ABSTRACT

Abstract
1
 Our project is named as “Enhanced Safe System for Gas
Vehicles”. In any of LPG used area presently unsafely. In this condition
major accident is possible during gas leakage. To avoid these accidents,
we can use the system.

To sense the LPG GAS leakage and prevent the accidents based on
sense and control technologies.

Using the GAS sensor with microcontroller the accidents are

controlled in an efficient manner. It can be implemented to all gas
vehicles.

In this system, to sense the Gas leakage of LPG cylinder, pipeline

by using LPG sensor and switch off the power system of vehicle or home
and activating the alarm by using PIC microcontroller. After displaying
the status by LCD display.

The project designed mainly for automotive & industrial

applications by managing the safety.

2
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

3
 LP gas (butane or propane) is the most common type of fuel used
for automotive and domestic in worldwide. LPG leak can cause
devastating explosions and consequences of a gas leak in both automotive
and commercial situations are every bit as disastrous as those of a fire and
can be avoided with the fitting of easy to use and cost effective detection
equipment.

In this system, to sense the Gas leakage of LPG cylinder, pipeline

& blender by using LPG sensor and off the ignition power, battery power,
fuel supply with center lock opening by using PIC microcontroller. After
displaying the status by LCD display. The project designed mainly for
automotive & industrial applications by managing the safety. In this
technology is used to prevent collisions while the driver is using the
cruise control on the vehicle.

4
BLOCK DIAGRAM

BLOCK DIAGRAM

5
 LPG
Sensor

CONTROLLER

LCD Display Alarm

Driver

Relay Fuel Control Centre Lock

Power System

6
 CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM

POWER SUPPLY
7
 +12V

4X1N 4007 1 3
IC 7 8 0 5 +5V

2
+ +
A C 220V - +
1 0 0 0 M F D \5 0 V 0 .1 M D F 1 0 0 M F D \2 5 V

12V / 500m A

MICROCONTROLLER UNIT
8
 V C C (+ 5 V )
1 6 X 2 L C D D is p la y
2 1 3 4 5 6 11 12 13 14 15 16
10MF D
2 .2 k
560E
560E

2 20 +5V
22K 10K

G A S SEN SO R 11
12
13
15

16
1N 4148
4.7K 17
470E
1
1M F D
18
1K V C C (+ 1 2 V )

T o I g n it i o n
P IC 1 6 F 7 3

IN 4 0 0 7
S y s te m

28 BC 547
R ELAY
4.7K

V C C (+ 1 2 V )

BUZZER 1K V C C (+ 1 2 V )

BC 547 T o F u e l V a lv e
27 IN 4 0 0 7
4 .7 K

26 BC 547
R ELAY
4.7K

22pf 1K V C C (+ 1 2 V )

9
IN 4 0 0 7 T o L i g h t in g
4MH z Pow er
10
22pf
19 25 BC 547
R ELAY
4.7K

9
 EMBEDDED
SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

WHY WE ARE USING EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

10
  Cost of production is very low.
 It is an advanced and latest technology.
 Production time is very less.
 It improves the efficiency of the host machine tremendously.

WHAT IS EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

Embedded System is a small computer system that is generally

hidden inside equipment [machine, electrical appliances, or electronic
gadget] to increase the intelligence of the equipment for better or more
efficient functionality. This kind of system always involves both the
software and the hardware co-development.

Embedded Systems are often easier understood in terms of Smart

devices, intelligent or automated equipments. Embedded Systems do not
need a complete operating system, but only the basic functionalities of an
operating system. Hence Embedded System can be defined as follows:

 It is embedding or inserting human intelligence by means of a

software into a Microcontroller chip and designing a hardware for the
purpose.
 It is a combination of software and hardware with automatic working
without user interface.
 It performs specific functions in host systems like satellites, etc,.

EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware,

software and additional mechanical parts, designed to perform a specific

11
function .An embedded system is designed to do a specific task within a
given time frame, repeatedly, without human interaction. Embedded
system do not need a complete operating system, but only the basic
functionalities of an operating system in a real-time environment, that is,
a real time operating system. (RTOS). Frequently, embedded system does
not have a user interface.

Application Area of embedded system include aerospace/defense

systems, telecommunication equipments and switches, mobile computing,
broadcast, automotives, industrial process control and monitoring,
medical electronics, consumer electronics, etc. Main hardware
components of an embedded system are microprocessor or micro
controller, and supporting ICs. The combination of micro-controller and
ICs are application specific. Commonly used microprocessors include the
following. Motorola 680XX series, IBM PowerPC series processors,
MIPS processors, Intel 386 and compatible CPUs, ARM processors, Sun
SPARC series, etc. Embedded systems need memory for storing programs
and data, and usually programs are stored in ROM or EPROM. Often
these systems have a serial port network interface, I/O interface for
interacting with sensors and actuators in the case of process controlling
systems.

12
MICROPROCESS
OR
Vs
MICROCONTROL
LER

MICROPROCESSOR Vs MICROCONTROLLER

13
 Microcontroller is a general-purpose device which has an in-
built CPU, Memory and peripherals, which make it function as a mini
computer.

Both Microcontroller and microprocessor can be employed for

designing products or applications in Embedded System. But
Microcontroller has its own advantages over microprocessor. They are as
follows:
 For transfer of data from external memory to the CPU,
microprocessor needs many operational codes. But in Microcontroller,
one or two codes are enough.
 Microcontroller have many bit-handling inuctions, but microprocessor
have only one or two.
 Microcontroller have built-in peripherals whereas microprocessor lack
in-built peripherals.
 Microcontroller work faster than microprocessor because of rapid
movement of bits within the chip.
 Microcontroller have simple circuit ucture compared to
microprocessor.
 Microcontroller have only 35 inuctions whereas microprocessor have
75.
 Microcontroller are costly when compared with microprocessor.
 Microcontroller can function as a mini computer without any
additional parts.
 Microcontroller inuctions are simple, single word inuctions.

14
 PIC
(PERIPHERL INTERFACE
CONTROLLER)

PIC (PERIPHERL INTERFACE CONTROLLER)

15
 PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller as coined by
Microchip Technology, USA. MCU overview and Roadmap Microchip
PIC micro MCUs combine high-performance, low-cost and small
package size, offering the best price/performance ratio in the industry.
More than 1.5 billion of these devices are shipped to customers
worldwide since 1990.

PIC (Peripheral Interface Controller) is the IC which was developed

to control the peripheral device, dispersing the function of the main CPU.
When comparing to the human being, the brain is the main CPU and the
PIC shares the part of which is equivalent to the automatic. However, the
through out, the memory capacities are not big. It depends on the kind of
PIC but the maximum operation clock frequency is about 29 MHZ and
the memory capacity to write the program is about 1k to 4k words. It is
possible to make the compact circuit when using PIC.

The point which the PIC is convenient for the calculation part, the
memory, the input/output part and so on are incorporated in to one piece
of the IC.

16
 The efficiency and the function are limited but can compose the
control unit only by the PIC even if it does not combine the various IC’s.
So the circuit can be compactly.

Microchip offers five families of MCUs to best fit your application needs:
 PIC12CXXX 8-pin 12-bit/14-bit program word
 PIC16C5X 12-bit program word
 PIC16CXXX 14-bit program word
 PIC17CXXX 16-bit program word
 PIC18CXXX enhanced 16-bit program word
ADVANTAGES IN USING PIC

 Microchip is the world’s first largest chip Manufacturer.

 Focus on high performance cost-effective, field-programmable

embedded control Solutions.

 Microchip is the first Manufacturer of 8 pin RISC MCU.

 Variety of end-user Application-specific Standard Products

(ASSP) & Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC).

 Global network of manufacturing and customer support

facilities.

17
 HARDWARE
COMPONENTS
OF
PIC16F73

HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF PIC16F73

This powerful yet easy-to-program (only 35 single word

instructions) 8-bit microcontroller packs Microchip's powerful PIC
18
architecture into an 28-pin package and is upwards compatible with the
PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX and PIC16C7X devices. The PIC16F73
features, self programming, an ICD, 2 Comparators, 5 channels of 8-bit
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2 additional timers, the synchronous
serial port can be configured as either 3-wire Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI™) or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated Circuit (I 2C™) bus and a Universal
Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART). All of these features make
it ideal for more advanced level A/D applications in automotive,
industrial, appliances and consumer applications.

19
 PIN DIAGRAM
OF
PIC16F73

PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC16F73

20
21
PIC16F73 BLOCK

PIC16F73 BLOCK

22
 The PIC16F73 has 28 pins. These 28 pins can be connected to
different ports like PORTA, PORTB and PORTC. Apart from these it can
be used for transmitting and receiving different analog signals.
Oscillators, Capacitors, Resistors of varying value can be used with this.
The ports in this can be configured as either an output port or as an input
port .If it is configured as output port either LED’s or LCD’s or Seven
segment displays can be used to view the output. If the ports are
23
configured as input then signals can be received by using keys. These
ports have 3-8 pins. Port A, B, C has eight pins each. Supply of +5v are
used in pins 1 and 20 where a resistor of 1K is used in pin 1.Similarly pin
19 is used as ground. This IC is particularly used for storing values in its
memory. RTC (Real Time Clock) is an added feature. When there is a
need to use three ports or lesser than five ports we can always go for 72
since it gives us an advantage to use EEPROM, RTC and different types
of input and output.

Oscillators
There are 4 common oscillator modes that are available on most
PICmicro devices. HS, XT, LP and RC.
These modes support crystals, canned oscillator modules, some
resonators or the use of an external resistor and capacitor as a clock
source. When using a crystal or resonator, other components such as
capacitors may be needed. The XT mode stands for “Crystal” mode and
will produce a medium drive level. It is designed to be used with crystals
and resonators of about 1 to 4 MHz.
Master Clear Resets (MCLR)
Resets can be caused by a signal on the MCLR pin, by
powering up the device, by a Watchdog timer timeout, by a Brown-Out
voltage Reset (BOR), by a software reset instruction, or by a stack
overflow or underflow reset. The MCLR pin can be used to generate a
reset. On most PICmicro® devices the MCLR pin is always active. When
the MCLR function of the pin is enabled, it is an active low Schmitt
trigger input.

24
 POWER SYSTEM

POWER SYSTEM

Every electronic system we need low voltage DC power supply in

different electronic circuits operated in different power supplies, the

25
ratings depending upon load current and voltage. The load current
depending on load resistance i.e. load current is inversely proportional to
load resistance. So the matched designation of power supply is very
important to every electronic circuit.

In this circuits we need two power supplies .All ICs are worked on
regulated DC power 5v with GND. Relay derive worked on dc 12v with
GND .This unit consist of transformer, rectifier, filter & regulator. AC
voltage typically 230v RMS is connected to a transformer which steps
that AC voltage down to the level of the desired Ac voltage .A Diode
rectifier then provides a bridge rectified voltage that is initially filtered by
a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage. This resulting DC
voltage usually has some ripple or Ac voltage variations. A regulator
circuit can use this DC input to provide DC voltage that not only has
much less ripple voltage but also remains the same DC value even the DC
voltage varies somewhat,.

BLOCKDIAGRM:

Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

TRANSFORMER:

26
 A Transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of which electric
power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same
frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit
but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It works with
the principle of mutual induction. In our project we are using step down
transformer for providing a necessary supply for the electronic circuits .In
our project we are using a (12-0) v/500mA.

RECTIFIER:

The Dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved

100% using a process called full wave rectification. It uses 4 diodes in a
bridge configuration. From the basic bridge configuration. We see that
two diodes (say D2 &D3) are conducting while the other two diodes
(D1&D4) are in “off” state during the period t = 0 to T/2.Accordingly for
the negative of the input the conducting diodes are D1&D4.Thus the
polarity across the load is the same.

FILTER:

The filter circuit used here is the capacitor filter circuit where a
capacitor is connected at the rectifier output, and a DC is obtained across
it .The filtered wave form is essentially a dc voltage with negligible
ripples, which is ultimately fed to the load.

REGULATOR:

27
 The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered and finally
regulated. The voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output
voltage constant irrespective of the changes in supply variations, load
variation and temperature changes. Here we use one fixed voltage
regulator namely LM7805.The IC 7805 is a+5 voltage regulator.
3-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulators

The LM341 and LM78MXX series of three-terminal positive

voltage regulators employ built-in current limiting, thermal shutdown,
and safe-operating area protection which make them virtually immune to
damage from output overloads. With adequate heat sinking, they can
deliver in excess of 0.5A output current. Typical applications would
include local (on-card) regulators which can eliminate the noise and
degraded performance associated with single-point regulation.
 Internal thermal overload protection

 Internal short circuit current-limiting

 Output transistor safe

 ea compensation

 Available in TO-220, TO-39, and TO-252 D-PAK packages

PIEZOELECTRIC SOUNDER AND BUZZER

28
 A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic,
typically used in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave
oven, or game shows.

It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected

to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a
preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate
button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous
or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based
on an electromechanical system which was identical to an electric bell
without the metal gong (which makes the ringing noise). Often these units
were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a
sounding board.

Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to

implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to
drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to a cheap 8-ohm speaker.
RELAY

29
 A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control
of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by
an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was
invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an
output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered,
in a broad sense, to be a form of electrical amplifier.

Operation

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field
attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The
movement either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force approximately half as ong as the magnetic force to its relaxed
position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly.
In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or
high current application, this is to reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed

across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field
at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and
might cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is designed to be
energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the
solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which
increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY:

30
 The electromagnetic relays give a transision from ON to OFF when
the coil is energised or deenergised. The main feature in a relay is
contacts that close or open an electric circuit under the control of
electromagnet.

We use the un scaled general purpose relay and is very simple in

design.
ARMATURE FIXED CONTACT

MOVABLE CONTACT

SUPPLY
COIL SPRING

IRON CORE

When a DC current is passed through a coil the iron core get

magnetised and attracting armature towards it. The moving contact is
attached to the armature. Therefore the switches can operated with the
help of this make contact.

Typical switching capacities

Noraml duty contacts : 5 amp 24Vdc

1 amp 250Vac

Heavy duty contacts : 10 amp 24Vdc

5 amp 250Vac
31
 THE SWITCHING TRANSISTOR:

The transistor BC 547(NPN) is used to switch the LED displays.

The simplest way to use a transistor as a switch, meaning that we operate
it at either saturation or cut-off, when a transistor is saturated, it is like a
closed switch from the collector to the emitter. When a transistor is cut-
off it is like an open switch.

+Vcc

IC
Rc

RB VCC / RC CLOSED SWITCH

+VBB BC 547

OPEN SWITCH

VCE

32
 LCD DISPLAY

LCD DISPLAY

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials which combine the

properties of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting
33
point, they have a temperature range within which the molecules are
almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in
an ordered form similar to a crystal.

Liquid crystal display

An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal

material sand witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass
plates are coated with transparent electrodes which define the character,
symbols or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers are present in
between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid
crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle.

One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These
polarisers would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite
angle, in a particular direction When the LCD is in the off state, light rays
are rotated by the two polarisers and the liquid crystal, such that the light
rays come out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD
appears transparent.

34
 When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid
crystal molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays
passing through the LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would
result in activating / highlighting the desired characters.

The LCD's are lightweight with only a few millimetres thickness.

Since the LCD's consume less power, they are compatible with low
power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long durations. The
LCD's don't generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By
using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD's have long
life and a wide operating temperature range. Changing the display size or
the layout size is relatively simple which makes the LCD's more customer
friendly.

The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring

in uments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited
amount of numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted
in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider
temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively
used in telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs
have even started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the
display of text and graphics, and also in small TV applications.

Interface PIN Connection

35
LPG SENSOR

36
 A LPG detector is a device that detects gas. Commercial, industrial,
and mass residential devices issue a signal to a fire alarm system, while
household detectors, known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local
audible and/or visual alarm from the detector itself.

Resistance value of sensor is difference to various kinds and

various concentration gases. So, when using these components,
sensitivity adjustment is very necessary. we recommend that you calibrate
the detector for 1000ppm of LPG concentration in air and use value of
Load resistance ( RL) about 20KΩ(10KΩ to 47KΩ). When accurately
measuring, the proper alarm point for the gas detector should be
determined after considering the temperature and humidity influence.
SOLENOID VALVE

37
 A solenoid valve is an electromechanical valve for use with liquid
or gas controlled by running or stopping an electric current through a
solenoid, which is a coil of wire, thus changing the state of the valve. The
operation of a solenoid valve is similar to that of a light switch, but
typically controls the flow of air or water, whereas a light switch typically
controls the flow of electricity. Solenoid valves may have two or more
ports: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off; in the
case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet
ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in

fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids.
They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe
switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility
of the materials used, low control power and compact design.

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently,

pivoted-armature actuators and rocker actuators are also used.

Working principle

A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve.
The solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in
turn, opens or closes the valve mechanically. A Direct Acting valve has
only a small flow circuit, shown within section E of this diagram (this
section is mentioned below as a pilot valve). This Diaphragm Piloted
Valve multiplies this small flow by using it to control the flow through a
much larger orifice.

38
 Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also
have electrical interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used
to hold the valve opened or closed while the valve is not activated.

A- Input side
B- Diaphragm
C- Pressure chamber
D- Pressure relief conduit
E- Solenoid
F- Output side

The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic valve. At the
top figure is the valve in its closed state. The water under pressure enters
at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a weak spring pushing it
down. The function of this spring is irrelevant for now as the valve would
39
stay closed even without it. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its
center which allows a very small amount of water to flow through it. This
water fills the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure
is equal on both sides of the diaphragm. While the pressure is the same on
both sides of the diaphragm, the force is greater on the upper side which
forces the valve shut against the incoming pressure. In the figure, the
surface being acted upon is greater on the upper side which results in
greater force. On the upper side the pressure is acting on the entire
surface of the diaphragm while on the lower side it is only acting on the
incoming pipe. This results in the valve being securely shut to any flow
and, the greater the input pressure, the greater the shutting force will be.

In the previous configuration the small conduit D was blocked by a

pin which is the armature of the solenoid E and which is pushed down by
a spring. If the solenoid is activated by drawing the pin upwards via
magnetic force from the solenoid current, the water in chamber C will
flow through this conduit D to the output side of the valve. The pressure
in chamber C will drop and the incoming pressure will lift the diaphragm
thus opening the main valve. Water now flows directly from A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the conduit D is closed

again, the spring needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again
and the main valve closes.

40
 LIQUEFIED
PETROLEUM GAS

Liquefied petroleum gas

Liquefied petroleum gas (also called liquified petroleum gas, liquid

petroleum gas, LPG, LP Gas, or autogas) is a mixture of hydrocarbon
gases used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles, and increasingly

41
replacing chlorofluorocarbons as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant
to reduce damage to the ozone layer.

Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily
propane, mixes that are primarily butane, and the more common, mixes
including both propane (60%) and butane (40%), depending on the
season—in winter more propane, in summer more butane. Propylene and
butylenes are usually also present in small concentration. A powerful
odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The
internatinal standard is EN 589.

LPG is manufactured during the refining of crude oil, or extracted

from oil or gas streams as they emerge from the ground.

At normal temperatures and pressures, LPG will evaporate.

Because of this, LPG is supplied in pressurised steel bottles. In order to
allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid, these bottles are not
filled completely; typically, they are filled to between 80% and 85% of
their capacity. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporised gas and the
liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure and temperature,
but is typically around 250:1. The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid,
called its vapor pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and
temperature; for example, it is approximately 220 kilopascals (2.2 bar) for
pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately 2.2 megapascals (22 bar)
for pure propane at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, and thus will
flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. This
can cause ignition or suffocation hazards if not dealt with.
Carriage by sea

42
 Liquefied petroleum gas is carried by sea in large quantities. An
LPG vessel carries the gas as a liquid. This liquid may be under pressure,
semi-pressurised or fully refrigerated. Large gas carriers, engaged on
international trade and which transport the vast majority of LPG, may
carry on average 80,000 cubic metres of liquefied petroleum gas.
Generally this will be in a fully refrigerated state where the cargo is
cooled to boiling or bubble point, and the cargo is kept cool by the
reliquefaction of the vapours produced once the LPG is in the cargo
tanks. The vast majority of cargoes are either propane or butane, but it is
common for LPG ships to carry ammonia which, due to its toxicity, is
regarded as a chemical rather than LPG. Carriage temperatures are
around minus 44 degrees Celsius for propane and minus 5 degrees
Celsius for butane.
Production

LPG is synthesised by refining petroleum or natural gas; it was first

produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial
products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of the energy
consumed in the United States.

Usage in cars

When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often

referred to as autogas. In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s
as an alternative fuel for spark ignition engines. More recently, it has also
been used in diesel engines.

43
 In highly purified form, a blend of the LPG constituents propane
and iso-butane is used to make hydrocarbon refrigerants, which are
increasingly being used in servicing mobile air conditioning systems.
This is because of concerns about the global warming effect of the widely
used HFC 134a (Global Warming Potential 1410), and because
hydrocarbons are more energy efficient, run at lower pressure and are
generally cheaper than HFC 134a. There are LPG hybrid vehicles and
aftermarket hybridisation kits.

LPG as cooking fuel

According to the 2001 Census of India, 17.5% of Indian

households or 33.6 million Indian households used LPG as cooking fuel
in 2001 [1]. 76.64% of such households were from urban India making up
48% of urban Indian households as compared to a usage of 5.7% only in
rural Indian households. LPG is subsidised by the government. Increase
in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter in India as it
potentially affects the urban middle class voting pattern.

LPG was once a popular cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the
continued expansion of town gas to buildings has reduced LPG usage to
less than 24% of residential units.

LPG is the most common cooking fuel in Brazilian urban areas,

being used in virtually all households. Poor families receive a
government grant ("Vale Gás") used exclusively for the acquisition of
LPG.
LPG and SNG
44
 LPG has a higher calorific value (94 MJ/m³ equivalent to
26.1kWh) than natural gas (methane) (38 MJ/m³ equivalent to 10.6kWh),
which means that LPG can not simply be substituted for natural gas. In
order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for
similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce
a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air
mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the
gases making up the LPG. The method for determining the mixing ratios
is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having the same
Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.

LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many

public, industrial, and military installations, and many utilities use LPG
peak shaving plants in times of high demand to make up shortages in
natural gas supplied to their distributions systems. LPG-SNG installations
are also used during initial gas system introductions, when the
distribution infrastructure is in place before gas supplies can be
connected. Developing markets in India and China (among others) use
LPG-SNG systems to build up customer bases prior to expanding existing
natural gas systems.

Fire risk and mitigation

LPG containers that are subjected to fire of sufficient duration and

intensity can undergo a boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion
(BLEVE). This is typically a concern for large refineries and
petrochemical plants that maintain very large containers. The remedy is to
equip such containers with a measure to provide a fire-resistance rating. If
the containers are cylindrical and horizontal, they are referred to as
45
"cigars", whereas circular ones are "spheres". Large, spherical LPG
containers may have up to a 15 cm steel wall thickness. Ordinarily, they
are equipped with an approved pressure relief valve on the top, in the
centre. One of the main dangers is that accidental spills of hydrocarbons
may ignite and heat an LPG container, which increases its temperature
and pressure, following the basic gas laws. The relief valve on the top is
designed to vent off excess pressure in order to prevent the rupture of the
tank itself. Given a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, the pressure
being generated by the boiling and expanding gas can exceed the ability
of the valve to vent the excess. When that occurs, an overexposed tank
may rupture violently, launching pieces at high velocity, while the
released products can ignite as well, potentially causing catastrophic
damage to anything nearby, including other tanks. In the case of "cigars",
a midway rupture may send two "rockets" going off each way, with
plenty of fuel in each to propel each segment at high speed until the fuel
is spent.

Mitigation measures include separating LPG tanks from potential

sources of fire. In the case of rail transport, for instance, LPG tanks can
be staggered, so that other goods are put in between them. This is not
always done, but it does represent a low-cost remedy to the problem. LPG
railcars are easy to spot from the relief valves on top, typically with
railings all around.

In the case of new LPG containers, one may simply bury them,
only leaving valves and armatures exposed, for easy maintenance. Great
care must be taken there though, as mechanical damage has been known
to occur to the primers, which has resulted in hazardous corrosion of the
containers. For the buried container, only the exposed parts need to be
46
treated with approved fireproofing materials, such as intumescent and or
endothermic coatings, or even fireproofing plasters. The rest are amply
protected by soil. Speciality removable covers exist for easy access to the
dials and components that must be accessed for proper maintenance and
operation of the equipment. LPG containers are subject to significant
motion due to expansion, contraction, filling and emptying - even with
very thick steel walls. This operational motion makes the burial option
less attractive in the long run because one cannot tell mechanical damage
to the outer waterproofing through soil. A simple pebble scraping back
and forth across the epoxy-painted hull can remove the waterproofing and
be the cause for corrosion. Whilst one may calculate and justify on paper
the use of inorganic plasters to cover entire spheres, it can be difficult to
keep plasters operable for extended periods of time. Major errors have
also been made in the past in this field, as the presumption was that the
steel substrate would be adequately protected from rusting through the
use of alkaline plasters. The alkalinity in such plasters is due to the
presence of cement stone. This alakalinity, however, does not typically
have a permanent character, which means that waterproofing with high
quality epoxy primers is very important. Also, exterior waterproofing of
the plaster is required by some fireproofing plaster vendors, as reduced
alkalinity in exposed plasters can have a deleterious effect on the cement
stone, which binds the plaster in the first place. By contrast, the
intumescent and endothermic coatings are usually epoxy based to begin
with, meaning that corrosion of the substrate is no problem whatsoever.
Fireproofing, not unlike all passive fire protection products, is subject to
stringent bounding. The problem with this is though, that exterior
structures of this nature are not subject to the building code or the fire
code, meaning that one still sees the majority of LPG containers without
any fireproofing at all, as there are often no local regulations, let alone
47
any Authority Having Jurisdiction, apart from an insurance inspector, to
force owners to use the proper mitigation methods. Insurance companies
are also in a competitive quandary, where such items are concerned, as
they compete not only on the basis of rates, but also on the strictness of
the demands by their inspectors. LPG vessel fireproofing tests are varied.
The only realistic exposure offered done at the Braunschweig test facility
of "BAM" Berlin [2]. BAM's procedure is to expose a small LPG
container to the hydrocarbon test curve and to quantify the results. North
American methods are based on UL1709. While UL1709 uses the correct
time/temperature curve for testing, it is limited to testing steel columns,
whereas BAM actually exposes a real LPG container that has been
fireproofed. No matter the fireproofing method one uses, it is very
important to pay close attention to bounding and to be sure that the
product one chooses has undergone product certification.

48
 SOFTWARE

MPLAB

INTRODUCTION

MPLAB is a Windows program package that makes writing and

developing a program easier. It could best be described as developing
environment for some standard program language that is intended for
programming a PC computer. Some operations which were done from the
instruction line with a large number of parameters until the discovery of
IDE "Integrated Development Environment" are now made easier by
using the MPLAB. Still, our tastes differ, so even today some
programmers prefer the standard editors and compilers from instruction

49
line. In any case, the written program is legible, and well documented
help is also available.

MPLAB CONSISTS OF

 Grouping the projects files into one project (Project Manager)

 Generating and processing a program (Text Editor)
 Simulator of the written program used for simulating program
 Function on the microcontroller.

REQUIREMENTS

 PC compatible computer 486 or higher

 Microsoft Windows 3.1x or Windows 95 and new versions of the
Windows
Operating system
 VGA graphic card
 8MB memory (32MB recommended).

HITECH C
INTRODUCTION

The HI-TECH C Compiler is a set of software, which

translates programs written in the C language to executable machine code
programs. Versions are available which compile programs for operation
under the host operating system, or which produce programs for
execution in embedded systems without an operating system.

FEATURES

Some of HI-TECH C's features are:

50
1. A single batch file or command file will compile, assemble
and link entire programs.

2. The compiler performs strong type checking and issues

warnings about various constructs which may represent
programming errors.

3. The generated code is extremely small and fast in execution.

4. A full run-time library is provided implementing all standard

C input/output and other functions.

5. The source code for all run-time routines is provided.

6. A powerful general purpose macro assembler is included.

Programs may be generated to execute under the host

operating system, or customized for installation in ROM.

ADVANTAGES
and
51
APPLICATION

52
ADVANTAGES

 To save life & avoid the major accidents.

 Maintenance free operation.

 Fully automatic control system.

 Advanced safety system.

 Long life.

 Efficient & Economy.

 Minimized space required.

 Time consumption is very less.

 Working fast and reliable operation.

APPLICATION

 All type automotive and industrial gas engines.

 Consumable gas application(i.e. Home)

 Industrial GAS furnace.

 Gas cutting system.

53
 BIBILIOGRAPHY

BIBILIOGRAPHY

WEBSITE REFERENCE
54
 www.datasheetarchive.com

www.microchip.com

www.google.com

BOOK REFERENCE

1. Microprocessor by Nagoor Kani

2. Programming In ANSI C by Balagurusamy

3. Embedded C by jerk

55
 CONCLUSION

Conclusion

Using the “Advanced Safe System” the accidents are controlled in

an efficient manner. It can be implemented to all gas applicable
equipments.

56
 They are used in gas leakage detecting and protection equipments
in family and industry are suitable for detecting of LPG, iso-butane,
propane, LNG, avoid the noise of alcohol and cooking fumes and
cigarette smoke.

So, this is the effective life saving maintenance free protection

system for automotive, industrial & commercial applications.

57
 ENTREPRENEUR
SHIP

ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Basics of Entrepreneurship

It is a well-known fact that the scope of for absorbing the ever

increasing number of unemployment in government departments is very

58
much restricted on account of various factors. Absorption of
unemployment people government service takes place either on account
of retirement of the existing staff or due to launching of development
programs. The employment so generated covers only a segment of the
unemployed. The private sector is also offering very little opportunity to
the young unemployed people due to various reasons. In such adverse
situation the Indian youth has to wage a bitter fight to solve the problem
of unemployment.

The plan document of our country lays emphasis on self-

employment to reduce unemployment in the country. We are a developing
country and there is a wider scope for the development of self
employment to all types of job. Industrial development in a country
depends greatly upon the type of human resources the country possesses.
A country may be rich in material resources and capital, but if
entrepreneurship is lacking, the utilization of resources would not be as
expected. The developing economics of resources would not be as
expected.

Concept
Entrepreneurship prevails environment in a country.
Entrepreneurship being an innovator who introduces something new into
the economy, a method of protection not yet tested by experience in the
branch of manufactured concerned, a product with which the consumes
are not familiar, a new source or raw materials, or a new market higher
exploited and similar other innovations. An entrepreneur is one who starts
59
an industrial venture or a business of his own. Entrepreneurship would
include undertaking manufacturing activities, business or crafts etc.,
Entrepreneurship is also associated with a risk assuming function.

Entrepreneur
An entrepreneur is said to be a person who organizes, manages and
issue the risk for a business or enterprise. Commonly entrepreneur is
understood to be those persons who start build their own enterprise rather
than taking up a job. Entrepreneurship is the trait taking up own
enterprises.
Role of entrepreneurship
An entrepreneur is a part of industrial society. He is responsible for
not only making his own source of live hood but also for creating avenues
of employment for others and making additions to the gross national
product. If a larger number of entrepreneurs set up enterprise of their
own, there is a great deal of transformation of an area. The industrial
entrepreneurs are thus the agents of charge in removing back wardens and
disparities of an area. An entrepreneur has a great social responsibility.
An enterprise consists of not only those who manage it but a host other
segments of society, workers, consumers, the state and the surrounding
community.
Some of the qualities are inherent but the others are mostly
acquired. Broody speaking four qualities are the most important one, e.g.
intelligence, motivation, knowledge and opportunity. While the first one
is inherent, a continuous process generally gains the knowledge, the
qualities of entrepreneurs further be sub-divided as under
 Capacity to take risk
 Capacity to work hard

60
 Desire for deferred consumption
 Capacity to take advantage of an external situation
 Imagination
 Emulation
 Initiative
 Sociability and flexibility
 Inventive ability and
 Knowledge, both informative and technical.

61
Expectation

 Increase number of industries is expected from the

entrepreneurs that they will help to.
 Increase production
 Earn foreign exchange through exports
 Develop the underdeveloped parts of the country.
 Develop economy

Small – scale industries facilitate production of consumer goods

locally and help reduction of prices. Some of the important measures of
assistance now available are briefly noted below:

1. Technical assistance: complete technical, economic and

managerial consultancy services are provided to SSO
through Small Industries Services Institute (SISI) and
Industrial Extension centers.
2. Assistance for obtaining raw materials: small – scale units
are helped to obtain controlled indigenous raw materials
through state director of industries and imported raw
materials through State Trading Corporation of India (STC).
3. Supply of machinery Hire Purchase: The National Small
Industries Corporation (NSIC) is giving assistance to small
scale units by supplying machinery to them on deferred
credit basis.
4. Marketing assistance: SS units are helped to market their
products through Trade centers and by participating in
government’s Stores Purchase Programme.

62
 5. Assistance to small entrepreneurs: Entrepreneurial
Development programmer is conducted by SSI and Small
Industries Development Organization (SIDO) to give
necessary training to young entrepreneurs. District Industries
Centre (DIC) provides under a single – roof all the services
and support required by the small and village industries at
pre – investment, investment, investment and post
investment stages.
6. Financial assistance : SS units are helped by providing
various financial assistance like loans, subsides, and hire –
purchase scheme through various agencies like State Finance
Corporation NSIC, State Directorates of Industries,
commercial banks, Industrial Development Bank of India
(IDBI) , and National Bank for Agricultural and Rural
Development (NABARD) .
7. Special incentives : Special inducements like the following
are offered by the government for development of
entrepreneurship.
a. Capital subsidy up to 15% in backward areas
b. Income Tax exemption for five years.
c. Exemption from Central excise duty.
d. Deduction of depreciation from net profit.
e. Concessions in Stamp duty.
f. License to import raw material.

Self-employment schemes
63
 The following are the four important government schemes for
prompting self-employment.

i. District Manpower Planning and Employment Generation

Council
The Council prepares a list of investment
opportunities in the self-employment in the district. The major
objective of the council is to remove the handicaps and difficult
faced by the youth in entering self-employment project.

ii. Employment Exchange

A special Vocational Guidance Unit functioning in
every Employment Exchange with the object of giving guidance
and motivation to unemployed persons to take up self
employment ventures. In addition to furnishing information on
self-employment projects, until also helps in obtaining loans
from the banks.

iii. The Prime Minister Scheme for providing self-employment

to educated Unemployed youth.
The objective of the scheme is to encourage the
educated unemployed youth to undertake self-employment
ventures in industry, service and business through provision of a
package of assistance.
The scheme covers all unemployed youth who are matriculates
and above, and in the age group of 18 to 35 years. District
Industries Centers (DIC) are assigned the operational
responsibility of the scheme.
64
 iv. Self employment scheme for TRYSEM – trained youth
TRYSEM stands for “Training of Rural Youth for
Self-Employment”, It is a scheme by which rural youth are
trained in semi engineering trades in Industrial Training
Institutes and Polytechnics. lThey youth are provided wit5h
financial and other assistance from Government I the form of
subsidy drawn from Integral Rural
Development Program (RDP) and as credit from commercial
banks RS.3000 to Rs.10,000.

The Scheme is implemented by a Task Force under the Chairmanship of

District Collector and with District Employment Officer as Member
Secretary and Project officer (DRDA). DDO and Lead Bank Manager as
members.

Product Selection

A prospective entrepreneur should first prepare a shore list of

product lines that he wants to establish. Then, he should select the
product to be manufactured based upon market survey and demand
survey, financial implementations involved, technical know-how
available, and his own experience in the line.

Market survey involves the following:

65
  Study similar product available in the market that can be
probable Competitors.
 Analyze them in regards to their utility, quality and cost.
 Check whether it is a seasonal product or needed through out
the year.
 Find the probable extend of the market.
 Find whether the product can be exported.
 Explore the possibility of manufacturing in collaboration
with a foreign company.
 A demand survey is made to determine
 Whether survey demand for the product is or inelastic.
 The trend of the demand.
 The composition and pattern of the potential users.

Site Selection
The important factors to be considered in selecting the site for an
industry are given below.
 Nearness to raw material: It will reduce the cost of
transportation of raw materials to the factory.
 Nearness to market: It will reduce transportation cost of the
finished products and also help to catch the share of the
market.
 Easy availability of labor: If highly skilled workmen are
required, it is better to locate the plant near a large town.
 Availability of power and fuel: Electrical power and fuel
required for the plant should be easily obtainable in the area,
Reliability of power supply must be ensured.

66
  Availability of water: Water for drinking and for other
purposes should be easily available. If the process requires
large quantity of water, then the plant should be located near
a major water source.
 Land-topography: Cost, probability of floods. Earthquakes,
etc are to be considered.
 Industrial areas: Notified industrial areas will be
advantageous due to the availability of ready infrastructure
and other benefits.
 Other major factors: Presence of related industries, facilities
for expansion, housing facilities, and nearness of public
amenities like hospitals and schools, security problems, local
and attitude of local people.

Plant Layout
Plant layout means the disposition of the various (equipments,
material, manpower, etc) and services of the plant within the area of the
site selected. Plant layout begins with the design of the factory building
and goes up lathe location and movement of a worktable. All the facilities
like equipments, raw material, machinery, tools fixtures,
Workers, etc, are given a proper place. In deciding the place for
equipment, the supervisors and workers who nave to operate them should
be consulted.

There are three types of plant layout:

67
 1. Process Layout (functional layout) in which all machines or
process of the same types is grouped together in the same
area.
2. Product Layout (line layout) in which equipments regardless
of process is arranged as per the sequence of operations in
which a given product will be manufactured.
3. Layout by fixed position (static product layout) in which the
product is too big (e.g. ship, airplane) or too heavy to be
moved from one place to another and is consequently fixed
in one place, and men and machines are brought to the
product to perform the required operations. Whatever by the
type required, certain basic principles must be observed.
While preparing the plant layout.

These are:
1. Placement of facilities in a logical and balanced manner.
2. Minimum movements for workers and materials
3. Smooth and continuous flow of operations
4. Optimum space utilization.
5. Flexibility
i. Private Limited Company
ii. Public Limited Company
Each one has its own advantages and disadvantages. An
entrepreneur’s choices of the type of the organization will primary
depend upon the nature of the business to be started and his own
preferences together with the amount of capital he can contribute.
Registration
The prospective entrepreneur in the small – scale sector need not
obtain any Industrial Licenses, provided the item of manufacture is not
68
governed by special regulations. However, to facilitate identification, the
Directorate of Industries (through District Industries Center - DIC) issues
certificates registering a unit as a Small Scale / Ancillary / Tiny Unit.
Registration is done is two stages, Via, provisional and permanent.
The issue of Provisional certificate almost automatic, with Unit / ail
validity of 6 months and with a further extension for another 6 months.
Financial Assistance
With a view to ensure adequate of funds, the small scale Industrial
frame work for the flow of Financial Assistance to small
scale sector comprises of banks (Commercial Banks, Co-Operative banks,
Regional rural banks). State Financial Corporation, National Small
Industries Corporation INSIC and State Small Industries Corporations
(SSIDCS).
The NSIC and SSID’S provide Financial Assistance in the form supply of
Machinery and hire purchase basis.
A National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) has recently been setup to meet the financial requirements of
artisans, Small Scale Industries, Industries those engaged in the field of
Handicraft and other rural craft.
Commercial Banks
The Reserve Bank of India issued instructions that no worth wile
proposals of the Small scale unit should be rejected merely on the ground
that these are not supported by adequate security. The commercial Banks
have been advised by the Reserve Bank of India to give special Attention
to the needs of the priority sector borrowers, particularly of the weaker
section.
Small scale Industrial units also being charged lower rates of
interest on their borrowings from commercial Banks.

69
State Financial Corporations
Provide medium and long-term Loans to Small Scale Industries,
granting Loans raised by Industrial undertakings and differed payments
and subscribing to stocks, Shares and bonds of an Industrial Concern.

Lead Banks
The Scheme is designed to enable the bank to work effectively as
an Instrument of development. Under the scheme, the district in the
country have allocated to different commercial banks each of whom is
expected to act as a consortium and as a leader of the financial
institutions operating in allotted districts in matters relating to deposit
mobilization, identifying of prospective avenues for financial assistance
and ensuring adequate credit flow for the various development programs
of the districts.

Institutional support
The success of Small Scale industries depends solely on the well –
established institutional setup. In order to accelerate the small industries
development, government at the central and state levels has setup a
number of development agencies / institutions. Functions of some these
are mentioned.

1. District Industries Center (DIC)

Each district has a DIC at its headquarters. The main responsibility
of DIG is to act as the chief coordinator or multi functional agency
in; respect of various governments can get all assistance from DIC

70
 for setting up and running the industry in rural areas. Each DIC has
one General Manager in the rank of Joint Director of industries as
the head and seven managers each looking after separate functional
area.
 Identification of Entrepreneurs.
 Selection of Projects
 Provisional registration under SSI
 Purchase of fixed Assets
 Clearances from Various Departments.
 Assistance of Raw Material supplies.
 Interest – Free Sales Tax Loan
 Subsidy Schemes.
 Training Programs
 Self – employment for Unemployed Educated Youth.
District Industries Centers are supposed to provide pre –
investment and post – investment assistance to entrepreneurs under
one roof.

2. Small Industries Development Organization

SIDO is a policy-making, co-ordination and monitoring agency for
the development of small – scale entrepreneurs. It maintains a close
liaison with government, financial institutions and other agencies,
which are involved in the promotion and development of small-
scale units.

71
Functions
The main functions of the SIDCD are co-ordination, industrial
development and industrial extension service. Some important functions
are:
a. To assess the requirements of indigenous and imported raw
materials and components for the small-scale sector and to arrange
their supplies.
b. To collect data on consumer items, which are imported and
encourage the setting up of new units giving them coordinate
assistance.
c. To prepare model schemes, projects reports and other Technical
literature for prospective entrepreneurs.
d. To assist and advise the Controller of Capital issues in regard to the
issue of import licenses and the imposition of import restrictions on
various products whose manufacture has already been undertaken
indigenously be the existing or new units.
e. To secure reservations of certain products for the SSIS.

3. National Small Industries Corporation Limited (NSIC)

The NSIC was setup in 1955 with the objective of supplying
machinery and equipment to small enterprise on a hire-purchase
basis and assisting them in procuring government orders for
various items of stores. The corporation’s head office is at Delhi
and it has four regional officers at Delhi, Bombay, Madras and
Calcutta, and eleven branch offices. It has one central liaison office
at Delhi and depots and sub-centers.

3. The main functions of NSIC are

72
  To develop small scale units as ancillary units to large scale
industries.
 To provide SSIS with machine on hire-purchase basis
 To assist small enterprises to participate in the stores purchase
Programme of the Central Government.
 To assist small industries with marketing facilities.
 To distribute basic raw materials through their depots
 To import ad distribute components and parts actual small scale
users in specific industries and
 To construct industrial estates and establish and run prototype
production-cum-training centers.

4. Directorates of Industries of the State Governments

The small-scale industries are a state subject and, therefore, the
development and implementation of the schemes of assistance to SSIS is
the primary responsibility of the State Government Directorates of
Industries of Industries in each State do the work relating to the
development of industries in general and small scale industries in
particular. Each directorate is staffed with administration and small scale
industries in particular. Each directorate is staffed with administration and
technical officers at State staff in each district.
Forms of Business Enterprise Topics
 Sole Proprietorship
 Partnership
 Private Limited
 Public Limited
 Co-operatives
Sole Proprietorship
73
  Ownership when applied to an industrial enterprise means title to
and possessions of the assets of the enterprise, the power to
determine the policies of operation, and the right to receive and
dispose of the proceeds.
 It is called a single ownership when an individual exercise and
enjoys these rights in his own interest.
 A business owned by one man is called single ownership.
 Single ownership does well for those enterprises, which require
little capital and lend themselves readily to control by one person.
 Examples of enterprise run by single owner are printing press, auto
retail trades, service industries and small engine forms.
 In single ownership, one person contributes the original assets to
start the business, maintains and controls business operation, reaps
full benefits in terms of profit and full liable for all debts associated
with the business.

Partnership
 A single owner becomes inadequate as the size of the business
enterprise grouse. He may not be in a position to do away with a1
the duty and responsibilities of the grown business.
 At this stage the individual owner may associate with him more
persons who have either capital to invest or possess special skill
and knowledge to make the existing business still more profitable.
 Such a combination of individual traders is called partnership.
 Partnership may be defined as the relation between persons who
have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or
any of them acting for all. Individuals with common purposes join

74
 and partners and they put together their property, ability, skill,
knowledge, etc, for the purpose of making profits.
 In brief, partnership is an association of two or more (up to 20)
persons to carry an as co-owners of a business for profit.
 Partnerships are based upon a partnership agreement which i.e.
generally reduced to writing.
 It should cover all areas of disagreement among the partners. It
should define the authority, right and duties of each partner.

It should specify how profit and losses will be divided among the
partners, etc.

Private Limited
 The capital is collected from the private partners; some of them
may be active while others are sleeping.
 Private limited restrict the right to transfer shares, avoids public to
take up shares or debentures.
 The number of members is between two and 50, excluding
employee and ex-employee, share holders.
 The company need not file document such consent of directors, list
of directors, etc. the register of joint stock companies.
 The company need not obtain from the register, a certificate of
commencement of business.
 The company need not circulate the balance sheet, profit and loss
account etc, among its members, but it should hold its annual
general meeting and place such financial state rents in the meeting.
 A private company must get its accounts audited.

75
  A private company has to send a certificate along with the annual
return to the register of joint stock companies stating that it does
not have shareholders more than 50 excluding the employee and
employee shareholders.
 Actually, a private joint stock company resumes much with
partnership and has the advantage that big capital can be collected
than could be done so in partnership.

Public Limited
 In public limited company, the capital is collected from public by
issuing shares having small face value (Rs. 50,20,10).
 The number of share holders should not be less than 7, but there is
no limit to their maximum number.

Co-operatives
 The main aim of the co-operative is to eliminate profit and provide
goods an services to the members of the co-operative cost.
 Members pay fees or buy shares the co-operative, and profits are
periodically redistributed to them.
 Since each member has only one (unlike in joint stock companies),
this avoid the concentration of control in few hand.
 In a co-operative, there are share holders, a board of directors and
elected officers similar to the corporation.
 There are periodic meetings of share also.
 Special laws deal with the formation and taxation of co-operatives.
 Co-operative organization is a kind of voluntary, demo craft
ownership formed by some motivated individuals for obtained
necessities of every day life at rat.

76
DATASHEETS

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