Complex neurochemical mechanisms for effectively dealing with the

complexity and novelty of a task have also been explored. For instance,
Ashby, Isen, and Turken (1999) combined several lines of research on humans
and animals and proposed a theory that dopamine mediates the effects
of positive affect on cognitive flexibility in creative problem solving
through its neural pathways to impact brain structures (e.g., the anterior
cingulate) responsible for maintaining cognitive flexibility. Similarly,
Kagan (2002) suggested that the amygdala, among other brain structures,
get activated when one encounters an unexpected or discrepant event (i.e.,
novelty), creating a state of surprise. As we see in later discussion, such a
mechanism is essential for learning.
Although the previously mentioned research programs have different
emphases in terms of positive and negative contributions to intellectual
functioning, taken together, they suggest that: (a) the infrastructure of the
brain that supports various higher-order mental functions can be localized
to some extent; (b) cognitive and emotional processes are intricately related,
structurally as well as functionally, at the brain level; and (c) there are
neurochemical mechanisms for the interplay of affect and cognition (e.g.,
dopaminergic activity: Ashby et al., 1999), which are typically neglected or
unobservable in the psychological research. Thus, although still in their infancy,
neurobiological approaches provide a unique window for an integrated
understanding of biological constraints for intellectual functioning
that otherwise cannot be achieved.
10 DAI AND STERNBERG
Integration of the Second Order:
Psychological-Behavioral Approaches
We call the second type of approach psychological-behavioral because the
focus is no longer on brain mechanisms but rather on mental-behavioral
functions. Compared with the previous more or less molecular approach,
psychological-behavioral approaches operate distinctly at a molar level of
description.
Various motivational, emotional, and cognitive constructs, such as
surprise, schematic reaction, volition, intention, expectancy, planning, are
molar-level constructs. For instance, whereas Derryberry and Tucker (1994)
used the term motivation to denote a regulatory function of the limbic system,
motivation at the molar level is a mental construct that can only be understood
in a functional context (e.g., to win a game or solve a math problem).
Tolman (1932) described molar behavior as integrated responses that
have their own emergent properties, such as forward-reaching or goaldirectedness,
means–end readiness, or goal–situation pairing. Thus they represent
the higher-level organization of mental and behavioral functions that
serve adaptive purposes, and cannot be reduced to molecular-level analysis.
Directional Influences of Motivation on Cognitive Processes. Broadly defined,
motivation is indicated by the intensity (or energy), direction, and persistence
of a goal-directed behavior or action. Dweck’s work on goal orientation
(Dweck, 1999; Dweck, Mengals, & Good, chap. 2) clearly emphasizes
the direction aspect of motivation. In other words, motivation does not just
kickstart a mental act, with the rest of the action carried out by cognitive
processes. Goal orientation (whether the attentional focus is on the self or on
the task to be learned, and what is the implicit or explicit purpose of engaging
in the task) frames the mindset, and can significantly influence the allocation
of attentional resources, effort expenditure, and emotional reactions to
difficulties,
and persistence in the face of setbacks.
The Quality and Valence of Affect on Cognition. Dweck’s theory is predicated
on the assumption that motivation is cognitively based (i.e., goaldirected),
and subsequent emotional responses to task demands and performance
are derivative of one’s belief systems and goal orientation. Linnenbrink
and Pintrich (chap. 3), in contrast, attempt to show that positive or negative
affect may influence cognitive functioning. This approach echoes the research
tradition of mood dependent memory and other cognitive processes
(Eich, Kihlstrom, Bower, Forgas, & Niedenthal, 2000). There is a growing
body of research on the role of affect on intellectual functioning, with a
particular
focus on the affective valence, for example, Fredrikson’s (1998)
Broaden-and-Build model of positive emotions (see Linnenbrink & Pintrich,
chap. 3, for a review). The role of affect in problem solving in mathematics
1. BEYOND COGNITIVISM 11
and sciences has also become a research focus (e.g., Goldin, 2000; Gruber,
1995; McLeod, 1989; Thagard, 2002).
Integration of the Third Order:
Phenomenological Approaches
We label the third type of approach as phenomenological because the focus
here is on a person’s subjective, conscious experiences, including bodily
sensations
and mental images, and other perceptions and cognitions, such as desired
outcomes, current concerns, personal epistemologies, intentionality,
and the self. Although emotion, cognition, and motivation are all related to
human consciousness, treating consciousness as a domain par excellence is a
relatively recent event (e.g., Meltzinger, 2000). Ironically, it is mainly
philosophers,
linguists, and neurobiologists who had attempted an integrated understanding
of the mind from a first-person perspective (e.g., Edelman, 1989;
Merleau-Ponty, 1962; Polanyi, 1966), before it became a legitimate topic in
the community of psychology (e.g., Apter, 2001; Varela, Thompson, &
Rosch, 1993). The psychological effects of having consciousness and selfawareness
of feelings and emotions are obvious but often get neglected. The
most obvious one is what is called the self-reference effect (Rogers, Kuiper, &
Kirker, 1977; see Symons & Johnson, 1997, for a meta-analysis). When subjects
were shown adjectives and asked whether these adjectives described
them, they performed better on ensuing recall tasks. Events that have personal
relevance show distinct patterns of brain activation (i.e., event-related
brain potentials [ERP]; see Johnson, 1986; see also Dweck et al., chap. 2). We
also suspect the involvement of limbic system that enhances the basic function
of memory. However, the ramifications of having consciousness and
self-awareness are much broader and deeper than simple recall.