14.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
Environmental chemistry is the study of origin, transport,
reactions, effects & fates of chemical species in environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
- It is the undesirable changes in environment that cause
harmful effects on organisms.
- A substance that causes pollution is known as pollutant.
- An average man requires 12-15 times more air than food.
So, even small amount of air pollutants is significant
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
- It includes tropospheric and stratospheric pollution.
- Troposphere is the lowest region of atmosphere (up to 10
km from sea level) in which organisms live. It is a turbulent,
dusty zone containing air, water vapour and clouds.
- Stratosphere is a zone above the troposphere (10 - 50 km
above sea level). It contains dinitrogen, dioxygen, ozone
and little water vapour.
- The ozone prevents 99.5% of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiations from reaching the earth’s surface.
A. TROPOSPHERIC POLLUTION
It occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous
particles in the air.
• Gaseous air pollutants: Oxides of sulphur, nitrogen &
carbon, H2 S, hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.
• Particulate pollutants: Dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog etc.
1. Gaseous air pollutants
(a) Oxides of Sulphur
These are produced when sulphur containing fossil fuel is (i) Carbon monoxide (CO):
burnt. E.g. SO2 (most common).
Harmful effects of SO 2 :
• Respiratory diseases. E.g. asthma, bronchitis, emphysema.
• Eye irritation resulting in tears and redness.
• High concentration of SO2 leads to stiffness of flower buds
which eventually fall off from plants.
- The particulate matter in polluted air catalyses the oxidation
of SO2 to sulphur trioxide.
2SO2 (g) +O2 (g) →2SO3 (g)
The reaction is also promoted by ozone & H2 O2 .
SO2 (g) +O3 (g) →SO3 (g) + O2 (g)
SO2 (g) + H2 O2 (l) →H2 SO4 (aq)
(b) Oxides of Nitrogen
- Dinitrogen (N2 ) and dioxygen (O2 ) in air do not react with
each other at normal temperature.
- At high altitudes, during lightning, they combine to form
oxides of nitrogen.
- Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) is oxidised to nitrate ion (NO3 -). It
is washed into soil and serves as a fertilizer.
- In automobile engines, when fossil fuel is burnt, N2 and O2
combine to form nitric oxide (NO) & NO2 .
2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
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compared to similar levels present in the food.
- Pollutants are 2 types:
• Degradable: They rapidly break down by natural
processes. E.g. discarded vegetables.
• Non-degradable: They cannot be degraded or slowly
degradable by natural processes and are harmful to
organisms. E.g. dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT),
plastics, heavy metals, nuclear wastes etc.
Production of NO2 is faster when nitric oxide reacts with
ozone in the stratosphere.
NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
- The irritant red haze in the traffic and congested places is
due to oxides of nitrogen.
Harmful effects of NO 2:
• It damages plant leaves and retards rate of photosynthesis.
• A lung irritant causing acute respiratory disease in children.
• It is toxic to living tissues.
• It is harmful to textile fibres and metals.
(c) Hydrocarbons
Formed by incomplete combustion of fuel in automobiles.
Harmful effects of Hydrocarbons:
• Carcinogenic.
• In plants, they cause ageing, breakdown of tissues and
shedding of leaves, flowers and twigs.
(d) Oxides of Carbon
- A colourless and odourless serious air pollutant produced
by incomplete combustion of carbon.
- It is released by automobile exhaust, incomplete combustion
of coal, firewood, petrol, etc.
- Increased number of vehicles, their poor maintenance and
inadequate pollution control equipment etc. result in the
release of greater amount of CO and other polluting gases.
Harmful effects of CO:
• It is highly poisonous because it blocks the delivery of
oxygen to the organs and tissues.
• CO binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. It
is 300 times more stable than the oxygen-haemoglobin
complex. When the concentration of carboxyhaemoglobin
reaches 3–4%, the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is
greatly reduced. It causes headache, weak eyesight,
nervousness and cardiovascular disorder.
Smoking causes formation of carboxyhaemoglobin. In
smoking pregnant women, it induces premature birth,
spontaneous abortions and deformed babies.
(ii) Carbon dioxide (CO2):
- It is released into the atmosphere by respiration, burning of
fossil fuels, decomposition of limestone (during cement
manufacture) and volcanic eruptions.
- CO2 is confined to troposphere only (0.03 %).
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- Green plants maintain CO2 balance in the atmosphere.
- Deforestation and burning of fossil fuel increase the CO2
level and disturb the balance in the atmosphere.
- Increased level of CO2 is causing global warming.
Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect
- 75% of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by
the earth’s surface, which increases its temperature.
- The rest of the heat radiates back to the atmosphere. Some
of the heat is trapped by gases such as CO2 , CH4 , ozone,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) & water vapour in atmosphere.
Thus the atmosphere is heated and lead to global warming.
- In cold places flowers, vegetables & fruits are grown in
greenhouse (glass covered areas). Here, visible light passes
through the glass and heats up the soil and plants.
- Just as the glass in a greenhouse, atmosphere traps the sun’s
heat and keeps it warm. This is called natural greenhouse
effect. It makes the earth perfect for life.
- The warm soil and plants emit infrared radiations. Since
glass is opaque to infrared (heat) radiations, it partly reflects
and partly absorbs these radiations. Thus the solar energy is
trapped in the greenhouse. Similarly, CO2 also trap heat as
they are transparent to sunlight but not to the heat radiation.
If the CO2 level crosses 0.03%, the natural greenhouse
balance may be disturbed.
- CO2 is the major greenhouse gas causing global warming.
Others are CH4 , water vapour, nitrous oxide, CFCs & ozone.
- CH4 is produced naturally when vegetation is burnt,
digested or rotted in the absence of oxygen. Large amounts
of CH4 are released in paddy fields, coal mines, from rotting
garbage dumps and by fossil fuels.
- CFCs are used in air conditioning etc. They also damage the
ozone layer.
- Nitrous oxide level has increased due to the use of chemical
fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels.
Effects of global warming:
• Melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low lying areas.
• Increases the infectious diseases like dengue, malaria,
yellow fever, sleeping sickness etc.
Measures to reduce global warming:
• Reduce burning of fossil fuels, cutting down forests & trees.
• Minimize the use of automobiles.
• Plant more trees.
• Avoid burning of dry leaves, wood etc.
• Avoid smoking.
Acid rain
- Normally rain water has a pH of 5.6 due to the presence of
H+ ions formed by the reaction of rain water with CO2 .
- When the pH of rainwater is below 5.6, it is called acid rain.
- Acid rain refers to the ways in which acid from the
atmosphere is deposited on the earth’s surface.
- Oxides of N & S are acidic. They are blown by wind along
with solid particles and settle down on the ground as dry
deposition or in water, fog & snow as wet deposition.
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- Acid rain is caused due to human activities that emit the
oxides of sulphur & nitrogen in the atmosphere.
- Burning of fossil fuels in power stations & furnaces or petrol
& diesel in motor engines produce SO2 and nitrogen oxides.
- Particulate matter in the polluted air catalyses oxidation of
SO2 and NO2 and they react with water to form acids.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2 O (l) → 2H2 SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2 O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
- Ammonium salts are also formed. They can be seen as an
atmospheric haze (aerosol of fine particles).
- Aerosol particles of oxides or ammonium salts in rain drops
result in wet deposition. SO2 is also absorbed directly on solid
and liquid ground surfaces (dry-deposition).
Harmful effects of acid rain:
• Harmful for agriculture, trees & plants as it dissolves and
washes away nutrients needed for their growth.
• Respiratory ailments in humans and animals.
• Affects aquatic plants and animals.
• Corrodes water pipes resulting in the leaching of heavy
metals such as iron, lead & copper into the drinking water.
• Damages buildings and others made of stone or metal. E.g.
the Taj Mahal (Agra).
Acid rain reacts with marble of Taj Mahal causing damage.
CaCO3 (marble) +H2 SO4 → CaSO4 + H2 O+ CO2
The Government of India announced an action plan in early
1995 to prevent the disfiguring of Taj Mahal.
Measures to reduce acid rain:
• Reduce the emission of SO2 and NO2 in the atmosphere.
• Minimize the use of vehicles driven by fossil fuels.
• Use less sulphur content fossil fuels for power plants and
industries.
• Use natural gas. It is better fuel than coal.
• Use catalytic converters in cars to reduce effect of exhaust
fumes on the atmosphere. It has a ceramic honeycomb
coated with metals (Pd, Pt & Rh). When exhaust gases
containing unburnt fuel, CO & NOx, pass through the
converter at 573 K, they are converted into CO2 and N2 .
• Add powdered limestone to neutralise acidity of the soil.
2. Particulate Pollutants
- These are minute solid particles or liquid droplets in air.
- These are present in vehicle emissions, smoke particles
from fires, dust particles and ash from industries.
Particulates may be viable or non-viable.
• Viable particulates: Minute living organisms dispersed in
the atmosphere. E.g., bacteria, fungi, moulds, algae etc.
Human beings are allergic to some of the fungi found in air.
They can also cause plant diseases.
• Non-viable particulates: They are classified according to
their nature and size as follows:
a. Smoke: It consists of solid or mixture of solid and liquid
particles formed by combustion of organic matter. E.g.
cigarette smoke, smoke from burning of fossil fuel,
garbage and dry leaves, oil smoke etc.
b. Dust: It is composed of fine solid particles (over 1m in
diameter), produced during crushing, grinding and
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 attribution of solid materials. E.g. Sand, saw dust,
pulverized coal, cement, fly ash, dust storms etc.
c. Mists: They are produced by particles of spray liquids
and by condensation of vapours in air. E.g. sulphuric acid
mist, herbicides and insecticides.
d. Fumes: They are obtained by condensation of vapours
during sublimation, distillation, boiling etc. Generally,
organic solvents, metals & metallic oxides form fumes.
Effects of particulate pollutants:
• Particulate pollutants (>5 ) may lodge in the nasal passage.
• Particles of about 1.0 enter into lungs easily.
• Lead affects the maturation of RBC.
Smog (Smoke + fog = Smog)
There are two types of smog:
(a) Classical smog: A mixture of smoke, fog & SO2 . It
occurs in cool humid climate. Chemically it is a reducing
mixture and so called as reducing smog.
(b) Photochemical smog: It occurs in warm, dry and sunny
climate. It has high concentration of oxidising agents and
so called as oxidising smog.
Components of photochemical smog:
- Ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein, formaldehyde and PAN.
Formation of photochemical smog:
- Automobiles & factories release unsaturated hydrocarbons
(unburnt fuels) & nitric oxide (NO). When their level is
increased in troposphere, a chain reaction occurs due to
interaction with sunlight. In this, NO is converted into
nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ).
- The NO2 absorbs solar energy to give nitric oxide and free
oxygen atom.
- Oxygen atoms quickly combine with O2 to produce ozone.
- The ozone reacts rapidly with the NO (g) to regenerate NO2.
NO2 is a brown gas and at sufficiently high levels can
contribute to haze.
- Ozone is a toxic gas. NO2 & O3 are strong oxidising agents
and react with the unburnt hydrocarbons in the air giving
formaldehyde, acrolein & peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
3CH4 + 2O3 → 3CH2 = O + 3H2 O
Formaldehyde
CH2 = CHCH = O CH3 COONO2
Acrolein ║ PAN
O - It is reported in 1980s.
Effects of photochemical smog
• Serious health problems.
• Ozone & PAN act as powerful eye irritants.
• Ozone & nitric oxide irritate the nose and throat and their
high concentration causes headache, chest pain, dryness of
the throat, cough and difficulty in breathing.
• Cracking of rubber and extensive damage to plant life.
• Corrosion of metals, stones, building materials, rubber and
painted surfaces.
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Control of photochemical smog
• Control primary precursors of photochemical smog (NO2 &
hydrocarbons) and secondary precursors (ozone & PAN).
• Use catalytic converters in automobiles. It prevents the
release of nitrogen oxide & hydrocarbons to atmosphere.
• Plantation of Pinus, Juniparus, Quercus, Pyrus and Vitis.
They can metabolise nitrogen oxide.
B. STRATOSPHERIC POLLUTION
Formation and Breakdown of Ozone
- The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amount of
ozone (O3 ). It protects us from the harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiations (255 nm) coming from the sun.
- UV radiations cause skin cancer (melanoma) in humans.
- Ozone is a product of UV radiations acting on molecular
oxygen (O2 ) which split into oxygen (O) atoms.
- Oxygen atoms combine with O2 to form ozone.
- Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to
O2 . Thus, a dynamic equilibrium exists between the
production and decomposition of ozone molecules.
- Recently, depletion of ozone layer was reported. It is due to
the presence of some chemicals in stratosphere.
- The main reason of ozone layer depletion is the release of
chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs or freons).
- CFCs are non-reactive, non-flammable; non-toxic and so
used in refrigerators, air conditioners, in the production of
plastic foam and for cleaning computer parts etc.
- CFCs released in the atmosphere mix with the atmospheric
gases and eventually reach the stratosphere, where they get
broken down by UV, releasing chlorine free radical.
- The chlorine radical reacts with stratospheric ozone to form
chlorine monoxide radicals and molecular oxygen.
- Reaction of chlorine monoxide radical with atomic oxygen
produces more chlorine radicals.
- Chlorine radicals are continuously regenerated and cause
the breakdown of ozone. Thus, CFCs are transporting
agents for continuously generating chlorine radicals into the
stratosphere and damaging the ozone layer.
The Ozone Hole in Antarctica (South Pole)
- In summer season, NO2 & CH4 react with chlorine
monoxide & chlorine atoms forming chlorine sinks,
preventing much ozone depletion.
- In winter, special type of clouds called polar stratospheric
clouds are formed over Antarctica. These clouds provide
surface on which chlorine nitrate gets hydrolysed to form
hypochlorous acid.
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- It also reacts with hydrogen chloride to give Cl2 .
- In the spring, sunlight returns to the Antarctica. It breaks
down clouds and HOCl & Cl2 are photolysed by sunlight.
- The chlorine radicals thus formed, initiate the chain reaction
for ozone depletion.
WATER POLLUTION
- Water pollution originates from human activities.
- Easily identified source of water pollution is called as point
source. E.g. municipal and industrial discharge pipes where
pollutants enter the water-source.
- Non point sources are those where a source of pollution
cannot be easily identified. E.g. agricultural run off (from
farm, animals & crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water
drainage (from streets, parking lots and lawns), etc.
Major Water Pollutants
Pollutant Source
Micro-organisms Domestic sew age
Domestic sew age, animal excreta and w aste,
Organic w astes decaying animals and plants, discharge from
food processing factories.
Plant nutrients Chemical fertilizers
Toxic heavy
Industries and chemical factories
metals
Sediments Erosion of soil by agriculture and strip mining
Pesticides Chemicals used to kill insects, fungi & w eeds
Radioactive
Mining of uranium containing minerals
substances
Heat Water used for cooling in industries
Causes of Water Pollution
1. Pathogens: Most serious water pollutants. They include
bacteria and other organisms. They enter water from
domestic sewage & animal excreta. Human excreta
contain bacteria like Escherichia coli & Streptococcus
faecalis. They cause gastrointestinal diseases.
2. Organic wastes: E.g. leaves, grass, trash, excessive
phytoplankton etc. These are biodegradable.
The bacteria decompose organic matter present in water.
They consume oxygen dissolved in water. In cold water,
dissolved oxygen (DO) can reach a concentration up to 10
ppm (parts per million), whereas oxygen in air is about
200,000 ppm. So even a moderate amount of organic
matter can deplete the water of its dissolved oxygen.
The concentration of DO in water is very important for
aquatic life. If the concentration of DO is below 6 ppm,
the growth of fish gets inhibited.
Oxygen reaches water from atmosphere or by
photosynthesis of aquatic plants. However, during night,
photosynthesis stops but the plants continue to respire. It
results in reduction of DO. The DO is also used by
microorganisms to oxidise organic matter. If too much of
organic matter is added to water, all the oxygen is used up.
As a result, aerobic aquatic organisms die.
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Effects of Ozone Depletion
• More UV radiation filters into troposphere. It leads to
ageing of skin, cataract, sunburn, skin cancer, killing of
many phytoplanktons, damage to fish productivity etc.
• Plant proteins get easily affected by UV radiations which
lead to the harmful mutation of cells.
• Increased evaporation of surface water through stomata of
the leaves and decreases the moisture content of the soil.
• Increased UV radiations damage and fade paints & fibres.
Thus, anaerobic bacteria break down the organic waste
producing chemicals that have foul smell and are harmful
to human health.
Aerobic bacteria degrade these organic wastes and keep
the water depleted in dissolved oxygen.
The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down
the organic matter present in a given volume of water is
called Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
BOD is a measure of the amount of organic matter in water.
BOD value of clean water: Less than 5 ppm.
BOD value of highly polluted water: 17 ppm or more.
3. Chemical Pollutants:
Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Heavy metals
(cadmium, mercury, nickel etc.), acids (like H2 SO4 ) from
mine drainage and salts (Na & Ca chlorides) from sources
like raw salt used to melt snow & ice in colder climates etc.
Heavy metals are dangerous to humans because body
cannot excrete them. Gradually, it crosses the tolerance
limit. They damage kidneys, CNS, liver etc.
Organic chemicals:
• Petroleum products: Cause oil spills in oceans.
• Pesticides.
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs- a cleansing solvent):
Carcinogenic.
• Detergents & fertilizers: Some bacteria feed on
biodegradable detergent and grow rapidly. For this,
they use up the DO in water resulting in the death of
aquatic life.
The phosphates in fertilizers enhances algae growth.
Thus algae cover the water surface and reduce the
oxygen concentration in water. This leads to anaerobic
conditions. Algal bloom inhibits growth of other aquatic
organisms. This process in which nutrient enriched
water bodies support a dense plant population, which
kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen and results in
loss of biodiversity, is called Eutrophication.
International Standards for Drinking Water
- Fluoride: Its deficiency in drinking water is harmful to man
and causes diseases such as tooth decay etc. Normal fluoride
concentration in drinking water is up to 1 ppm or 1 mg dm–3.
F– ions make the enamel on teeth much harder by converting
hydroxyapatite [3(Ca3 (PO4 )2 .Ca(OH) 2 - enamel] into much
harder fluorapatite, [3(Ca3 (PO4 )2 .CaF2 ].
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 However, F– ion concentration above 2 ppm causes brown
mottling of teeth. Excess fluoride (over 10 ppm) causes
harmful effect to bones and teeth.
- Lead: Lead from lead pipes contaminates drinking water.
Prescribed upper limit of lead is 50 ppb. Lead damages
kidney, liver, reproductive system etc.
- Sulphate: Excessive sulphate (>500 ppm) causes laxative
effect. At moderate levels it is harmless.
- Nitrate: Excess nitrate (> 50 ppm) in drinking water cause
methemoglobinemia (‘blue baby’ syndrome).
SOIL POLLUTION
Insecticides, pesticides and herbicides cause soil pollution.
Pesticides
- Prior to World War II, natural chemicals such as nicotine
(from tobacco plants) were used to control pests.
- During World War II, DDT was found to be of great use in
the control of malaria and other insect-borne diseases. After
that DDT was used as pesticide in agriculture. However, due
to adverse effects, it is banned in India.
- Repeated use of same pesticides leads to the development
of resistance in pests. It makes the pesticides ineffective.
Therefore, instead of DDT, other organic toxins such as
Aldrin & Dieldrin were introduced.
- Water insoluble and non-biodegradable organic toxins are
transferred from lower trophic level to higher trophic level
through food chain and accumulate in higher animals. It
causes serious metabolic and physiological disorders.
- Organo-phosphates & carbamates are new less persistent
or biodegradable products. But they are severe nerve toxins
and more harmful to humans. Insects have become resistant
to these insecticides also.
- Herbicides (sodium chlorate (NaClO3 ), sodium arsinite
(Na3 AsO3 ) etc.) are also not eco-friendly. Most herbicides
are toxic to mammals but they decompose in a few months.
Like organo-chlorides, these are also concentrated in the
food web. Some herbicides cause birth defects. Cornfields
sprayed with herbicides are more prone to insect attack and
plant disease than fields that are weeded manually.
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
- It also includes biodegradable and non-degradable.
STRATEGIES TO CONTROL ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Waste Management
- Solid waste includes household discards, medical,
agricultural, industrial and mining wastes.
- Non-biodegradable wastes choke the sewers. Polythene
bags, if swallowed by cattle cause their death.
- Poor waste management causes health problems leading to
epidemics due to contamination of ground water.
Collection and Disposal
- Domestic wastes → to small bins → to community bins by
private or municipal workers → to the disposable site →
sorting garbage to biodegradable & non-biodegradable.
- Non-biodegradables (plastic, glass, metal scraps etc.) are sent
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- Other metals: Maximum concentration is given below:
Metal Maxim um concentration (ppm or mg dm -3)
Fe 0.2
Mn 0.05
Al 0.2
Cu 3.0
Zn 5.0
Cd 0.005
- Biodegradable wastes are generated by cotton mills, food
processing units, paper mills, and textile factories.
- Non-biodegradable wastes:
• By thermal power plants: Produce fly ash.
• By integrated iron & steel plants: Produce blast furnace
slag and steel melting slag.
• Industries manufacturing Al, Zn & Cu: Produce mud and
tailings.
- Fertilizer industries produce gypsum. Hazardous wastes
such as inflammables, composite explosives or highly
reactive substances are produced by industries dealing in
metals, chemicals, drugs, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides,
rubber goods etc.
- Non-degradable industrial solid wastes cause serious threat
to the environment. New innovations have led to different
uses of waste material. Nowadays, fly ash & slag are utilized
by the cement industry. Toxic wastes are usually destroyed
by controlled incineration, whereas small quantities are
burnt along with factory garbage in open bins.
Waste recycling
• Fuel obtained from plastic waste has high octane rating. It
contains no lead and is known as “green fuel”.
• Clothes will be made from recycled plastic waste. These will be
available soon in the global textile market.
• Electricity can be produced from the garbage. A pilot plant has
been set up, where ferrous metals, plastic, glass, paper etc. from
garbage is mixed with water. It is then cultured with bacterial
species for producing methane (biogas). The remaining product is
used as manure and biogas is used to produce electricity.
for recycling. Biodegradable wastes are deposited in
landfills and are converted into compost.
GREEN CHEMISTRY
- It is the utilization of the principles of chemistry and other
sciences to reduce the adverse impact on environment.
- It is a production process that brings about minimum
pollution to the environment.
- The byproducts generated during a process, if not used
gainfully, add to environmental pollution. Such processes
are environmental unfriendly and cost-ineffective.
- Organic solvents such as benzene, toluene, carbon
tetrachloride etc., are highly toxic.
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- If reactants are fully converted into useful ecofriendly
products by using an ecofriendly medium, there would be
no chemical pollutants.
- During a synthesis, starting materials should be converted
into end products with yield nearly up to 100 %. It can be
achieved by arriving at optimum conditions of synthesis.
- Carry out synthetic reactions in aqueous medium since
water has high specific heat and low volatility. Water is cost
effective, noninflammable and no carcinogenic effects.
Green Chemistry in day-to-day Life
a. Dry Cleaning of Clothes: Halogenated solvents like
Tetra chloroethene (Cl2 C=CCl2 ) was used for dry
cleaning. It contaminates groundwater and is a carcinogen.
Instead of this, liquefied CO2 , with a suitable detergent is
used. It will result in less harm to ground water.
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These days H2 O2 is used for bleaching clothes. It gives
better results and makes use of lesser amount of water.
b. Bleaching of Paper: Instead of chlorine, H2 O2 with
suitable bleach promoting catalyst, is used for bleaching.
c. Synthesis of Chemicals: Ethanal (CH3 CHO) is now
commercially prepared by one step oxidation of ethene in
the presence of ionic catalyst in aqueous medium with a
yield of 90%.
Some concepts for a better environment and human life:
✓ Set up a compost tin to produce manure for your plants to
reduce the use of fertilizers.
✓ Use a cloth bag instead of plastic carry bags.
✓ Recycling of newspapers, glass, aluminum etc.
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