In some situations strip foundations are not suitable, or are not cost
Traditional strip Traditional strip
effective. These include: Trench fill
with trench blocks with cavity work
To prevent the concrete from cracking the thickness (T) must not
be less than the projection (P) and never less than 150mm.
Piling
Trees and Clay Soils
Large trees will extract considerable amounts Piles are sometimes made from steel or timber although in most
of moisture from the ground. In long, hot housing work piles are made from insitu or pre-cast reinforced
summers this may reduce the moisture concrete. Piles transmit the building loads deep into the ground. In
content of clay soils. Shrinkage can lead to clays replacement piles are the norm; here the ground is augered or
foundation settlement. Removing large trees bored-out and replaced with reinforced insitu concrete. In sands and
can cause the reverse problem. Clay soils will
gravels displacement piles are more likely to be found; in other words
slowly take up moisture formerly used by the
the piles are driven into the ground, rather like driving a nail into a
tree. Ground heave can force part, or all, of
Clay the house upwards. Both problems will cause
block of wood. Displacement piles are often made from reinforced
cracking.
pre-cast concrete. They can also be formed in insitu concrete where a
steel cylinder is driven into the ground and removed as the concrete is
poured down its centre. In housing, where the roof and floor loads are
Take a line from Hull to Exeter. carried by brickwork rather than columns, a concrete beam sitting on
A large proportion of the ground
top of the piles distributes the load from the brickwork into the piles
to the east of this line contains
shrinkable clays. There are some
themselves.
belts of clay to the North of
the line as well. 20 or 30 years ago piling was comparatively rare for housing (other
than medium and high rise flats). Since then, several factors have led
Growing tree
to an increase in the use of piled foundations. These include:
Felled tree • the increased pressure to re-develop 'brownfield' sites, where strip
foundations may not always be appropriate
• increased costs of 'carting away' and tipping surplus excavation
from foundation trenches (particularly in cities)
• the development and easy availability of smaller piling rigs and
piling systems which are, nowadays, cost effective for house
foundations
• greater understanding of piling in general (partly through better
building education).
Keep buildings well clear of
growing or felled trees if
foundations are concrete Factors affecting choice
strip. Better still, use piled There are literally dozens of piling companies in the UK each offering a
foundations. number of different piling systems. In many cases more than one piling
system will suit a particular set of circumstances. However, when
Distance not less than height of mature tree. choosing a piling system there are four main criteria to consider:
Increase by 50% for groups of trees.
• building load
Some trees have a higher water demand than others. • the nature of the ground (ie, the subsoil)
Elms, oaks, and poplars have a high demand. Spruce • local environmental or physical constraints (noise restrictions,
and Yew have a fairly moderate demand, Birch and height restrictions)
Apple have a fairly low demand. Conifers, generally,
• cost
have a slightly lower demand than broad leave trees.
Displacement piles Replacement piles
• Where the soil has low load bearing capacity and varying A more common cause of ground movement in the UK is subsidence.
compressibility. This might include, loose sand, soft clays, fill, and There are literally thousands of old mineworkings in the UK most of
alluvial soils (soils comprising particles suspended in water and them dating from the last century.
deposited over a flood plain or river bed). Unfortunately in many cases, there is no
• Where pad or strip foundations would cover more than 50% of record of their location. At the site
the ground area below the building. investigation stage local knowledge is
• Where differential movements are expected. invaluable.
• Where subsidence due to mining is a possibility.
If mines are known to lie under the site
the solution can range from filling them
in with stone or concrete, using rigid
Foundation failure
foundations or using a building system
This section briefly examines the main causes of foundation failure. which allows the building to cope with the
Extensive failure will usually result in building movement and cracking. movement. The picture shows part of
However, cracking in buildings occurs for a variety of reasons and Droitwich High Street. Underground salt
many of them have nothing to do with the foundations. See the extraction accounts for this problem.
chapters on Cracking and Walls for more information.
Variable ground conditions
Seasonal movement Where different strata exist in
Shallow foundations in clay soils are likely to crack as the ground rises close proximity uneven settlement
and falls due to seasonal moisture change. If vegetation is present can lead to cracking. This can
substantial shrinkage of the ground may occur in long hot summers as occur when building partly on
the tree slowly drains the water from the ground. If trees have been filled areas or where natural
removed the ground will swell and properties built with shallow changes in the ground occur,
foundations will crack. Cracked and leaking drains can cause similar such as a small outcrop of rock.
problems. Cracking and movement caused by shrinkable clays account Even if this is not noticed at the
for most foundation-related insurance claims each year. trial pit stage it should be
identified as the foundations are excavated. install patio doors. The columns of
brickwork either side of the opening
Differential movement have to carry increased load and the
Similar problems of cracking can occur if houses have foundations of extra force can crack the foundation
uneven depth and an example of this is houses with partial basements. concrete.
There is a danger that the shallow foundation may settle at a greater
rate than the deep foundation and this differential movement will cause In some houses similar problems are
cracking. Similarly when extending caused by inadequate foundation design. The central pier of brickwork
houses it is wise to ensure that the in this house has settled because the foundation below cannot carry
foundations to the new extension are the load.
at the same depth as the original
property to prevent future problems of Soil creep
differential settlement. The porch On sloping ground with clay soils there is a danger that the upper
extension (right) was added several layers of clay can slowly move downhill. It can often be recognised at
years after the original construction. It the site investigation stage by the terraced appearance of the ground.
has quite shallow foundations. Soil creep can occur in gradients as shallow as 1:10 and buildings
with shallow foundations can obviously be damaged. Specialist advice
The garage on the right was built on a is usually necessary when building on soils of this type and solutions
shallow strip foundation. The cracking, can include retaining walls and piled foundations.
which has occurred in both side walls,
appeared within a few months of Tree roots
completion. However, that was nearly 40 The problems of trees in clay soils have
years ago - it has not progressed since. been covered in an earlier part of the
chapter but in some instances there is a
Chemical attack danger of roots themselves cracking
Some soils, particularly clays containing a foundations. It is particularly common
high proportion of sulfates, can attack the in garden walls. The roots can also
foundation concrete. In wet conditions the sulfates combine with a by- break drains leading to saturation of
product of the cement to produce a material called tri-calcium sulfo- the surrounding soil and possible soil
aluminate. The crystals of this compound expand as they form and heave or weakening of the soil.
gradually cause pieces of concrete to break away. It can be prevented
(but not cured) by the use of sulphate-resisting cement and by Building on existing sites
protecting the external faces of the concrete with a bituminous If old foundations are not removed they
compound. can cause problems of differential
settlement. This should of course be
Building alteration spotted at the site investigation stage.
When buildings are altered a situation can arise where the foundations
are subject to increased loading. In some circumstances this can
cause cracking of the Some existing sites may be
foundation. In housing it contaminated by toxic substances.
is most likely to occur The ground can be ‘capped off’ with
when large panels of an inert layer such as clean earth or stone to isolate these substances if
brickwork are removed to it is impractical to excavate and remove the contaminated ground.
Foundations which rest on contaminated ground will need special
protection and traditional gardens etc may need replacing with ‘hard’
landscape such as paving to prevent disturbance of the chemicals.
Poor workmanship
A variety of problems can occur on site which will lead to future
foundation failure and these are usually a result of poor workmanship
and inadequate supervision. Typical problems include:
Check Lists
Most chapters in this handbook include a simple check list to provide
systematic guidance to anyone carrying out a building inspection.
However, a check list is not much use for examining the foundations.
For a start, you can’t inspect them. In addition, the manifestation of
serious foundation failure is usually self-evident, even if the underlying
cause is not. If you see signs of recent movement or evidence of
substantial cracking specialist advice will always be necessary. The
chapter on Cracking may help you diagnose the problem but
remember this book is not a substitute for professional advice.