Essentials of Marketing 7th Edition Lamb Test Bank

Essentials of Marketing 7th Edition Lamb Test Bank
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Chapter 3—Ethics & Social Responsibility
TRUE/FALSE
1. The media is identified by the text as one of the six modes of social control in an open and democratic
society.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 74 OBJ: 03-1 TYPE: Comp

TOP: AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Strategy
2. The six modes of social control are less important today due to the globalization of the world.
ANS: F
These six factors are more important today due to the increasing complexity of the global economy.
PTS: 1 REF: 74 OBJ: 03-1 TYPE: Comp

3. The deontological theory of ethics is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action.
ANS: F
This is the basis of utilitarian ethical thinking.
PTS: 1 REF: 75 OBJ: 03-2 TYPE: Def

4. Whenever faced with a difficult customer, the owner of the shoe store remembered what the original
store founder, his grandfather, had done in similar situations and did the same. In other words, the
grandson based his decision on the deontological ethical theory.
ANS: F
This is describing the casuist ethical theory, which is a theory that compares a current ethical dilemma
with examples of similar ethical dilemmas and their outcomes.
PTS: 1 REF: 75-76 OBJ: 03-2 TYPE: App

5. Moral relativists believe in absolute rules.
ANS: F
Moral relativists believe that ethical truths depend on the individuals or groups holding them.
PTS: 1 REF: 76-77 OBJ: 03-2 TYPE: Def

6. Morals are rules people develop as a result of cultural values and norms.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 78 OBJ: 03-3 TYPE: Def

7. Unfortunately, most businesspeople have not progressed beyond the self-centered and manipulative
actions of preconventional morality.
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ANS: F
Preconventional morality is childlike--calculating, self-centered, and even selfish, based on what will
be immediately punished or rewarded. Fortunately, most businesspeople have progressed beyond this
behavior.

8. Top managers who behave ethically can influence others in an organization to behave ethically.

9. A code of ethics can be an effective internal control on behavior, which is more desirable than external
controls like government regulations.

10. When writing codes of ethics, businesses must ensure their codes deal with every possible situation.
ANS: F
Codes that are too detailed encourage employees to substitute rules for judgment.

11. For most employees a simple list of "dos and don’t's" are enough to maintain ethical behavior, and
ethical training would be redundant.
ANS: F
Ethical training provides a contextual approach to how to behave ethically. A list does not help
employees navigate the gray areas.

12. Studies suggest that ethical beliefs vary only a little from culture to culture.

13. Sustainability refers to a business’s concern for society’s welfare.
ANS: F
Sustainability refers to the idea that socially responsible companies will outperform their peers by
focusing on the world's social problems and viewing them as opportunities to build profits and help the
world at the same time.

14. Suppliers are considered stakeholders of a firm.

15. The foundation for the pyramid of corporate social responsibility is philanthropic responsibility.
ANS: F
The pyramid of corporate social responsibility portrays economic performance as the foundation for
the other three responsibilities (legal, ethical, and philanthropic).

16. The most basic argument for social responsibility is that it is simply the right thing to do.

17. Because social responsibility has proven to have a limited return on investment, the number of
businesses opting to act socially responsible is declining.
ANS: F
Social responsibility of business is growing around the world. One study found that a one percent
increase in the firm’s social responsibility ratings led to a $17 million increase in profits.

18. While there are plenty of benefits for a socially responsible company, there is no clear-cut
determination that ignoring social responsibility will have an adverse impact.
ANS: F
See AOL example in text.

19. When Laurie uses her Target Visa card at the store, Target donates 1% of her purchase to her
children’s school. This is an example of cause-related marketing.
ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: 94-95 OBJ: 03-6 TYPE: App

20. Everyone agrees that cause-related marketing is beneficial.
ANS: F
The text contains a section on the cause marketing controversy.
PTS: 1 REF: 95-96 OBJ: 03-6 TYPE: Comp

21. One key to success of a cause-related marketing campaign is transparency. That is, the company
should clearly state how the money is raised and how much will be going to the charity or other cause.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The Hippocratic Oath that all physicians take states that the physician will never deliberately harm
anyone for anyone else's interest and to avoid attempting to do things that other specialists can do
better. This oath is an example of how _____ influences social control.
a. an active civil society
b. laws
c. formal and informal organizations
d. the media
e. self-regulation
ANS: C
The Hippocratic oath is a code of ethics.
PTS: 1 REF: 73 OBJ: 03-1 TYPE: App

2. Rainforest Action Network (RAN) campaigns for the forests, their inhabitants and the natural systems
that sustain life. RAN relies on grassroots organizing, media stunts, and the occasional use of non-
violent civil disobedience to pressure corporations into publicly adopting environmental policies that
address issues ranging from deforestation to global warming. RAN uses an active civil society to
direct:
a. cultural backstop
b. social control
c. ethical mediation
d. social mentoring
e. ethical awareness
ANS: B
Social control is defined as the glue that holds society together. It's the factors that keep organizations
from doing harm.

TOP: AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Strategy | TB&E Model Promotion
3. All of the following are one of the six modes of social control EXCEPT:
b. laws
c. the corporation
d. the media
e. self-regulation
ANS: C
The six modes of social control are: ethics, laws, formal and informal groups, self-regulation, the
media, and an active civil society.

4. Due to information provided by the news media, authorities in Arizona were able to close down C.P.
Direct, a Scottsdale company that sold more than $74 million worth of pills that it claimed would
enhance one’s mental abilities. This is one example of how the media serves as a mode of:
a. cultural backstop
b. social control
c. ethical mediation
d. social mentoring
e. ethical awareness
ANS: B
Social control is the glue that holds society together. It's the factors that keep organizations from doing
harm.

5. Defenders of Wildlife is a United States non-profit organization founded in 1947 out of concern for
perceived cruelties of the use of steel-jawed leghold traps for trapping fur-bearing animals. They were
advocates for the Endangered Species Act in the United States through lobbying and by using the legal
system for the protection of endangered or threatened species. This organization is an example of how
_____ influence(s) social control.
b. laws
c. formal and informal organizations
d. the media
e. self-regulation
ANS: A
An informed and engaged society can help shape and mold individual and corporate behavior.

6. How does self-regulation influence social control?

a. It is the voluntary acceptance of standards established by nongovernmental entities.
b. It allows everyone who wants to know to be informed about your behavior.
c. It is the acceptance of laws as a necessary evil.
d. It uses informed consumers to maintain ethical adherence.
e. It does not influence social control.
ANS: A
Self-regulation involves the voluntary acceptance of standards established by nongovernmental
entities.

7. Which of the following statements describes ethics?

a. Ethics are the moral principles or values that generally govern the conduct of an
individual.
b. Ethics is the standard of behavior by which conduct is judged.
c. Morals are a foundation for ethical behavior.
d. Ethical values are situation specific and time oriented.
e. All of the statements describe ethics.
ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: 75 OBJ: 03-2 TYPE: Comp
8. _____ refers to the moral principles or values that generally govern the conduct of an individual or a
group.
a. Righteousness
b. Social consensus
c. Sustainability
d. Virtue
e. Ethics
ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: 75 OBJ: 03-2 TYPE: Def
9. All of the following are ethical theories relevant to marketing EXCEPT:

a. deontology
b. attribution theory
c. utilitarianism
d. casuist ethical theory
e. moral relativism
ANS: B
Attribution theory is not an ethical theory.

10. The _____ states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing ethical
dilemmas.
a. virtue theory
b. deontological theory of ethics
c. utilitarian theory
d. theory of moral relativism
e. casuist ethical theory
ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: 75 OBJ: 03-2 TYPE: Def
11. After the Civil War, the U.S. military was ordered to the American West to remove the Indians from
large tracts of land and confine them to reservations. While this practice may seem ethically wrong to
us today, U.S. soldiers fought hard to prevent the Indians from disobeying the law as written by the
federal government. Even though some were sympathetic to the Indian's plight, most of them adhered
to a _____ view of ethical behavior and strove to perform their duty as directed by the law.
a. reactive
b. deontological
c. fundamental
d. moral relativist
e. casuist
ANS: B
The deontological theory of ethics states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when
analyzing ethical dilemmas.

12. Which ethical theory is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action?
a. theory of virtue
b. deontological theory
d. moral relativism
e. casuist theory
ANS: C
The utilitarian ethical theory holds that the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is
the choice that is ethically correct and is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an
action.

13. According to _____, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the choice that is
ethically correct.
a. utilitarianism
b. deontology
c. fundamentalism
d. moral relativism
e. causal thinking
ANS: A
This is the definition of utilitarian ethical theory.

14. The two types of utilitarianism are _____ and _____ .

a. primary; secondary
b. causal; superfluous
c. consideration; evoked
d. proactive; reactive
e. act; rule
ANS: E
Act utilitarianism means a person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal
feelings or the societal constraints such as laws. Rule utilitarianism takes into account the law and is
concerned with fairness.

15. According to _____ utilitarianism, self-defense is legally justified while murder is not.
a. rule
b. fundamental
c. causal
d. proactive
e. deontological
ANS: A
Rule utilitarianism takes into account the law and is concerned with fairness.
16. "Politicians cannot avoid causing the death of innocent people if they try to keep public expenditure in
check or help maintain a semblance of international order." Which ethical theory is most likely to
accept the preceding statement as true?
a. utilitarianism
b. deontology
c. fundamentalism
d. moral relativism
e. causal thinking
ANS: A
According to utilitarianism, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the choice
that is ethically correct.

17. After the Civil War, the U.S. military was ordered to the American West to remove the Indians from
large tracts of land and confine them to small reservations on land that was deemed worthless. Indian
children were removed from their parents and sent to schools that tried to turn the Indian children into
models of good U.S. citizens. While this practice may seem ethically wrong to us today, politicians
knew that the demand of the U.S. population for more land could only be achieved if the smaller
Indian population was made to accede to the wishes of the majority. This is an example of the
application of:
a. utilitarianism
b. deontology
c. fundamentalism
d. moral relativism
e. causal thinking
ANS: A
According to utilitarianism, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the choice
that is ethically correct.

18. Which ethical theory compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical dilemmas
and their outcomes, thus allowing one to determine the severity of the situation and to create the best
possible solution according to others' experiences?
a. virtue theory
ANS: E
The casuist ethical theory compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical
dilemmas and their outcomes.

19. One drawback of the _____ is that there may not be a set of similar examples for a given ethical
dilemma.
a. virtue theory
ANS: E

20. People who believe that ethical truths depend on the individuals or groups holding them are referred to
as:
a. moral relativists
b. casuists
c. virtuists
d. ethicalists
e. normative utilitarians
ANS: A
Moral relativists believe in time-and-place ethics, that is, ethical truths depend on the individuals and
groups holding them.

21. People who believe in the _____ judge according to time-and-place ethics.
a. virtue theory
ANS: D

22. People who believe in the _____ do not believe in absolute rules. Their beliefs center on the pressure
of the moment and whether the pressure justifies the action taken.
a. virtue theory
ANS: D

23. The _____ is a moral philosophy that emphasizes character rather than rules or consequences.
a. virtue theory
ANS: A
Virtue is a character trait valued as being good.

24. Proponents of the _____ hold that solving ethical dilemmas requires training and that individuals solve
ethical dilemmas when they develop and nurture a set of character traits valued as being good.
a. virtue theory
ANS: A
Virtue is a character trait valued as being good.

25. _____ are the rules that people develop as a result of cultural values and norms.
a. Virtues
b. Ethics
c. Socialization
d. Conscience
e. Morals
ANS: E
Morals are the rules that people develop as a result of cultural values and norms.

26. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to:

a. rely solely on one's personal character to determine what action to take
b. stress the importance of rules
c. ignore problems associated with the magnitude of consequences
d. avoid examining the consequences of particular acts
e. never trust your own behavioral instincts
ANS: B
One approach to developing a personal set of ethics stresses the importance of rules. Another is to
examine the consequences of a particular act.

27. Ethical development can be thought as having three levels. The most basic, childlike level is the _____
stage.
a. preconventional morality
b. transformationalism
c. conventional morality
d. postconventional morality
e. actualized morality
ANS: A
The three levels morality are preconventional, which is the most basic, conventional, and
postconventional.

28. Hallie is a calculating, self-centered salesperson. She never engages in relationship marketing. She
looks on any sales situation as a "win-lose" situation, and she believes any legal method she can use is
justified when she wins. Hallie is most likely at the _____ stage of ethical development.
d. egocentrism
e. basic morality
ANS: A
Preconventional morality is the most basic level of morality.

TOP: AACSB Analytic | TB&E Model Research
29. Which level of ethical development moves from an egocentric viewpoint toward the expectations of
society?
a. postconventional morality
b. conventional morality
c. preconventional morality
d. secondary morality
e. primary morality
ANS: B
Conventional morality is the second level of morality and moves from an egocentric viewpoint of the
preconventional level toward the expectations of society.

30. Ruthanne Ross is a sales manager for Pampered Chef, a company that sells kitchen tools and other aids
for cooking through party plans. She is very concerned about making sure her salespeople understand
the importance of treating each customer fairly and developing long-term relationships with them. She
asks that before a sale is made, the salesperson should make sure customers can afford the items and
are not buying due to social pressures. Ross is most likely at the _____ stage of ethical development.
ANS: D
Postconventional morality is that of the mature adult. At this level, the individual is more concerned
about others than about himself or herself.

31. In the _____ stage of ethical development, loyalty and obedience to the organization or to society
become paramount.
ANS: C
The conventional stage moves from an egocentric viewpoint toward the expectations of society.

32. The _____ stage of ethical development represents the morality of the mature adult.
ANS: D
At this level, people are less concerned about how others might see them and more concerned about
how they see and judge themselves over the long run.

33. Which of the following is an unethical practice marketing managers may have to deal with?
a. entertainment and gift giving
b. false or misleading advertising
c. price deception
d. unsafe products or services
e. all of these choices
ANS: E
Exhibit 3.2 lists several unethical practices marketing managers may have to deal with.

34. Which of the following factors will influence ethical decision making and judgments?
a. likelihood of stakeholder responsibility
b. proactive nature of organizational sustainability
c. potential magnitude of the consequences
d. probability of ethical consensus
e. consequence of adjacencies
ANS: C
The potential magnitude of the consequences is one of several factors that tend to influence ethical
decision making and judgment.

35. All of the following are factors influencing ethical decision making and judgments EXCEPT:
a. rate of prosecution
b. top management actions on ethics
c. probability of a harmful outcome
d. number of people to be affected
e. social consensus
ANS: A
Other factors include extent of ethical problems within the organization, potential magnitude of the
consequences, and the length of time between the decision and the onset of consequences.

36. Like many other professional organizations and businesses, the American Marketing Association has
developed a formal, written guideline to help its members make better ethical decisions. This
document is a:
a. behavioral practice
b. moral ruling
c. code of ethics
d. direction of value
e. principled regulation
ANS: C
While codes of ethics are most often defined as guidelines for businesses, they are also important
moral guides for professional organizations.

TOP: AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Product
37. All of the following statements about the creation of a code of ethics are true EXCEPT:
a. A written code helps employees avoid confusion when determining whether their
decisions are ethical.
b. A code can be an effective internal control on behavior.
c. The process of formulating the code facilitates discussions that ultimately create better
decisions.
d. A code helps employees identify what their firm recognizes to be acceptable business
practices.
e. A code guarantees ethical behavior among a firm’s employees.
ANS: E
Creating ethics guidelines has several advantages, but it does not guarantee ethical behavior.

38. With regard to ethical decision making, an individual should ask themselves all of the following
EXCEPT:
a. Would individuals or groups, particularly customers, be upset if they know about my
decision?
b. Is my decision fair to all concerned?
c. Would I prefer to avoid the consequences of my decision?
d. How likely is it that I will be caught?
e. Will I have to pull rank or use coercion to implement my decision?
ANS: D
See Exhibit 3.4 for an ethics checklist of questions to ask when contemplating an ethical decision.

39. Why do corporations engage in ethics training?

a. because it reduces the potential harm of questionable acts
b. because it is a reactive way to protect organizations from legal action
c. because it helps employees put good ethics into practice
d. because the federal government requires it of all businesses with more than 100 employees
e. because it guarantees ethical behavior among employees
ANS: C
Ethics training is a good way to help employees put good ethics into practice.

40. Concern about U.S. corporations' use of illegal payments and bribes in international business dealings
led to the passage of the:
a. Global Pact on Business
b. International Trade Commission Act
c. United Nations Anti-Corruption Act
d. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
e. International Code of Business Practices
ANS: D
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act is a law that prohibits U.S. corporations from making illegal
payments to public officials of foreign governments to obtain business rights or to enhance their
business dealings in those countries.

41. The _____ prohibits U.S. corporations from making illegal payments to public officials of foreign
governments to obtain business rights or to enhance their business dealings in those countries.
a. Fortune 500 Pact on Business
b. International Trade Commission Act
c. United Nations Anti-Corruption Act
d. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
e. Sherman Anti-Bribery Act
ANS: D
This is the purpose of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.
42. Critics of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act contend that the act has:
a. hindered the growth of developing nations
b. created a competitive disadvantage for U.S. businesses
c. promoted a negative image of American businesspeople
d. given U.S. businesses an unfair advantage over companies in the host country
e. encouraged deceptive advertising
ANS: B
Many contend that bribery is an unpleasant but necessary part of international business and the Act
puts U.S. businesses at a disadvantage compared to firms from other countries that go along with the
practice.

43. _____ is the concern of business for the long-range welfare of both the company and its relationships
to the society within which it operates.
a. Consumerism
b. Corporate social responsibility
c. Cultural sensitivity
d. Conventional morality
e. Environmental consideration
ANS: B
Corporate social responsibility is a business’s concern for society’s welfare.

44. Corporate social responsibility is defined as the:

a. belief that the legal system defines ethical behavior
b. development of inclusive codes of ethics
c. rules by which social rewards are attained
d. concern for social welfare by businesses
e. coordination of social programs for publicity purposes
ANS: D
Corporate social responsibility is a business’s concern for society’s welfare.

45. For every home built by Habitat for Humanity, Whirlpool Corporation has given and continues to give
free kitchen appliances to the deserving family. This donation of appliances is an example of how
companies assume their:
a. corporate social responsibility
b. ethical conveyance
c. duty to engage in cause marketing
d. right to engage in social marketing
e. multiculturalism
ANS: A
Corporate social responsibility is a business's concern for society's welfare, in this case deserving
families selected by the Habitat organization.

46. NSTAR Gas & Electric Company in Boston provides continuing financial support for an injury
prevention program run by the Children's Hospital Boston. This funding is an example of:
a. corporate social responsibility
b. ethical conveyance
c. a duty to engage in cause marketing
d. a right to engage in social marketing
e. multiculturalism
ANS: A
Corporate social responsibility is a business's concern for society's welfare, in this case an injury
prevention program.

47. Novartis created the Novartis Research Institute for Tropical Diseases in Singapore. The institute is
unique because it is a not-for-profit organization that focuses on the discovery of new drugs for the
treatment of neglected diseases, such as dengue fever and tuberculosis. Not only is this good business,
it is also:
a. mandated by Supreme Court rulings
b. socially responsible
c. not ethically motivated
d. demonstrating a lack of concern for diversity
e. using environmental marketing
ANS: B
Social responsibility is the duty that a business feels for the welfare of society. By helping developing
nations, Novartis is helping to meet the needs of society.

48. Many airlines offer passengers the option to purchase carbon offsets as an environmentally-friendly
compensation for their carbon footprint. For example, Delta customers can pay $10 to a fund that
plants trees as a way to offset the carbon emissions from the airplane. Some would say Delta is:
a. acting in accordance with recent rulings by the U.S. Supreme Court
b. socially responsible
c. not ethically motivated
d. demonstrating a lack of concern for diversity
e. using issue-oriented marketing
ANS: B
Social responsibility is the duty that business feels for the welfare of society.

49. _____ is the idea that socially responsible companies will outperform their peers by focusing on the
world's social problems and viewing them as opportunities to build profit and help the world at the
same time.
a. Sustainability
b. Philanthropy
c. Cause marketing
d. Creative ethics
e. International ethics
ANS: A
Sustainability looks at the long term and is based on the notion that companies cannot thrive for long
in a world where billions of people are suffering and are desperately poor.

50. Which of the following statements about the theory of sustainability is true?
a. Sustainability is an internal process in which companies match resources and objectives.
b. Sustainability is the idea that socially responsible companies will outperform their peers
when they focus on the world's problems as marketing opportunities.
c. According to the theory of sustainability, a company cannot be socially responsible
without a code of ethics and managerial support of that code.
d. According to the theory of sustainability, ethical behavior should never be viewed as the
means of obtaining a competitive advantage.
e. Sustainability is only successful if it focuses on organizational strengths.
ANS: B
Sustainability is the idea that socially responsible companies will outperform their peers by focusing
on the world's social problems and viewing them as opportunities to build profit and help the world at
the same time.

51. Which theory holds that social responsibility is paying attention to the interest of every affected
stakeholder in every aspect of a firm's operation?
a. stockholder theory
b. theory of reasoned action
c. attribution theory
d. theory of ethical enhancement
e. stakeholder theory
ANS: E
This is the definition of stakeholder theory.

52. Which of the following could be a stakeholder of a corporation?

a. employee
b. customer
c. local citizen
d. supplier
e. all of the above
ANS: E
The stakeholders of a typical corporation include employees, management, customers, the local
community, suppliers, and owners.

53. The pyramid of corporate social responsibilities contains all of the following components EXCEPT:
a. economic responsibilities
b. ethical responsibilities
c. cultural responsibilities
d. legal responsibilities
e. philanthropic responsibilities
ANS: C
See Review Learning Outcome 4.

54. The four components of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility are:
a. sustainability, creativity, profit, and culture
b. organizational culture, creativity imagery, economic performance, and objectivity
c. organizational, financial, social, and cultural responsibilities
d. sustainability, legality, creativity, and competition
e. economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities
ANS: E
The four components of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility are economic, legal, ethical, and
philanthropic responsibilities.

55. At the most basic level, a firm must be profitable. What level of the pyramid of corporate social
responsibility is this?
a. social
b. economic
c. ethical
d. legal
e. accountability
ANS: B
The pyramid of corporate social responsibility portrays economic performance as the foundation for
the other three responsibilities (legal, ethical, and philanthropic).

56. One of the favorite foods in Thailand is shark fin soup. A San Francisco-based organization claimed
the soup made by its leading producer contained mercury poison, yet the leading producer of shark fin
soup wanted to continue selling the soup because it believes it has a responsibility to its investors to be
profitable. In terms of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility, this indicates that the soup
manufacturer was operating at a(n) _____ responsibility level.
a. legal
b. philanthropic
c. ethical
d. economic
e. cultural
ANS: D
The company believed its mission was to be profitable.

TOP: AACSB Reflective Thinking | TB&E Model Product
57. At which level of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility must a business “play by the rules”?
a. economic
b. philanthropic
c. legal
d. ethical
e. conformist
ANS: C
Firms operating at the legal level obey the law and play by the rules of the game.

58. Japanese law prohibits the storage of more than 50 pounds of explosive at any single site in the nation.
Every night Universal Studios Japan hosts a fireworks display. The theme park recently came under
government investigation when allegations were made that the park was detonating more than 50
pounds of explosives in its nightly fireworks displays. If the allegations are true, in terms of the
pyramid of corporate social responsibility, then Universal Studios Japan is not operating at a(n) _____
responsibility level.
a. legal
b. philanthropic
c. ethical
d. economic
e. cultural
ANS: A
Universal Studios Japan is not obeying the letter of the law.

TOP: AACSB Reflective Thinking | TB&E Model Product
59. In the future, electrical power may come from quantum nucleonics, a form of nuclear power that
produces no residual radiation. The ability to use this form of power will require equipment
adaptations, but it will solve the world's need for clean and efficient power. Companies that replace
inefficient sources of power with quantum nucleonics only after they are required to by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are operating at a(n) _____ responsibility level.
a. legal
b. philanthropic
c. ethical
d. economic
e. cultural
ANS: A
At the legal responsibilities level, the business obeys the law.
TOP: AACSB Reflective Thinking | TB&E Model Strategy
60. At what level of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility will firms do what is right, just, and fair
and avoid harm?
a. economic
b. philanthropic
c. legal
d. ethical
e. moral
ANS: D
At the ethical responsibilities level, firms will be ethical and do what is right, just, and fair and will
avoid harm.

61. Girls between the ages of 8 and 15 are one of the growing markets for high-end shoe manufacturers,
and podiatrists say the trend is leading to many stylish young girls with grown-up foot problems. Shoe
manufacturers who develop and market adult-styled shoes to this group are not operating at a(n) _____
responsibility level of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility.
a. legal
b. philanthropic
c. ethical
d. economic
e. cultural
ANS: C
The companies are not doing what is right, just and fair and so are not operating ethically.

TOP: AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Product
62. At what level of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility will a company be a good corporate
citizen and contribute resources to the community and strive to improve the quality of life?
a. economic
b. philanthropic
c. social
d. legal
e. ethical
ANS: B
Philanthropic responsibilities involve being a good corporate citizen by contributing resources to the
community and improving the quality of life.

63. Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) Company has donated almost $300,000 to 58 local governments and
community-based organizations for local economic development projects. Recipients of these grants
include the San Benito County Economic Development Corporation's Business Outreach Program, the
San Jose Conservation Corps' Hennessy Place Affordable Single-Family Housing Project, and
Mariposa County's Business Development Training Program. This sort of donation indicates PG&E
was operating at a(n) _____ responsibility level of the pyramid of corporate social responsibility.
a. legal
b. philanthropic
c. ethical
d. economic
e. cultural
ANS: B
By supporting local economic development projects, PG&E was being a good corporate citizen.

64. The fact that many people believe that businesses should focus on making a profit and leave social and
environmental issues to nonprofit organizations is:
a. one of the arguments in support of social responsibility
b. one of the reasons why so many organizations have a sustainability plan
c. creating a competitive disadvantage for larger corporations
d. forcing organizations to choose between stakeholders and the environments in which the
stakeholders live
e. one of the arguments against social responsibility
ANS: E
This is just one argument against social responsibility.

65. Which of the following is an argument used against corporate social responsibility (CSR)?
a. Businesses don't have the expertise to make social decisions.
b. Social and environmental problems should be handled by nonprofit organizations
c. The free market, not companies, should decide what is best for the world.
d. Cleaning up the environment, ensuring product safety, and donating money and time for
social causes raise costs.
e. All of the above are arguments used against CSR.
ANS: E
These are the main arguments against corporate social responsibility.

66. Which of the following is an argument used to support corporate social responsibility (CSR)?
a. The free market, not companies, should decide what is best for the world.
b. CSR can be a profitable undertaking.
c. Businesses are not responsible for social or environmental problems.
d. Businesses don't have the expertise to make social decisions.
e. All of the above are arguments used in support of CSR.
ANS: B
Smart companies can prosper and build shareholder value by tackling global problems.

67. Nordic Travel Retail Group (NTRG) Chairman Erik Thomsen, speaking at the Nordic Travel Retail
Seminar said, “Travel retail is all about great brands in a great environment. Our sector is no longer an
isolated channel that consumers, as well as politicians, only become aware of when accompanying
their families on annual summer holidays or enjoying city breaks or weekend cruises. The reality is
that quite simply, if we choose to keep our distance and focus narrowly on products and customers,
others will set the agenda and leave us at the mercy of the political process." He continued by saying,
"We should not only take climate change seriously, but also ensure that our consumers know we do."
Thomsen is calling for his industry to engage in:
a. enhanced philanthropy
b. progressive sustainability
c. proactive social responsibility
d. protecting adjacencies
e. increased social consensus
ANS: C
Proactive social responsibility is being socially responsible before it is necessary to be socially
responsible. See H. J. Heinz and Chiquita examples in text.

68. The movement to develop and market products designed to minimize negative effects on the physical
environment or to improve the environment is known as:
a. enviromarketing
b. green marketing
c. cause marketing
d. social marketing
e. minimalist marketing
ANS: B
Green marketing is an outgrowth of the social responsibility movement and focuses on the
environment.

69. _____ is the cooperative effort of a for-profit firm and a nonprofit organization.
a. Environmental sustainability
b. Social sustainability
c. Cause-related marketing
d. Advocacy marketing
e. Nonprofit marketing
ANS: C
This is the definition of cause-related marketing.

70. Oliver’s Artisan Breads announced that it will donate 10 percent of net profits from its store line of
breads to the Bread for the World Institute, a “nationwide nonprofit organization that seeks justice for
the world’s hungry people by lobbying our nation’s decision-makers.” This is an example of:
a. environmental sustainability
b. social sustainability
c. cause-related marketing
d. advocacy marketing
e. nonprofit marketing
ANS: C
Cause-related marketing is the cooperative effort of a for-profit firm and a nonprofit organization.

71. Since 2002, General Mills through sales of its Cheerios brand cereal has donated over $2.0 million to
First Book, a national nonprofit organization dedicated to giving new books to children from low-
income families, through the Spoonfuls of Stories program. General Mills is engaged in:
e. philanthropy
ANS: C
Cause-related marketing is the cooperative effort of a for-profit firm and a nonprofit organization.

72. Every year, Hudson & Lane, a law office, donates $5,000 to a local school or charity. Is this an
example of cause-related marketing?
a. Yes, because it occurs annually.
b. Yes, because it is a specific donation.
c. No, because it exemplifies a for-profit organization donating to a non-profit organization.
d. No, because it creates publicity for the law office.
e. No, because it is an example of philanthropy.
ANS: E
Philanthropy generally involves a specific donation that is tax deductible while cause marketing is a
marketing relationship not based on a straight donation.

TOP: AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Strategy | TB&E Model Customer
73. General Mills is consistently ranked among the top five contributors of food in the United States. The
company also steps forward to help support victims of natural disasters with food donations to
organizations such as the American Red Cross. These donations of food are an example of:
e. philanthropy
ANS: E
Philanthropy is corporate giving. Cause-related marketing differs from corporate giving in that it is a
relationship, not based on a straight donation.

74. Monique Penn makes stunningly expensive one-of-a-kind bracelets at luxury stores such as Bergdorf-
Goodman. Portions of the proceeds from the sales of its jewelry go to support the Alaska Native Arts
Foundation, which trains and educates indigenous people and to Charity Water, a nonprofit
organization with a mission to bring clean water to impoverished people. Imagine someone is
motivated to buy a piece of her jewelry in order to benefit one of the above nonprofits. This customer
wants to ask Penn the "Five Questions to Ask before Participating in a Cause-Related Marketing
Program. " Which question would Monique Penn have the most trouble answering candidly?
a. Is the company committed?
b. How is the program structured?
c. How will the organization that benefits use my money?
d. Does she find the program meaningful?
e. Who does this program benefit?
ANS: B
The company should clearly state exactly how much it will be giving to the charities. There are no
details as to the size of the donation.

NARRBEGIN: Florida Hospitals

Florida Hospitals
A group of hospital administrators in Florida were discussing the amount of resources used to care for
patients that were illegal immigrants and had no medical insurance. One man discussed how his
hospital had spent over $2 million on one illegal immigrant who had no family or friends and who was
not getting better. Another administrator stated that his hospital was losing $20 million annually in
order to provide care for the influx of illegal immigrants into the state. After a great deal of discussion,
it was determined that there was probably nothing anyone of them could do about the situation, and
that each of them had very definite ideas about how to deal with the problems.
NARREND
75. Refer to Florida Hospitals. When one administrator said, "We got into medicine to help people and
these illegals without insurance need our help as much as anyone else does," he was expressing his
opinion in accordance with the _____ ethical theory.
a. act utilitarianism
b. casuist
c. role utilitarianism
d. moral relativity
e. deontological
ANS: E
The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when
analyzing an ethical dilemma.
PTS: 1 REF: 75 OBJ: 03-2

TOP: AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Customer
76. Refer to Florida Hospitals. One administrator said, "If we were not forced to care for the illegal
immigrants who have no resources and could empty our hospital beds of them, we could provide much
better care for those law-abiding patients who have insurance." Because she believes in benefiting as
many people as possible, she more than likely adheres to the _____ ethical theory.
a. utilitarianism
b. casuist
c. virtue ethics
d. moral relativity
e. deontological
ANS: A
The utilitarian ethical theory is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action and
holds that the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the choice that is ethically
correct.
PTS: 1 REF: 76 OBJ: 03-2

77. Refer to Florida Hospitals. One older administrator talked about an early job in Africa where the
hospital had been flooded with refugees. He said, "The hospital was short resources for awhile, but the
government stepped up and helped. We were able to get up-to-date equipment because officials saw
we had a need. I believe the rest of you administrators need to be more patient." In suggesting
patience, this administrator was basing his thinking on the _____ ethical theory.
b. casuist
d. moral relativity
e. deontological
ANS: B
PTS: 1 REF: 76 OBJ: 03-2

78. Refer to Florida Hospitals. In another conversation, one of the administrators said, "I think the decision
to care for the illegals should be based on an individual choice. Certainly, I would want to care for a
working man who is supporting six children, but I am inclined to think that if the man has no income
and shows no desire to provide for himself, then he should not become a burden to the hospital." This
thinking is indicative of the _____ ethical theory.
b. casuist
d. moral relativism
e. deontological
ANS: D
Moral relativists believe in time-and-place ethics.
PTS: 1 REF: 76 OBJ: 03-2

79. Refer to Florida Hospitals. In order to make an ethical decision on how to handle uninsured illegal
immigrants, the Florida hospital administrators must consider all of the following EXCEPT:
a. social consensus
b. number of people affected by the decision
c. probability of harmful outcome to the hospital and to the individuals
d. magnitude of morality
e. length of time between decision and the onset of consequence
ANS: D
Other considerations include potential magnitude of the consequences, top management actions on
ethics, and the extent of ethical problems within the organization.
PTS: 1 REF: 79-80 OBJ: 03-3

NARRBEGIN: Drug Marketing

Drug Marketing
Pharmaceutical companies spent $4.4 billion on prescription drug advertising in 2008, mostly on
television and in magazines. While the Internet is becoming a more prominent medium to reach
consumers and is the primary source used to seek health information, these companies spent less than
$130 million on Web marketing. One reason is that there are no guidelines, which makes these
heavily-regulated marketers uneasy. For example, television commercials for prescription drugs must
include disclosures regarding the major side effects if the brand name is mentioned in the ad. The Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) claims that existing regulations address many of the Internet
advertising issues, but other aspects of Web marketing, such as social networking and search
marketing, must be reviewed. That’s why the FDA hearings on this issue were attended by
pharmaceutical giants and Web companies like Google, Yahoo, and WebMD Health.
NARREND
80. Refer Drug Marketing. Which mode of social control is likely causing the relatively small
expenditures on Web marketing by pharmaceutical companies?
a. ethics
b. laws
c. media
d. civil society
e. informal groups
ANS: B
Pharmaceutical companies are concerned with the regulations associated with promoting their products
on the Internet.
PTS: 1 REF: 73 OBJ: 03-1

81. Refer Drug Marketing. Drug manufacturers are hesitant to make full use of the Internet as an
advertising medium because they are comparing the regulations imposed on their advertising in other
media, such as television. Which ethical theory does this illustrate?
a. casuist
b. utilitarianism
c. moral relativism
d. deontology
e. social responsibility
ANS: A
PTS: 1 REF: 76 OBJ: 03-2
TOP: AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Promotion
82. Refer to Drug Marketing. Which level of the pyramid of social responsibility is most relevant to this
situation in which the drug companies want to ensure that they are “playing by the rules”?
a. legal responsibilities
b. ethical responsibilities
c. philanthropic responsibilities
d. economic responsibilities
e. standard responsibilities
ANS: A
Legal responsibilities are based on obeying the law. Law is society’s codification of right and wrong.
PTS: 1 REF: 87 OBJ: 03-4

83. Refer to Drug Marketing. If a drug manufacturer claimed that its manufacturing processes were
environmentally-friendly in its advertising, this is an example of:
a. sustenance marketing
b. green marketing
c. philanthropy
d. deontological marketing
e. clean marketing
ANS: B
Green marketing is an outgrowth of the social responsibility movement and is the development and
marketing of products designed to minimize negative effects on the physical environment or to
improve the environment.
PTS: 1 REF: 94 OBJ: 03-5

84. Refer to Drug Marketing. If a drug manufacturer donated $5 to AIDS research for every prescription
sold in the United States, this would be an example of:
a. utilitarianism
b. moral relativism
d. green marketing
e. conventional morality
ANS: C
Cause-related marketing is the cooperative marketing efforts between a “for-profit” firm and a
“nonprofit organization.”
PTS: 1 REF: 94 OBJ: 03-6

ESSAY
1. List the six modes of social control.
ANS:
The six modes of social control are (1) ethics, (2) laws, (3) formal and informal groups, (4) self-
regulation, (5) the media, and (6) an active civil society.
PTS: 1 REF: 73-74 OBJ: 03-1

TOP: AACSB Communication | AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Strategy
2. Define the deontological ethical theory and describe a person that adheres to this theory of ethics.
ANS:
The deontological ethical theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when
analyzing an ethical dilemma. A person who adherers to deontology will follow his or her obligation to
another individual or society because upholding one's duties is what is considered to be ethically
correct. He will always keep his promises to a friend and always follow the law. A person following
this theory will produce very consistent decisions since they will be based on the individual's set
duties.
PTS: 1 REF: 75 OBJ: 03-2

3. Define utilitarianism and its two types. How does this theory differ from the casuist ethical theory?
ANS:
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that holds that the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most
people is the choice that is ethically correct. The two types of utilitarianism are rule utilitarianism and
act utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action.
Someone adhering to act utilitarianism will make the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most
people, regardless of personal feeling or social constraints. Rule utilitarianism takes into account the
law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarianist seeks to benefit the most people but though the
fairest and most just means available. Rule utilitarianism values justice and doing good at the same
time.
Casuist ethical theory compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical dilemmas
and their outcomes. This allows one to determine the severity of the situation and to create the best
possible solution according to others’ experiences.
PTS: 1 REF: 76 OBJ: 03-2

4. Explain what is meant by the statement, “Moral relativists believe in time-and-place ethics.”
ANS:
According to time-and-place ethics, the proper resolution to ethical dilemmas is based upon weighing
the competing factors at the moment and then making a determination to take the lesser of the evils as
the resolution. Moral relativists do not believe in absolute rule. Their beliefs center on the pressures of
the moment and whether the pressures justify the action taken.
PTS: 1 REF: 76 OBJ: 03-2

5. List and describe the three levels of ethical development.
ANS:
(1) Preconventional morality, the most basic level, is childlike. It is calculating, self-centered, and even
selfish, based on what will be immediately punished or rewarded.
(2) Conventional morality moves from an egocentric viewpoint toward the expectations of society.
Loyalty and obedience to the organization (or society) becomes paramount.
(3) Postconventional morality represents the morality of a mature adult. At this level, people are less
concerned about how others might see them and more concerned about how they see and judge
themselves over the long run.
PTS: 1 REF: 79 OBJ: 03-3

6. A recent study of marketing professionals found their ethical judgments were influenced by several
factors. List four of these factors. How do these factors contribute to the ethical environment of a
marketing organization?
ANS:
Ethical judgments were influenced by several factors, and students can list any four:
1. The extent of ethical problems within the organization
The healthier the ethical environment, the greater the likelihood that marketers will take
a strong stand against questionable practices.
2. Top-management actions on ethics
Top management can have a profound influence on the ethical behavior of marketing
professionals by performing actions that encourage ethical behavior or discourage
unethical behavior. Setting an example communicates an ethical philosophy.
3. Potential magnitude of the consequences
The greater the harm, the more likely marketers will recognize that the action is
unethical.
4. Social consensus
The greater the degree of agreement among other marketers that an action is harmful, the
more likely that marketers will recognize it as unethical.
5. Probability of harmful outcomes
Higher probabilities of harmful outcomes mean that marketers are more likely to realize
that the actions are unethical.
6. Length of time between the decision and the onset of consequences
The shorter the time frame between the action and the onset of negative consequence, the
more likely the marketer is to realize it was unethical.
7. Number of people to be affected
The more people affected by a negative outcome, the more likely that marketers will
recognize the decision as unethical.
PTS: 1 REF: 79-80 OBJ: 03-3

7. List three ways an organization will benefit from the development and use of a code of ethics.
ANS:
The text provides four advantages that result from the creation and use of ethical standards, and
students can list any three:
(1) The guidelines help employees identify what their organization recognizes as acceptable business
practices.
(2) A code of ethics can be an effective internal control on behavior, which is more desirable than
external controls like government regulation.
(3) A written code helps employees avoid confusion when determining whether their decisions are
ethical.
(4) The process of formulating the code of ethics facilitates discussion among employees about what is
right and wrong and ultimately leads to better decisions.
PTS: 1 REF: 80 OBJ: 03-3

8. You are an ethics consultant, and a group of managers has asked you for some guidelines to determine
the ethicality of a decision. You tell the managers that one cannot guarantee the rightness of a decision,
but a checklist can improve the chances of a decision being ethical. What are six questions you would
tell the managers to put on this checklist?
ANS:
Students' answers may vary. Here are questions found in the text in Exhibit 3.4.
Does my decision treat me or my company as an exception to a common practice or convention?

Do I think I have the authority to break a rule?
Would I offend customers by telling them about my decision?
Would I offend qualified job applicants by telling them about my decision?
Have I made this decision without input from others, so important issues might be overlooked?
Does my decision benefit one person or group but hurt or not benefit other individuals or groups?
Will my decision create conflict between people or groups in the company?
Will I have to pull rank (use coercion) to enact my decision?
Would I prefer to avoid the consequences of this decision?
Did I avoid truthfully answering any of the above questions by telling myself that I could get away
with it?
PTS: 1 REF: 81 OBJ: 03-3

9. The newest theory in social responsibility is called sustainability. Explain what this means.
ANS:
Sustainability refers to the idea that socially responsible companies will outperform their peers by
focusing on the world’s social problems and viewing them as opportunities to build profits and help
the world at the same time. It is also the notion that companies cannot thrive for long (i.e., lack
sustainability) in a world where billions of people are suffering and are desperately poor. Thus, it is in
business’s interest to find ways to attack society’s ills.
PTS: 1 REF: 86-87 OBJ: 03-4

10. For every home built by Habitat for Humanity, Whirlpool Corporation has given and continues to give
free kitchen appliances to the deserving family. At first Whirlpool gave the appliances with no
promotion, then Whirlpool began talking about its philanthropy in its advertising campaigns. Is this
unethical behavior according to the pyramid of social responsibility?
ANS:
Students' answers to this question may vary, but the better students will understand that economic
performance is the foundation of the pyramid. If Whirlpool’s advertising of its donations increases
profit, then it is not wrong. The company has not abandoned its efforts to improve the quality of life.
PTS: 1 REF: 87 OBJ: 03-4

Essentials of Marketing 7th Edition Lamb Test Bank
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TOP: AACSB Communication | AACSB Ethics | TB&E Model Promotion
11. Describe the pyramid of corporate social responsibility and include a description of its components.
ANS:
The pyramid of corporate social responsibility portrays four kinds of responsibility: economic, legal,
ethical, and philanthropic. Economic performance is the foundation for the structure, because if the
company does not make a profit, then the other three responsibilities are moot. While maintaining a
profit, business is expected to obey the law, do what is ethically right, and be a good corporate citizen.
1 Philanthropic responsibilities are to be a good corporate citizen, contribute resources to the

community, and improve the quality of life.
2 Ethical responsibilities are to be ethical; to do what is right, just, and fair; and to avoid harm.
3 Legal responsibilities are to obey the law, which is society's codification of right and wrong,
and play by the rules of the game.
4 Economic responsibilities are to be profitable, because profit is the foundation on which all
other responsibilities rest.
PTS: 1 REF: 87-88 OBJ: 03-4

12. How do supporters of corporate social responsibility respond to its critics?
ANS:
The most basic argument for social responsibility is that it is simply the right thing to do. Since some
societal problems have been caused by business, it becomes the responsibility of business to right
these wrongs. A more pragmatic reason for acting socially responsible is that if business isn't
responsible, then governments will create new regulations and possibly levy fines against corporations.
A final argument for social responsibility is that it can be a profitable undertaking.
PTS: 1 REF: 88-89 OBJ: 03-5

13. Distinguish between cause-related marketing and philanthropy and give an example of each. What are
some concerns consumers may have regarding cause-related marketing?
ANS:
Cause-related marketing is the cooperative efforts between a “for-profit” firm and a “nonprofit
organization” for mutual benefit. Philanthropy generally involves a specific donation that is tax
deductible while cause marketing is a marketing relationship not based on a straight donation. An
example of cause-related marketing is a business donating a portion of a customer’s purchase price to
a charitable cause, whereas an example of philanthropy would be the business merely donates to a
charitable cause without tying it to consumers’ purchases.
Concerns regarding cause-related marketing include:

1. Is this company committed?
2. How is the program structured?
3. Who does the program benefit?
4. How will the organization that benefits use my money?
5. Is the program meaningful to me?
PTS: 1 REF: 94-96 OBJ: 03-6

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More news on internet:
Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of all mechanical
waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound,
ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an
acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be
called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in almost all
aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise control
industries.
Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, and
speech is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and
culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human
society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more.
Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as a
key element of mating rituals or marking territories. Art, craft, science and
technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other
fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsay's 'Wheel of Acoustics' is a well
accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics.[1]
The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός (akoustikos),
meaning "of or for hearing, ready to hear"[2] and that from ἀκουστός (akoustos),
"heard, audible",[3] which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω (akouo), "I
hear".[4]
The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym
for acoustics[5] and later a branch of acoustics.[6] Frequencies above and below
the audible range are called "ultrasonic" and "infrasonic", respectively.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Early research in acoustics
1.2 Age of Enlightenment and onward
2 Fundamental concepts of acoustics
2.1 Definition
2.2 Wave propagation: pressure levels
2.3 Wave propagation: frequency
2.4 Transduction in acoustics
3 Acoustician
3.1 Education
4 Subdisciplines
4.1 Archaeoacoustics
4.2 Aeroacoustics
4.3 Acoustic signal processing
4.4 Architectural acoustics
4.5 Bioacoustics
4.6 Electroacoustics
4.7 Environmental noise and soundscapes
4.8 Musical acoustics
4.9 Psychoacoustics
4.10 Speech
4.11 Ultrasonics
4.12 Underwater acoustics
4.13 Vibration and dynamics
5 Professional societies
6 Academic journals
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Early research in acoustics
The fundamental and the first 6 overtones of a vibrating string. The earliest records
of the study of this phenomenon are attributed to the philosopher Pythagoras in the
6th century BC.
In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know
why some combinations of musical sounds seemed more beautiful than others, and
he found answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone
series on a string. He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating
strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones produced
will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the more harmonious the sounds.
If, for example, a string of a certain length would sound particularly harmonious
with a string of twice the length (other factors being equal). In modern parlance, if
a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an
octave lower. In one system of musical tuning, the tones in between are then given
by 16:9 for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in
ascending order.[7]
Aristotle (384–322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and

rarefactions of air which "falls upon and strikes the air which is next to it...",[8] a
very good expression of the nature of wave motion.
In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the
acoustic properties of theaters including discussion of interference, echoes, and
reverberation—the beginnings of architectural acoustics.[9] In Book V of his De
architectura (The Ten Books of Architecture) Vitruvius describes sound as a wave
comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which, when interrupted
by obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the
ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of
sound and also recommended bronze vessels of appropriate sizes be placed in
theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in
order to resonate with the more desirable, harmonious notes.[10][11][12]
During the Islamic golden age, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) is believed to
postulated that the speed of sound was much slower than the speed of
light.[13][14]
Principles of acoustics have been applied since ancient times : A Roman theatre in
the city of Amman.
The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and
after the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but also Marin
Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating
strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years
earlier). Galileo wrote "Waves are produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body,
which spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the ear a stimulus which
the mind interprets as sound", a remarkable statement that points to the beginnings
of physiological and psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of the
speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a
number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile, Newton (1642–1727)
derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical
acoustics (Principia, 1687).
Age of Enlightenment and onward

The eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied
the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. In
the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz
in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord
Rayleigh in England, who combined the previous knowledge with his own copious
contributions to the field in his monumental work The Theory of Sound (1877).
Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy
between electricity and acoustics.
The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large

body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application
was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others
followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first
World War. Sound recording and the telephone played important roles in a global
transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of
accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The
ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine
and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic
energy) were invented and put to use.
Fundamental concepts of acoustics

Jay Pritzker Pavilion
At Jay Pritzker Pavilion, a LARES system is combined with a zoned sound

reinforcement system, both suspended on an overhead steel trellis, to synthesize an
indoor acoustic environment outdoors.
Definition
Acoustics is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as "(a) Science of sound, including
its production, transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological
effects. (b) Those qualities of a room that, together, determine its character with
respect to auditory effects."
The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception
of mechanical waves and vibrations.
The fundamental acoustical process
The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or
process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are
many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form into
sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental equation that
describes sound wave propagation, the acoustic wave equation, but the phenomena
that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy
throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again
into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived.
The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or
volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are
talking about an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band
playing in a rock concert.
The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within
the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily as a
pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including
longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.
Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and
how the wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as
either a diffraction, interference or a reflection or a mix of the three. If several
media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are also of
special importance to acoustics.
Wave propagation: pressure levels

Main article: Sound pressure
Spectrogram of a young girl saying "oh, no"

In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances in the
ambient pressure level. While this disturbance is usually small, it is still noticeable
to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear, known as the
threshold of hearing, is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient
pressure. The loudness of these disturbances is related to the sound pressure level
(SPL) which is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.
Wave propagation: frequency

Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in terms of
frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound. What we
experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure vibrations
having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common technique of
acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then presented in
more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of
these popular methods are used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic
phenomenon.
The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and
infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is
important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range has
a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The
ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This
range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging
technologies. Medical applications such as ultrasonography and elastography rely
on the ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest
frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to
study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.
Analytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and

measurement of acoustic signals and their properties. The spectrogram produced
by such an instrument is a graphical display of the time varying pressure level and
frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character.
Transduction in acoustics
An inexpensive low fidelity 3.5 inch driver, typically found in small radios
A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an
electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into electrical energy
(or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include loudspeakers, microphones,
hydrophones and sonar projectors. These devices convert a sound pressure wave to
or from an electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles are
electromagnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.
The transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and tweeters), are
electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended diaphragm driven
by an electromagnetic voice coil, sending off pressure waves. Electret microphones
and condenser microphones employ electrostatics—as the sound wave strikes the
microphone's diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic
systems used in medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers. These
are made from special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical
fields are interlinked through a property of the material itself.
Acoustician
An acoustician is an expert in the science of sound.[15]
Education
There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a Bachelor's degree or
higher qualification. Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others enter the
discipline via studies in fields such as physics or engineering. Much work in
acoustics requires a good grounding in Mathematics and science. Many acoustic
scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to
advance our knowledge of the perception (e.g. hearing, psychoacoustics or
neurophysiology) of speech, music and noise. Other acoustic scientists advance
understanding of how sound is affected as it moves through environments, e.g.
Underwater acoustics, Architectural acoustics or Structural acoustics. Others areas
of work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in
government, university and private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in
Acoustical Engineering. Some positions, such as Faculty (academic staff) require a
Doctor of Philosophy.
Subdisciplines
These subdisciplines are a slightly modified list from the PACS (Physics and
Astronomy Classification Scheme) coding used by the Acoustical Society of
America.[16]
Archaeoacoustics
Main article: Archaeoacoustics
The Divje Babe flute

Archaeoacoustics is the study of sound within archaeology. This typically involves
studying the acoustics of archaeological sites and artefacts.[17]
Aeroacoustics
Main article: Aeroacoustics
Aeroacoustics is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance via
turbulence, and the movement of sound through the fluid air. This knowledge is
applied in acoustical engineering to study how to quieten aircraft. Aeroacoustics is
important to understanding how wind musical instruments work.[18]
Acoustic signal processing

See also: Audio signal processing
Acoustic signal processing is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals.
Applications include: active noise control; design for hearing aids or cochlear
implants; echo cancellation; music information retrieval, and perceptual coding
(e.g. MP3 or Opus).[19]
Architectural acoustics
Main article: Architectural acoustics
Symphony Hall Boston where auditorium acoustics began

Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the scientific
understanding of how to achieve a good sound within a building.[20] It typically
involves the study of speech intelligibility, speech privacy, music quality, and
vibration reduction in the built environment.[21]
Bioacoustics
Main article: Bioacoustics
Bioacoustics is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls, as well
as how animals are affected by the acoustic and sounds of their habitat.[22]
Electroacoustics
See also: Audio Engineering and Sound reinforcement system
This subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and reproduction
of audio using electronics.[23] This might include products such as mobile phones,
large scale public address systems or virtual reality systems in research
laboratories.
Environmental noise and soundscapes

Main article: Environmental noise
See also: Noise pollution and Noise control
Environmental acoustics is concerned with noise and vibration caused by
railways,[24] road traffic, aircraft, industrial equipment and recreational
activities.[25] The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of environmental
noise and vibration. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of
sound in urban environments: soundscapes and tranquility.[26]
Musical acoustics
Main article: Musical acoustics
The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch
resolution.
Musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments; the audio
signal processing used in electronic music; the computer analysis of music and
composition, and the perception and cognitive neuroscience of music.[27]
Psychoacoustics
Main article: Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics explains how humans respond to sounds.[28]
Speech
Main article: Speech
Acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. Speech
recognition and Speech synthesis are two important areas of speech processing
using computers. The subject also overlaps with the disciplines of physics,
physiology, psychology, and linguistics.[29]
Ultrasonics
Main article: Ultrasound
Ultrasound image of a fetus in the womb, viewed at 12 weeks of pregnancy

(bidimensional-scan)
Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by humans.
Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical ultrasonography),
sonochemistry, material characterisation and underwater acoustics (Sonar).[30]
Underwater acoustics
Main article: Underwater acoustics
Underwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made sounds
underwater. Applications include sonar to locate submarines, underwater
communication by whales, climate change monitoring by measuring sea
temperatures acoustically, sonic weapons,[31] and marine bioacoustics.[32]
Vibration and dynamics

Main article: Vibration
This is the study of how mechanical systems vibrate and interact with their
surroundings. Applications might include: ground vibrations from railways;
vibration isolation to reduce vibration in operating theatres; studying how vibration
can damage health (vibration white finger); vibration control to protect a building
from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through
buildings.[33]
Professional societies
The Acoustical Society of America (ASA)
The European Acoustics Association (EAA)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Institute of Acoustics (IoA UK)
The Audio Engineering Society (AES)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Noise Control and Acoustics Division
(ASME-NCAD)
International Commission for Acoustics (ICA)
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aeroacoustics (AIAA)
International Computer Music Association (ICMA)
Academic journals
Main category: Acoustics journals
Acta Acustica united with Acustica
Applied Acoustics
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA)
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Express Letters (JASA-EL)
Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
Journal of Sound and Vibration (JSV)
Journal of Vibration and Acoustics American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Ultrasonics (journal)

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13. Sustainability refers to a business’s concern for society’s welfare.

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20. Everyone agrees that cause-related marketing is beneficial.

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14. The two types of utilitarianism are _____ and _____ .

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26. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to:

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39. Why do corporations engage in ethics training?

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14. The two types of utilitarianism are _ and _ .