen o r
the asto fthes i
teb ecamewi de l
yk nowna st he
5
8)
AkarKu fd epressi
ono rLa keAk arKu f[ cf.Wi l
lcock s1 910:2,a nda ccomp an yi
ngma p] .
Thef irs
tp ubl
ishedp ho t
o gr
ap ho ft hez igguratmo un dwa sb yJ.P.Pe terswh ov isi
tedt h es i
te
enroutetoh isexcavati
onsa tNi pp urin1 88 8[ Peters1 897,I :facingp age1 88] .Th eb es
tp ubli
sh ed
photogr
ap ho fthesitebeforei t
se xc a
v ati
onwa sb yBu dge[ 19 20,I:f aci
n gp age3 26].Ze hnpfu nd
[1910:9–1 0]p ubl
ishedas horts t
udyo ft hes it
e .Th emo s tcomp rehen si
ver eviewo fthec ityb efore
it
se xca
va t
ionwa sb ySa r
ree tal.[1 9
2 0:9 6–1 11]–Un ge r’
ss umma r
yf o rRLA [ 1 938]wa swe a k.
t
h
20 c enturybeforeex ca
vation
FortheBr it
is
htheFirstWo r
ldWa rinIra
qh adbeenat ra
uma t
icex peri
ence
.I n1 916aBr it
ishI ndia
n
Armye x
p edi
ti
onaryforceint
endedtot a
kea ndh o
ldI r
aqf r
om theOt tomanswa sd ef
eateda ndKu t
al
-Ama rao ntheTigri
sb eca
mean amea s
sociat
edinGr eatBri
tai
nwi t
hmi l
itar
yd is
aster
.Bu twhile
theBriti
shs ur
vivedthewa r,theOttomanEmp i
red i
dn ot.Iraqb ecameaBr it
is
hMa nda te.Th is
59)
tr
ansit
ionma rke
dad r
a mati
cinfl
uxo ffore
ign,ma i
nlyBr i
ti
shadmi nist
rat
orsan dsoldi
ers.
Af urth
erfact
orwa soil
.In1 908thewo r
ld’
sfirs
tma ssproduceda ndown edcar
,theFo rdMo del
T,we ntintoproduct
ion.Att hesamet i
met hedebatebetweenth ep r
oponentsofcoala ndo i
lfire
d
navalshi
p swasveeri
ngtowa r
dsdies
el.Oilasthepowe rsour
ceofth etwent
iethcent
u r
ywa st hereaf
ter
inincreasi
ngd emand.I n1 912theTu rki
shPe t
rol
eum Comp a
ny( TPC,5 0% Briti
sho wn e d)wa s
for
me dtof indoilinI r
aq.Own er
shipoft h
eTPC b eca
meap o i
n tofdisputeinthen eg otiat
ions
aft
erWo rldWa rOn e.Th en egot
iat
ionswe r
ec oncl
u de
di n1 92560)andonOc to
b e
r1 5th 19 2
7o il

　 　
57)‘Totheleftist heconspicuousruinof‘AkerKûfwhi chformedpa r
toftheBa byl
oniantownofDûr -
Kuriga
lzu,si
tuat
ed4hrst othe
N.W.ofBa ghda d’[Baedeker1906:412].
58)SirWi l
li
am Wi llcocks(1852–1932)wa sanengine
erinI mper
ialBrit
is
hs e
rvi
ce .Hewo r
kedonirr
igat
ionproj
ect
sinEg ypt(
thefirs
t
Aswa ndam) ,So ut
hAf r
icaandIraqasth
eDi r
ecto
rGe ne
ralofIr
ri
g a
ti
on.Hewa sr es
po n
sib
leforpl
anni
ngtheconst
ruc
tio
no ft
heHindiya
Barr
agene arBa byl
on.
59)The1906e dit
ionofBa edeker
’sguidetoSyri
aa ndMe sopot
amiareport
edthattherewereonlyc.50Europeanres
ident
sinBa ghdad
[Bae
de ker1906:407] .
60)Theimp ort
a nceoft heagreementa ndthehi
stor
ybe hi
ndi twasfull
yr e
port
edi ntheLondonTimes[Anonymo us1925].
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　21

wa sd i
sc ove r
edn ortho fKirkuk.Atl as
tI raqh a
dac ommo di
tythatme a
n tme rch a
ntstravell
edt o
andn ott hroughBa gh dad.Ba ghdadb ega ntod e
velopa samo dernc it
ya ndt raveltoi tb ecamea
ma tte
ro fr ou t
ineb ymo torvehicl
es.
Theo ilcomp anieswe r
ea l
sot oc ontri
b ut
et othes t
ud yofa nci
e ntMe sopotami aeit
he rthrough
practic
a ls upportfore xcavat
ions[e.g.atNi mrud,Ma ll
o wan1 966:1 5];emp loy eeswh od eveloped
ana c
ad emi cin t
eres
t[ e.
g.Ge or
g eRo ux61)];orwi thther esul
tso fge ol
ogicalsu rveys[e.g.Le eset
al.1 952;La rse
n1 983:x ix–xx]
.
Asf o r‘Aq arQūf,itb e
cameap icni
cs p otforpeoplelivi
ngi nBa ghdad[ e.
g .Be l
l1 911;Stevens
192 3:11 4–1 15].In1 930therenownt ra
v eller
,FreyaStark62)vi
sit
ed‘ Aq a
rQū fa ndwr otetoh erfat
h e
r
tel
lingh imo fthevisi
t:-‘Wewe nttoar a
the rattr
acti
vep l
acel a
stSaturday,notmo ret hanfortymin ut
es
carr i
def ro m Ba ghdada ndwithcu l
ti
vati
o nc loseb y
,bu tactual
lyint hed e
s e
rtwi ththeb lackflocks
andt entsa b outinthed ist
ancea mon gtheg rassjustsprouti
ngi nvi
siblytoa llb utIraqish eep
,a nd
witht hey ellow mo undsa ndlowr idgeso fo l
dc it
iesa ndc anal
ss preadr oundu s.Aq q arKu f,a
corn e
ro fa no l
dz igguratbuil
tu plikeaDa rt
mo ortorwi thridgeso fthreefe eto rsoo fs ol
idr aw
bricklik ee artharound,a ndlayersofr eeds–s ti
lldoingt hei
rwo rk–a ppearingwi t
hr oughe dges
justliket hec rysta
lridgesthatruna longt h eg r
anit
eo fth eTors.I tisas hap eles
sb lock,v er
yt al
l
onas lop ingmo undo ncebuil
tu ptos upp ortthetemp le;andi tistheh omeo fwo l
vesa ndh yenas
ands uchwh ol i
veini tscranni
esa ndsca tt
ert hewh ol
es urfaceoft hemo u ndwi thb ones.Yo us ee
itbe t
we ent hes hal
lowu ndulat
ionsoft h
ed esertear
thasi fattheen do favista,an dv e
ryimp r
essive.
Fara wa yBa ghdadp almt r
eesandt hegold end omea ndf ourmi ni
aretsofKh ad hima i
n:andt heg ood
dese r
ta ir,inexpress
iblylightandu nlikea nyo t
her.Ont heg r
o u
n dwep ickedu paf ews har
d sof
oldb luep ot
teries
,ands hredsofmo t
her-o f
-p ear
l,butn orealtreasur
e …’[ Stark1 951:1 24].

TheSe condWo rldWa ra ndt hec omme nceme ntofe xcavat

ionsa t‘Aqa rQūf
Wi t
hthes t
rongBr i
tishinvolvementi nthea ffairsofIraqthec ountr
ywa sd efact
oa na l
lyo fBrit
ain
wh e
nwa rwa sdeclaredin1 939.Ho wev er
,inMa y1 941Ra shid‘Alia l
-Gaila
nil e
dan ati
onali
s t
coupa gai
nstthep ro-Brit
ishIraqig overnme nto f‘Ab dal-I
lah.Th ec ouph adthef ul
lsu pporto f
t
heAx i
sp owe r
sa ndJ uli
usJ ordan,ex cavatoro fUr uk,wa sga ul
iet
ero ftheNa zipart
yi nI r
aq63).
A Brit
ishAr myf or
c ea dva
ncingf r
om t hewe sta ndthroughFa ll
uja
h,wh erethema jorbatt
leo fthe
64)
campaignwa sfought,c r
ushedt hec oup .
Ir
aqr emaine
dl oyaltotheAl l
ie
sf orther esto ft
hewa randac onsider
ablebodyo fBri
tis
hmi lit
ary
pers
onnel( concent
rateda ttheb asea tLa keHa bba
n i
yeh)a ndd i
ploma t
ico ff
ice
rs( bas
eda tt he
emb a
ssy)rema i
ned.On eo ftheo f
ficial
swh or ema inedwa stheBr i
tis
ha rchae
ologis
tSe t
onLl oyd .
In1 940h eh a
dc ondu ct
ede xcavat
io nsa tTe l
lUq air
.Heh adt henv ol
unteere
df orwa rwo rka nd
hadmo vedt oJerusal
e m.I n1 941h ewe ntb ackt oBa ghdadan dwa sab o
u tt
or es
umee xcavat
ions
wh e
nthec ouptookp l
ac e
.Fo ras hortwh il
ea ft
e rthecoupSe t
onLl oydwa sappoint
edd i
rect
org e
n er
a l
ofa nt
iqui
ties[Lloyd1 986:8 3].Wh enap erma nentIraqiDirecto
rGe ner
alwa sa ppo
intedLl oyd
remainedasak e
ya dv i
ser.
Withinay ea
roft hecoup,inMa y1 9 42e xcava t
ionswereopeneda t‘
Aq arQū f
.Ba qir
,thedir
e ct
o r
ofexcavat
ionforthefirstt
hreeseasons,wr ote‘On ereasonfortheselec
tionofthesit
ewa sane co
nomi c
one.Owi n gtowa r-t
imet ranspor
td iffi
cultie
si twa se ss
entia
lt ha
ta nye xcav
ati
ngwo r
ks houldb e

　 　
61)Roux1966.
th
62)FreyaStar
k( 1893–1993)wa sanotedexpl
ore
rintheNe arEasti
nthes ec
ondquart
erofthe20 c entur
y.Shepubli
she
dnu me r
ous
booksabouthe rjourneys.
63)Irecal
lProfessorLl oydrecount
ingin1983inalect
ureinLondont hedeli
ghthefel
twhe nhere t
urnedtohi
soffi
cewhichJordan
hadoc c
upieddur ingthecoupa ndthr
owingoutJ
ordan’spar
apher
nalia
.
64)Fora narc
hae ologis
t’sexperi
enceofthecoupse
eLl oyd[1986:80–83];forFre
yaStar
k’saccounta ndmemori
esseeSta
rk[ 1941
and1991:148–160] .
22
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

inthev i
cinit
yo fBa ghdad.Se condlythewo rkp rovideda no ppor
tunityforv i
sitor
st oBa ghdadand
Ir
aqisthems el
ve stos eea na r
chaeologic
a lex c
a vati
oni np rogr
ess.Ma nyh undredso fAl l
iedtro
ops
65)
vis
it
edt hes it
ewh ilewo rkwa si np r
ogress …’[ Ba qi
r1 944:3].On es uchv i
si
torwa sWi ll
iam
Ma gan,aBr i
tis
hI n dia
nAr myintel
ligenceo f
ficer,wh owa sp os
tedtoBa g
hd ada ndwh ovisit
ed‘Aq ar
QūfinOc tober1 943:- ‘… Ye s
terdayCh okra( Co lonelWo odo ftheGu i
des)a ndama no nh i
ss t
aff
whoi sana rchaeologisttookmet oap lacec all
edKo r
ig al
zu,wh i
chd at
e sbackt othefift
eenthcentur
y
BC,wh e
red iggi
n g66)i
sn owg oingo n.Th eya red igg
in gouttherema i
n sofat emp l
ea ndsu r
roundi
ng
buil
dingswh i
chwe r
ea llb ui
ltofmu db ri
ckc eme nt
edt ogetherwithb it
ume n .Qu iteal otofthe
wall
sa ndf lo
orsa rei ntac
ta ndtherearec uneiformi nscri
p t
ionsons omeo ftheb ri
cks,ando naf ew
st
oneb edst he
yh avef oundd oorposts.Th ec ivili
sat
ionwa sofPersiano r
igin.Th emo stnoti
ceabl
e
thi
ngo finterestisah ugeb ri
ckt owera bout1 50f eeth i
g h… weh a
dap i
cnicint heo penairand
ple
asantd ay.Ato n ep l
acewes awv astflockso fsandg rouse…’[ Ma gan2 001:7 3].
Th efirs
ts easono fexcavati
onr evealeda ne xtensivetemplecomp le
xu s
e dforthewo rs
hipo f
Enli
la ndNi nlilwi tht hez i
gguratatitsh eart[ Baqir1 944].Th es econds eason,u ndert
akenwi t
h
therecomme ndationo fSe t
on Lloyda sc hairo ftheEx cavat
ion Commi tt
eeo ftheAn ti
qui
tie
s
Departme nt
,u nearthedt heh ugeKa ssit
ep al
ac et othewe stofther e l
igi
ou ssector[Ba qir1945].
6
7)
Excavati
o nandr e st
o r
ationwo rkhasc ontinueda tthes it
ee versinc
e .
InJanu a
ry2 00 9theUSf or
cesinthea reawe reseek i
ngtoe st
abl
ishar enovationplanforthepicni
c
andv is
itorsareaa tt hes i
te.Th eyh opedt og enerat
ewo rkforloc a
lsa ndt or es
toreth esit
ea sa
venuef orrel
ax at
iona n de ducat
ion[Trit
ten2 00 9].

Co ncl
usions
Bec a
use‘ Aq arQū fli
ess oc l
o setoBa gh dada ndb ecausei tdomi natest hes urr
oun di
ngl a
n dsc
ape,
forcen t
uriesith a
sb eenal an dmarkf ortravelle
rst oBa gh dad.On lyNi nev ehan dBa bylonitse
lf
att
ract
edt hes ortofd el
iber
ateo rincidentala t
tenti
ont hat‘ AqarQū fd id.Th i
swa sbecausee a
rly
wes t
erntravell
erswe r
ee agertoi de
ntifytown sa ndsiteswh icha ppearint heBi ble
.Fo rma nyyears
earl
ytraveller
smi st
akenlyiden t
if
iedther ui
nso fthez i
g gur
a tat‘Aq arQū fast he‘To werofBa bylo
n’.
th
We ster
nt ra
v el
ler
stoBa g hdadd i
dn otb ecomeama tt
ero fc ourseu nti
lthe16 c entur
y.Be fore
thenwe ster
nv i
sit
orsamo untedt oah andfulo fmi ss
ionaries.Ho wev er,forI s
lami ctra
veller
sa nd
geographersther e
gionwa sn ever‘offlimits’andr efer
en c
est oth esit
eo cc
u rintheAb basi
dPe ri
od.
Fromt he1 6th c
e n
turyo nwardt hes t
anda r
do fIslamics cholar
s hipinBa ghda dde cl
inedu nderthe
Ottoma nEmp i
re,butWe s
terni nt
erestint heregionr ose.Th i
sh appenedi np aral
leltother is
eo f
comme rcialinte
restintheI ndiesa ndthee stabli
shme nto flarget ra
d in
gc omp ani
est ofostertr
ade.
t
h
EarlyEu r
o peantra
velle
rstoth eregi
onwe reme rchants
.I twa sno tuntilthe17c entu r
ythatscie
ntif
ic
int
erestinth eregionbegant od evel
o p.
Th eo ff
icersan do f
fic
ialso ftwog reatEn g l
isht r
adingc omp anies–Th eLe vantComp any
(es
tabli
shedi n1 581)a ndth eEn gli
shEa stIndiaComp any( establ
ished1 6 00)–p la
yedac ruci
al
rol
ei nthea cademics t
u dyo fthen eareasta ndI ra
q .Wi thoutt hemi ti sunlikel
yt hatthes t
udyo f
ancientMe sopotamiawo uldh a v
ea dvance da sfara sith as.Th es i
tewa sn otcorrect
lyidentif
ied
asthea ncientcapit
alo ftheKa s
sit
esu nti
lth emi ddleo fthe1 9th c
entury.Th ere
afteritwa salmost
90y earsbeforethes i
tewa se xcavateda ndaf ullerund er
standingo ft heh i
storyo fthes i
teb e
came
cle
a r
er.
‘Aq arQū fp r
ovidesani ll
u s
tra
ti
o no fho wa llMe sopotamia ns i
tesh avea nh i
storythatiso f
ten
neglect
edb ya rchaeol
o g
ist
s. Th oughn o td i
rectl
yr el
eva ntt ot her ema insi nt heg round,a n
　 　
65)Myf at
her,JackClayden,wa sapri
vateinthef
orces t
a t
ione
datLa keHa bbani
yeh.Hewasa
lsooneoft
hemanyBri
ti
shs
oldi
ers
whovisit
ed‘ AqarQūf.Hewa st
oldthathewaslooki
nga tt
heTowe rofBa byl
on.
66)SecondSeasonofe xca
vati
ons.
67)SeeClayden( f
ort
hcoming)forarevi
ew oftheexcava
tionsandres
torat
ionwor ktha
tha
sbe
enconduc
teda
tthes
it
e.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　23

Fi
g.9
　Thez i
ggura
ta tDūrKuri
gal
zu/‘AqarQūfasi
tistoda
y(2009)ha
vingbe
ene
xte
nsi
vel
y
r
est
ore
di nthe1980sand1990s(phot
ogr
apha
uthor
’sown)
.

u
nder
st
and
ingo
fth
epo
sto
ccu
pat
iono
fsu
chr
ema
insd
oesi
ll
ust
rat
eju
stwh
atac
omp
lexp
astI
raq
ha
s.

Bi
bli
ogr
aphy

Adams
,R.
Mc.
19
65 Landbehin
dBa ghd
ad.Ah i
st
oryofs
ett
le
mentonth
eDi y
alapl
ain
s,Chica
goandLondo
n .
19
81 Heart
lan
do fc
it
ie
s.Sur
vey
so fa
nci
ent
set
tl
eme
n t
andlan
du s
eont
hec e
ntr
alfl
ood
pla
ino
ftheEup
hra
tes
,Ch
ica
go
an
dLo ndon.

Adl
er,M.
N.
19
05 “
Thei
ti
ner
aryo
fBe
nja
mino
fTu
del
a(c
ont
inu
ed)
,”Th
eJe
wis
hQu
art
erl
yRe
vie
w17,p
p.5
14–5
30.

Ain
swo
rth
,W.
18
87 Re
sea
rchesi
nAs
syr
ia,Ba
byl
oni
a,a
ndCh
ald
aea
;fo
rmi
ngp
arto
fth
ela
bou
rso
fth
eEu
phr
ate
sex
ped
iti
on,
Lo
ndon.

Ale
xan
der
,C.M.
19
28 Ba
ghd
adi
nby
goned
ays
,Lo
ndo
n.

Ambr
ose
,G.
19
31 “
Eng
lis
htr
ade
rsa
tAl
epp
o(1
658–1
756)
,”Th
eec
ono
mich
ist
oryr
evi
ew 3,p
p.2
46–2
67.

Amed
roz
,H.F.
19
13 “Abbas
idadmi
nis
trat
ioni
nit
sdeca
yfr
om t
heTj
ari
bal
-Uma
m,”J
our
nalo
fth
eRo
yalAs
iat
icS
oci
et
yofGr
eat
Bri
tai
na n
dIre
land,pp.8
23–84
2.

Anon
ymo
us
18
41 “
Then
ewr
out
etoI
ndi
abyt
heEu
phr
ate
s,”Th
eTi
mes
,1S
ept
emb
er1
841,p
.5.
24
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

1
925 “
TheI
raqo
ilc
onv
ent
ion
.Hi
st
oryo
fth
ene
got
ia
ti
ons
,”Th
eTi
mes
,18Ma
rch1
925,p
.16.

Baed
eke
r,K.
19
06 Pal
est
ineandS
yri
awi
tht
hec
hie
fro
ute
sth
rou
ghMe
sop
ota
miaa
ndBa
byl
oni
a,Ha
ndb
ookf
ort
rav
ell
ers
,Le
ipz
ig
an
dLo ndo
n.

Bal
dwi
n,R.
C.D.
20
08 “Joh
nEl
dre
d,”Th
eDi
ct
ion
aryo
fth
eNa
tio
nalBi
ogr
aph
y,h
ttp
://
www.
oxf
ord
dnb
.co
m.

Baqi
r,T.
19
44 “
Ira
qGo
ver
nme
nte
xca
vat
ion
sat‘
Aqa
rQū
f1 9
42–1943,
”Ira
qS upp
lement
.
19
45 “
Ira
qGo
ver
nme
nte
xca
vat
ion
sat‘
Aqa
rQūf
.Secondi
nte
rimrep
ort1943–1
944,
”Ir
aqS u
ppleme
nt.
19
46 “
Ira
qGo
ver
nme
nte
xca
vat
ion
sat‘
Aqa
rQū
f.Thir
dint
eri
mr e
port
,1944–5,
”Ira
qVIII
,pp.7
3–93.

Bar
net
t,R.
D.
19
72 “Si
rRo
ber
tKe
rPo
rte
r:Re
gen
cya
rti
sta
ndt
rav
ell
er,
”Ir
an1
0,p
p.1
9–2
4.

Bar
ret
,W.
19
04 “Themo n
eyandmeas
ure
so fBab
ylon,Ba
lsa
ra,a
ndt
heI
ndi
es,wi
tht
hec
ust
ome
set
c,wr
it
te
nfr
om Al
epp
o
inSyr
ia,An.1
584,
”Hakl
uytVI,pp.1
0–34.

Bat
tut
a,I
bn.
19
62 Thetr
ave
lsofIbnBa
ttū
taA.
D.1
325–1
354(
tr
ans
lat
eda
nde
dit
edb
yC.De
fré
mer
y,B.
R.Sa
ngu
ine
tt
ian
dH.
A.R.
Gibb
),Lond
o n
.

Becki
ngh
am,C.F.
197
4 “Theneareast
:n o
rthandnort
hea
stAf
ri
ca,
”TheHakl
uytHandb
ook,Vol.
I(e
d.D.B.Qu i
nn),Hakl
uyt144,pp
.
176–189.
19
97 “Nort
ha n
dn or
th-eas
tAfri
caandt
hene
arandmi
ddl
eeast
,”Th
ePu r
chasHandbo
ok,Vol
.I(ed
.L.E.Penn
ingt
on),
Haklu
yt1 44,pp.219–2
4 0.

Bédo
yèr
e,G.del
a
19
95 Th
ediar
yofJ
ohnEv
ely
n,Wo
odb
rid
ge.

Bel
l,G.
19
11 “
Dia
rye
ntr
yfo
r14Ma
rch1
911,
”ge
rtr
ude
bel
l.
ncl
.ac
.uk
/di
ary
.

Bent
,J.
T.
18
90 “Th
eEngl
is
hintheLev
a n
t,”TheEng
lis
hHist
ori
calRe
vie
w5,p
p.6
54–6
64.
18
93 Ear
lyv
oya
gesan
dt r
aveli
nt heLe
vant
,Lon
don.

Bewshe
r,J
.B.
18
6 7 “Onp
artofMeso
pot
amiaco
ntai
nedbet
wee
nSh er
iat
-el
-Beyt
ha,o
nth
eTi
gri
s,a
ndTe
lIb
rah
im,
”Jo
urn
alo
f
th
eRoya
lGeog
raphi
calS
oci
etyofLo
ndon37,p
p.160–182.

Bi
ra,Sh
.
19
98 “TheMong
olsa
ndt
hei
rst
at
eint
het
we l
ft
htothi
rt
een
thcent
ury
,”i
ntheHi
st
oryo
fCi
vi
li
zat
ion
sofCe
ntr
al
Asi
a,Vo
l.I
V,ed
.M.
S.Asi
movan
dC.E.Boswo
rth
,Pari
s,p
p.243–2
59.

Boul
noi
s,L.
20
08 Si
lkr
oad
.Mo
nks
,wa
rri
orsa
ndme
rch
ant
s,Ho
ngKo
ng.

Br
aud
el,F
.
19
75 TheMe
dit
err
aneanan
dth
eMe
dit
err
ane
anwo
rldi
nth
eag
eofPh
ili
pII(
2vo
lume
s),Ne
w Yo
rk,Ev
ans
ton
an
dSanFran
sis
co.

Br
inkma
n,J
.A.
19
76 Mate
ria
lsa
nds
tud
iesf
orKa
ssi
teh
ist
ory
,Vo
lumeI
,Ch
ica
go.

Br
own,H.
F.
18
94 Cal
end
aro
fth
eSt
atePa
per
sre
lat
ingt
oEn
gli
sha
ffa
irsi
nth
ear
chi
veo
fVe
nic
e,Vo
l.8,Lo
ndo
n.

Buck
ing
ham,J.
S.
18
27 Tr
avel
sinMe
sop
ota
mia
.In
clu
din
gaj
our
neyf
rom Al
epp
o,a
cro
sst
heEu
phr
ate
stoOr
fah
,(t
heUro
fth
e
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　25

Chal
dees
,)t
hro
ughth
eplai
nsoft
heTur
comans
,toDi
arb
ekr
,inAsi
aMinor;f
romthe
ncet
oMa r
din
,ont
he
bo
rdersoft
heGre
atDes
ert
,an
db yt
heTig
rist
oMous
oulan
dBa g
dad:wi
thre
sear
ches
,Lo
ndo
n.

Budg
e,E.
A.
19
20 ByNi
leandTi
gri
s.An
ar r
ati
veofjou
rne
ysi
nEg
ypta
ndMe
sop
ota
miao
nbe
hal
foft
heBr
it
is
hMu
seu
mbe
twe
en
t
heye
a r
s1886and1913,Lond
o n
.

Cal
der
,A.
19
98 Re
vol
uti
ona
rye
mpi
re,Lo
ndo
n.

Car
ré,Ab
bé
19
48 Th
etr
ave
lso
fth
eAb
béCa
rréi
nIn
diaa
ndt
hen
eare
ast1
672t
o16
74(
3vo
lume
s),Lo
ndo
n.

Car
rut
her
s,D.
19
18 “TheGre
a tDeser
tcar
avanRo u
te,Alep
potoBasr
a,”TheGeo
g r
ap h
icalJour
na l
,52.3,pp
.157–184.
19
29 Thede
sertrou
tetoIndi
a,bei
ngthejo
urnal
soff
ourtra
vel
le
rsbythegre
a td
esertcar
av a
nrout
ebet
we e
nAl
epp
o
andBasr
a1 745–175
1,Lo n
don.

Car
twr
igh
t,J
.
19
05 “Ob
ser
vat
ion
so fMast
erJohnCart
wri
ghti
nhi
sVoyag
ef rom Al
epp
otoHi
spa
an,a
ndb
ack
eag
ain
e:p
ubl
is
hed
b
yhims
elf
e,andher
ec on
tra
cte
d,”Pur
chasVI
II
,pp
.4 82–523.

Char
pen
tie
r,J.
19
20 “Cesa
red
iFr
ede
ric
ian
dGa
spa
roBa
lbi
,”Ge
ogr
afi
skaAn
nal
er2,p
p.1
46–1
61.

Ches
ney
,F.
R.
185
0 Theexpedi
ti
onforthesurve
yo ft
her i
ver
sEu ph
rat
esandTig
riscar
rie
do nbyorderoft
heBrit
is
hGo ve
rnment,
intheyear
s1 835,1836,and1 837;pre
cededbygeo
graphicalan
dh is
tor
ica
ln ot
ic
esoftheregi
onssit
uat
ed
bet
weentheriversNi
lea n
dI n
d u
s,Lo nd
on.
18
68 Narrat
iv
eo ftheEuphrat
esexpedi
tioncarr
iedonbyorderoftheBri
tis
hGo ver
nmentdur
ingtheyear
s1 83
5,
1836and1 837,Londo
n .

Cla
y d
en,T.
For
thc
omingTh
ehi
st
orya
nda
rch
aeo
log
yofDū
r-Ku
rig
alz
u.

Cowp
er,H.
S.
18
94 Thro
ughTu
rki
shAr
abi
a,Lo
ndo
n.

Davi
s,R.
19
61 “En
glandandt
heMedi
ter
ran
ean1570–167
0,”i
nEs s
aysi
nth
eec
ono
mica
nds
oci
alh
ist
oryo
fTu
dora
ndS
tua
rt
Engl
and,e
d.F.
J.Fi
she
r,Cambri
dge
,p p
.117–137.

Day,A.
E.
19
80 Di
sco
ver
yan
dex
plo
rat
ion-ar
efe
ren
ceh
and
boo
k.Th
eol
dwo
rld
,Ne
w Yo
rk,Lo
ndo
n,Mu
nic
han
dPa
ris
.

Del
it
zsc
h,F
.
18
81 Wol
agd
asp
ara
die
s?,Le
ipz
ig.

Dic
kie
,T.
200
8 “Ed
war
ds,M.,
”Th eDic
ti
ona
ryo
fth
eNa t
ion
alBio
gra
phy
,ht
tp:
//
www.
oxf
ord
dnb
.co
m.
19
72 Ral
phFi
tch
:Eliz
abet
hanint
heI
ndi
es,Lo
ndon.

El
dre
d,J
.
19
04 “
Thev
oyageofM.Jo
hnEldre
dtoTrypol
isi
nSy
riab
yse
a,a
ndf
rom t
hen
ceb
yla
nda
ndr
ive
rtoBa
byl
on
a
ndBal
sar
a.1
583,
”Hakl
uytVI,p
p.1–9.

Eps
tei
n,M.
19
08 Thee
arl
yhi
st
oryo
fth
eLe
van
tCo
mpa
ny,Lo
ndo
nan
dNe
w Yo
rk.

Fa
gan
,B.
M.
19
79 Re
tur
ntoBa
byl
on,Bo
sto
nan
dTo
ron
to.

Fe
rgu
son
,D.
19
02 I
ntr
odu
cti
ont
oTh
etr
ave
lso
fPe
droT
eix
eir
a;wi
thh
is“Ki
ngso
fHa
rmu
z”,a
nde
xtr
act
sfr
omh
is“Ki
ngo
f
26
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

Pe
rsi
a”,Tr
ans
lat
edb
yW.
F.Si
ncl
ai
r,Lo
ndo
n.

Fe
rgu
son
,N.
20
08 Th
eas
cen
tofmo
ney
.Af
ina
nci
alh
ist
oryo
fth
ewo
rld,Lo
ndo
n.

Fe
rnb
erg
er,G.
C.
19
99 Re
ise
tageb
uch(1
588–1
593)Si
nai,Ba
bylo
n,In
dien,Hei
li
gesLand
,Ost
eur
opa(
ed.R.Bu
rge
ran
dR.Wa
ll
is
ch)
,
Fr
ankf
urtam Mai
n,Be
rli
n,Be
rn,Brus
sel
s,New YorkandVie
nna.

Fi
tch
,R.
19
04 “Thev oyageofM.Ra lphFi t
chme rcha
nto fLondonb ythewa yofTripol
isinSyria
,toOr mus,andsot o
Go aintheEastIndi
a,t
oCa mbaia,andal
lthek i
ngdom ofZe l
abdim Echebart
heg r
eatMo go
r,tothemighty
r
iverGa ng
es,anddownetheBe ngala
,toBacola
,andtheCh o
nderi,toPeg
u ,andfr
om t
hencetoMalacc
a,Zeila
n,
Coch i
n,andallth
ec oa
sto ftheEa stI
ndia
:b eguninthey e
ereo fourLord1 583,andended1591,wh er
ein
t
h estra
ngerit
es,manners
,a ndc u
s t
omesoft he
sep e
ople,andth eexce
ed i
ngrichtr
adea n
dc ommo dot
ie
so f
t
h osecount
rie
sa r
efait
hful
lys etdownea ndd e
lig
entl
yd es
cribe
db ytheafore
saidM.R.Fi t
ch,”Ha k
luytV,
pp.4 6
5–505.

Fos
sey
,C.
19
04 Ma
nua
ld’
Ass
yri
olo
gie(
2vo
lume
s),Pa
ris
.

Fr
ede
ric
k,C.
19
04 “
Th evoya
geandtr
avelofM.Ca e
sarFred
erick,Marcha
ntofVenic
e,i
ntot
heEastI
ndi
a,andbey
ondtheIndie
s.
Wherei
narec
ontei
nedthecus
tomesandrite
so fthos
ecoun
tri
es,aswel
lofgo
ldeandsi
lve
r,a
sspic
es,drug
ges,
pe
arle
s,ando
therje
we l
s:t
rans
lat
edo u
to ftheIta
li
anb yM.Th omasHic
kocke
,”Hakl
uytV,pp.365–4
49.

Gil
,M.
19
87 Pi
lgr
imag
e,Jewi
shinDic
ti
ona
ryo
fth
emi
ddl
eag
es,v
ol.9,My
ste
ryr
eli
gio
ns–Po
lan
d(e
d.J
.R.St
ray
er)
,
pp
.652–653,Ne
w Yor
k.

Gra
nt,C.
P.
19
37 Th
eSy
ria
nde
ser
t:c
ara
van
s,t
rav
ela
nde
xpl
ora
tio
n,Lo
ndo
n.

Gre
en,V.
H.H.
19
70 Re
nai
ssa
ncea
ndr
efo
rma
tio
n,as
urv
eyo
fEu
rop
eanh
ist
oryb
etwe
en1
450a
nd1
600,Lo
ndo
n.

Gri
ff
in,J
.
19
96 “Ba
ghd
ad(Bag
hdad,I
raq)
,”i
nInte
rnat
ionald
i c
ti
ona
ryo
fhi
st
ori
cpl
ace
s,V
ol.I
V,mi
ddl
eea
sta
ndAf
ri
ca(
ed.
N.Wat
son
),Chi
cag
oa ndLondo
n,pp.116–119.

Hach
ich
o,M.A.
19
64 “
Engl
is
htr
ave
lbo
oksa
bou
tth
eAr
abn
eare
asti
nth
eei
ght
een
thc
ent
ury
,”Di
eWe
ltd
esI
sl
am 9,p
p.1–2
06.

Hage
r,J
.
18
01 Ad
iss
ert
ati
ono
nth
ene
wlyd
isc
ove
redBa
byl
oni
ani
nsc
rip
tio
ns,Lo
ndo
n.

Hakl
uyt
,R.
19
07 Voy
age
s,Vo
l.7,Lo
ndo
nan
dNe
w Yo
rk.

Hand
boo
kofMesopot
ami
a
19
17 Ahan
dbookofMesop
otamia,V
o l
umeII
I,Cen
tralMes
opo
tami
awi
ths
out
her
nKu
rdi
st
ana
ndt
heS
yri
and
ese
rt,
Ad
miral
tyWarSt
affI
nte
lli
genceDiv
isi
on,Lond
o n
.

Har
per
,R.
F.
18
92 “Theexp
edi
ti
onofth
eBa by
lon
ianEx
plo
rat
ionFu
nd.B.Al
epp
otoBa
ghd
ad,
”Th
eOl
dan
dNe
wTe
sta
men
t
St
uden
t14,pp.2
13–217.

Har
ri
s,P
.R.
19
60 “AnAl
epp
ome
rch
ant
’sl
et
te
r-b
ook
,”Br
it
is
hMu
seu
m Qu
art
erl
y22,p
p.6
4–6
9.

Hel
fer
s,J
.P.
20
05 “Trav
elfrom Eur
opeandt
hemiddl
eeas
t,
”inNe
wdi
ct
ion
aryo
fth
ehi
st
oryo
fid
ea,v
ol.6,T
ast
etoZi
oni
sm
(ed
.M. C.Horowit
z),p
p.2
368–2
372.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　27

Hil
pre
cht
,H.V.
19
03 Exp
lor
ati
onsi
nBi
bleLa
ndsd
uri
ngt
h 9th c
e1 ent
ury
,Ph
ila
del
phi
a.

Hoen
sel
aar
s,T.
19
99 “I
nthesh
adowo fStPau
l’s
:ling
uist
icc
onf
usi
on,
”inEng
lis
hRenai
ssa
ncedrama
,inEn
gli
shl
it
era
tur
ean
d
ot
herl
angua
ges
,ed.T.Hoense
laar
sandM.Bundi
ng,Ams
ter
dam,p
p.27–40.

Horn
ike
r,A.
L.
19
46 “
Angl
o-Fr
enc
hri
val
ryi
nth
eLe
van
tfr
om 1
583t
o16
12,
”Th
eJo
urn
alo
fMo
der
nHi
st
ory1
8,p
p.2
89–3
05.

Housl
ey,N.
198
7 “Pil
grimage,we st
ernEurop
ean
,”inDic
ti
onaryo
fth
emi
ddl
eag
es,v
ol.9,My
ste
ryr
eli
gio
ns–Po
lan
d(e
d.
J.R.Stra
yer),pp.654–66
1,New Yor
k.
Howard,C.
19
14 En g
lis
ht ra
ve l
le
rso ft
heRenai
ssa
nce
,Londo
n.

Hoyl
e,R.
W.
19
98 “
Tax
ati
ona
ndt
hemi
d-Tu
dorc
ris
is,
”Th
eec
ono
mich
ist
oryr
evi
ew5
1,p
p.6
49–6
75.

Hudū
dal
-‘
āla
m
19
70 Ther
egi
onso
fth
ewo
rld(
tr
ans
lat
edb
yV.Mi
nor
sky
),Ca
mbr
idg
e.

I
nal
ci
k,H.
1
994 Anecon
omican
dsoci
alhi
st
oryoft
heOtto
manemp i
re,V
olu
meOn e130
0–1
600,e
d.H.
Ina
lci
kan
dD.Qu
ata
ter
t.
1
999.a “Eur
opean
sinwes
ter
nAsia,
”Hist
oryofHuma
n i
tyV,pp.70–7
1.
1
999.b “Th
eOt t
omanEmpir
e.Hi
sto
ry,
”Hist
oryofHumanit
yV,pp.216–2
25.

I
nve
rni
zzi
,A.
2
005 “
Pie
trad
ell
aVa
ll
e,
”RLA1
0,p
.55
8.

I
ves
,E.
1
773 Avo
yagef
rom Eng
lan
dt oI
ndia,i
nthey
earMDCCLI
Vanda
nhis
tor
ica
ln ar
rat
iveo
fth
eS qu
ad r
onandArmy
i
nIndi
aet
c.Alsoajour
neyth
roughPer
siat
oEng
lan
d,b
yanun
usualrou
tewithanappe
ndix,Lon
don.

J
ack
son
,P.an
dMo r
gan,D.
1
990 Themi
ssi
onofFr
iarWi
ll
iamo
fRu
bru
ck.
Hisj
our
neyt
oth
eco
urto
fth
eGr
eatKh
anMö
nke1
253–1
255,
Lon
don
.

J
asi
m,A.
K,Hamza
,H.A.andAlta
weel
,M.
R.
2
006 “
Tel
lAbuShij
ar,n
ear‘Aq
arQu
f:s
umma
ryo
fex
cav
ati
ons
,”Ak
kad
ica1
27,p
p.1
55–1
66.

J
ens
en,d
eL.
1
985 “
TheOt
toma
nTu
rksi
nsi
xte
ent
hce
ntu
ryFr
enc
hdi
ploma
cy,
”Th
esi
xt
een
thc
ent
uryj
our
nal1
6.4,p
p.4
51–4
70.

J
off
ee,A.
H.
1
998 “
Dise
mb e
dde
dca
pit
al
sinWe
ste
rnAs
ianp
ers
pec
ti
ve,
”Co
mpa
rat
iv
est
udi
esi
nso
cie
tya
ndh
ist
ory4
0,p
p.
5
49–580.

J
ord
an,W.
K.
1
966 Th
ech
ron
icl
ean
dpo
lit
ic
alp
ape
rso
fKi
ngEd
war
dVI
,Lo
ndo
n.

I
bn-
Jub
ayr
2
001 Th
etr
ave
lso
fIb
nJu
bay
r(t
ran
sla
tedb
yR.Br
oad
hur
st
),Lo
ndo
n(r
epr
into
fth
e19
52e
dit
ion
).

J
umai
ly
,Ab
dulIl
aha l
-
1
971 “Theres
u l
tso
fre
sto
rat
ionwo
rka
nde
xca
vat
ion
sont
hez
igg
ura
tof‘
Aqa
rQū
f(i
nAr
abi
c),
”Su
merXXVI
I,
pp.63–97.

KerPo
rte
r,R.
18
21 Tr
ave
lsi
nGe
org
ia,
Per
sia
,Ar
men
ia,
anc
ien
tBa
byl
on,
etcd
uri
ngt
hey
ear
s18
17,
181
8,1
819a
nd1
820,
Lon
don
.

Lane
-Po
ole
,Stanl
ey(ed
.)
18
85 Theli
feofGene
ralF
.R.Chesne
ybyhiswi
feandd
aught
er,London.
20
08 “Cl
audiu
sRich,
”TheDict
ion
aryoft
heNati
ona
lBiog
raphy,h
ttp
://
www.
oxf
ord
dnb
.co
m.
28
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

Lar
sen
,C.
E.
19
83 Li
fea
ndl
andu
seo
nth
eBa
hra
inI
sl
and
s,Ch
ica
goa
ndLo
ndo
n.

Las
sne
r,J
.
19
83 “Bagh
dad,”i
nDi ct
ion
aryo ft
hemi
ddl
eag
es,V
ol.2,Au
gus
ti
nusTr
iump
hus–By
zan
tin
eli
te
rat
ure(
ed.J
.R.
Str
aye
r),New Yo
rk,pp.44–47.

Laug
hto
n,J
.K.
20
08 “Edwa
rdI
ves(
d.1
786)
,”Di
ct
ion
aryo
fth
eNa
tio
nalBi
ogr
aph
y,h
ttp
://
www.
oxf
ord
dnb
.co
m.

Lee
s,G.
M.a
ndFa
lcon
,N.L.
19
52 “
Thege
ograp
hic
alh
ist
oryo
fth
eMe
sop
ota
mia
npl
ai
ns,
”Ge
ogr
aph
ica
lJo
urn
alMa
rch1
952,p
p.2
4–3
9.

Lehmbe
rg,S.
E.
19
9 9 “Gra
ndt
our
,”i
nEn
cyc
lop
edi
aoft
heRe
nai
ssa
nce
,vo
l.3(
ed.P
.F.
Gre
ndl
er)
,Ne
w Yo
rk,p
p.8
3–8
5.

Ll
oyd
,S.
19
80 Foun
datio
nsint
hedus
t,Londo
n.
19
86 Th
ei nt
erval
.Al
if
einneare
aster
nar
cha
eol
ogy
,Ox
for
d.

Loomis
,E.
A.
19
5 6 “Ma
ste
roft
heTi
gri
s,
”Sh
ake
spe
arQu
art
erl
y7,p
.45
7.

Maga
n,W.
M.T.
20
01 Mid
dlee
ast
erna
ppr
oac
hes
.Ex
per
ien
cesa
ndt
rav
elso
fani
nte
ll
ige
nceo
ffi
cer1
939–1
948,No
rwi
ch.

Mall
owa
n,M.
E.L.
19
66 Ni
mrudan
dit
sre
mai
ns(
3vo
lume
s),Lo
ndo
n.

Marc
oPo
lo
20
08 Th
etr
ave
lso
fMa
rcoPo
lo,Th
eVe
net
ian;t
ran
s.W.Ma
rsd
en,e
d.P
.Ha
rri
s;Ne
w Yo
rk,Lo
ndo
nan
dTo
ron
to.

Marg
oli
out
h,D.S.
19
21 ‘Ab
basi
dCa
lip
hat
e.Or
igi
nalc
hro
nic
leso
fth
efo
urt
hIs
lami
cce
ntu
ry,Ox
for
d.

Maur
ice
,T.
18
16 Obs
erv
ati
onsc
onn
ect
edwi
tha
str
ono
mya
nda
nci
enth
ist
ory
,sa
cre
dan
dpr
ofa
neo
nth
eru
inso
fBa
byl
on,
Lon
don
.

Mign
an,R
18
29 Tr
ave
lsi
nCh
ald
aeai
ncl
udi
ngaj
our
neyf
rom Bu
sso
raht
oBa
ghd
ad,Hi
ll
ah,a
ndBa
byl
on,Lo
ndo
n.

Mong
a,L.
19
99 “Tr
avela
ndt
rav
ell
it
era
tur
e,”i
nEn
cyc
lop
edi
aoft
her
ena
iss
anc
evo
l.6,S
hak
esp
ear–Zwi
ngl
i(e
d.P
.F.
Gre
ndl
er)
,
New Yor
k,1
62–16
8.

Al-
Muq
add
asī
20
01 Th
ebe
std
ivi
si
onsf
ork
nowl
edg
eoft
her
egi
ons(
tr
ans
lat
edb
yB.Co
lli
ns)
,Re
adi
ng.

Musi
l,A.
19
27 Th
emi
ddl
eEu
phr
ate
s.At
opo
gra
phi
cali
ti
ner
ary
,Ne
w Yo
rk.

Nie
buh
r,C.
17
76 Voy
agee
nAr
abi
eete
nd’
aut
resp
aysc
irc
onv
ois
ins(
2vo
lume
s),Ams
ter
dam

Odor
icu
s
19
04 “He
rebe
gin
net
hthejou
rnalofFri
erOdo
ric
uso n
eo ftheor
derofth
eMi no
rit
esc
onc
ern
ings
tr
ang
eth
ing
s
whi
chh
eesaweamon
gt heTa
rta
rsoft
heEast,
”Ha k
luy
tIV,pp.4
04–444.

Oogh
e,B.
20
07 “There
dis
cov
eryofBabyl
oni
a:Europe
antr
avel
le
rsandt
hedev
elo
pmentofk
n o
wledg
eo nlowe
rMe
sop
ota
mia
,
si
xte
ent
htoearl
ynine
tee
nthcent
ury
,”Jou
rnalofth
eRoyalAs
iat
icS
ocie
ty17,pp
.2 31–2
52.

Oppe
rt,J
.
18
63 Ex
pédi
tio
nscie
nti
fi
quee
nMésop
ota
miee x
ecut
epa
ror
dred
ugo
uve
rne
men
tde1
851a1
854p
arMM.Fu
lge
nce
Fr
esn
el,Fél
ixThomase
tJu
lesOpper
t,Par
is
.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　29

Pa
les
ti
nePil
gri
ms’TextSo
ciet
y
18
84–189
6Elevenvo
lumes,Lond
on.

Pa
nko
,V.
19
68 “Th
ePr i
vyCounc
ilandthespir
ito
fEli
zab
ethaneco
nomi
cma
nag
eme
nt,1
558–1
603,
”Tr
ans
act
ion
soft
he
Ameri
canPh
ilo
sophi
calS
o c
iet
y(NS)58.
4,pp.1–6
3.

Pa
ris
h,W.
18
60 “Di
aryo
faj o
urneywit
hSi
rEyreCoot
efr
om Bus
sor
atoAl
epp
oin1
780(
?),f
rom t
heo
rig
ina
lMS,
”Jo
urn
al
oft
heRoya
lGe o
graph
icSo
cie
ty30,p
p.198–2
11.

Pa
rks
,G.
B.
19
74 “
Tud
ort
rav
ell
it
era
tur
e:ab
rie
fhi
st
ory
,”Th
eHa
klu
ytHa
ndb
ook
,Vo
l.I(
ed.
D.B.
Qui
nn)
,Ha
klu
yt1
44,
pp.
97–1
52

Pa
rro
t,A.
19
54 Zi
ggu
rat
setT
ourd
eBa
bel
,Pa
ris
.

Pa
rry
,J.
H.
19
74 “Ha
klu
yt’
svi
ewo
fBr
it
is
hhi
st
ory
,”Th
eHa
klu
ytHa
ndb
ook
,Vo
l.I(
ed.D.
B.Qu
inn
),Ha
klu
yt1
44,p
p.3–7.

Pe
ter
s,J
.P.
18
97 Ni
ppu
ro re
xpl
ora
tio
nsandadv
ent
ure
so ntheEu p
hrate
s.Then
arr
ati
veoft
heUn
ive
rsi
tyo
fPe
nns
ylv
ani
a
Ex
pedi
ti
ont
oBabyl
oniai
nth
eyear
s1888–1
89 0,New Yorka
ndLond
on.

Pur
cha
s,S.
19
05–07 Hak
luy
tusp
ost
umu
sorPu
rch
ash
isPi
lgr
ime
s(2
0Vo
ls.
),Lo
ndo
n.

Ramus
io,G.
B.
15
50–1559Del
len
avi
gat
ion
ietv
iag
gi,Ve
nic
e.

Rand
olp
h,J
.
19
28 “Des
ertr
out
esb
etwe
enBa
ghd
ada
ndt
heMe
dit
err
ane
an,
”Bu
lle
ti
noft
heAme
ric
anOr
ien
talS
oci
et
y31,p
p.
17–2
0.

Rawli
nso
n,G.
18
6 2 Th
efi
veg
rea
tmo
nar
chi
eso
fth
ean
cie
nte
ast
ernwo
rld(
3vo
lume
s),Lo
ndo
n.

Rawli
nso
n,H.
C.a
ndNo r
ri
s,E.
18
6 1 Th
ecune
if
ormins
cri
pti
onso
fWe
ste
rnAs
ia,Lo
ndo
n.

Read
e,J
.
20
08 “
Disa
ppea
ran
cea
ndr
edi
sco
ver
y,”i
nBa
byl
onmy
tha
ndr
eal
it
y,e
d.I
.L.Fi
nke
lan
dM.
J.Se
ymo
ur,2
008,Lo
ndo
n,
p
p.1
3–30.

Ri
ch,C.
J.
18
16 Memoi
ro nth
eruin
so fBa
byl
on,Lond
on.
18
39 Na
rrat
iv
eo fajo
urneytot
hesi
teofBaby
loni
n18
11,n
owf
ir
stp
ubl
is
hed(
edi
te
dbyh
iswi
fe)
,Lo
ndo
n.

Roge
rs,R.
W.
19
01 Ahi
st
oryo
fBa
byl
oni
aan
dAs
syr
ia,Ne
w Yo
rk.
Roux
,G.
19
66 An
cie
ntI
raq,Ha
rmo
nds
wor
th.

Rows
e,A.
L.
20
03 Thee
xpa
nsi
ono
fEl
iz
abe
tha
nEn
gla
n 2nd e
d( dit
ion
),Ma
dis
on.

Runc
ima
n,S.
19
65 Ah i
st
oryo
fth
eCr
usa
des(
3vo
ls.
),Ha
rmo
nds
wor
th.

Ryan
,J.
D.
19
93 “Eu
ropea
ntr
avel
le
rsbef
oreCol
umb u
s:Thefour
tee
nthc
entur
y’sdi
sco
veryofIn
dia,
”TheCa
tho
licHist
ori
cal
Rev
iew79,p
p.648–6
70.
19
98 “Chr
is
ti
anwi
vesofMongolKh
ans:Tar
tarq
uee
nsandmis
sio
naryex
pect
ati
onsi
nAs i
a,
”Th
eJou
rnaloft
heRoyal
30
　Ti
m CLAYDEN

As
iat
icS
oci
et
yofGr
eatBr
it
ain,3rd s
eri
es8.
3,p
p.4
11–4
21.

Sal
man
,I.
19
69 “Fo
rewo
rd,
”Su
mer2
5,a
-w.

Sa
rre
,F.a
ndHe r
zfel
d,E.
19
20 Ar
chäol
ogis
cheRe
isei
m Eu
phr
at-
undTr
igr
is-
Geb
iet
,Vo
lumeI
I,Be
rli
n.

Sc
amme
ll
,G.V.
19
74 “
Ha kl
uytandt
heec
onomi
cth
oug
hto
fhi
sti
me,
”Th
eHa
klu
ytHa
ndb
ook
,Vo
lumeI(
ed.D.
B.Qu
inn
),Ha
klu
yt
1
4 4,pp.1
5–22.

Shui
ski
i,S.
A.
19
87 “Pi
lgr
image,I
sl
ami
c,”i
nDic
ti
ona
ryo
fth
emi
ddl
eag
es,v
ol.9My
ste
ryr
eli
gio
ns–Po
lan
d(e
d.J
.R.St
ray
er)
,
pp.650–6
52,New Yor
k.

St
ark,F
.
1941 “I
nI r
aqd
urin
gt hecr
isi
s.II
I.Leis
ureattheBaghd
adEmb
ass
y.Th
ech
armo
fda
nge
r,
”Th
eTi
mes
,Ju
ne3
0
1941.
195
1 Beyon
dEuphrat
es.Au
tobi
ograph
y19 28–193
3,London
.
19
91 Easti
swes
t,London(or
igi
nal
lypubli
shed1945)
.

St
eve
ns,E.
S.
19
23 ByTi
gri
san
dEu
phr
ate
s,Lo
ndo
n.

St
one
,L.
19
49 “
Eli
zab
etha
no ver
seast
rad
e ,
”Theeco
nomi
ch i
st
oryrev
iew( NS),2.
1,pp.30–58.
19
61 “
Thefr
uit
so fof
fic
e:th
eca s
eofRober
tCe
cil
,Fir
stEarlofSali
sbur
y,1
59 6–16
1 2,
”inEss
aysi
nth
eec
ono
mic
a
ndsoci
alhist
oryofTudorandSt
uar
tEngl
and,ed.F
.J.Fis
h e
r,Cambr
idge,pp.89–11
6.

St
ran
ge,G.Le
19
00 Bagh
dadd
uri
ngt
heAb
bas
idCa
lip
hat
e,Ox
for
d.

Ta
ver
nie
r,J
.B.
16
78 ThesixvoyagesofJohnBapti
st
eT a
ver
nie
r,an ob
lema nofFranc
en o
wl iv
ing,th
roughTur
keyintoPers
ia
andtheEa s
t-I
ndie
s,fi
nis
hedintheyea
r1 670,gi
vin
ga naccou
ntofthestat
eo ft
hosecoun
tri
esill
ust
rat
ed
wit
hd i
ver
ssculpt
ures
,to
geth
erwit
han e
wr el
ati
onofthepr
ese
ntGrandSei
gnor’
sserag
lio
,bythesa
mea ut
hor
(t
ran
sla
tedbyJ .Phi
li
ps)
,London.

a
l-Taba
ri,AbūJa
’farMuha
mma dbi
nJarī
r
1
99 5 Thehi
st
o r
yofal
-Ta
bar
ī,Vo
lumeXXVI
II
,‘Ab
bās
ida
uth
ori
tya
ffi
rme
d(t
ran
sla
tedb
yJ.
D.Mc
Aul
if
fe)
,Al
bany
.

Ta
wney
,R.
H.andPowe
r,E.
19
51 Tu
dorec
onomi
cdoc
ume
nts(
3vo
ls.
),Lo
ndo
n,Ne
w Yo
rka
ndTo
ron
to.

Ta
ylo
r,M.
A.
19
64 “Het
hatd
idt
heTi
gerb
oar
d”,S
hak
esp
earQu
art
erl
y15,p
p.1
10–1
13.

Te
ixi
era
,P.
19
02 Th
etr
ave
lso
fPe
droT
eix
ier
a(t
ran
sla
teda
nde
dit
edb
yW.
F.Si
ncl
ai
rea
ndD.Fe
rgu
son
),Lo
ndo
n.

Ti
kri
ti
,al
-,N.
20
09 “Wasthe
rea
nIr
aqb
efo
ret
her
ewa
sanI
raq
?,”I
nte
rna
tio
nalJ
our
nalo
fCo
nte
mpo
rar
yIr
aqiS
tud
ies
,3.
2,p
p.
133–1
42.

Tr
it
te
n,T.
J.
20
09 “
Res
urr
ect
ingt
her
uin
sofAq
arQu
f,”Mi
ddl
eEa
ste
dit
iono
fth
eSt
arsa
ndS
tri
pes
,25J
anu
ary2
009.

Unge
r,E.
19
38 “
Dûr
-Ku
rig
alz
u,”RLAI
I,p
p.2
46–2
47.

Val
le
,Pi
et
rod
e l
la
19
90 ThePilg
rim.Th
etr
ave
lso
fPi
et
rod
ell
aVa
lle
,tr
ans
lat
ed,a
bri
dge
dan
din
tro
duc
edb
yGe
org
eBu
ll,Lo
ndo
n.
 ‘AQARQŪFBEFOREI
TSEXCAVATI
ON I
N 1942
　31

Ver
li
nde
n,C.
19
88 “
Pol
o,Marc
o(1
25 4–132
4),
”inDi
ct
ion
aryo
fth
emi
ddl
eag
es,
vol
.10,
Pol
emi
cs–
Sca
nda
nav
ia(
ed.
J.R.
Str
aye
r),
p
p.27–2
8,New York
.

Wain
es,D.
19
77 “Th
et h
irdc e
ntur
yi nt
erna
lcr
is
iso
fth
eAb
bas
ids
,”J
our
nalo
fth
eEc
ono
mica
ndS
oci
ala
ndHi
st
oryo
fth
e
Ori
ent20.3,pp.282–306.

Walk
er,C.
B.F
.
19
81 Cune
if
ormb
ric
kin
scr
ipt
ion
set
c.
,Lo
ndo
n.

Ward
,W.
H.
18
97 “
Aport
ionofth
ediar
yofWill
ia
m Hay
esWard,d
ire
cto
rofth
eWo l
feExp
edi
tio
ntoBaby
lon
ia(18
84–8
5)”
,
i
nPe
ter
s,J.
P,Ni
ppu
ro re
xpl
orat
ion
sanda
dve
ntur
esontheEuph
rat
es(
2vols
),I,p
p.3
18–375.

Wiet
,G.
19
71 Ba
ghd
ad.Me
tro
pol
iso
fth
eAb
bas
idCa
lip
hat
e,No
rma
n.

Word
ie,J
.R.
19
97 “De
fla
ti
ona
ryf
act
orsi
nth
eTu
dorp
ric
eri
se,
”Pa
sta
ndp
res
ent1
54,p
p.3
2–7
0.

Webe
r,S.
H.
19
53 V
oya
gesa
ndt
rav
elsi
nGr
eec
e,t
hen
eare
asta
nda
dja
cen
tre
gio
nsma
dep
rev
iou
stot
hey
ear1
801,Pr
inc
eto
n.
Wil
la
n,T.
S.
19
55 “
Someas
pect
sofEn
gli
sht
rad
ewi
tht
heLe
van
tint
hes
ixt
een
thc
ent
ury
,”Th
eEn
gli
shHi
st
ori
calRe
vie
w70,
p
p.39
9–410.

Wil
lc
ock
s,W.
19
10 “Mes
opo
tami
a:p
ast
,pr
ese
nta
ndf
utu
re,
”Th
eGe
ogr
aph
ica
lJo
urn
al3
5,p
p.1–1
5.

Wil
li
ams
on,J
.A.
19
45 As h
orth
ist
oryo
fBr
it
is
hex
pan
sio
n,t
heo
ldc
olo
nia
lemp
ire
,Lo
ndo
n.

Wood
,A.
C.
19
64 Ah
ist
oryo
fth
eLe
van
tCo
mpa
n 2nd e
y( dit
ion
),Ox
for
d.

Wrig
ht,T.
18
48 Ea
rlyt
rav
elsi
nPa
les
ti
ne,Lo
ndo
n.

Zado
k,R.
19
85 Ge
ogr
aphic
alnamesac
cordi
ngto Ne
w-a
nd La
te-
Bab
ylo
nia
nte
xts(
Rép
ert
oir
eGé
ogr
aph
iqu
ede
sTe
xte
s
Cu
néi
for
mes,Vo
l.8)
,Wi
esb
aden.

Zehn
pfu
nd,R.
19
10 “Ba
byl
oni
eni
nse
ine
nwi
cht
is
che
nRu
ine
nst
ät
te
n,”De
rAl
teOr
ien
t11,p
p.1–7
2.