Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain
A few words about op-amp:
Chapter 2: Operational Amplifiers
This Handout covers Chapter 2.1-2.3
1. Function and characteristics of an ideal Op-amp
2. The inverting configuration
3. The non-inverting configuration
Notes:
4. This is the first of 5 lectures to cover chapter 2
5. Study Example 2.2
Chapter 2: Operational amplifier
• Op-amp is one of the most popular function blocks to build
sophisticate electronic system and instrumentation.
• Today, op-amps are available at low cost, with great varieties of
characteristics for instrumentation and circuit development.
• Since the learning of op-amp doesn’t involve the knowledge of
semiconductors, it can be treated as a blackbox and easy to learn
too!
Symbol and Characteristics of an ideal op-amp
The op-amp is designed to sense the difference between two input
voltage signals. An ideal op-amp should
• Has infinite large input impedance (doesn’t draw current)
• Output impedance is ZERO as an ideal voltage source
• An ideal op-amp should have infinite bandwidth
• The output is always equal to A(v 2 − v1 )
• Terminal one is referred as inverting input terminal, terminal
2 is non-inverting terminal
• If input 1 and 2 are the same, the output will be zero, this is
referred as common-mode rejection
• The gain A is referred as differential gain or open-loop gain,
which is very large gain (~ A → ∞). Therefore, an op-amp
should never been used in an open-loop configuration.
1
Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain Now, let’s do the math. During this derivation, we assume A=∞

Thing to notice: virtual ground!

The inverting configuration:

The basic configuration for an op-amp involves two resistors R1 and R2
shown below.
• Since R2 links terminal 3 and negative input terminal 1, it
provides a negative feedback!
• If R2 links terminal 3 and the positive input 2, it will provide
positive feedback!
vO R
=− 2
vI R1
vsource vI vI
Input resistance: Ri = = = = R1
isource i1 vI / R1
vopen −circuit voc
Output resistance: Rout ≡ = =0
i short −circuit i sc

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 2

 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain

Apparently, A is not ∞, we can re-do the math by taking a more Examples: The weighted summer
practical scenario by assuming A is finite but a large number. • The weighted summer with the same sign

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 3

 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain The Non-inverting configuration:
• The weighted summer with the opposite signs
Another commonly used configuration will yield a positive gain, as
non-inverting configuration.

⎛R ⎞⎛ Rc ⎞ ⎛R ⎞⎛ Rc ⎞ ⎛R ⎞ ⎛R ⎞
vO = v1 ⎜⎜ a ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + v 2 ⎜⎜ a ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − v3 ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ − v 4 ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
⎝ R1 ⎠⎝ Rb ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠⎝ Rb ⎠ ⎝ R3 ⎠ ⎝ R4 ⎠

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 4

Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain
Apparently, A is not ∞, we can re-do the math by taking a more
practical scenario by assuming A is finite but a large number.
Chapter 2: Operational amplifier
Application: voltage follower
Buffers are function block commonly used in micro-electronics. It has
high input impedance and low output impedance. In a buffer, gain is
not important, but the ability to drive low-impedance load is. An op-
amp with non-inverting configuration can do that, this is referred as a
voltage follower (or unity-gain amplifier).
5
 A few words about difference (differential) amplifiers:
Chapter 2: Operational Amplifiers • Difference amplifiers are designed to respond to the difference
between two input signal
• Difference amplifiers are used to eliminate noise which are
This handout covers Chapter 2.4-2.5 commonly identical but sometime much larger than signal level.
1. A single Op-Amp difference amplifier
2. Instrumentation amplifier If input of an amplifier has common-mode input vIcm applied
3. Frequency response of open-loop amplifiers identically to two input leads of an amplifier. And a differential input
4. Frequency response of closed-loop amplifiers signal vId, also apply to two input leads, the output signal of a linear
amplifier can be characterized by two gains Ad and Acm:
vO = Ad v Id + Acm v Icm
An ideal difference amplifier magnifies differential input much larger
Notes: than the common-mode signal, which is characterized by the
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR):
⎛ Ad ⎞
CMRR = 20 log⎜⎜ ⎟ >> 1
⎟
⎝ A cm ⎠

1. Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifier

The op-amp is designed to be a difference amplifier. However, since
the gain of the op amp is too large, without any feedback mechanism,
it is not practical to use it alone.

In the last lecture, we learned two fundamental configuration of an op-

amp, inverting and non-inverting configuration shown below.

Inverting Non-inverting

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 1

 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain

The gains for these two configurations are negative and positive
respectively:
R ⎛ R ⎞
AInverting = − 2 ANo −inverting = ⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟
R1 ⎝ R1 ⎠

We can therefore combine two configurations to make an ideal

difference amplifier. By properly choosing feedback resistance, zero
common-mode gain can be achieved. The resulting circuit is shown
below.

Let’s do the math to select

resistance. In this lecture, we
will use a different derivation Using the same procedure, we can calculate the common-mode gain:
from the textbook.

⎛ R4 ⎞
⎛ R + R2 ⎞⎛ R 4 ⎞ R2 ⎛ R 2 ⎞⎜ R3 ⎟ R
v O = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟v I 2 − v I 1 = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟v I 2 − 2 v I 1
⎝ R1 ⎠⎝ R 3 + R 4 ⎠ R1 ⎝ R 1 ⎠⎜ 1 + R 4
⎜ ⎟⎟ R1
⎝ R3 ⎠
R2 R4
=
R1 R3

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 2

 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain
In additional to rejecting CM signal, we wish to have a high input
resistance to differential signal. We can find out this by:

Rid = 2R1
The analysis of this circuit is straightforward. Two things
⎛ R ⎞⎛ R ⎞
Diff − Gain : Ad = ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ R3 ⎠⎝ R1 ⎠
Input − Re sis tan ce = ∞

The Instrumentation amplifiers: However, a few problems arise:

Note from the above analysis, if the amplifier needs to have a large
differential gain (R2/R1), then R1 has to be small, so as the input
resistance. This is a significant drawback of the single op-amp
differential amplifier.
This can be resolved by buffering the two input terminals using
voltage followers. The additional benefit is to get some additional gain
in the first stage. The circuits is shown below.
Chapter 2: Operational amplifier
• The input CM signal will be amplified by the 1st stage, which
might saturate the 2nd stage. Even the 2nd stage is not saturated by
the CM signal, the CMRR will be reduced.
• Two amplifier channels must be perfectly matched, otherwise,
mismatch will appear as a differential signal to spur the real signal.
To overcome this problem, we come up with the following
configuration.
3
 Some non-ideal characteristics of op-amps:
In this section, we consider some non-ideal properties of op amps.
Since this information are important for electronic designers. They are
normally available in data sheet.

Frequency response of an open-loop op-amp:

For an op-amp as it is, the typical frequency response (open-loop) is

single-time-constant (STC) low-pass response shown below.

Since we only have SINGLE time constant, the gain A as a function of

frequency ω can be written as:
A0
A(ω ) =
1 + jω / ω b
• ωb or fb is 3-dB (corner frequency)
• ωt or ft is the unity frequency
• Since we only have single time constant, the slope is 20 dB/decade
• For ω>>ωb,
Aω ω
A(ω ) ≈ 0 b ≈ t ω t = A0ω b
jω jω

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 4

 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain

Frequency response of an closed-loop op-amp:

Having familiarizing the close-loop specification on frequency
response, we can calculate the frequency response for close-loop
configuration.

Inverting configuration with finite gain A:

Vo − R2 R1 A0
= A(ω ) =
Vi 1 + (1 + R2 R1 ) / A 1 + s / ωb
Substituting A(ω) into the close-loop gain, we have
Vo (s ) − R2 R1
= ω t = A0ω b
Vi (s )
1+
1
(1 + R2 R1 ) + s
A0 ω t / (1 + R2 R1 )
Vo (s ) − R2 R1
= A0 >> (1 + R2 R1 )
Vi (s ) s
1+
ω t / (1 + R2 R1 )
An important conclusion we get out of this derivation is the 3-dB
corner frequency:
ωt
ω 3dB =
1 + R2 / R1

Non-inverting configuration with finite gain A:

Vo 1 + R2 R1 A0
= A(ω ) =
Vi 1 + (1 + R2 R1 ) / A 1 + s / ωb
If A0 >> 1 + R2 / R1 , we have
V o (s ) 1 + R2 / R1
≈
Vi (s ) s
1+
ω t / (1 + R2 / R1 )

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 5


Chapter 2: Operational Amplifiers
This Handout covers Section 2.6, 2.7
1. Imperfection of op-amp: saturation, slew rate
2. Full-power bandwidth
3. Offset voltage, offset currents, and input bias
Notes:
Chapter 2: Operational amplifier
In this lecture, we study the limitations on the op-amp performance.
This first includes output voltage and current saturation.
Output voltage and current saturation
In practical, Op amps will operate linearly over a limited range of
output voltage and current. For a typical op-amp (741) the range for
voltage and current are around ±10-15 V and ±10-20 mA. Beyond this
range, the output will be nonlinearly distorted (e.g. cut-off).
Slew rate and full-power bandwidth
Another nonlinear distortion for large output signals are so-called
slew-rate limiting. This refers to the maximum alow rate of change of
signal, defined as:
dv
SR = O max (V/μs)
dt
An op-amp will not respond any signal faster than the maximum slew-
rate. An example is shown below for a step-change input and it is
output for a voltage follower.
One thing to note here is the slew-rating limiting is a non-linear
effect, which is different from a finite bandwidth distortion. The finite
bandwidth distortion is a linear effect, which does not change the
shape of input sinusoid. The slewing does change the shape of
sinusoid. To further clarify this point, let’s compare the effect of finite
bandwidth. The transfer function for a voltage follower is
Vo 1
=
Vi 1 + s / ω t
1
 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain DC imperfections: offset voltage
Its step response would be an exponential function.
Since op-amp has a very large gain, any imbalance between two inputs
can instantly saturate output. Unfortunately, in practical application, a
number of facts can contribute to the mismatch between two inputs

( )
including the op-amp designs. Given a typical dc gain of >10000, even
vO (t ) = V 1 − e −ωt t a mismatch of a few mV can saturate the op-amp. This is a must-
addressing issue. To model the dc offset effect, an op-amp can be
modeled as following:

As long as V is small so that ωtV<SR, the output will follow above as Generally speaking:
a linear response. • Vos range from 1-5 mV
• Vos depends on temperature (μV/oC)
Another example for nonlinear SR limiting can be illustrated using a
sine wave output: Now let’s analyze the impact of offset to
vO = Vo sin ωt performance of a op-amp with negative
The changing rate is given by feedback:
dvO
= ωVo cos ωt
dt
So the maximum changing rate is given by ωVo, which depends on
both the maximum output voltage and frequency. If ωVo exceeds
maximum SR, distortion happens as shown below.

The op-amp data sheets provide a frequency fM as the full-power

bandwidth. If the maximum output voltage is Vomax, then the fM is
related to SR as:
ω M Vo max = SR
SR
fM =
2πVo max

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 2

 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain
One way to overcome the dc offset is by capacitive coupling shown
below. Since capacitor is an open circuit for DC, the op-amp won’t
amplify the Vos, however, this does not work for an op-amp circuits
working in dc and low frequency.
Notice: the gain of such configuration will become very small at low-
frequency. Here is the analysis.
Chapter 2: Operational amplifier
Input bias and offset currents
In a practical op-amp, both input terminal are supplied with dc currents
to function. These two currents can be modeled with two current
sources. The average of these two currents is referred as input bias
current. The different between these two currents is referred as input
offset current.
I + I B2
I B = B1 I OS = I B1 − I B 2
2
Given the technology used to build op-amp, IB range from pA to 100
nA, IOS is one order of magnitudes smaller than IB, whatever it is.
The dc output voltage of a closed-loop op-amp cue to the input bias
currents can be easily found out by considering the an inverting
configuration. The dc offset voltage becomes
VO = I B1 R2 ≈ I B R2
The allowable dc offset voltage apparently will be used to determine
what is the maximum allowable R2.
One way to reduce the dc offset voltage will be connecting the positive
input terminal with a resistance R3. The following analysis justifies the
solution and provides a guideline to choose R3.
3
 Chapter 2: Operational Amplifiers
This Handout covers Section 2.8
1. Inverting configuration with general impedances
2. Inverting integrator
3. Op-amp differentiator
Notes:
Chapter 2: Operational amplifier
A few words about integrators and differentiators:
Together with summation, subtraction, integration and differentiation
are two important signal processing algorithms. These functions can be
readily realized by op-amp.
General Impedances
Although you might be still studying RLC circuits, the concept of
impedance for inductors and capacitors can also be understood without
too much difficulty. Or, you can take the following concept “as they
are” for now.
• For DC, a capacitor is an open circuit element with a resistance
of ∞. An inductor is a short circuit with a resistance of 0.
• For AC, however, both capacitors C or inductor L will produce
“resistance” for any AC signal. This is referred as impedance.
• For a single frequency sine signal Aisin(ωt), the impedance for
A capacitor C: 1/(jωC)
An inductor L: jωL
A resistor R: R
• Apparently, the total impedance of circuits depends on
frequency.
• Sometime, jω is replaced by s during circuit analysis.
• In the event that we need find out the time-domain response,
we can convert the frequency-response into the transient
response by:
Replace 1/jω by ∫
d
Replace jω by
dt
• Then a frequency response will be converted into a linear
differential equation. Given the initial condition and input
signal, the output signal can be readily calculated by the circuit.
Now, let’s use an example to illustrate this concept.
1
 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain The inverting integrator:
Example: for the circuit below, derive an expression for the transfer The basic configuration for n inverting op-amp integrators is shown
function Vo(s)/Vi(s), show that the circuit is a low-pass circuit. Find below
DC gain (f=0Hz) and 3-dB frequency. Design the circuit to obtain a dc
gain of 40 dB, a 3-dB frequency of 1 kHz, and an input resistance of 1
kΩ.

We now do the math to perform analysis in both time and frequency

domain.

Time domain: the I-V crossing the C and the transfer function are:
vC (t ) = VC + i1 (t )dt
1 t
C ∫0
vO (t ) = − v I (t )dt − VC
1 t
RC ∫0
Frequency domain: The transfer function is:
Vo ( jω ) 1
=−
Vi ( jω ) jωRC
Vo 1
= φ = 90 o
Vi ωRC
1/RC is referred as integrator frequency, RC is known as integrator
time constant. Generally speaking: an integrator is a low-pass filter
with a corner (3-dB) frequency of ZERO.
Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 2
 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain
DC offset: The basic configuration of integrator shown above has a The solution for the dc offset can be alleviated by connecting a resistor
problem at DC. Since a capacitor is an open-circuit at DC, the op-amp RF. Thus, the transfer function becomes
will have no negative feedback and can saturated immediately. Even at V o (s ) R /R
=− F
AC, any dc offset can be deleterious too. The following analysis Vi (s ) 1 + sCR F
explains:
To remove the dc offset, one would chose low value for RF. However,
the low value for RF will lead to high corner frequency (1/CRF), which
DC offset voltage
will distort the integrator performance. Therefore, a design trade-off
needs to be carefully entertained.

DC offset current

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 3

 Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain

The inverting differentiator: • RC is referred as differentiator time-constant.

Interchanging the C and R of the integrator results a differentiator
circuit. We can perform both time-domain and frequency domain
analysis to obtain the transfer functions.
• The ideal differentiator can be considered as a high-pass filter
with a corner frequency at infinity.
• Differentiator output will “spike” or very sensitive to the sharp
change of the input.
• Differentiators are not stable and should be avoided to use
alone in practice.

dv I
vO (t ) = − RC
dt
V o ( jω ) Vo
= − jωRC = ωRC φ = −90 o
Vi ( jω ) VI

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 4

Integrated circuit By Syed Javed Hussain

Chapter 2: Operational amplifier 4